 As the BEPS tool with which U.S. multinationals built up untaxed offshore reserves of circa US$1 trillion from 2004 to 2017, the Double Irish is the largest tax avoidance tool in history.In 2016, when the EU levied a €13 billion fine on Apple, the largest tax fine in history, it only covered the period 2004–14, during which Apple shielded €111 billion in profits from U.S (and Irish) tax.The earliest recorded versions of the Double Irish-type BEPS tools are by Apple in the late 1980s, and the EU discovered Irish Revenue tax rulings on the Double Irish for Apple in 1991.