 Structural factors conducive to clientelism include fiscal centralization, the pre-1994 electoral system and electoral malapportionment.Fiscal centralization provided a context for the commodification of votes for material gains.The pre-1994 electoral system - Single Non-Transferable Vote in Multimember Districts (SNTV/MMD) - encouraged the proliferation of "koenkai" networks, money politics, and entrenching clientelistic behaviors in elections.