 Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary João dos Santos, who in 1609 wrote of a group near Mogadishu who had a "custome to sew up their Females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their Masters put in them".Thus, Mackie argues, a "practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor".Gynaecologists in 19th-century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation.