title: International Space Station

text: An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules.


title: International Space Station

text: The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of and a maximum of , in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.


title: International Space Station

text: It travels at an average speed of , and completes orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit). The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km). Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.


title: International Space Station

text: Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the "Zvezda" service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to "Zvezda" aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed. Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum at an annual cost of about $210 million.


title: International Space Station

text: The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station. Initially, "Zarya", the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module "Zvezda" docked and was transferred control. "Zvezda" contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System. Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), "Zvezda" computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.


title: International Space Station

text: "Zvezda" uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.


title: International Space Station

text: Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.


title: International Space Station

text: The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris. Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum.


title: International Space Station

text: Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from aluminium, a intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric), and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.


title: International Space Station

text: Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified. If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009. Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant. If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015.


title: International Space Station

text: In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of Kosmos 1408 by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules. A couple of weeks later, it had to perform an unscheduled maneuver to drop the station by 310 meters to avoid a collision with hazardous space debris.


title: International Space Station

text: The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark. The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time because of moving into or out of the Earth's shadow. Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds. The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce flares of up to 16 times the brightness of Venus as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces. The ISS is also visible in broad daylight, albeit with a great deal more difficulty.


title: International Space Station

text: Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see "Live viewing" below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.


title: International Space Station

text: In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town. The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.


title: International Space Station

text: Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6 June 2014.


title: International Space Station

text: Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew. The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.


title: International Space Station

text: Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers.


title: International Space Station

text: Involving five space programs and fifteen countries, the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history. The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.


title: International Space Station

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and scientific collaboration, but in the current circumstances it's hard to see how even those can continue as normal." On the same day, Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?" Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation. NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.


title: International Space Station

text: On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024. However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.


title: International Space Station

text: According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area. In late 2010, the preferred plan was to use a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS. This plan was seen as the simplest, cheapest and with the .


title: International Space Station

text: OPSEK was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module ("Nauka"), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to "Nauka". These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.


title: International Space Station

text: At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and "Zvezda 2" as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth-Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.


title: International Space Station

text: On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.


title: International Space Station

text: There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.


title: International Space Station

text: In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House. In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018. Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022.


title: International Space Station

text: In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean.


title: International Space Station

text: The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed. As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion in total. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5 million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5 million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab.


title: International Space Station

text: Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries Space Station 3D from 2002, or "A Beautiful Planet" from 2016, the ISS is subject of feature films such as "The Day After Tomorrow" (2004), "Life" (2017), "Love" (2011), ortogether with the Chinese station Tiangong space stationin "Gravity" (2013).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Hedy Lamarr (; born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler; November 9, 1914 January 19, 2000) was an Austrian-born American film actress and inventor. A film star during Hollywood's golden age, Lamarr has been described as one of the greatest movie actresses of all time.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: After a brief early film career in Czechoslovakia, including the controversial "Ecstasy" (1933), she fled from her first husband, a wealthy Austrian ammunition manufacturer, and secretly moved to Paris. Traveling to London, she met Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studio head Louis B. Mayer, who offered her a movie contract in Hollywood. She became a film star with her performance in "Algiers" (1938). Her MGM films include "Lady of the Tropics" (1939), "Boom Town" (1940), "H.M. Pulham, Esq." (1941), and "White Cargo" (1942). Her greatest success was as Delilah in Cecil B. DeMille's Bible-inspired "Samson and Delilah" (1949). She also acted on television before the release of her final film, "The Female Animal" (1958). She was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: At the beginning of World War II, she and avant-garde composer George Antheil developed a radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes that used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr was born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler in 1914 in Vienna, the only child of Gertrud "Trude" Kiesler (born Lichtwitz; 1894–1977) and Emil Kiesler (1880–1935).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Her father, Emil, was born to a Galician-Jewish family in Lemberg (now Lviv in Ukraine) and was, in the 1920s, deputy director of Wiener Bankverein, and in the end of his life a director at the united Creditanstalt-Bankverein. Trude, her mother, a pianist and Budapest native, had come from an upper-class Hungarian-Jewish family. She had converted to Catholicism and was described as a "practicing Christian" who raised her daughter as a Christian, although Hedy was not formally baptized at the time.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: As a child, Lamarr showed an interest in acting and was fascinated by theatre and film. At the age of 12, she won a beauty contest in Vienna. She also began to associate invention with her father, who would take her out on walks, explaining how technology functioned.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr was taking acting classes in Vienna when one day, she forged a note from her mother and went to Sascha-Film and was able to get herself hired as a script girl. While there, she was able to get a role as an extra in "Money on the Street" (1930), and then a small speaking part in "Storm in a Water Glass" (1931). Producer Max Reinhardt then cast her in a play entitled "The Weaker Sex", which was performed at the Theater in der Josefstadt. Reinhardt was so impressed with her that he brought her with him back to Berlin.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: However, she never actually trained with Reinhardt or appeared in any of his Berlin productions. Instead, she met the Russian theatre producer Alexis Granowsky, who cast her in his film directorial debut, "The Trunks of Mr. O.F." (1931), starring Walter Abel and Peter Lorre. Granowsky soon moved to Paris, but Lamarr stayed in Berlin and was given the lead role in "No Money Needed" (1932), a comedy directed by Carl Boese. Lamarr then starred in the film which made her internationally famous.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In early 1933, at age 18, Lamarr was given the lead in Gustav Machatý's film "Ecstasy" ("Ekstase" in German, "Extase" in Czech). She played the neglected young wife of an indifferent older man.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: The film became both celebrated and notorious for showing Lamarr's face in the throes of orgasm as well as close-up and brief nude scenes. Lamarr claimed she was "duped" by the director and producer, who used high-power telephoto lenses, but other people related to the movie contested her claims.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Although she was dismayed and now disillusioned about taking other roles, the film gained world recognition after winning an award in Rome. Throughout Europe, it was regarded an artistic work. In America it was considered overly sexual and received negative publicity, especially among women's groups. It was banned there and in Germany.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr played a number of stage roles, including a starring one in "Sissy", a play about Empress Elisabeth of Austria produced in Vienna. It won accolades from critics. Admirers sent roses to her dressing room and tried to get backstage to meet her. She sent most of them away, including a man who was more insistent, Friedrich Mandl. He became obsessed with getting to know her.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Mandl was an Austrian military arms merchant and munitions manufacturer who was reputedly the third-richest man in Austria. She fell for his charming and fascinating personality, partly due to his immense financial wealth. Her parents, both of Jewish descent, did not approve, due to Mandl's ties to Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini, and later, German Führer Adolf Hitler, but they could not stop the headstrong Lamarr.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: On August 10, 1933, Lamarr married Mandl at the Karlskirche. She was 18 years old and he was 33. In her alleged autobiography "Ecstasy and Me", she described Mandl as an extremely controlling husband who strongly objected to her simulated orgasm scene in "Ecstasy" and prevented her from pursuing her acting career. She claimed she was kept a virtual prisoner in their castle home, Schloss Schwarzenau.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Mandl had close social and business ties to the Italian government, selling munitions to the country, and although like Hedy, his own father was Jewish, had ties to the Nazi regime of Germany, as well. Lamarr wrote that the dictators of both countries attended lavish parties at the Mandl home. Lamarr accompanied Mandl to business meetings, where he conferred with scientists and other professionals involved in military technology. These conferences were her introduction to the field of applied science and nurtured her latent talent in science.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr's marriage to Mandl eventually became unbearable, and she decided to separate herself from both her husband and country in 1937. In her alleged autobiography, she wrote that she disguised herself as her maid and fled to Paris, but by other accounts, she persuaded Mandl to let her wear all of her jewelry for a dinner party, then disappeared afterward. She writes about her marriage:


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: After arriving in London in 1937, she met Louis B. Mayer, head of MGM, who was scouting for talent in Europe. She initially turned down the offer he made her (of $125 a week), but then booked herself onto the same New York bound liner as he, and managed to impress him enough to secure a $500 a week contract. Mayer persuaded her to change her name to Hedy Lamarr (to distance herself from her real identity, and "the "Ecstasy" lady" reputation associated with it), choosing the surname in homage to the beautiful silent film star, Barbara La Marr, on the suggestion of his wife, who admired La Marr. He brought her to Hollywood in 1938 and began promoting her as the "world's most beautiful woman".


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Mayer loaned Lamarr to producer Walter Wanger, who was making "Algiers" (1938), an American version of the French film, "Pépé le Moko" (1937). Lamarr was cast in the lead opposite Charles Boyer. The film created a "national sensation", says Shearer. She was billed as an unknown but well-publicized Austrian actress, which created anticipation in audiences. Mayer hoped she would become another Greta Garbo or Marlene Dietrich. According to one viewer, when her face first appeared on the screen, "everyone gasped ... Lamarr's beauty literally took one's breath away."


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In future Hollywood films, she was invariably typecast as the archetypal glamorous seductress of exotic origin. Her second American film was to be "I Take This Woman", co-starring with Spencer Tracy under the direction of regular Dietrich collaborator Josef von Sternberg. Von Sternberg was fired during the shoot, replaced by Frank Borzage. The film was put on hold, and Lamarr was put into "Lady of the Tropics" (1939), where she played a mixed-race seductress in Saigon opposite Robert Taylor. She returned to "I Take This Woman", re-shot by W. S. Van Dyke. The resulting film was a flop.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Far more popular was "Boom Town" (1940) with Clark Gable, Claudette Colbert and Spencer Tracy; it made $5 million. MGM promptly reteamed Lamarr and Gable in "Comrade X" (1940), a comedy film in the vein of "Ninotchka" (1939), which was another hit.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr was teamed with James Stewart in "Come Live with Me" (1941), playing a Viennese refugee. Stewart was also in "Ziegfeld Girl" (1941), where Lamarr, Judy Garland and Lana Turner played aspiring showgirls - a big success.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr was top-billed in "H. M. Pulham, Esq." (1941), although the film's protagonist was the title role played by Robert Young. She made a third film with Tracy, "Tortilla Flat" (1942). It was successful at the box office, as was "Crossroads" (1942) with William Powell.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr played the exotic Arab seductress Tondelayo in "White Cargo" (1942), top billed over Walter Pidgeon. It was a huge hit. "White Cargo" contains arguably her most memorable film quote, delivered with provocative invitation: "I am Tondelayo. I make tiffin for you?" This line typifies many of Lamarr's roles, which emphasized her beauty and sensuality while giving her relatively few lines. The lack of acting challenges bored Lamarr. She reportedly took up inventing to relieve her boredom.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: She was reunited with Powell in a comedy "The Heavenly Body" (1944), then was borrowed by Warner Bros for "The Conspirators" (1944). This was an attempt to repeat the success of "Casablanca" (1943), and RKO borrowed her for a melodrama "Experiment Perilous" (1944).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Back at MGM Lamarr was teamed with Robert Walker in the romantic comedy "Her Highness and the Bellboy" (1945), playing a princess who falls in love with a New Yorker. It was very popular, but would be the last film she made under her MGM contract.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Her off-screen life and personality during those years was quite different from her screen image. She spent much of her time feeling lonely and homesick. She might swim at her agent's pool, but shunned the beaches and staring crowds. When asked for an autograph, she wondered why anyone would want it. Writer Howard Sharpe interviewed her and gave his impression:


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr wanted to join the National Inventors Council, but was reportedly told by NIC member Charles F. Kettering and others that she could better help the war effort by using her celebrity status to sell war bonds.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: She participated in a war bond-selling campaign with a sailor named Eddie Rhodes. Rhodes was in the crowd at each Lamarr appearance, and she would call him up on stage. She would briefly flirt with him before asking the audience if she should give him a kiss. The crowd would say yes, to which Hedy would reply that she would if enough people bought war bonds. After enough bonds were purchased, she would kiss Rhodes and he would head back into the audience. Then they would head off to the next war bond rally.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: After leaving MGM in 1945, Lamarr formed a production company with Jack Chertok and made the thriller "The Strange Woman" (1946). It went over budget and only made minor profits.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: She and Chertok then made "Dishonored Lady" (1947), another thriller starring Lamarr, which also went over budget - but was not a commercial success. She tried a comedy with Robert Cummings, "Let's Live a Little" (1948).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr enjoyed her biggest success playing Delilah against Victor Mature as the Biblical strongman in Cecil B. DeMille's "Samson and Delilah", the highest-grossing film of 1950. The film also won two Oscars.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr returned to MGM for a film noir with John Hodiak, "A Lady Without Passport" (1950), which flopped. More popular were two pictures she made at Paramount, a Western with Ray Milland, "Copper Canyon" (1950), and a Bob Hope spy spoof, "My Favorite Spy" (1951).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Her career went into decline. She went to Italy to play multiple roles in "Loves of Three Queens" (1954), which she also produced. However she lacked the experience necessary to make a success of such an epic production, and lost millions of dollars when she was unable to secure distribution of the picture.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: She was Joan of Arc in Irwin Allen's critically panned epic, "The Story of Mankind" (1957) and did episodes of "Zane Grey Theatre" ("Proud Woman") and "Shower of Stars" ("Cloak and Dagger"). Her last film was a thriller "The Female Animal" (1958).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr was signed to act in the 1966 film "Picture Mommy Dead", but was let go when she collapsed during filming from nervous exhaustion. She was replaced in the role of Jessica Flagmore Shelley by Zsa Zsa Gabor.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Although Lamarr had no formal training and was primarily self-taught, she tinkered in her spare time on various hobbies and ideas, which included a traffic stoplight and a tablet that would dissolve in water to create a carbonated drink. The beverage was unsuccessful; Lamarr herself said it tasted like Alka-Seltzer.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: During World War II, Lamarr read that radio-controlled torpedoes had been proposed. However, an enemy might be able to jam such a torpedo's guidance system and set it off course. When discussing this with her friend the composer and pianist George Antheil, the idea was raised that a frequency-hopping signal might prevent the torpedo's radio guidance system from being tracked or jammed. Antheil succeeded by synchronizing a miniaturized player piano mechanism with radio signals. Antheil sketched-out the idea for the frequency-hopping system, which was to use a perforated paper tape which actuated pneumatic controls (as was already used in player pianos).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Antheil was introduced to Samuel Stuart Mackeown, a professor of radio-electrical engineering at Caltech, whom Lamarr then employed for a year to actually develop the functionality of the idea. Lamarr also hired the Los Angeles legal firm of Lyon & Lyon to search for prior knowledge, and to craft the application for the patent which was granted under US Patent 2,292,387 on August 11, 1942 (filed using her married name Hedy Kiesler Markey).


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 1997, Lamarr and Antheil received the Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award and the Bulbie Gnass Spirit of Achievement Bronze Award, given to individuals whose creative lifetime achievements in the arts, sciences, business, or invention fields have significantly contributed to society. In 2014, Lamarr and Antheil were posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: However, neither the US Navy nor that of any other nation were using radio-controlled torpedoes at the time, and electro-mechanical devices such as these were soon to be made obsolete by purely electronic controls. Furthermore, spread-spectrum frequency-hopping was not a new idea: as early as 1899, Guglielmo Marconi had experimented with frequency-selective reception in an attempt to minimize radio interference, Nikola Tesla had written extensively about it in the first quarter of the 20th century, in 1929 the Polish engineer and inventor Leonard Danilewicz further elaborated on the idea, and in 1932 US Patent #1869659A was issued to the Dutch inventor, William Broertjes for his electromechanical device to encrypt radio transmissions by using frequency-hopping.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Although the U.S. Navy did not adopt the technology until the 1960s, the principles of their work are incorporated into Bluetooth and GPS technology and are similar to methods used in legacy versions of CDMA and Wi-Fi. This work led to their induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr became a naturalized citizen of the United States at age 38 on April 10, 1953. Her alleged autobiography, "Ecstasy and Me", was published in 1966. She said on TV that it was not written by her, and much of it was fictional. Lamarr later sued the publisher, saying that many details were fabricated by its ghost writer, Leo Guild. Lamarr, in turn, was sued by Gene Ringgold, who asserted that the book plagiarized material from an article he had written in 1965 for "Screen Facts" magazine.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In the late 1950s Lamarr designed and, with then-husband W. Howard Lee, developed the Villa LaMarr ski resort in Aspen, Colorado.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 1966, Lamarr was arrested in Los Angeles for shoplifting. The charges were eventually dropped. In 1991, she was arrested on the same charge in Florida, this time for stealing $21.48 worth of laxatives and eye drops. She pleaded no contest to avoid a court appearance, and the charges were dropped in return for her promise to refrain from breaking any laws for a year.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: The 1970s was a decade of increasing seclusion for Lamarr. She was offered several scripts, television commercials, and stage projects, but none piqued her interest. In 1974, she filed a $10 million lawsuit against Warner Bros., claiming that the running parody of her name ("Hedley Lamarr") in the Mel Brooks comedy "Blazing Saddles" infringed her right to privacy. Brooks said he was flattered; the studio settled out of court for an undisclosed nominal sum and an apology to Lamarr for "almost using her name". Brooks said that Lamarr "never got the joke". With her eyesight failing, Lamarr retreated from public life and settled in Miami Beach, Florida, in 1981.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: A large Corel-drawn image of Lamarr won CorelDRAW's yearly software suite cover design contest in 1996. For several years, beginning in 1997, it was featured on boxes of the software suite. Lamarr sued the company for using her image without her permission. Corel countered that she did not own rights to the image. The parties reached an undisclosed settlement in 1998.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Lamarr has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6247 Hollywood Blvd adjacent to Vine Street where the walk is centered.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr became estranged from her older son, James Lamarr Loder, when he was 12 years old. Their relationship ended abruptly, and he moved in with another family. They did not speak again for almost 50 years. Lamarr left James Loder out of her will, and he sued for control of the US$3.3 million estate left by Lamarr in 2000. He eventually settled for US$50,000.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In the last decades of her life, the telephone became Lamarr's only means of communication with the outside world, even with her children and close friends. She often talked up to six or seven hours a day on the phone, but she spent hardly any time with anyone in person in her final years.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Lamarr died in Casselberry, Florida, on January 19, 2000, of heart disease, aged 85. Her son Anthony Loder spread her ashes in Austria's Vienna Woods in accordance with her last wishes.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 1939, Lamarr was selected the "most promising new actress" of 1938 in a poll of area voters conducted by "Philadelphia Record" film critic. British moviegoers voted Hedy Lamarr the year's 10th best actress, for her performance in "Samson and Delilah" in 1951.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: The British drag queen Foo Foo Lamarr (born Francis Pearson, 1937–2003) originally took his surname from the actress when embarking on a performing career.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 1997, Lamarr and George Antheil were jointly honored with the Electronic Frontier Foundation's Pioneer Award and Lamarr also was the first woman to receive the Invention Convention's BULBIE Gnass Spirit of Achievement Award, known as the "Oscars of inventing". The following year, Lamarr's native Austria awarded her the Viktor Kaplan Medal of the Austrian Association of Patent Holders and Inventors.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2006, the "Hedy-Lamarr-Weg" was founded in Vienna Meidling (12th District), named after the actress.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2013, the IQOQI installed a quantum telescope on the roof of the University of Vienna, which they named after her in 2014.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2014, Lamarr was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The same year, Anthony Loder's request that the remaining ashes of his mother should be buried in an honorary grave of the city of Vienna was realized. On November 7, her urn was buried at the Vienna Central Cemetery in Group 33 G, Tomb No. 80, not far from the centrally located presidential tomb.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Following her sixth and final divorce in 1965, Lamarr remained unmarried for the last 35 years of her life.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Throughout, she claimed that James Lamarr Markey/Loder was biologically unrelated and adopted during her marriage to Gene Markey. However, years later James found documentation that he was the out-of-wedlock son of Lamarr and actor John Loder, whom she later married as her third husband. She had two more children with him: Denise (born 1945) and Anthony (born 1947) during their marriage.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: The Mel Brooks 1974 western parody "Blazing Saddles" features a villain named "Hedley Lamarr". As a running gag, various characters mistakenly refer to him as "Hedy Lamarr" prompting him to testily reply "That's Hedley."


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In the 1982 off-Broadway musical "Little Shop of Horrors" and subsequent film adaptation (1986), Audrey II says to Seymour in the song "Feed Me", that he can get Seymour anything he wants including "A date with Hedy Lamarr."


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2008, an off-Broadway play, "Frequency Hopping", features the lives of Lamarr and Antheil. The play was written and staged by Elyse Singer, and the script won a prize for best new play about science and technology from STAGE.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In the 2009 mockumentary "The Chronoscope", written and directed by Andrew Legge, the fictional Irish scientist Charlotte Keppel is likely modeled after Hedy Lamarr. The film satirizes the extreme politics of the 1930s and tells the story of a fictionalized fascist group that steals a device invented by Keppel. This chronoscope can see the past and is used by the group to create propaganda films of their heroes from the past.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2010, Lamarr was selected out of 150 IT people to be featured in a short film launched by the British Computer Society on May 20.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Also during 2010, the New York Public Library exhibit "Thirty Years of Photography at the New York Public Library" included a photo of a topless Lamarr () by Austrian-born American photographer Trude Fleischmann.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2011, the story of Lamarr's frequency-hopping spread spectrum invention was explored in an episode of the Science Channel show "", a series that explores the darker side of scientific discovery and experimentation, which premiered on September 7. Her work in improving wireless security was part of the premiere episode of the Discovery Channel show "How We Invented the World".


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Also during 2011, Anne Hathaway revealed that she had learned that the original Catwoman was based on Lamarr, so she studied all of Lamarr's films and incorporated some of her breathing techniques into her portrayal of Catwoman in the 2012 film "The Dark Knight Rises".


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2015, on November 9, the 101st anniversary of Lamarr's birth, Google paid tribute to Hedy Lamarr's work in film and her contributions to scientific advancement with an animated Google Doodle.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2016, Lamarr was depicted in an off-Broadway play, "HEDY! The Life and Inventions of Hedy Lamarr", a one-woman show written and performed by Heather Massie.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2016, the off-Broadway, one-actor show "Stand Still and Look Stupid: The Life Story of Hedy Lamarr." starring Emily Ebertz and written by Mike Broemmel went into production.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Also during 2016, Whitney Frost, a character in the TV show "Agent Carter" was inspired by Hedy Lamarr and Lauren Bacall.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2017, actress Celia Massingham portrayed Lamarr on The CW television series "Legends of Tomorrow" in the sixth episode of the third season, titled Helen Hunt. The episode is set in 1937 Hollywoodland. The episode aired on November 14, 2017.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: Also during 2017, "", written and directed by Alexandra Dean and produced by Susan Sarandon, a documentary about Lamarr's career as an actress and later as an inventor, premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival. It was released in theaters on November 24, 2017, and aired on PBS "American Masters" in May 2018.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2018, actress Alyssa Sutherland portrayed Lamarr on the NBC television series "Timeless" in the third episode of the second season, titled Hollywoodland. The episode aired March 25, 2018.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2019, actor and musician Johnny Depp composed a song called "Hedy Lamarr", and performed it with Jeff Beck during a UK performance in May 2022.


title: Hedy Lamarr

text: In 2021, Lamarr was mentioned in the first episode of the Marvel's "What If...?" The episode aired on August 11, 2021.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Sixteen players have won the FIFA World Cup while playing at Roma: Attilio Ferraris and Enrique Guaita (1934); Guido Masetti and Eraldo Monzeglio (1934 and 1938); Aldo Donati and Pietro Serantoni (1938); Bruno Conti (1982); Rudi Völler and Thomas Berthold (1990); Aldair (1994); Vincent Candela (1998); Cafu (2002); Daniele De Rossi, Simone Perrotta and Francesco Totti (2006); Paulo Dybala (2022).


title: A.S. Roma

text: Since 1953, Roma has played home matches at the Stadio Olimpico, a venue the club shares with city rivals Lazio. With a capacity of over 72,000, the stadium is the second-largest of its kind in Italy, with only the San Siro able to seat more. The club plans to move to a new stadium, though it is yet to start construction. Having a strong local rivalry, Roma and Lazio contest the Derby della Capitale.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The club's home colours are carmine red and golden yellow, which gives Roma its nickname ""I Giallorossi"" ("The Yellow and Reds"). These colours have often been combined with white shorts. The club badge features a she-wolf, an allusion to the founding myth of Rome.


title: A.S. Roma

text: A.S. Roma was founded in the spring of 1927 when Italo Foschi initiated the merger of three older Italian Football Championship clubs from the city of Rome: Roman FC, SS Alba-Audace and Fortitudo-Pro Roma SGS. Foschi was an important Roman representative of the ruling National Fascist Party.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The purpose of the merger was to give the Italian capital a strong club to rival that of the more dominant Northern Italian clubs of the time. The only major Roman club to resist the merger was Lazio because of the intervention of the army General Vaccaro, a member of the club and executive of Italian Football Federation (FIGC).


title: A.S. Roma

text: All three founding clubs were relegated, but the fascist-aligned FIGC bet over the capacity of the new team to give a stronger representation to the capital of Italy, and they were awarded a wild card for the , the Serie A forerunner. The club played its earliest seasons at the Motovelodromo Appio stadium, before settling in the working-class streets of Testaccio, where it built an all-wooden ground Campo Testaccio; this was opened in November 1929. An early season in which Roma made a large mark was the 1930–31 championship, where the club finished as runners-up behind . Captain Attilio Ferraris, along with Guido Masetti, Fulvio Bernardini and Rodolfo Volk, were highly important players during this period.


title: A.S. Roma

text: After a slump in league form and the departure of high key players, Roma eventually rebuilt their squad, adding goalscorers such as the Argentine Enrique Guaita. Under the management of Luigi Barbesino, the Roman club came close to their first title in 1935–36, finishing just one point behind champions Bologna.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma returned to form after being inconsistent for much of the late 1930s. Roma recorded an unexpected title triumph in the 1941–42 season by winning their first title. The 18 goals scored by local player Amedeo Amadei were essential to the Alfréd Schaffer-coached Roma side winning the title. At the time, Italy was involved in World War II and Roma were playing at the Stadio Nazionale PNF.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In the years just after the war, Roma were unable to recapture their league stature from the early 1940s. Roma finished in the lower half of Serie A for five seasons in a row, before eventually succumbing to their only ever relegation to Serie B at the end of the 1950–51 season, around a decade after their championship victory. Under future Italy national team manager Giuseppe Viani, promotion straight back up was achieved.


title: A.S. Roma

text: After returning to the Serie A, Roma managed to stabilise themselves as a top-half club again with players such as Egisto Pandolfini, Dino da Costa and Dane Helge Bronée. Their best finish of this period was under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver, when in 1954–55, they finished as runners-up after Udinese, who originally finished second, were relegated for corruption. Although Roma were unable to break into the top four during the following decade, they did achieve some measure of cup success. Their first honour outside of Italy was recorded in 1960–61 when Roma won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup by defeating Birmingham City 4–2 in the finals. A few years later, Roma won their first Coppa Italia trophy in 1963–64 after defeating Torino 1–0.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Their lowest point came during the 1964–65 season, when manager Juan Carlos Lorenzo announced the club could not pay its players and was unlikely to be able to afford to travel to Vicenza to fulfil its next fixture. Supporters kept the club going with a fundraiser at the Sistine Theatre and bankruptcy was avoided with the election of a new club president Franco Evangelisti.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Their second Coppa Italia trophy was won in 1968–69, when it competed in a small, league-like system. Giacomo Losi set a Roma appearance record in 1969 with 450 appearances in all competitions, a record that would last 38 years.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma were able to add another cup to their collection in 1972, with a 3–1 victory over Blackpool in the Anglo-Italian Cup. During much of the 1970s, Roma's appearance in the top half of Serie A was sporadic. The best place the club were able to achieve during the decade was third in 1974–75. Notable players who turned out for the club during this period included midfielders Giancarlo De Sisti and Francesco Rocca.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The dawning of a newly successful era in Roma's footballing history was brought in with another Coppa Italia victory; they defeated Torino on penalties to win the 1979–80 edition. Roma would reach heights in the league which they had not touched since the 1940s by narrowly and controversially finishing as runners-up to in 1980–81. Former Milan player Nils Liedholm was the manager at the time, with players such as Bruno Conti, Agostino Di Bartolomei, Roberto Pruzzo and Falcão.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The second "scudetto" did not elude Roma for much longer. In 1982–83, the Roman club won the title for the first time in 41 years, amidst celebrations in the capital. The following season, Roma finished as runners-up in Italy and collected a Coppa Italia title; they also finished as runners-up in the European Cup final of 1984. The European Cup final with Liverpool ended in a 1–1 draw with a goal from Pruzzo, but Roma eventually lost in the penalty shoot-out. Roma's successful run in the 1980s would finish with a runners-up spot in 1985–86 and a Coppa Italia victory, beating out Sampdoria 3–2.


title: A.S. Roma

text: After, a comparative decline began in the league, one of the few league highs from the following period being a third-place finish in 1987–88. At the start of the 1990s, the club was involved in an all-Italian UEFA Cup final, where they lost 2–1 to in 1991. The same season, the club won its seventh Coppa Italia and ended runners-up to Sampdoria in the Supercoppa Italiana. Aside from finishing runners-up to Torino in a Coppa Italia final, the rest of the decade was largely sub-par in the history of Roma, particularly in the league, where the highest they could manage was fourth in 1997–98. The early 1990s also saw the emergence of homegrown striker Francesco Totti, who would go on to be an important member of the team and the club's iconic captain.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma won their third Serie A title in 2000–01. The "Scudetto" was won on the last day of the season after defeating Parma 3–1, edging Juventus by two points. The club's captain, Francesco Totti, was a large reason for the title victory and he would become one of the main heroes in the club's history, going on to break several club records. Other important players during this period included: Aldair, Cafu, Gabriel Batistuta and Vincenzo Montella.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The following season, Roma ended as runners-up to Juventus by one point. This would be the start of Roma finishing as runners-up several times in both Serie A and Coppa Italia during the 2000s – they lost out 4–2 to Milan in the Coppa Italia final of 2003 and lost to Milan again by finishing second in Serie A for the 2003–04 season. The club also re-capitalized several time in 2003–04 season. In November 2003, €37.5 million was injected by "Roma 2000" to cover the half-year loss and loss carried from previous year. and again on 30 June for €44.57 million. Through stock market, a further €19.850 million of new shares issued, and at the year end, the share capital was €19.878 million, which was unchanged . The following season also saw the departure of Walter Samuel for €25 million and Emerson for €28 million, which decreased the strength of the squad. The "Giallorossi" therefore finished in eighth place, one of the worst of recent seasons.


title: A.S. Roma

text: On 9 July 2006, Roma's Francesco Totti, Daniele De Rossi and Simone Perrotta were part of the Italy national team which defeated France in the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final. A Serie A scandal was revealed during 2006; Roma were not one of the teams involved. After punishments were issued, Roma was re-classified as runners-up for 2005–06, the same season they finished second in the Coppa Italia losing to Internazionale. In the two following seasons, 2006–07 and 2007–08, Roma finished as Serie A runners-up, meaning that in the 2000s, Roma finished in the top two positions more than any other decade in their history. Meanwhile, in the UEFA Champions League during both of these seasons, they reached the quarter-finals before going out to Manchester United. In the 2008–09 Champions League, Roma reached the knockout stage ahead of Chelsea in their group, thus finishing for the first time in their history as winners of the group stage. However, they lost to Arsenal in the knockout stage on penalty kicks.


title: A.S. Roma

text: After a disappointing start to the 2009–10 season, Claudio Ranieri replaced Luciano Spalletti as head coach. At the time of the switch, Roma lay bottom of the Serie A table after losses to Juventus and Genoa. Despite this setback, Roma went on unbeaten streak of 24 matches in the league – with the last of the 24 being a 2–1 win over rivals Lazio, whereby they came from 1–0 down at half-time to defeat their city rivals after Ranieri substituted both Totti and De Rossi at the interval. The "Giallorossi" were on top of the table at one point, before a loss to Sampdoria later in the season. Roma would finish runners-up to Internazionale yet again in both Serie A and the Coppa Italia. During the 2000s, Roma had finally recaptured the "Scudetto", two Coppa Italia trophies, and their first two Supercoppa Italiana titles. Other notable contributions to the club's history have included a return to the Champions League quarter-finals (in the 2006–07 and 2007–08 editions) since 1984, six runners up positions in the league, four Coppa Italia finals and three Supercoppa finals – marking Roma's greatest ever decade.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In the summer of 2010, the Sensi family agreed to relinquish their control of Roma as part of a debt-settlement agreement, ending their reign that had begun in 1993. Until a new owner was appointed, Rosella Sensi continued her directorial role of the club. Following a series of poor results that saw Roma engage in a winless streak of five consecutive matches, Claudio Ranieri resigned as head coach in February 2011, and former striker Vincenzo Montella was appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season. It was also during this season that Roma icon Francesco Totti scored his 200th Serie A goal against Fiorentina in March 2011, becoming only the sixth player to achieve such a feat.


title: A.S. Roma

text: On 16 April 2011, the takeover contract was closed with an American investment group led by Thomas R. DiBenedetto, with James Pallotta, Michael Ruane and Richard D'Amore as partners. DiBenedetto became the 22nd president of the club, serving from 27 September 2011 to 27 August 2012 and was succeeded by Pallotta. The new intermediate holding company, NEEP Roma Holding, was 60% owned by American's "AS Roma SPV, LLC" and the rest (40%) was retained by the creditor of Sensi, UniCredit. In turn, NEEP owned all shares held previously by Sensi (about 67%) with the rest free float in the stock market. UniCredit later disinvested NEEP Roma Holding to sell to "AS Roma SPV, LLC" and Pallotta.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The new ownership hired Walter Sabatini as director of football and former Spanish international and Barcelona B coach Luis Enrique as manager. Signings included attacking midfielder Erik Lamela from River Plate and forward Bojan from Barcelona, as well as Dani Osvaldo and Miralem Pjanić. On the pitch, the team were eliminated from 2011–12 UEFA Europa League play-off round by Slovan Bratislava. In 2012, Pallotta became the new president. The 2012–13 pre-season started with the hiring of former manager Zdeněk Zeman. He was sacked on 2 February 2013, while the team ended up in sixth place in Serie A, and lost 1–0 to rivals Lazio in the Coppa Italia final. As a result, Roma missed out on European competition for the second-straight season.


title: A.S. Roma

text: On 12 June 2013, Rudi Garcia was appointed the new manager of Roma. He won his first ten matches (an all-time Serie A record) including a 2–0 derby win against Lazio, a 3–0 victory away to Internazionale and a 2–0 home win over title rivals Napoli. During this run, Roma scored 24 times while conceding just once, away to Parma. The club earned 85 points and finished second to Juventus, who won the league with a record-breaking 102 points. In 2014–15, Roma finished second behind Juventus for the second consecutive season after a poor run of form in 2015. At the end of season, the club was sanctioned for loss making and breaking UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, being punished with a fine of up to €6 million and a limited squad for UEFA competitions.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Roma acquired Bosnia international, Edin Džeko, from Manchester City on a €4 million loan with an €11 million option to buy clause, which was activated. On 13 January 2016, Garcia was sacked after a run of one win in seven Serie A matches. Luciano Spalletti was subsequently appointed manager of Roma for his second spell. On 21 February, Totti publicly criticised Spalletti due to his own lack of playing-time since returning from injury. Consequently, Totti was subsequently dropped by Spalletti for Roma's 5–0 win over Palermo, with the decision causing an uproar among the fans and in the media. After their initial disagreements, Spalletti began to use Totti as an immediate impact substitute, and he contributed with four goals and one assist after coming off the bench in five consecutive Serie A matches. Spalletti was able to lead Roma from a mid-table spot to a third-place finish in Serie A, clinching the UEFA Champions League play-off spot.


title: A.S. Roma

text: During the summer of 2016, Roma lost midfielder Miralem Pjanić to rivals Juventus to improve its financial position. On 27 April 2017, Roma appointed sporting director Monchi, formerly of Sevilla FC. On 28 May that year, on the last day of the 2016–17 season, Totti made his 786th and final appearance for Roma before retiring in a 3–2 home win against Genoa, coming on as a substitute for Mohamed Salah in the 54th minute and received a standing ovation from the fans. The win saw Roma finish second in Serie A behind Juventus. Daniele De Rossi succeeded Totti as club captain and signed a new two-year contract.


title: A.S. Roma

text: On 13 June 2017, former Roma player Eusebio Di Francesco was appointed as the club's new manager, replacing Spalletti, who had left for Internazionale. Roma again lost a key player during the summer transfer window, with Mohamed Salah joining Liverpool F.C. for a fee of €39 million (£34m). Several new players joined the club, including a club-record deal of up to €40 million for Sampdoria striker Patrik Schick. In the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League Roma were drawn against FC Barcelona in the quarter-finals, being defeated 4–1 away in the first leg but winning 3–0 in the second to advance on away goals to the semi-finals for the first time since 1984. Roma then lost to Liverpool, the team that had defeated them in the 1984 European Cup Final 7–6 on aggregate. Roma ended the 2017–18 season in 3rd place on 77 points, qualifying for the following season's Champions League.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In the summer of 2018, Roma were busy in the transfer market, in large parts thanks to the €83 million they received from reaching the Champions League semi finals, as well as selling goalkeeper Alisson for a world record €72 million including bonuses to Liverpool. Roma spent €150 million to sign the likes of Shick, Nzonzi, Pastore, Kluivert, Defrel and more, while selling their two starting midfielders from the previous season, Nainggolan and Strootman. The 2018-19 season saw the club eliminated against Porto 4–3 on aggregate in the Champions League round of 16; Di Francesco was sacked and replaced by Claudio Ranieri who served as caretaker manager. The following day, sporting director Monchi stepped down due to disagreements with Pallotta; the club president disputed his account In Monchi's two years at the club, he spent £208 million on 21 signings, while when he left, 12 of his signings remained at the club. Under Ranieri, Roma failed to qualify for the Champions League, finishing 6th.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In December 2019, AS Roma SPV LLC was in final negotiations to sell the team for $872 million, to American businessman Dan Friedkin, however negotiations stalled during the COVID-19 pandemic. On 6 August 2020, Friedkin signed the preliminary contract to agree to pay $591 million to Pallotta, the main shareholder of Roma.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Paulo Fonseca, who was hired as manager in 2019, left two years later and was replaced by fellow Portuguese José Mourinho. On 25 May 2022, he led Roma to win the inaugural edition of UEFA Europa Conference League, defeating Feyenoord in the final.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma's colours of carmine red with a golden yellow trim represents the traditional colours of Rome, the official seal of the Comune di Roma features the same colours. The gold and the purple-red represent Roman imperial dignity. White shorts and black socks are usually worn with the red shirt. However, in particularly high key matches, the shorts and socks are the same colour as the home shirt.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The kit itself was originally worn by "Roman Football Club"; one of the three clubs who merged to form the current incarnation in 1927. Because of the colours they wear, Roma are often nicknamed "i giallorossi" meaning the yellow-reds. Roma's away kit is traditionally white, with a third kit changing colour from time to time.


title: A.S. Roma

text: A popular nickname for the club is ""i lupi"" ("the wolves") – the animal has always featured on the club's badge in different forms throughout their history. The emblem of the team is currently the one which was used when the club was first founded. It portrays the female wolf with the two infant brothers Romulus and Remus, illustrating the myth of the founding of Rome, superimposed on a bipartite golden yellow over a maroon red shield. In the myth from which the club takes their nickname and logo, the twins (sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia) are thrown into the river Tiber by their uncle Amulius. A she-wolf then saved the twins and looked after them. Eventually, the two twins took revenge on Amulius before falling out themselves – Romulus killed Remus and was thus made king of a new city named in his honour, Rome.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The first sport facility Roma used was the Motovelodromo Appio, previously used by Alba-Audace. Roma only played the 1927–28 season there until they moved to Campo Testaccio the very next season. Campo Testaccio was used through 1929 to 1940. The team moved later to the Stadio Nazionale del PNF, where they spent 13 years before moving once again.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In the 1953–54 season, Roma moved to the Olympic arena, Stadio Olimpico, which it shares with Lazio. The arena has undergone several changes over the years. The most significant change took place in the nineties when Stadio Olimpico was demolished and then reconstructed for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy. Roma have played almost every season since 1953–54, with exception of the 1989–90 seasons due to the reconstruction of Stadio Olimpico. That year, Roma played its home matches at Stadio Flaminio.


title: A.S. Roma

text: On 30 December 2012, Roma club president James Pallotta announced the construction of a new stadium in the Tor di Valle area of Rome. The new stadium, Stadio della Roma, will have a capacity of 52,500 spectators. On 2 February 2017, the Region of Lazio and the mayor of Rome rejected the proposal to build a new stadium. However, it was later approved on 24 February after final review of the stadium's design adjustments. In August 2017, the stadium suffered another delay, forcing Roma to renew their lease with the Stadio Olimpico until 2020. It is presently uncertain when the stadium will open. On 5 December 2017 the Stadio della Roma project, after experiencing five years worth of delays due to conflicting interests from various parties in the Roman city government, was given the go-ahead to begin construction, with the stadium expected to be ready to open for the 2020–21 season. On 26 February 2021, it was announced that the stadium project was halted.


title: A.S. Roma

text: A sports centre located in at kilometre 3600 in south-east of Rome was purchased on 22 July 1977 by then club president Gaetano Anzalone. It was opened on 23 July 1979 as Anzalone's final act as president. The complex had its first expansion in 1984 when the club was handled by Dino Viola and another in 1998 under the chairmanship of Franco Sensi. The centre's official name is the Fulvio Bernardini di Trigoria, named after club icon Fulvio Bernardini.


title: A.S. Roma

text: On 4 September 2019, the Trigoria training ground began to serve also as a private school named 'Liceo Scientifico Sportivo A.S. Roma' exclusively educating only the team's youth players in a renovated building on the training ground premises. 80 students are currently enrolled in the school which features its own cafeteria and gym.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The centre is also known for hosting the Argentina national team during the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma is the fifth-most supported football club in Italy – behind Juventus, Internazionale, A.C. Milan and Napoli – with approximately 7% of Italian football fans supporting the club, according to the Doxa Institute-L'Espresso's research of April 2006. Historically, the largest section of Roma supporters in the city of Rome have come from the inner-city, especially Testaccio.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The traditional ultras group of the club was "Commando Ultrà Curva Sud" commonly abbreviated as "CUCS". This group was founded by the merger of many smaller groups and was considered one of the most historic in the history of European football. However, by the mid-1990s, "CUCS" had been usurped by rival factions and ultimately broke up. Since that time, the "Curva Sud" of the Stadio Olimpico has been controlled by more right-wing groups, including "A.S. Roma Ultras", "Boys" and "Giovinezza", among others. However, the oldest group, "Fedayn", is apolitical, and politics is not the main identity of Roma, just a part of their overall identity. Besides ultras groups, it is believed Roma fans support the left as opposed to Lazio supporters, which are notoriously proud of their right-wing affiliation.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In November 2015, Roma's ultras and their Lazio counterparts boycotted Roma's 1–0 victory in the "Derby della Capitale" in protest at new safety measures imposed at the Stadio Olimpico. The measures – imposed by Rome's prefect, Franco Gabrielli – had involved plastic glass dividing walls being installed in both the Curva Sud and Curva Nord, splitting the sections behind each goal in two. Both sets of ultras continued their protests for the rest of the season, including during Roma's 4–1 victory in the return fixture. Lazio's ultras returned to the Curva Nord for Roma's 1–4 victory in December 2016, but the Roma ultras continue to boycott matches.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The most known club anthem is "Roma (non-si discute, si ama)", also known as "Roma Roma", by singer Antonello Venditti. The title roughly means, "Roma is not to be questioned, it is to be loved," and it is sung before each match. The song "Grazie Roma", by the same singer, is played at the end of victorious home matches. Recently, the main riff of The White Stripes' song "Seven Nation Army" has also become widely popular at matches.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In Italian football, Roma is a club with many rivalries; first and foremost is their rivalry with Lazio, the club with whom they share the Stadio Olimpico. The derby between the two is called the "Derby della Capitale", it is amongst the most heated and emotional footballing rivalries in the world. The fixture has seen some occasional instances of violence in the past, including the death of Lazio fan Vincenzo Paparelli in 1979–80 as a result of an emergency flare fired from the Curva Sud, and the abandonment of a match in March 2004 following unfounded rumours of a fatality which led to violence outside the stadium.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Against Napoli, Roma also compete in the "Derby del Sole", meaning the "Derby of the Sun". Nowadays, fans also consider other Juventus (a rivalry born especially in the 1980s), Milan, Atalanta (since 1984, when friendly relations between the two clubs' ultras deteriorated), and Internazionale (increased in recent years) among their rivals, as they are often competitors for the top four spots in the league table and qualification for the UEFA Champions League.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Rivalries with other teams have escalated into serious violence. A group of ultras who label themselves the Fedayn — 'the devotees' — after a group of long-forgotten Iranian guerrilla fighters are regarded to be responsible for the organised hooliganism. In 2014 Daniele De Santis, a Roma ultra, was convicted of shooting Ciro Esposito and two others during clashes with Napoli fans who were in Rome for their club's Coppa Italia final against Fiorentina. Esposito died of his wounds. De Santis was sentenced to 26 years in prison, later reduced to 16 years on appeal. Roma ultras have displayed banners celebrating De Santis.


title: A.S. Roma

text: There have been multiple instances of Roma ultras attacking supporters of foreign clubs when playing in Rome. These attacks have regularly featured the Roma ultras using knives, poles, flares, bottles and stones on unarmed foreign supporters, resulting in multiple hospitalisations. Home games against Liverpool in 1984 and 2001, Middlesbrough in 2006, Manchester United in 2007, Arsenal in 2009, Tottenham Hotspur in 2012, and Chelsea in 2017 have all resulted in multiple stabbings and other injuries to foreign supporters. In 2018 Roma ultras travelling to an away game at Liverpool attacked home supporters, resulting in a home supporter being critically injured.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma have had numerous chairmen ( or ) over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners and co-owners of the club, some of them were nominated by the owners. Franco Sensi was the chairman until his death in 2008, with his daughter, Roma CEO Rosella Sensi taking his place as chairman. Here is a complete list of Roma chairmen from 1927 until the present day.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma have had many managers and trainers running the team during their history, here is a chronological list of them from 1927 onwards.


title: A.S. Roma

text: The Hall of Fame players were voted via the club's official website and a special Hall of Fame panel. In 2013 four players were voted in. In 2014, the third year of AS Roma Hall of Fame four more players were voted in.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Francesco Totti currently holds Roma's official appearance record, having made 786 appearances in all competitions, over the course of 25 seasons from 1993 until 2017. He also holds the record for Serie A appearances with 619, as he passed Giacomo Losi on 1 March 2008 during a home match against Parma.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Including all competitions, Totti is the all-time leading goalscorer for Roma with 307 goals since joining the club, 250 of which were scored in Serie A (another Roma record). Roberto Pruzzo, who was the all-time topscorer since 1988, comes in second in all competitions with 138. In 1930–31, Rodolfo Volk scored 29 goals in Serie A over the course of a single season. Not only was Volk the league's top scorer that year, he also set a Roma record for most goals scored in a season which would later be matched by Edin Džeko in 2016–17.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Its major founders Fortitudo and Alba having been relegated at the end of 1926–27 campaign, new-founded Roma had to take part to Southern First Division championship (Serie B) for its inaugural season. Nevertheless, the FIGC decided on a special enlargement of first level division re-admitting AS Roma and SSC Napoli. The first ever official matches participated in by Roma was in the National Division, the predecessor of Serie A, of 1927–28, against Livorno, a 2–0 Roma win. The biggest ever victory recorded by Roma was 9–0 against Cremonese during the 1929–30 Serie A season. The heaviest defeat Roma have ever suffered is 1–7, which has occurred five times; against Juventus in 1931–32, Torino in 1947–48, Manchester United in 2006–07, Bayern Munich in 2014–15 and Fiorentina in 2018–19.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Since 1999, during Franco Sensi's period in charge, Associazione Sportiva Roma has been a listed Società per azioni on Borsa Italiana. From 2004 to 2011, Roma's shares are distributed between; 67.1% to Compagnia Italpetroli SpA (the Sensi family "holding"; Banca di Roma later acquired 49% stake on Italpetroli due to debt restructuring) and 32.9% to other public shareholders.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Along with Lazio and Juventus, Roma is one of only three quotated Italian clubs. According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in the 2010–11 season, Roma was the 15th highest-earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €143.5 million.


title: A.S. Roma

text: In April 2008, after months of speculation, George Soros was confirmed by Rosella Sensi, CEO of Serie A club A.S. Roma, to be bidding for a takeover. The takeover bid was successively rejected by the Sensi family, who instead preferred to maintain the club's ownership. On 17 August 2008 club chairman and owner Franco Sensi died after a long illness; his place at the chairmanship of the club was successively taken by his daughter Rosella.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Since the takeover in 2011, NEEP Roma Holding S.p.A. has owned all shares Sensi previously hold. NEEP, itself a joint venture, was held by DiBenedetto AS Roma LLC (later renamed to AS Roma SPV, LLC) and Unicredit in 60–40 ratio from 2011 to 2013, which the former had four real person shareholders in equal ratio, led by future Roma president Thomas R. DiBenedetto (2011–12). The takeover also activated a mandatory bid of shares from the general public, however not all minority shareholders were willing to sell their shares. The mandatory bid meant NEEP held 78.038% of shares of AS Roma (increased from 67.1% of the Sensi). On 1 August 2013, the president of Roma as well as one of the four American shareholders of AS Roma SPV, LLC, James Pallotta, bought an additional 9% shares of NEEP Roma Holding from Unicredit (through Raptor Holdco LLC), as the bank was not willing to fully participate in the capital increase of NEEP from €120,000 to €160,008,905 (excluding share premium). On 4 April 2014 Starwood Capital Group also became the fifth shareholder of AS Roma SPV, as well as forming a strategic partnership with AS Roma SpA to develop real estate around the new stadium. The private investment firm was represented by Zsolt Kohalmi in AS Roma SPV, who was appointed on 4 April as a partner and head of European acquisitions of the firm. On 11 August 2014, UniCredit sold the remain shares on NEEP (of 31%) for €33 million which meant AS Roma SPV LLC (91%) and Raptor Holdco LLC (9%) were the sole intermediate holding company of AS Roma SpA.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Since re-capitalization in 2003–04, Roma had a short-lived financial self-sustainability, until the takeover in 2011. The club had set up a special amortisation fund using Articolo 18-bis Legge 91/1981 mainly for the abnormal signings prior 2002–03 season, (such as Davide Bombardini for €11 million account value in June 2002, when the flopped player exchange boosted 2001–02 season result) and the tax payment of 2002–03 was rescheduled. In 2004–05, Roma made a net profit of €10,091,689 and followed by €804,285 in 2005–06. In 2006–07 season the accounting method changed to IFRS, which meant that the 2005–06 result was reclassified as net loss of €4,051,905 and 2006–07 season was net income of €10,135,539 (€14.011 million as a group). Moreover, the special fund (€80,189,123) was removed from the asset and co-currently for the equity as scheduled, meant Roma group had a negative equity of €8.795 million on 30 June 2007. Nevertheless, the club had sold the brand to a subsidiary which boost the profit in a separate financial statement, which "La Repubblica" described as "doping". In 2007–08, Roma made a net income of €18,699,219. (€19 million as a group) However, 2008–09 saw the decrease of gate and TV income, co-currently with finishing sixth in Serie A, which saw Roma make a net loss of €1,894,330. (€1.56 million as a group) The gate and TV income further slipped in 2009–10 with a net loss of €21,917,292 (already boosted by the sale of Alberto Aquilani; €22 million as a group) despite sporting success (finishing in second place in 2009–10). Moreover, despite a positive equity as a separate company (€105,142,589), the AS Roma Group had a negative equity on the consolidated balance sheet, and fell from +€8.8 million to −€13.2 million. In the 2010–11 season, Roma was administrated by UniCredit as the Sensi family failed to repay the bank and the club was put on the market, and were expected to have a quiet transfer window. Concurrently with no selling profit on the players, Roma's net loss rose to €30,589,137 (€30.778 million as a group) and the new owner already planned a re-capitalization after the mandatory bid on the shares. On the positive side, TV income was increased from €75,150,744 to €78,041,642, and gate income increased from €23,821,218 to €31,017,179. This was because Roma entered 2010–11 Champions League, which counter-weighed the effect of the new collective agreement of Serie A. In 2011–12, the renewal of squad and participation in 2011–12 UEFA Europa League had worsened the financial result, which the €50 million capital increase (in advance) was counter-weighted totally by the net loss. In the 2012–13 season, the participation in domestic league only, was not only not harmful to the revenue but increase in gate income as well as decrease in wage bill, however Roma still did not yet break even (€40.130 million net loss in consolidated accounts). NEEP Roma also re-capitalized AS Roma in advance for another €26,550,000 during 2012–13. A proposed capital increase by €100 million for Roma was announced on 25 June 2014; however, until 22 May 2014, NEEP already injected €108 million into the club, which depends on public subscription; more than €8 million would convert to medium-long-term loan from shareholder instead of becoming share capital. Another capital increase was carried in 2018.


title: A.S. Roma

text: A joint venture of Roma, which was owned by Roma (37.5%), S.S. Lazio (37.5%) and Parma F.C.(25%), Società Diritti Sportivi S.r.l., was in the process of liquidation since 2005. The company was a joint-venture of four football clubs, including Fiorentina. After the bankruptcy of Fiorentina however, both Roma and Lazio had increased their shares ratio from 25% to 37.5%. Another subsidiary, "Soccer S.A.S. di Brand Management S.r.l.", was a special-purpose entity (SPV) that Roma sold their brand to the subsidiary in 2007. In February 2015, another SPV, "ASR Media and Sponsorship S.r.l", was set up to secure a five-year bank loan of €175 million from Goldman Sachs, for three-month Euribor (min. 0.75%) + 6.25% spread (i.e. min. 7% interests rate p.a.).


title: A.S. Roma

text: In 2015, Inter and Roma were the only two Italian clubs that were sanctioned by UEFA for breaking UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, which they signed settlement agreements with UEFA. It was followed by Milan in 2018.


title: A.S. Roma

text: Roma had compliance with the requirements and overall objective of the settlement agreement in 2018, which the club exited from settlement regime.


title: A.S. Roma

text: A.S. Roma had a team in the Superleague Formula race car series where teams were sponsored by football clubs. Roma's driver was ex-IndyCar Series driver Franck Perera. The team had posted three podiums and was operated by Alan Docking Racing.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: The German studio Constantin Film bought the rights to adapt the series in January 1997. In 2000, Paul W. S. Anderson was announced as writer and director for "Resident Evil" (2002). Anderson continued as writer and producer for "" (2004) and "" (2007), and returned as the director for "" (2010), "" (2012) and "" (2016). These first six films follow Alice (Milla Jovovich), a character created for the films. Alice is a former security specialist and covert operative who battles the Umbrella Corporation, whose bioweapons have triggered a zombie apocalypse. Characters from the games appear, including Claire Redfield, Jill Valentine, Ada Wong, Carlos Olivera, Chris Redfield, Leon S. Kennedy, Barry Burton and the antagonists Albert Wesker and James Marcus. In 2021, a reboot film, "", was released.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Though the films have received generally negative reviews from critics, the "Resident Evil" series has grossed over $1.2 billion. It was once the highest-grossing film series based on a video game, the highest-grossing zombie film series, and the highest-grossing horror film series, although it has since been surpassed in all of these categories. The series retains the record for the most live-action film adaptations of a video game.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In January 1997, Constantin Film acquired the film rights to the "Resident Evil" franchise with Alan B. McElroy possibly writing the script. George A. Romero was hired by Sony Pictures and Capcom to direct and write "Resident Evil". His script was later rejected and he was ultimately dropped. While Romero's script was supported by a number of people from Capcom and Constantin, it was rejected by Constantin producer Bernd Eichinger, as well as Capcom producer Yoshiki Okamoto. In late 2000, Paul W. S. Anderson was announced as director and writer. Anderson stated the film would not include any tie-ins with the video game series as "under-performing movie tie-ins are too common and "Resident Evil", of all games, deserved a good celluloid representation". In 2001, Milla Jovovich was cast as Alice, the protagonist of the film. By May 2001, Columbia TriStar was in final negotiations to acquire North American distribution rights to the film and budgeted it at $40 million.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In the film, the Umbrella Corporation operates a secret genetic research facility named the Hive. Located beneath Raccoon City, the Hive has been sealed by its AI, the Red Queen, after the release of the T-virus into the facility. The Red Queen kills everyone in the facility to ensure that the T-virus doesn't reach the surface, but the T-virus reanimates them, transforming the humans and animals into aggressive zombies and mutants. Alice was once a security operative working for the corporation until her memory was wiped by the Red Queen's nerve gas. As her team investigates the Hive, a monstrous Umbrella test subject called a Licker pursues them onto a train. Alice survives along with teammate Matt Addison, but they are separated and taken by an Umbrella hazmat unit, where Matt begins to genetically transform. Alice awakens from a coma to a ravaged Raccoon City after a T-virus outbreak.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: A sequel began production in 2003 after the success of the first film. Anderson returned as the writer but, due to his work on "Alien vs. Predator", Alexander Witt took over the director's role. The film released on September 10, 2004.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In the film, the viral outbreak reaches the surface and to contain the infection, Major Timothy Cain seals all exits to and from Raccoon City. Among the people trapped in the city are Jill Valentine and her partner Peyton Wells. After Alice awakens from her coma, she rescues Jill and Peyton from a group of Licker monsters. They are contacted by Dr. Charles Ashford, who directs them to an evacuation point in exchange for the rescue of his daughter Angela, trapped elsewhere in the city. Weapon Nemesis attacks the team after Cain commands it to kill all STARS (Special Tactics And Rescue Service) members. The team rescues Angela and makes its way to the evacuation helicopter guided by Umbrella mercenary Carlos Olivera. After Alice's confrontation with Cain and Nemesis leaves them dead, she and the team fly away from Raccoon City as it is destroyed by a nuclear missile. The helicopter crashes in the Arklay Mountains, and Alice is found by an Umbrella search team and taken to a research station. When Alice awakens, she displays extraordinary powers, and escapes with help from Jill and Carlos. As they drive away, Dr. Alexander Isaacs, a top-ranking Umbrella employee, reveals that Alice's escape is part of Umbrella's plan.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In November 2005, Screen Gems gained the rights for the third installment in the franchise, which was then subtitled "Extinction". Anderson returned as a writer and filming took place in Mexico. Russell Mulcahy was the director. The film was released on September 21, 2007.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: The world has been consumed by the T-virus and Umbrella Corporation develops clones of Alice to find one who displays her powers. Elsewhere, Claire Redfield leads a convoy of survivors across the Nevada desert, including Raccoon City survivors Carlos Olivera and L.J. Wayne. Alice roams the country alone, staying off the grid. After accidentally destroying her motorcycle, she joins Redfield's convoy, rescuing them from a mob of attacking crows using her telekinetic powers. Alice and the convoy head to Las Vegas to gather supplies so that they can reach Alaska to find "Arcadia", thought to be a safe haven. In Las Vegas, they are ambushed by a group of Umbrella Corporation's new super zombies created by Dr. Alexander Isaacs, which kills most of the convoy. L.J., who had been bitten earlier and hiding the progress of the infection, now completely transforms and bites Olivera. Dr. Isaacs himself is bitten and retreats to the Umbrella base where he injects himself with large doses of the anti-virus as a cure. He transforms into a Tyrant, a towering creature with regenerative and psionic powers. Alice, Claire and Carlos locate a helicopter in Umbrella base and plan to use it to extract the survivors to Alaska. Olivera makes his last stand by sacrificing himself and plowing his truck into a horde of zombies, giving the rest time to load the survivors. Claire and the survivors head towards Alaska, while Alice stays behind to confront Isaacs, and discovers her clones in the facility. After she defeats Isaacs, Alice contacts Umbrella and warns them that she is coming for them with an army of her clones.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Before the third installment had been released, Constantin prepared to release a fourth entry. The film was set in Japan and filmed in 3D with the Fusion Camera System developed by James Cameron and Vince Pace for the 2009 film "Avatar". It was written and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson and released on September 10, 2010.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: After the events of "Extinction", Alice and her clones attack the Umbrella Headquarters in Tokyo. Wesker escapes and destroys the facility, killing the clones. He is confronted by Alice aboard his helicopter, and injects her with a serum that removes her super-human abilities. The helicopter crashes, and only Alice is seen emerging from the rubble. After six months of a failed aerial search for other survivors, Alice heads toward the supposed location of Arcadia. She lands on an airfield in Alaska, and finds Claire with an Umbrella controlling device attached to her chest and a wiped memory. Claire and Alice fly to Los Angeles, where they stumble on a prison wherein they meet Luther West and Chris Redfield, Claire's brother. The survivors explain that Arcadia is really a tanker off the coast that has been broadcasting a looped message and is picking up survivors. During an attempted escape, Alice, Claire and Chris are the only ones to emerge and they reach the tanker only to find it abandoned. Claire's memory begins to return and she remembers Umbrella workers attacking her group of survivors and moving them to the tanker. They learn that the ship is an Umbrella research facility, which is conducting experiments on the survivors. The three meet Wesker, who has been granted super-human abilities from the T-virus. After the fight, Alice transmits a message to survivors calling them to create a new and true safe haven. As the film closes, a fleet of Umbrella Corporation gunships led by Valentine prepares to lead an assault on the survivors.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Written and directed by Anderson, "Retribution" was planned to be filmed back to back with the sixth installment, but Anderson decided to focus on the fifth film. Filming took place in Toronto, Ontario from mid-October to December 23, 2011. Colin Salmon who played One and Michelle Rodriguez who played Rain Ocampo in the first film returned. Oded Fehr, who portrayed Carlos Olivera in the second and third film, also returned. Three characters from the video games made their debut in the film series, Johann Urb as Leon S. Kennedy, Kevin Durand as Barry Burton, and Li Bingbing as Ada Wong. It was released internationally on September 14, 2012.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Alice awakens in an Umbrella base where she is interrogated by Valentine. During a power failure orchestrated by Ada Wong, Alice escapes from her cell and encounters her. Wong explains that Wesker plans to aid Alice's escape and battle the base's supercomputer Red Queen, to save what's left of mankind. Wesker has organized a team of freelance operatives to infiltrate the base and help Alice and Ada escape, including Leon S. Kennedy, Barry Burton and Luther West. Along the way, Alice finds a clone of a girl named Becky. They also face clone versions of Carlos Olivera, One and Rain Ocampo, all under the direction of Valentine. After Alice meets with the rescue team, Valentine's soldiers catch up to them, resulting in a shootout that kills Burton, Olivera and One. Alice, West, Kennedy and Becky reach the surface and are met by a submarine, from which Valentine, the clone Rain, and a captured Ada emerge. Valentine battles Alice while Rain fights Kennedy and West. Alice manages to remove the scarab device from Valentine, returning her back to normal, and joins Kennedy in defeating Rain. Alice, Ada, Becky, Leon and Valentine travel to Wesker's base. Wesker injects Alice with the T-virus, returning her superhuman powers, then tells her that she is responsible for saving the remaining humans from extinction.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Anderson wrote and directed the sixth and final film in the series, subtitled "The Final Chapter", which was filmed in 2D and was post-converted to stereoscopic 3D. Milla Jovovich reprised her role as Alice, with only Shawn Roberts, Iain Glen and Ali Larter returning from previous entries as Albert Wesker, Dr. Isaacs and Claire Redfield, respectively. Continuing from the last film, Anderson expressed his desire for the final film to "come full circle", bringing back characters, themes and the environment of the Hive from the first movie. Filming was set to begin in South Africa in August 2014 but was delayed to the summer of 2015 due to Jovovich's pregnancy. Principal photography commenced on September 18, 2015, in South Africa. It was released on December 23, 2016, in Tokyo and on January 27, 2017, in North America.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Three weeks after the events in "Retribution", humanity is on its last legs after Alice is betrayed by Wesker in Washington D.C. Alice encounters the Red Queen, who tells her that she must return to Raccoon City, where the Umbrella Corporation has developed an airborne anti-virus which will kill every organism infected by the T-virus. In a race against time, Alice is captured by Dr. Isaacs, who reveals his previous incarnation was a clone. Alice escapes and arrives in Raccoon City, where she joins forces with Claire Redfield. After holding off Dr. Isaacs' undead army, Alice, Claire and a team of survivors make their way towards the Hive. They encounter the Red Queen, who tells them the T-virus was created by James Marcus, the founder of the Umbrella Corporation to save his daughter, Alicia, from an ailment that caused her to age rapidly. James was betrayed by his business partner, Dr. Isaacs, and killed by Albert Wesker. Dr. Isaacs and the board of the Umbrella Corporation then intended to release the T-virus to cleanse the world, save the rich and powerful with cryogenics in the Hive, and later rebuild it as they desire. After confronting Wesker and the real Dr. Isaacs at the bottom of the Hive, Alice learns she is a clone of the still-living Alicia Marcus. Alice releases the anti-virus, eliminating all infected by the T-virus. She survives, and gains the memories of Alicia Marcus as a reward to reclaim the childhood she never had. The series ends with Alice riding a motorcycle, stating that her job isn't finished yet and that it will take several years for the anti-virus to circle the globe.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In May 2017, Constantin chairman Martin Moszkowicz stated that a reboot of the series was in development. In the same month, it was announced that James Wan would produce the reboot with a script by Greg Russo, with both later leaving the project. In December 2018, Johannes Roberts was hired as writer and director. Roberts stated that his film will be separate from the previous films in the series, with the story being based on "Resident Evil" and "Resident Evil 2". By October 2020, the principal cast was reported with Kaya Scodelario cast as Claire Redfield, Hannah John-Kamen as Jill Valentine, Robbie Amell as Chris Redfield, Neal McDonough as William Birkin, Tom Hopper as Albert Wesker, and Avan Jogia as Leon S. Kennedy. Other cast members, Donal Logue, Chad Rook, Lily Gao, and Marina Mazepa were cast as Chief Brian Irons, Richard Aiken, and Ada Wong, and Lisa Trevor respectively. Filming began on October 17, 2020, in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, with reshoots in May 2021. The film was released on November 24, 2021, by Sony Pictures Releasing in the United States.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Claire Redfield uncovers secrets about the Umbrella Corporation's experiments and accidents and travels back to her hometown of Raccoon City to warn her brother Chris Redfield. Meanwhile, a zombie outbreak begins after residents are poisoned in the water supply. Chris, along with fellow STARS members Jill Valentine and Albert Wesker, travel to the Spencer Mansion to recover bravo team and find out what is happening in the town. Claire travels with rookie police officer Leon S. Kennedy to the Raccoon City Orphanage to flee the city before it is destroyed, where they encounter a Licker and Claire's old friend Lisa Trevor. Wesker betrays Jill and attempts to steal the virus produced by Dr. William Birkin, a scientist working for the Umbrella Corporation. On the verge of death, Birkin injects himself with the G-Virus, saving his life and mutating him into the Tyrant. The survivors flee on an underground train with Birkin's daughter Sherry and destroy the tyrant with a rocket launcher. In a mid-credits scene, Albert Wesker is saved from death by Ada Wong and is given his trademark sunglasses.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In 2016, producer David Kern revealed that a crossover film with the "Underworld" film series had been considered.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: In January 2019, Netflix was in development of a series based upon the "Resident Evil" franchise. At the time, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that the series was set in the universe of the Paul W. S. Anderson's film series, but when the series was ordered in 2020, Andrew Dabb was hired and confirmed that the series will not be linked to the film series.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: "", "", "", and "" all opened at number one at the North American box office. "Resident Evil" is also the highest-grossing, live-action film series to be based on a video game.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: The "Chicago Tribune" declared the first film as "one of the few video game movies to truly re-create the gaming experience" and "The Austin Chronicle" called it "an absolute wreck. But what an ambitiously mind-blowing wreck it is, bursting with dazzlingly sordid cinematography". "The Seattle Times" marked the second film an improvement from the original, saying the film "makes up for the wretched mess that was 2002's "Resident Evil"". "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the third film a positive review stating "Fast-paced and filled with brisk action sequences—the film should reasonably satisfy the devotees." Michael Ordoña of the "Los Angeles Times" gave the fourth film a positive review, claiming that "the action is easier to read than in most films of the genre, and therefore more enjoyable. Anderson makes particular use of sets and locations to wring out more bang for the stereoscopic buck."


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Several retrospective reviews have praised aspects of Anderson's films, particularly in relation to the reboot. Calum Marsh of the "National Post" admired the Anderson-directed entries, saying: "The first is classical, close-quarters horror ... Part four, "Afterlife", is a riot of ludicrous action and superhero brawn ... but it’s a mere amuse bouche next to the five-star spread of part five, "Retribution"—a glorious, practically experimental sci-fi action wonder." Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of "The A.V. Club" called them "lean and lively and fun and totally unpretentious", and commended Anderson's style, "focused on organizing action and orientating the viewer"; Charles Bramesco reviewed the reboot as "totally bereft of the visual distinction or creative personality that often made its predecessors intriguing diamonds in the rough."


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released all seven films on DVD, Blu-ray and digital download. The films were also released in DVD, Blu-ray and 4K box sets:


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: The novelizations for the first three "Resident Evil" films were written by Keith R. A. DeCandido. The novelization for the fifth film was written by John Shirley, and the sixth by Tim Waggoner. The fourth film did not receive a novelization.


title: Resident Evil (film series)

text: The novel for the first film, titled "Resident Evil: Genesis", was published over two years after that film's release, while the "Extinction" novel was released in late July 2007, two months before the film's release. There was also a Japanese novelization of the first film, unrelated to DeCandido's version, written by Osamu Makino. Makino also wrote two novels based on the game "".