title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan is on the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas, landlocked between the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north and the Indian states of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam to the west and south, and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh to the east. It lies between latitudes 26°N and 29°N, and longitudes 88°E and 93°E. The land consists mostly of steep and high mountains crisscrossed by a network of swift rivers that form deep valleys before draining into the Indian plains. Elevation rises from in the southern foothills to more than . This great geographical diversity combined with equally diverse climate conditions contributes to Bhutan's outstanding range of biodiversity and ecosystems.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's northern region consists of an arc of Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows reaching up to glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over above sea level; the highest point is -tall Gangkhar Puensum, which has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The lowest point, at , is in the valley of Drangme Chhu, where the river crosses the border with India. Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds.


title: Bhutan

text: The Black Mountains in Bhutan's central region form a watershed between two major river systems: the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. The forests of the central Bhutan mountains consist of Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests in higher elevations and Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests in lower elevations. The Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The Torsa, Raidak, Sankosh, and Manas are Bhutan's main rivers, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.


title: Bhutan

text: In the south, the Shiwalik Hills are covered with dense Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical Duars Plain, which is the eponymous gateway to strategic mountain passes (also known as dwars or dooars; literally, "doors" in Assamese, Bengali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, and Magahi languages.). Most of the Duars is in India, but a -wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts, the northern and southern Duars.


title: Bhutan

text: The northern Duars, which abut the Himalayan foothills, have rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars have moderately fertile soil, heavy savanna grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by melting snow or monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra River in India. Data released by the Ministry of Agriculture showed that the country had a forest cover of 64% as of October 2005.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's climate varies with elevation, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate with year-round snow in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan are temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1995. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with two revisions, the most recent of which was received by the convention on 4 February 2010.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has a rich primate life, with rare species such as the golden langur. A variant Assamese macaque has also been recorded, which is regarded by some authorities as a new species, "Macaca munzala".


title: Bhutan

text: The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, hispid hare and the sloth bear live in the tropical lowland and hardwood forests in the south. In the temperate zone, grey langur, tiger, goral and serow are found in mixed conifer, broadleaf and pine forests. Fruit-bearing trees and bamboo provide habitat for the Himalayan black bear, red panda, squirrel, sambar, wild pig and barking deer. The alpine habitats of the great Himalayan range in the north are home to the snow leopard, blue sheep, Himalayan marmot, Tibetan wolf, antelope, Himalayan musk deer and the takin, Bhutan's national animal. The endangered wild water buffalo occurs in southern Bhutan, although in small numbers.


title: Bhutan

text: More than 770 species of bird have been recorded in Bhutan. The globally endangered white-winged duck has been added recently in 2006 to Bhutan's bird list.


title: Bhutan

text: More than 5,400 species of plants are found in Bhutan, including "Pedicularis cacuminidenta". Fungi form a key part of Bhutanese ecosystems, with mycorrhizal species providing forest trees with mineral nutrients necessary for growth, and with wood decay and litter decomposing species playing an important role in natural recycling.


title: Bhutan

text: The Eastern Himalayas has been identified as a global biodiversity hotspot and counted among the 234 globally outstanding ecoregions of the world in a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity undertaken by WWF between 1995 and 1997.


title: Bhutan

text: According to the Swiss-based International Union for Conservation of Nature, Bhutan is viewed as a model for proactive conservation initiatives. The Kingdom has received international acclaim for its commitment to the maintenance of its biodiversity.<ref name="IUCN-1/2012"></ref> This is reflected in the decision to maintain at least sixty percent of the land area under forest cover, to designate more than 40% of its territory as national parks, reserves and other protected areas, and most recently to identify a further nine percent of land area as biodiversity corridors linking the protected areas. All of Bhutan's protected land is connected to one another through a vast network of biological corridors, allowing animals to migrate freely throughout the country. Environmental conservation has been placed at the core of the nation's development strategy, the middle path. It is not treated as a sector but rather as a set of concerns that must be mainstreamed in Bhutan's overall approach to development planning and to be buttressed by the force of law. The country's constitution mentions environmental standards in multiple sections.


title: Bhutan

text: Although Bhutan's natural heritage is still largely intact, the government has said that it cannot be taken for granted and that conservation of the natural environment must be considered one of the challenges that will need to be addressed in the years ahead. Nearly 56.3% of all Bhutanese are involved with agriculture, forestry or conservation. The government aims to promote conservation as part of its plan to target Gross National Happiness. It currently has net negative greenhouse gas emissions because the small amount of pollution it creates is absorbed by the forests that cover most of the country. While the entire country collectively produces of carbon dioxide a year, the immense forest covering 72% of the country acts as a carbon sink, absorbing more than four million tons of carbon dioxide every year. Bhutan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 16th globally out of 172 countries.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has a number of progressive environmental policies that have caused the head of the UNFCCC to call it an "inspiration and role model for the world on how economies and different countries can address climate change while at the same time improving the life of the citizen." For example, electric cars have been pushed in the country and make up a tenth of all cars. Because the country gets most of its energy from hydroelectric power, it does not emit significant greenhouse gases for energy production.


title: Bhutan

text: In practice, the overlap of these extensive protected lands with populated areas has led to mutual habitat encroachment. Protected wildlife has entered agricultural areas, trampling crops and killing livestock. In response, Bhutan has implemented an insurance scheme, begun constructing solar powered alarm fences, watch towers, and search lights, and has provided fodder and salt licks outside human settlement areas to encourage animals to stay away.


title: Bhutan

text: The huge market value of the "Ophiocordyceps sinensis" fungus crop collected from the wild has also resulted in unsustainable exploitation which is proving very difficult to regulate.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has enforced a plastic ban rule from 1 April 2019, where plastic bags were replaced by alternative bags made of jute and other biodegradable material.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The reigning monarch is Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. The current Prime Minister of Bhutan is Lotay Tshering, leader of the Druk Nyamrup Tshogpa Party. Bhutan's democratic transition in 2008 is seen as an evolution of its social contract with the monarchy since 1907. In 2019, Bhutan was classified in the Democracy Index as a hybrid regime alongside regional neighbours Nepal and Bangladesh. Minorities are increasingly represented in Bhutan's government since 2008, including in the cabinet, parliament and local government.


title: Bhutan

text: The "Druk Gyalpo" ("Dragon King") is the head of state. The political system grants universal suffrage. It consists of the National Council, an upper house with 25 elected members; and the National Assembly with 47 elected lawmakers from political parties.


title: Bhutan

text: Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers led by the Prime Minister. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. Judicial power is vested in the courts. The legal system originates from the semi-theocratic Tsa Yig code, and was influenced by English common law during the 20th century. The chief justice is the administrative head of the judiciary.


title: Bhutan

text: The first general elections for the National Assembly were held on 24 March 2008. The chief contestants were the Bhutan Peace and Prosperity Party (DPT) led by Jigme Thinley and the People's Democratic Party (PDP) led by Sangay Ngedup. The DPT won the elections, taking 45 out of 47 seats. Jigme Thinley served as Prime Minister from 2008 to 2013.


title: Bhutan

text: The People's Democratic Party came to power in the 2013 elections. It won 32 seats and 54.88% of the vote. PDP leader Tshering Tobgay served as Prime Minister from 2013 to 2018.


title: Bhutan

text: Druk Nyamrup Tshogpa won the largest number of seats in the 2018 National Assembly Election, bringing Lotay Tshering to premiership and Druk Nyamrup Tshogpa into the government for the first time.


title: Bhutan

text: In the early 20th century, Bhutan became a "de facto" protectorate of the British Empire under the Treaty of Punakha in 1910. British protection guarded Bhutan from an independent Tibet and Qing China. In the aftermath of the Chinese Communist Revolution, Bhutan signed a friendship treaty with the newly independent Dominion of India in 1949. Its concerns were exacerbated after the Chinese incorporation of Tibet.


title: Bhutan

text: Relations with Nepal remained strained due to Bhutanese refugees. Bhutan joined the United Nations in 1971. It was the first country to recognise Bangladesh's independence in 1971. It became a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985. The country is a member of 150 international organisations, including the Bay of Bengal Initiative, BBIN, World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the Group of 77.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan maintains strong economic, strategic, and military relations with India. In February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised, clarifying Bhutan's full control of its foreign relations, as well as its independence and sovereignty. Whereas the Treaty of 1949, Article 2 stated: "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations," the revised treaty now states "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The revised treaty also includes this preamble: "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element absent in the earlier version. By long-standing agreement, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other's countries without a passport or visa, but must still have their national identity cards. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restrictions.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with China, but exchanges of visits at various levels between them have significantly increased in recent times. The first bilateral agreement between China and Bhutan was signed in 1998 and Bhutan has also set up honorary consulates in the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's border with China is not mutually demarcated in some areas because China lays claims to those places. In 2021, after more than 35 years of border negotiations, China signed a memorandum of understanding with Bhutan to expedite those talks. Approximately remain under discussion between China and Bhutan. On 13 November 2005, Chinese soldiers crossed into the disputed territories between China and Bhutan and began building roads and bridges. Bhutanese Foreign Minister Khandu Wangchuk took up the matter with Chinese authorities after the issue was raised in the Bhutanese parliament. In response, Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang of the People's Republic of China said that the border remains in dispute and that the two sides are continuing to work for a peaceful and cordial resolution of the dispute, denying that the presence of soldiers in the area was an attempt to forcibly occupy it. An Indian intelligence officer said that a Chinese delegation in Bhutan told the Bhutanese they were "overreacting". The Bhutanese newspaper "Kuensel" said that China might use the roads to further Chinese claims along the border.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has very warm relations with Japan, which provides significant development assistance. The Bhutanese royals were hosted by the Japanese imperial family during a state visit in 2011. Japan is also helping Bhutan cope with glacial floods through developing an early warning system. Bhutan enjoys strong political and diplomatic relations with Bangladesh. The Bhutanese king was the guest of honour during celebrations of the 40th anniversary of Bangladesh's independence. A 2014 joint statement by the prime ministers of both countries announced cooperation in areas of hydropower, river management and climate change mitigation. Bangladesh and Bhutan signed a preferential trade agreement in 2020 with provisions for free trade.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 53 countries and the European Union and has missions in India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Kuwait and Belgium. It has two UN missions, one in New York and one in Geneva. Only India, Bangladesh and Kuwait have residential embassies in Bhutan. Other countries maintain informal diplomatic contact via their embassies in New Delhi and Dhaka. Bhutan maintains formal diplomatic relations with several Asian and European nations, Canada, and Brazil. Other countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, have no formal diplomatic relations with Bhutan but maintain informal contact through their respective embassies in New Delhi and with the United States through Bhutan's permanent mission to the United Nations. The United Kingdom has an honorary consul resident in Thimphu. The latest country Bhutan has established diplomatic relations with is Israel, on 12 December 2020.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan opposed the Russian annexation of Crimea in United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262.


title: Bhutan

text: The Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's military service and is one of the weakest armed forces in the world, according to the Global Firepower survey. It includes the royal bodyguard and the Royal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 16,000 and is trained by the Indian Army. It has an annual budget of about US$13.7 million (1.8 percent of GDP). As a landlocked country, Bhutan has no navy. It also has no air force or army aviation corps. The Army relies on the Eastern Air Command of the Indian Air Force for air assistance.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan is ranked as "Partly Free" by Freedom House. Bhutan's parliament decriminalised homosexuality in 2020.


title: Bhutan

text: Women in Bhutan tend to be less active in politics than men due to customs and aspects of Bhutan's culture that dictate a woman's role in the household. This leads to a limitation of their voices in government. Bhutan has made steps toward gender equality by enrolling more girls in school as well as creating the "National Commission for Women and Children" (NCWC) in 2004. This programme was created to promote and protect women's and children's rights. Bhutan also elected its first female "Dzongda", equivalent to a District Attorney, in 2012, and its first female minister in 2013. Minister Dorji Choden, chair for the National Commission for Women and Children, believes that the aforementioned programme can be used to "promote women into more leadership roles" which can then lead women to take on more active roles in their society. Overall there has also been a gradual increase in women in power with a 68% increase in women representation from 2011 to 2016.


title: Bhutan

text: Starting in the 1980s, a part of Bhutan's minority population groups of Nepali speakers ("Lhotshampa"), in Southern Bhutan, fell victim to perceived political persecution by the Bhutanese government as part of what the Nepali-speaking population viewed as Bhutanisation (termed One Nation, One People) policy which was aimed to nationalise the country. In 1977 followed by in 1985, Bhutan's government enacted legislations which impacted the Lhotshampa ethnic minority. The review of the national citizenship criteria and provisions for denationalisation of illegally present population in the country ensued. The government enforced uniformity in dress, culture, tradition, language and literature to create a national identity which was aligned with the majority Drukpa culture of the country. The Lhotshampas started demonstrations in protest of such discriminatory laws, voicing for a change to be brought to the existing political system toward a preferred multi-party democracy and to gain political autonomy for the Nepali Ethnic minority, most probably incited by the similar political uprising against the established monarchy in the neighbouring country of Nepal. These demonstrations turned into violence when some ethnic Nepalese representatives were attacked by the government officials (armed forces) when schools in the southern districts were burned by the demonstrators. Consequently, Bhutanese armed forces were mobilised; the members of Bhutanese police and army forces allegedly imprisoned some Nepali descendent ethnic minority who were suspected to be politically active in these demonstrations, under a command of then king Jigme Singye Wangchuck and home minister Dago Tshering to keep peace and open a line of communication. Bhutan Armed forces were alleged to have targeted the Nepali ethnic southerners by burn down the houses, livestocks, and forced hundreds and thousands to be expelled from the country with their property being confiscated where no compensation were reported to be granted to anyone, however, claims to these were neither proved nor documented.


title: Bhutan

text: This escalated up until the early 1990s, and was followed by the forceful expulsion of Nepali ethnic minority citizens from the southern part of Bhutan. The main purpose of this was the fear that revolt mirrored images of the Gorkhaland movement stirring up in the neighbouring state of West Bengal, and fueled fears of a fate similar to the Kingdom of Sikkim where the immigrant Nepalis population had overwhelmed the small native population of the kingdom, leading to its demise as an independent nation. The Bhutanese security forces were accused of human rights violations including torture and rape of political demonstrators, and some Lhotshampas were accused of staging a violent revolt against the state. According to the UNHCR, an estimate of 107,000 Bhutanese refugees living in seven camps in eastern Nepal have been documented . After many years in refugee camps, many inhabitants moved to other host nations such as Canada, Norway, the UK, Australia, and the US as refugees. The US admitted 60,773 refugees from fiscal years 2008 to 2012.


title: Bhutan

text: The Nepalese government refused to assimilate the Bhutanese refugees (Lhotshampas) and did not allow a legal path to citizenship, so they were left stateless. Careful scrutiny has been used to review the status of the refugee's relatives in the country, and citizenship identity cards and voting rights for these reviewed people are restricted. Bhutan does not recognise political parties associated with these refugees and see them as a threat to the well-being of the country. Human rights groups' rhetoric that the government interfered with individual rights by requiring all citizens, including ethnic minority members, to wear the traditional dress of the ethnic majority in public places was used as a political tool for the demonstrations. The Bhutanese government since then enforced the law of national attire to be worn in Buddhist religious buildings, government offices, schools, official functions, and public ceremonies aimed toward preserving and promoting the national identity of Bhutan.


title: Bhutan

text: The kingdom has been accused of banning religious proselytising, which critics deem as a violation of freedom of religion and a policy of ethnic cleansing. Starting in the 1980s, Bhutan adopted a policy of "One Nation One People" to create a unified sense of national identity. This was interpreted as cultural (in language, dress and religion) and political dominance of the majority Drukpa people by the Nepali-speaking people. Inspired by the Gorkhaland Movement and fuelled by a sense of injustice, some Lhotshampas began organising demonstrations against the Bhutanese state. Furthermore, the removal of Nepali language in school curriculum to adopt a more centralised language in Dzongkha coupled with the denial of citizenship to those who were not able to prove officially issued land holding title prior to 1950 was perceived as specifically targeting Lhotshampa population estimated to be one-third of the population at the time. This resulted in widespread unrest and political demonstrations. In response to this threat, in 1988, the Bhutanese authorities carried out a special census in southern Bhutan to review the status of legal residents from illegal immigrants. This region with high Lhotshampa population had to be legally verified, and the following census led to the deportation these Lhotshampas, estimated to be one-sixth of the total population at the time. People who had been granted citizenship by the Bhutanese 1958 Nationality Law were also stripped of their citizenship. The state intervened after violence was instigated by some Nepali-speaking citizens in radical form of attacking government officials and burning of schools. Members of Bhutanese police and army were accused of burning Lhotshampa houses, land confiscation and other widespread human rights abuses including arrest, torture and rape of Lhotshampas involved in political protests and violence. Following forcible deportation from Bhutan, Lhotshampas spent almost two decades in refugee camps in Nepal and were resettled in various western countries such as the United States between 2007 and 2012.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan is divided into twenty "Dzongkhag" (districts), administered by a body called the Dzongkhag Tshogdu. In certain "thromdes" (urban municipalities), a further municipal administration is directly subordinate to the Dzongkhag administration. In the vast majority of constituencies, rural "gewog" (village blocks) are administered by bodies called the Gewog Tshogde.


title: Bhutan

text: Thromdes (municipalities) elect Thrompons to lead administration, who in turn represent the Thromde in the Dzongkhag Tshogdu. Likewise, "geog" elect headmen called "gup"s, vice-headmen called "mangmis", who also sit on the Dzongkhag Tshogdu, as well as other members of the Gewog Tshogde. The basis of electoral constituencies in Bhutan is the "chiwog", a subdivision of gewogs delineated by the Election Commission.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's currency is the ngultrum, whose value is fixed to the Indian rupee. The Indian rupee is also accepted as legal tender in the country.


title: Bhutan

text: Though Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest, it has grown rapidly in recent years, by eight percent in 2005 and 14 percent in 2006. In 2007, Bhutan had the second-fastest-growing economy in the world, with an annual economic growth rate of 22.4 percent. This was mainly due to the commissioning of the gigantic Tala Hydroelectric Power Station. , Bhutan's per capita income was US$2,420.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's economy is based on agriculture, forestry, tourism and the sale of hydroelectric power to India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for 55.4 percent of the population. Agrarian practices consist largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Handicrafts, particularly weaving and the manufacture of religious art for home altars, are a small cottage industry. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive.


title: Bhutan

text: This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has not been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan has no railways, though Indian Railways plans to link southern Bhutan to its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005. Bhutan and India signed a 'free trade' accord in 2008, which additionally allowed Bhutanese imports and exports from third markets to transit India without tariffs. Bhutan had trade relations with the Tibet Autonomous Region of China until 1960, when it closed its border with China after an influx of refugees.


title: Bhutan

text: Access to biocapacity in Bhutan is much higher than world average. In 2016, Bhutan had 5.0 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Bhutan used 4.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person—their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Bhutan contains. As a result, Bhutan is running a biocapacity reserve.


title: Bhutan

text: The industrial sector is currently in a nascent stage. Although most production comes from cottage industry, larger industries are being encouraged and some industries such as cement, steel, and ferroalloy have been set up. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on contract labour from neighbouring India. Agricultural produce includes rice, chilies, dairy (some yak, mostly cow) products, buckwheat, barley, root crops, apples, and citrus and maize at lower elevations. Industries include cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages and calcium carbide.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has seen recent growth in the technology sector, in areas such as green tech and consumer Internet/e-commerce. In May 2012, "Thimphu TechPark" was launched in the capital. It incubates startups via the "Bhutan Innovation and Technology Centre" (BITC).


title: Bhutan

text: Incomes of over Nu 100,000 per annum are taxed, but as Bhutan is currently one of the world's least developed countries, very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan's inflation rate was estimated at three percent in 2003. Bhutan has a gross domestic product of around US$5.855 billion (adjusted to purchasing power parity), making it the 158th-largest economy in the world. Per capita income (PPP) is around $7,641, ranked 144th. Government revenues total $407.1 million, though expenditures amount to $614 million. Twenty-five percent of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India's Ministry of External Affairs.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's exports, principally electricity, cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones and spices, total €128 million (2000 est.). Imports, however, amount to €164 million, leading to a trade deficit. Main items imported include fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery, vehicles, fabrics and rice. Bhutan's main export partner is India, accounting for 58.6 percent of its export goods. Hong Kong (30.1 percent) and Bangladesh (7.3 percent) are the other two top export partners. As its border with Tibet Autonomous Region is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan's import partners include India (74.5 percent), Japan (7.4 percent) and Sweden (3.2 percent).


title: Bhutan

text: The share of the agricultural sector in GDP declined from approximately 55% in 1985 to 33% in 2003. In 2013 the government announced the aspiration that Bhutan will become the first country in the world with 100 percent organic farming. Bhutanese red rice is the country's most widely known agricultural export, enjoying a market in North America and Europe. Bangladesh is the largest market of Bhutanese apples and oranges.


title: Bhutan

text: The industrial sector accounts for 22% of the economy. The key manufacturing sectors in Bhutan include production of ferroalloy, cement, metal poles, iron and nonalloy steel products, processed graphite, copper conductors, alcoholic and carbonated beverages, processed fruits, carpets, wood products and furniture. The production of ferrosilicon was pioneered by Damchae Dem, CEO of Pelden Group.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has deposits of numerous minerals. Commercial production includes coal, dolomite, gypsum, and limestone. The country has proven reserves of beryl, copper, graphite, lead, mica, pyrite, tin, tungsten, and zinc. However, the country's mineral deposits remain untapped, as it prefers to conserve the environment, rather than to exploit and destroy it for money.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's largest export is hydroelectricity. , it generates about 2,000 MW of hydropower from Himalayan river valleys. The country has a potential to generate 30,000 MW of hydropower. Power is supplied to various states in India. Future projects are being planned with Bangladesh. Hydropower has been the primary focus for the country's five-year plans. , the Tala Hydroelectric Power Station is its largest power plant, with an installed capacity of 1,020 MW. It has received assistance from India, Austria and the Asian Development Bank in developing hydroelectric projects.


title: Bhutan

text: Besides hydropower, it is also endowed with significant renewable energy resources such as solar, wind and bioenergy. Technically viable solar energy generation capacity is around 12,000 MW and wind around 760 MW. More than 70% of its land is under forest cover, which is an immense source of bioenergy in the country.


title: Bhutan

text: There are five commercial banks in the country and the two largest banks are the Bank of Bhutan and the Bhutan National Bank which are based in Thimphu. Other commercial banks are Bhutan Development Bank, T-Bank and Druk Punjab National Bank. The country's financial sector is also supported by other non-banking Financial Institutions. They are Royal Insurance Corporation of Bhutan (RICB), National Pension and Provident Fund (NPPF), and Bhutan Insurance Limited (BIL). The central bank of the country is the Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan (RMA). The Royal Securities Exchange of Bhutan is the main stock exchange.


title: Bhutan

text: In 2014, Bhutan welcomed 133,480 foreign visitors. Bhutan is a high-value destination, it imposes a daily sustainable development fee of US$200 a day on all nationals except Indians. Indians can apply for a permit to enter Bhutan which cost 1,200 INR per day. The industry employs 21,000 people and accounts for 1.8% of GDP.


title: Bhutan

text: The country currently has no UNESCO World Heritage Sites, but it has eight declared tentative sites for UNESCO inclusion since 2012. These sites include: Ancient Ruin of Drukgyel Dzong, Bumdelling Wildlife Sanctuary, Dzongs: the centre of temporal and religious authorities (Punakha Dzong, Wangdue Phodrang Dzong, Paro Dzong, Trongsa Dzong and Dagana Dzong), Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP), Royal Manas National Park (RMNP), Sacred Sites associated with Phajo Drugom Zhigpo and his descendants, Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS), and Tamzhing Monastery. Bhutan also has numerous tourist sites that are not included in its UNESCO tentative list. Bhutan has one element, the "Mask dance of the drums from Drametse", registered in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.


title: Bhutan

text: Paro Airport is the only international airport in Bhutan. National carrier Drukair operates flights between Paro Airport and Bathpalathang Airport in Jakar (Bumthang Dzongkhag), central Bhutan, Gelephu Airport in Gelephu (Sarpang Dzongkhag) in the south and Yongphulla Airport in the east (Trashigang Dzongkhag) on a weekly basis.


title: Bhutan

text: The Lateral Road is Bhutan's primary east–west corridor, connecting the towns of Phuentsholing in the southwest to Trashigang in the east. Notable settlements that the Lateral Road runs through directly are Wangdue Phodrang and Trongsa. The Lateral Road also has spurs connecting to the capital Thimphu and other population centers such as Paro and Punakha. As with other roads in Bhutan, the Lateral Road presents serious safety concerns due to pavement conditions, sheer drops, hairpin turns, weather, and landslides.


title: Bhutan

text: Since 2014, road widening has been a priority across Bhutan, in particular for the north-east–west highway from Trashigang to Dochula. The widening project is expected to be completed by the end of 2017 and will make road travel across the country substantially faster and more efficient. In addition, it is projected that the improved road conditions will encourage more tourism in the more inaccessible eastern region of Bhutan. Currently, the road conditions appear to be deterring tourists from visiting Bhutan due to the increased instances of road blocks, landslides, and dust disruption caused by the widening project.


title: Bhutan

text: Although Bhutan currently has no railways, it has entered into an agreement with India to link southern Bhutan to India's vast network by constructing an , broad gauge rail link between Hashimara in West Bengal and Toribari in Bhutan. The construction of the railway via Satali, Bharna Bari and Dalsingpara by Indian Railways will be funded by India. Bhutan's nearest railway station is Hasimara.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan had a population of people in . Bhutan has a median age of 24.8 years. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females. The literacy rate in Bhutan is 59.5 percent.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutanese people primarily consist of the Ngalops and Sharchops, called the Western Bhutanese and Eastern Bhutanese respectively. Although the Sharchops are slightly larger in demographic size, the Ngalops dominate the political sphere, as the King and the political elite belong to this group. The Ngalops primarily consist of Bhutanese living in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the Sharchops, the largest group, who traditionally follow the Nyingmapa rather than the official Drukpa Kagyu form of Tibetan Buddhism. In modern times, with improved transportation infrastructure, there has been much intermarriage between these groups.


title: Bhutan

text: The Lhotshampa, meaning "southerner Bhutanese", are a heterogeneous group of mostly Nepalese ancestry who have sought political and cultural recognition including equality in right to abode, language, and dress. Unofficial estimates claimed that they constituted 45% of the population in the 1988 census. Starting in the 1980s, Bhutan adopted a policy of "One Nation One People" to exert cultural (in language, dress and religion) and political dominance of the majority Drukpa people. The policy manifested in banning of teaching of Nepali language in schools and denial of citizenship to those who were not able to prove officially issued land holding title prior to 1950 specifically targeting ethnic Nepali-speaking minority groups ("Lhotshampa"), representing one-third of the population at the time. This resulted in widespread unrest and political demonstrations. In 1988, the Bhutanese authorities carried out a special census in southern Bhutan, region of high Lhotshampa population, resulting in mass denationalisation of Lhotshampas, followed by forcible deportation of 107,000 Lhotshampas, approximately one-sixth of the total population at the time. Those who had been granted citizenship by the 1958 Nationality Law were stripped of their citizenship. Members of Bhutanese police and army were involved in burning of Lhotshampa houses, land confiscation and other widespread human rights abuses including arrest, torture and rape of Lhotshampas involved in political protests. Following forcible deportation from Bhutan, Lhotshampas spent almost two decades in refugee camps in Nepal and were resettled in various western countries such as the United States between 2007 and 2012.


title: Bhutan

text: It is estimated that between two-thirds and three-quarters of the Bhutanese population follow Vajrayana Buddhism, which is also the state religion. About one-quarter to one-third are followers of Hinduism. Other religions account for less than 1% of the population. The current legal framework, in principle guarantees freedom of religion; proselytism, however, is forbidden by a royal government decision and by judicial interpretation of the Constitution.


title: Bhutan

text: Buddhism was introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo (reigned 627–649), a convert to Buddhism, ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, at Bumthang in central Bhutan and at Kyichu Lhakhang (near Paro) in the Paro Valley.


title: Bhutan

text: The national language is Dzongkha (Bhutanese), one of 53 languages in the Tibetan language family. The script, locally called "Chhokey" (literally, "Dharma language"), is identical to classical Tibetan. In Bhutan's education system, English is the medium of instruction, while Dzongkha is taught as the national language. "Ethnologue" lists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in the Tibeto-Burman family, except Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language.


title: Bhutan

text: Until the 1980s, the government sponsored the teaching of Nepali in schools in southern Bhutan. With the adoption of the "Driglam Namzhag" (Bhutanese code of etiquette) and its expansion into the idea of strengthening the role of Dzongkha, Nepali was dropped from the curriculum. The languages of Bhutan are still not well characterized, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. Before the 1980s, the Lhotshampa (Nepali-speaking community), mainly based in southern Bhutan, constituted approximately 30% of the population. However, after a purge of Lhotshaampas from 1990 to 1992 this number might not accurately reflect the current population.


title: Bhutan

text: Dzongkha is partially intelligible with Sikkimese and spoken natively by 25% of the population. Tshangla, the language of the Sharchop and the principal pre-Tibetan language of Bhutan, is spoken by a greater number of people. It is not easily classified and may constitute an independent branch of Tibeto-Burman. Nepali speakers constituted some 40% of the population . The larger minority languages are Dzala (11%), Limbu (10%), Kheng (8%), and Rai (8%). There are no reliable sources for the ethnic or linguistic composition of Bhutan, so these numbers do not add up to 100%.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has a life expectancy of 70.2 years (69.9 for males and 70.5 for females) according to the latest data for 2016 from the World Bank.


title: Bhutan

text: Historically, education in Bhutan was monastic, with secular school education for the general population introduced in the 1960s. The mountainous landscape poses barriers to integrated educational services.


title: Bhutan

text: Today, Bhutan has two decentralised universities with eleven constituent colleges spread across the kingdom. These are the Royal University of Bhutan and Khesar Gyalpo University of Medical Sciences, respectively. The first five-year plan provided for a central education authority—in the form of a director of education appointed in 1961—and an organised, modern school system with free and universal primary education.


title: Bhutan

text: Education programmes were given a boost in 1990, when the Asian Development Bank (see Glossary) granted a US$7.13 million loan for staff training and development, specialist services, equipment and furniture purchases, salaries and other recurrent costs, and facility rehabilitation and construction at Royal Bhutan Polytechnic.


title: Bhutan

text: Since the beginning of modern education in Bhutan, teachers from India—especially Kerala—have served in some of the most remote villages of Bhutan. Thus, 43 retired teachers who had served for the longest length of time were personally invited to Thimphu, Bhutan during the Teachers' Day celebrations in 2018, where they were honoured and individually thanked by His Majesty Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. To celebrate 50 years of diplomatic relations between Bhutan and India, Bhutan's Education Minister, Jai Bir Rai honoured 80 retired teachers who served in Bhutan at a special ceremony organised at Kolkata, India, on 6 January 2019. Currently, there are 121 teachers from India placed in schools across Bhutan.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has a rich and unique cultural heritage that has largely remained intact because of its isolation from the rest of the world until the mid-20th century. One of the main attractions for tourists is the country's culture and traditions. Bhutanese tradition is deeply steeped in its Buddhist heritage. Hinduism is the second most dominant religion in Bhutan, being most prevalent in the southern regions. The government is increasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. Because of its largely unspoiled natural environment and cultural heritage, Bhutan has been referred to as "The Last Shangri-La".


title: Bhutan

text: While Bhutanese citizens are free to travel abroad, Bhutan is viewed as inaccessible by many foreigners. Another reason for it being an unpopular destination is the cost, which is high for tourists on tighter budgets. Entry is free for citizens of India, Bangladesh, and the Maldives, but all other foreigners are required to sign up with a Bhutanese tour operator and pay around US$250 per day that they stay in the country, though this fee covers most travel, lodging and meal expenses. Bhutan received 37,482 visitor arrivals in 2011, of which 25% were for meetings, incentives, conferencing, and exhibitions.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan was the first nation in the world to ban tobacco. It was illegal to smoke in public or sell tobacco, according to Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010. Violators are fined the equivalent of $232—a month's salary in Bhutan. In 2021, this was reversed with the new Tobacco Control Act 2021 to allow for the import and sale of tobacco products to stamp out cross-border smuggling of tobacco products during the pandemic.


title: Bhutan

text: The national dress for Bhutanese men is the "gho", a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as the "kera". Women wear an ankle-length dress, the "kira", which is clipped at the shoulders with two identical brooches called the "koma" and tied at the waist with kera. An accompaniment to the kira is a long-sleeved blouse, the ""wonju"," which is worn underneath the kira. A long-sleeved, jacket-like garment called the ""toego"" is worn over the kira. The sleeves of the wonju and the tego are folded together at the cuffs, inside out. Social status and class determine the textures, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments.


title: Bhutan

text: Jewellery is commonly worn by women, especially during religious festivals ("tsechus") and public gatherings. To strengthen Bhutan's identity as an independent country, Bhutanese law requires all Bhutanese government employees to wear the national dress at work and all citizens to wear the national dress while visiting schools and other government offices, though many citizens, particularly adults, choose to wear the customary dress as formal attire.


title: Bhutan

text: Varicolored scarves, known as "rachu" for women and "kabney" for men, are important indicators of social standing, as Bhutan has traditionally been a feudal society; in particular, red is the most common colour worn by women. The "Bura Maap" (Red Scarf) is one of highest honours a Bhutanese civilian can receive. It, as well as the title of Dasho, comes from the throne in recognition of an individual's outstanding service to the nation. On previous occasions, the King himself conferred Bura Maaps to outstanding individuals such as the Director General of Department Hydropower and Power System, Yeshi Wangdi, the Deputy Chairperson of National Council, Dasho Dr. Sonam Kinga, and former National Assembly Speaker, Dasho Ugyen Dorji.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutanese architecture remains distinctively traditional, employing rammed earth and wattle and daub construction methods, stone masonry, and intricate woodwork around windows and roofs. Traditional architecture uses no nails or iron bars in construction. Characteristic of the region is a type of castle fortress known as the dzong. Since ancient times, the dzongs have served as the religious and secular administrative centers for their respective districts. The University of Texas at El Paso in the United States has adopted Bhutanese architecture for its buildings on campus, as have the nearby Hilton Garden Inn and other buildings in the city of El Paso.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan has numerous public holidays, most of which coincide with traditional, seasonal, secular or religious festivals. They include the winter solstice (around 1 January, depending on the lunar calendar), Lunar New Year (February or March), the King's birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official end of monsoon season (22 September), National Day (17 December), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations.


title: Bhutan

text: Dance dramas and masked dances such as the Cham dance are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. At these events, dancers depict heroes, demons, dæmons, death heads, animals, gods, and caricatures of common people by wearing colourful wooden or composition face masks and stylised costumes. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancient folk and religious customs and perpetuate the ancient lore and art of mask-making.


title: Bhutan

text: The music of Bhutan can generally be divided into traditional and modern varieties; traditional music comprises religious and folk genres, the latter including "zhungdra" and "boedra". The modern "rigsar" is played on a mix of traditional instruments and electronic keyboards, and dates back to the early 1990s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences.


title: Bhutan

text: In Bhutanese families, inheritance generally passes matrilineally through the female rather than the male line. Daughters will inherit their parents' house. A man is expected to make his own way in the world and often moves to his wife's home. Love marriages are more common in urban areas, but the tradition of arranged marriages among acquainted families is still prevalent in most of the rural areas. Although uncommon, polygamy is accepted, often being a device to keep property in a contained family unit rather than dispersing it. The previous king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who abdicated in 2006, had four queens, all of whom are sisters. The current king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, wed Jetsun Pema, then 21, a commoner and daughter of a pilot, on 13 October 2011.


title: Bhutan

text: Rice (red rice), buckwheat, and increasingly maize, are the staples of Bhutanese cuisine. The local diet also includes pork, beef, yak meat, chicken, and lamb. Soups and stews of meat and dried vegetables spiced with chilies and cheese are prepared. "Ema datshi", made very spicy with cheese and chilies, might be called the national dish for its ubiquity and the pride that Bhutanese have for it. Dairy foods, particularly butter and cheese from yaks and cows, are also popular, and indeed almost all milk is turned into butter and cheese. Popular beverages include butter tea, black tea, locally brewed "ara" (rice wine), and beer.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's national and most popular sport is archery. Competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs from Olympic standards in technical details such as the placement of the targets and atmosphere. Two targets are placed over apart, and teams shoot from one end of the field to the other. Each member of the team shoots two arrows per round. Traditional Bhutanese archery is a social event, and competitions are organised between villages, towns, and amateur teams. There is usually plenty of food and drink complete with singing and dancing. Attempts to distract an opponent include standing around the target and making fun of the shooter's ability. Darts ("khuru") is an equally popular outdoor team sport, in which heavy wooden darts pointed with a nail are thrown at a paperback-sized target away.


title: Bhutan

text: Another popular sport is basketball. In 2002, Bhutan's national football team played Montserrat, in what was billed as The Other Final; the match took place on the same day Brazil played Germany in the World Cup final, but at the time Bhutan and Montserrat were the world's two lowest ranked teams. The match was held in Thimphu's Changlimithang National Stadium, and Bhutan won 4–0. A documentary of the match was made by the Dutch filmmaker Johan Kramer. In 2015, Bhutan won its first two FIFA World Cup Qualifying matches, beating Sri Lanka 1–0 in Sri Lanka and 2–1 in Bhutan. Cricket has also gained popularity in Bhutan, particularly since the introduction of television channels from India. The Bhutan national cricket team is one of the most successful affiliate nations in the region.


title: Bhutan

text: Women have begun to participate more in the work force and their participation is one of the highest in the region. However, the unemployment rates among women are still higher than those of men and women are in more unsecure work fields, such as agriculture. Most of the work that women do outside of the home is in family-based agriculture which is insecure and is one of the reasons why women are falling behind men when it comes to income. Women also, in general, work lower-quality jobs than men and only earn 75% of men's earnings.


title: Bhutan

text: Rooted deep in Bhutan culture is the idea of selflessness and the women of Bhutan take on this role in the context of the household. Bhutan culture has shown a tolerance for domestic violence with nearly 1/4 of all women having had experienced some form of violence from their husband or partner. Some Bhutanese communities have what is referred to as matrilineal communities, where the eldest daughter receives the largest share of the land. This is due to the belief that she will stay and take care of her parents while the son will move out and work to get his own land and for his own family. Importantly, land ownership does not necessarily equate to economic benefits - despite the eldest daughter having control of the house, it is the husband that is in charge of making decisions. However, the younger generation has stepped away from this belief, in splitting the land evenly between the children instead of the eldest daughter inheriting the most land.


title: Bhutan

text: Throughout Bhutan, there has been an improvement in reproductive health services that has led to a drastic drop in maternal mortality rate, dropping from 1,000 in 1990 to 180 in 2010. There has also been an increase in contraceptive use from less than 1/3 in 2003 to 2/3 in 2010.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Gillian Leigh Anderson ( ; born August 9, 1968) is an American actress. Her credits include the roles of FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the series "The X-Files", ill-fated socialite Lily Bart in Terence Davies's film "The House of Mirth" (2000), DSU Stella Gibson in the BBC/RTÉ crime drama television series "The Fall", sex therapist Jean Milburn in the Netflix comedy drama "Sex Education", and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the fourth season of Netflix drama series "The Crown". Among other honors, she has won two Primetime Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, and four Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Born in Chicago, Anderson grew up in London, England, and Grand Rapids, Michigan. She graduated from The Theatre School at DePaul University in Chicago, then moved to New York City to further her acting career. After beginning her career on stage, she achieved international recognition for her role as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully on the American sci-fi drama series "The X-Files". Her film work includes the dramas "The Mighty Celt" (2005), "The Last King of Scotland" (2006), "Shadow Dancer" (2012), "Viceroy's House" (2017) and two "X-Files" films: "The X-Files: Fight the Future" (1998) and "" (2008). Other notable television credits include: Lady Dedlock in "Bleak House" (2005), Wallis Simpson in "Any Human Heart" (2010), Miss Havisham in "Great Expectations" (2011), Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier on "Hannibal" (2013–2015), Media on "American Gods" (2017), and Eleanor Roosevelt on "The First Lady" (2022).


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Aside from film and television, Anderson has taken to the stage and received both awards and critical acclaim. Her stage work includes "Absent Friends" (1991), for which she won a Theatre World Award for Best Newcomer; "A Doll's House" (2009), for which she was nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award, and a portrayal of Blanche DuBois in "A Streetcar Named Desire" (2014, 2016), winning the "Evening Standard" Theatre Award for Best Actress and receiving a second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress. In 2019, she portrayed Margo Channing in the stage production of "All About Eve" for which she received her third Laurence Olivier Award nomination.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson has supported numerous charities and humanitarian organizations. She is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis Network and a co-founder of South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes). She was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2016 for her services to drama.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: She has resided in London since 2002, after earlier years divided between the United Kingdom and the United States.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Rosemary "Posie" Alyce ("née" Lane), a computer analyst, and later vice president of Neurofibromatosis Inc., the neurofibromatosis support group of West Michigan, and Homer Edward "Ed" Anderson III, who owned a film post-production company. She is of English, German, and Irish ancestry. Soon after her birth, her parents moved to Puerto Rico for 15 months, then to London. The family relocated so that her father could attend the London Film School. During her childhood, she lived in north London's Crouch End and Haringey. She was a pupil of Coleridge Primary School. When Anderson was 11 years old, her family returned to the United States, settling in Grand Rapids, Michigan. They continued to keep a flat in London and spent their summers there. Anderson later said that she had always intended to return to England. In Grand Rapids, she attended Fountain Elementary and City High-Middle School, a program for gifted students with a strong emphasis on the humanities.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Following the move to Grand Rapids, Anderson went through a rebellious stage as a young girl; taking drugs, dating a much older boyfriend, and cultivating a punk appearance (dyeing her hair various colors, shaving the sides of her head, sporting a nose piercing and an all-black wardrobe). She was put in therapy at the age of 14. Anderson listened to bands such as Dead Kennedys and Skinny Puppy. She was voted by her classmates as "class clown", "most bizarre girl" and "most likely to be arrested". She was arrested on graduation night for breaking and entering into her high school in an attempt to glue the locks of the doors. She later managed to reduce the charges to trespassing.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: At an early age, Anderson was interested in marine biology, but after becoming interested in theatre during her younger years, she began acting in high school productions during her first year and later in community theatre. She also served as a student intern at the Grand Rapids Civic Theatre & School of Theatre Arts. After graduating from high school in 1986, she attended The Theatre School at DePaul University in Chicago, where she earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in 1990. Anderson also participated in the National Theatre's summer program at Cornell University. To support herself financially during her student years, she worked at the Goose Island Brewpub in Chicago. After Anderson became famous, the brewery named one of their beers after her – a Belgian-style farmhouse ale called "Gillian".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is the eldest of three siblings. Her brother Aaron – who was diagnosed with neurofibromatosis – died in 2011 of a brain tumor, at the age of 30. Aaron was a DJ, a mentor, and a practicing Buddhist. He was in his second year of a PhD program in developmental psychology at Stanford University when he was diagnosed with glioblastoma in 2008. Her sister Zoe is a ceramicist, whom Anderson called "an exceptional artist".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is bidialectal and is comfortable switching between American and British (Received Pronunciation) accents. With her English accent and background, she was mocked and felt out of place as a young girl in the American Midwest and soon adopted a Midwestern accent. To this day, she easily shifts between her American and English accents. In May 2013, during an interview with BlogTalkRadio, Anderson addressed the matter of her national identity: "I've been asked whether I feel more like a Brit than an American and I don't know what the answer to that question is. I know that I feel that London is home and I'm very happy with that as my home. I love London as a city and I feel very comfortable there. In terms of identity, I'm still a bit baffled."


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson moved to New York when she was 22 years old, and worked as a waitress to support herself. She began her career in Alan Ayckbourn's play "Absent Friends" at the Manhattan Theatre Club alongside Brenda Blethyn; for her role she won the 1990–91 Theatre World Award for "Best Newcomer". Her next theatrical role was in Christopher Hampton's "The Philanthropist" at the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson moved to Los Angeles in 1992 and spent a year auditioning. The same year, she appeared in her first feature-length film, "The Turning", starring Karen Allen and Tess Harper. The film drama is an adaptation of the play "Home Fires Burning".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Although she had once vowed she would never do television work, being out of work for a year changed her mind. Anderson recalled: "First of all, I swore I'd never move to Los Angeles, and once I did, I swore I'd never do television. It was only after being out of work for almost a year that I began going in [to auditions] on some stuff that I would pray that I wouldn't get because I didn't want to be involved in it." She broke into mainstream television in 1993 with a guest appearance on the collegiate drama, "Class of '96", on the fledgling Fox Network.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: As a result of this guest appearance, Anderson was sent the script for "The X-Files". She was 24 when she decided to audition because, "for the first time in a long time, the script involved a strong, independent, intelligent woman as a lead character." Producer Chris Carter wanted to hire her, but Fox wanted someone with previous television exposure and greater sex appeal. Fox sent in more actresses, but Carter stood by Anderson, and she was eventually cast as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully. Filmed for the first five seasons in Vancouver, British Columbia, before moving to Los Angeles, the series ran for nine seasons. Two related films were also produced, released in 1998 and 2008. During her time on "The X-Files", Anderson won numerous awards for her portrayal of Special Agent Scully, including an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series Drama, two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television. Anderson is the first actress to win an Emmy, a Golden Globe, and a SAG Award in the same year. For the role, she received a total of four Emmy nominations, four Golden Globe nominations and nine SAG nominations.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson was the first woman to write and direct an episode of "The X-Files" ("all things"). During its run – between the fifth and sixth seasons – Anderson co-starred in "", a 1998 film that continued "The X-Files" storyline. Anderson also provided the voice for a parody of her Scully character in "The Springfield Files", an episode of the animated comedy television series "The Simpsons". While filming "The X-Files", she met assistant art director Clyde Klotz, who became her first husband. Anderson's character on "The X-Files" initiated a phenomenon referred to as "The Scully Effect"; as the medical doctor and the FBI Special Agent inspired many young women to pursue careers in science, medicine, and law enforcement. It contributed to the increase in the number of women in those fields. "The Scully Effect" remains a subject of academic inquiry.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 1996, Anderson narrated the television documentaries "Spies Above" and "Why Planes Go Down". While hosting the BBC documentary series "Future Fantastic", she became impressed by the theme music of the show, by the electronic duo Hal and initiated a collaboration with them. In 1997, Anderson provided spoken word vocals and starred in the music video for their single "Extremis", which was frequently aired on MTV. She also helped to assemble an album of electronic music, "Future: A Journey Through The Electronic Underground", for Virgin Records, which won praise from European music critics.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 1997, Anderson appeared in the independent film "Chicago Cab". In 1998, she starred in the film "Playing by Heart". Anderson also had a supporting role in the film "The Mighty". In 1999, Anderson had a supporting role in the English-language release of Hayao Miyazaki's "Princess Mononoke", where she voiced the character of Moro. Anderson is a fan of Studio Ghibli and Miyazaki's work. She also took part in Eve Ensler's "The Vagina Monologues".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2000, Anderson starred in the film "The House of Mirth" with Eric Stoltz – Terence Davies' adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel of the same name – for which she won critical acclaim and awards such as the British Independent Film Award for Best Actress, Village Voice Film Poll Best Lead Performance, and a nomination for the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress.When "The X-Files" ended in 2002, she moved back to London for a change of pace and the opportunity to return to the stage. In 2002, Anderson made her West End debut in Michael Weller's play "What The Night Is For" at the Comedy Theatre. In 2004, Anderson starred in the Royal Court Theatre's production of Rebecca Gilman's play "The Sweetest Swing in Baseball", as artist Dana Fielding who assumes the personality of the troubled baseball player Darryl Strawberry – a role for which she earned rave reviews.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2005, she appeared as Lady Dedlock in the BBC adaptation of Charles Dickens' novel "Bleak House". She had a starring role in the Irish film "The Mighty Celt", for which she won an IFTA award for Best International Actress. The same year she also appeared in "A Cock and Bull Story" with Steve Coogan and Rob Brydon – a film version of the novel "Tristram Shandy". In 2006, Anderson won the Broadcasting Press Guild Television and Radio Award for Best Actress for her role in "Bleak House". She was nominated for a British Academy Television Award (BAFTA) for Best Actress, she also received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie, a nomination for a Golden Globe, a Satellite Award nomination, and came in second place in the Best Actress category of the 2005 BBC Drama website poll for her portrayal of Lady Dedlock in the adaptation.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: During 2006 and 2007, Anderson appeared in two British films: "The Last King of Scotland" (2006) and "Straightheads" (2007). In 2008, Anderson hosted "Masterpiece Theatre" during the Jane Austen series; she was the first woman to host the series since it began in 1971. The same year, Anderson starred in the second "The X-Files" film, "" and appeared alongside Simon Pegg in the British comedy film "How to Lose Friends & Alienate People". In 2009, she starred in the British comedy film "Boogie Woogie" with Alan Cumming, Danny Huston and Stellan Skarsgård.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: She portrayed Nora in Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House" at the Donmar Warehouse in London's West End during a limited engagement which ran from May 14, 2009, until July 18, 2009. Anderson received a nomination for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress, for productions which opened in the 2009 calendar year, for her portrayal of Nora.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In November 2010, Anderson portrayed Wallis, Duchess of Windsor in "Any Human Heart" – a television adaptation of William Boyd's novel of the same name, for which she was nominated for a BAFTA for Best Supporting Actress on Television. In April 2011, she starred in the BBC adaptation "The Crimson Petal and the White" as Mrs. Castaway, for which she was nominated for the Broadcasting Press Guild Award for Best Actress. In August 2011, she appeared in the television miniseries "Moby Dick" based on Herman Melville's novel "Moby-Dick" (1851), as Elisabeth, Ahab's wife. The same year, Anderson appeared as the head of MI7, Pamela Thornton, in the British comedy "Johnny English Reborn". She starred as Miss Havisham in a three-part BBC adaptation of "Great Expectations" that aired in late December 2011. For her portrayal in the adaptation she won the Artistic Excellence Award, was nominated for the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Movie/Miniseries and for the Broadcasting Press Guild Award for Best Actress.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2012, Anderson appeared in a Swiss drama film, "Sister", and in "Shadow Dancer" – a British-Irish drama film based on the novel of the same name, about the Irish republican movement. Anderson voiced the character of Dr. Miki Hokuto in the English-language version of Studio Ghibli's "From Up on Poppy Hill", which was released in March 2013. The same year, she starred in the Canadian techno-thriller "I'll Follow You Down" and appeared in "Mr. Morgan's Last Love" with Michael Caine.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In May 2013, Anderson began starring as DSI Stella Gibson in "The Fall", a critically acclaimed crime drama series for BBC Two and RTÉ One. Anderson was praised for her portrayal of the cool, self-assured Gibson, and was nominated for several awards. She also became an executive producer for the programme from its second series. Between 2013 and 2015, Anderson played Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier, Hannibal Lecter's psychiatrist, on the NBC series "Hannibal". In 2014, Anderson was promoted from a recurring character during the first two seasons, to a series regular for the third season. In 2014, Anderson starred in the British independent science fiction film "Robot Overlords" alongside Sir Ben Kingsley. That year, she also appeared in Jeffrey D. Brown's drama "Sold", portraying Sophia, a character based on the humanitarian photographer Lisa Kristine. The film presents the issues of child trafficking and sexual slavery in India, and is based on Patricia McCormick's novel of the same name.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In July 2014, Anderson gained critical acclaim for her stage performance as Blanche DuBois in "A Streetcar Named Desire" by Tennessee Williams at the Young Vic Theatre in London. She won the "Evening Standard" Theatre Award for Best Actress and received her second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress. The production became the fastest-selling show in the theatre's history, and the run was extended by two weeks due to the demand for tickets. In the first collaboration between the Young Vic Theatre and National Theatre Live, the show was broadcast live to over 1100 venues on September 16, 2014. Thus far, it has been screened in more than 2000 venues. In February 2015, Anderson directed and starred in a short film prequel to "A Streetcar Named Desire", titled "The Departure", written by novelist Andrew O'Hagan. This is part of the Young Vic's short film series, which is produced in collaboration with "The Guardian".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In October 2014, Anderson published her first book, "A Vision of Fire", co-authored with Jeff Rovin. The book is the first novel of what has developed as "The Earthend Saga" trilogy. The publisher describes it as "a science fiction thriller of epic proportions". In December 2015, Anderson and Rovin published their second novel of the trilogy, "A Dream of Ice". In January 2016, Anderson portrayed Anna Pavlovna Scherer in BBC One's television adaptation "War & Peace". The same month, she returned to portray FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the six-episode tenth season of "The X-Files". Anderson has fought and succeeded in securing equal pay with her male co-star on "The X-Files" in the '90s and again in 2015, when negotiating her salary with the network. She has always been outspoken about her struggle for equal pay in the role.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: From April 23, 2016, through June 4, 2016, Anderson reprised her role of Blanche DuBois in "A Streetcar Named Desire" on stage at the new St. Ann's Warehouse in Brooklyn, New York City. On September 13, 2016, Anderson and Rovin published "The Sound of Seas"; their third and final novel of "The EarthEnd Saga" trilogy. The same month, she returned to portraying DSU Stella Gibson in the third series of "The Fall". Anderson is the narrator of the English dub of "Ronja the Robber's Daughter" – Studio Ghibli's anime, which began streaming on Amazon Prime in January 2017. In February 2017, Anderson portrayed Edwina Mountbatten in Gurinder Chadha's Partition drama film "Viceroy's House" (2017).


title: Gillian Anderson

text: On March 7, 2017, Anderson and the journalist-activist Jennifer Nadel published their self-help guide book for women, titled "WE: A Manifesto for Women Everywhere". Anderson stated that the book is a "call-out to all women around the world – and by women I include girls, transgender, anyone who identifies themselves as being intrinsically female." In April 2017, she played goddess Media in the first season of "American Gods" – a television series adaptation of Neil Gaiman's science fiction novel of the same name. Following the departure as showrunners of the show's creators, Bryan Fuller and Michael Green, Anderson stated she would not return to the show. In October 2017, Anderson appeared alongside Glenn Close and Christina Hendricks in "Crooked House" – a film adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel of the same name. In January 2018, she was back playing FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the eleventh season of "The X-Files". In January 2018, she confirmed that she would be leaving "The X-Files" after the end of the season. Anderson is set to portray the role of Captain MacLaren in "Star Citizen"s single-player component "Squadron 42". In January 2019, she began playing Jean Milburn in the Netflix dramedy "Sex Education".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: From February 2, 2019, through May 11, 2019, Anderson portrayed Margo Channing in a stage production of "All About Eve" at the Noël Coward Theatre for which she received her third Laurence Olivier Award nomination. On September 7, 2019, it was announced that she will portray former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the fourth season of the Netflix historical drama series "The Crown". Anderson is the second American actress (after Meryl Streep in "The Iron Lady") to portray Thatcher in a major production. In a statement Anderson said: "I am so excited to be joining the cast and crew of "The Crown" and to have the opportunity to portray such a complicated and controversial woman. Thatcher was undoubtedly formidable but I am relishing exploring beneath the surface and, dare I say, falling in love with the icon who, whether loved or despised, defined an era." Anderson received critical acclaim for her role, winning an Emmy Award and Golden Globe award for her portrayal.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In February 2021, Anderson started filming "". It was initially scheduled to be released on September 16, 2022, but was later delayed to October 14, 2022. In September 2022, Lionsgate removed the film from its release schedule. In November 2021 Anderson voiced the cat in "Robin Robin", a stop-motion short Christmas film about a bird raised by mice who is questioning where she belongs. "Robin Robin" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. In December 2021, she played Joanna, mother to Catherine the Great in season two of Hulu's "The Great".


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In February 2022, Anderson launched her first audio show titled "What Do I Know?!" on Curio. The fortnightly podcast explores "deeply human stories of social challenges, sexual liberation, phenomenal women". In March 2022, it was announced that Anderson had signed a first look deal with Netflix. It is a two-year deal with her company, Fiddlehead Productions. In April of the same year, she portrayed Eleanor Roosevelt in the TV series "The First Lady" on Showtime. The series was cancelled after the one season. Due to be released in theatres in December 2022 and on Netflix in 2023, Anderson is set to star in "The Pale Blue Eyes" alongside Christian Bale.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is an art collector. She used her first paycheck from the "X-Files" to purchase a David Blackburn lithograph. Her collection includes work by artists such as Diane Arbus, Helen Levitt, Cindy Sherman, Francesco Clemente, Alexis Rockman and Kiki Smith. Anderson enjoys architecture and interior design; she periodically works on floor and house planning projects. She has also expressed a desire to pursue mixed media ventures in the future. Anderson is a committed feminist. In an August 2014 interview with "Glamour" magazine, Anderson said: "I have feminist bones and when I hear things or see people react to women in certain ways I have very little tolerance." Anderson has several tattoos; all of them, as she described, are in some way about "peace of mind, right mind, right action". She practices meditation daily. Anderson owned an estate home in Sri Lanka from 2005 to 2012 formerly belonging to painter Justin Deraniyagala.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson married her first husband, Clyde Klotz, an "X-Files" assistant art director, on New Year's Day 1994, in Hawaii in a Buddhist ceremony. Their daughter, Piper Maru, was born on September 25, 1994. Show-runner Chris Carter, Piper's godfather, named an "X-Files" episode after her. Anderson and Klotz divorced in 1997. On December 29, 2004, she married Julian Ozanne, a documentarian, on Lamu Island, off the coast of Kenya. She announced their separation on April 21, 2006. Anderson and former partner, businessman Mark Griffiths, have two children. She ended their relationship in 2012.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In March 2012, Anderson told "Out" magazine about her long-term relationship with a girl in high school. She then told "CBS News" that she had dated other women, though most of her relationships had been with men. In an interview with the "London Evening Standard" in December 2014, she stated: "I am an actively heterosexual woman who celebrates however people want to express their sexuality." She also identified as heterosexual in a January 2015 interview. In an interview with "The Daily Telegraph" in March 2015, Anderson said she was not closed to the idea of entering another same-sex relationship, adding: "To me a relationship is about loving another human being; their gender is irrelevant." She reiterated this to "The Times" in 2018, saying "I could be with a woman next year." and "It's just who I am. I have absolutely no issue with it whatsoever, and I don't really care if other people have an issue with it." While playing to Plead the Fifth on Watch What Happens with Andy Cohen, Gillian said the last time she had been with a woman was after she moved to New York right after college.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson resides with her three children in London, where she has lived since 2002. From 2016 to December 2020, she was in a relationship with screenwriter and dramatist Peter Morgan.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson has been active in supporting numerous charity organizations, global and social causes, as well as running her own humanitarian ventures. She supports The Trevor Project organization, focused on suicide prevention efforts among LGBTQ youth and attended three of the Trevor Project's "Cracked X-Mas" events to benefit the organization. In 2013, Anderson was made a patron of the Charles Dickens Statue Fund, and was instrumental in securing the funding for UK's first Dickens statue, located in Portsmouth, Hampshire. In June 2016 she became a patron of the Temple Legal Centre, a London-based organization that assists people through the legal process by providing them free family law advice and support. In June 2016, Anderson expressed her support for the United Kingdom to remain a member of the European Union in the run-up to June's referendum on that issue. In January 2018, Anderson was given a City Lit Lifetime Fellowship Award by the adult education college City Literary Institute.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis Network. She often holds auctions with the profits benefiting the Neurofibromatosis Network. Her brother Aaron died from Neurofibromatosis type I in 2011. In May 1996, Anderson addressed the United States Congress urging for more education and funding for neurofibromatosis research projects. She partners with "Doodle 4 NF" – an annual fundraiser for the Neurofibromatosis Network. She also supported the Children with Tumours organization and the Global Genes movement, which is devoted to helping children with neurofibromatosis.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2008, Anderson co-founded South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes), which helps in empowering marginalised young people in South Africa through youth mentoring. The nonprofit organization provides youth leaving children's homes with guidance that enables them to develop their skills, further their education, and source suitable housing in order to participate in society as independent adults.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: While filming "The Last King of Scotland" in 2005, Anderson started a crowdfunding venture that benefited the Alinyiikira Junior School in Kampala, Uganda. She ran the philanthropic project until 2011. Anderson is a member of the board of directors for Artists for a New South Africa and a campaigner for . She was a patron of the Friends of Treatment Action Campaign (FoTAC) which worked with the Treatment Action Campaign in South Africa to ensure greater access to treatment to reduce the effects of HIV and prevent new infections. Anderson also supported Buskaid – a charitable trust aiming to help young black musicians in South Africa.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is a supporter of various women's organizations and social movements. She has been a long-time supporter of the Feminist Majority Foundation. In 1996, Anderson became the Feminist Majority Foundation's spokesperson and participated as a team leader in the Feminist Majority Foundation's "Million4Roe" campaign. In March 1999, she attended a Feminist Majority Foundation event to stop gender apartheid in Afghanistan and in April 2002, she appeared on "Hollywood Squares" to benefit the Feminist Majority Foundation's campaign to aid Afghan women and girls. Anderson participated in Eve Ensler's "Vagina Monologues", including a stage performance on February 14, 1999. Anderson is a supporter of Ensler's V-Day movement aiming to end violence against women and girls.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is an advocate for reproductive rights. In 2001, she emceed the Rock for Choice concert fundraiser, featuring musicians Sarah McLachlan, Paula Cole, and Melissa Etheridge as well as actresses Helen Hunt, Ellen DeGeneres, Portia de Rossi, and Kathy Najimy. The concert supported reproductive options for unplanned pregnancies, including the morning-after pill. For International Women's Day 2014, Anderson was one of the artist signatories of Amnesty International's letter to UK Prime Minister David Cameron campaigning for women's rights in Afghanistan. In March 2015, Anderson backed the Women at the Well drop-in centre for vulnerable women in London, which is supported financially by Comic Relief. Anderson supports the Refuge, a United Kingdom charity providing specialist support for women and children experiencing domestic violence. For International Women's Day 2016, Anderson was one of the high-profile women that signed Burma Campaign UK's pledge to end and investigate crimes of sexual violence against girls and women in Myanmar. Anderson is a speaker for Thomson Reuters Foundation's Trust Women Conference.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: Anderson is a patron of Childreach International, a London-based charity that works in partnership with local communities in the developing world to secure children's basic rights; she addressed the problem of child trafficking during the press for the "Sold" film that presents the issue. Anderson also supports their "Taught Not Trafficked" campaign that was launched in July 2014. In 2015, Anderson became a patron of the International Literacy Centre (ILC) – European home of Reading Recovery. In January 2016 she helped launch ILC's Reading Recovery Read Aloud campaign. During February and March 2016, Anderson held an internet charity auction benefiting Great Ormond Street Hospital (GOSH) children's hospital in the Bloomsbury area of London. In March 2016, it was reported that Anderson is one of the artists sponsoring an unaccompanied refugee minor in the "Jungle" camp in Calais. In July 2017, Anderson was awarded a UCL Honorary Fellowship for her support of the International Literacy Centre's Reading Recovery program.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In late 2010, Anderson and other artists joined a campaign to boycott Botswana diamonds over the government's treatment of the Kalahari San. Anderson supports tribal rights charity Survival International, an organization that champions tribal peoples around the world and in early 2010 she participated in a performance in a London stage fundraiser for its cause. In February 2011, Anderson narrated a short film about recent footage of an uncontacted tribe, in which the Amazon Indians were spotted from the air on the Brazil-Peru border. Anderson has said: "What comes across powerfully from this amazing footage is how healthy and confident these people appear. I hope they can be left alone – but that will only happen if the loggers are stopped." In June 2011, Anderson became an ambassador for Survival International. In September 2015, Anderson was among the artists who signed a letter calling for a new approach to conservation that would respect tribal peoples' rights.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2012, Anderson joined Greenpeace in standing with the people of Brazil for a zero-deforestation law to save the Amazon. In 2013, she backed the Cheetah Conservation Fund by creating a short film together with the fund, advocating CCF's action to prevent the extinction of the cheetah. In 2013, she joined the "Fishlove" campaign, supporting the fight against unsustainable fishing practices that harm the marine ecosystem. In November 2015, Anderson was named a friend and supporter of Positive Luxury, a company that informs consumers on brands' commitment to quality, craftsmanship, service and sustainability.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2009, Anderson was named as one of 20 most powerful women in British theatre and was dubbed "The Honorary Brit" by "Harper's Bazaar" and Tiffany & Co.'s list. In 2010, Anderson was named Honorary Associate of The London Film School (LFS).


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2013, Anderson received a City Lit Lifetime Fellowship Award as recognition for the support and inspiration she provided to adult education provider City Lit and its students.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2016, Anderson was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) for her services to drama. In 2018, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Gillian Anderson

text: In 2021, Anderson won the Emmy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Margaret Thatcher in "The Crown".


title: Crimean War

text: The Crimean War was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia.


title: Crimean War

text: Geopolitical causes of the war included the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the expansion of the Russian Empire in the preceding Russo-Turkish Wars, and the British and French preference to preserve the Ottoman Empire to maintain the balance of power in the Concert of Europe. The flashpoint was a disagreement over the rights of Christian minorities in Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, with the French promoting the rights of Roman Catholics, and Russia promoting those of the Eastern Orthodox Church.


title: Crimean War

text: The churches worked out their differences with the Ottomans and came to an agreement, but both the French Emperor Napoleon III and the Russian Tsar Nicholas I refused to back down. Nicholas issued an ultimatum that demanded the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise to which Nicholas agreed. When the Ottomans demanded changes to the agreement, Nicholas recanted and prepared for war.


title: Crimean War

text: In July 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities (now part of Romania but then under Ottoman suzerainty). On , having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia. Led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the Russian advance at Silistra (now in Bulgaria). A separate action on the fort town of Kars, in the Ottoman Empire, led to a siege, and an Ottoman attempt to reinforce the garrison was destroyed by a Russian fleet at the Battle of Sinop in November 1853.


title: Crimean War

text: Fearing an Ottoman collapse, the British and the French had their fleets enter the Black Sea in January 1854. They moved north to Varna in June 1854 and arrived just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra.


title: Crimean War

text: After a minor skirmish at Köstence (now Constanța), the allied commanders decided to attack Russia's main naval base in the Black Sea, Sevastopol, on the Crimean Peninsula. After extended preparations, allied forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and marched their way to a point south of Sevastopol after they had won the Battle of the Alma on 20 September 1854. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, but the British Army's forces were seriously depleted as a result. A second Russian counterattack, at Inkerman (November 1854), ended in a stalemate as well.


title: Crimean War

text: By 1855, the Italian Kingdom of Sardinia sent an expeditionary force to Crimea sided with France, Britain and the Ottoman Empire. The front settled into the siege of Sevastopol, involving brutal conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller military actions took place in the Baltic (1854–1856; see Åland War), the Caucasus (1853–1855), the White Sea (July–August 1854) and the North Pacific (1854–1855).


title: Crimean War

text: Sevastopol finally fell after eleven months, after the French had assaulted Fort Malakoff. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion by the West if the war continued, Russia sued for peace in March 1856. France and Britain welcomed the development, owing to the conflict's domestic unpopularity. The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, ended the war. It forbade Russia from basing warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent. Christians in the Ottoman Empire gained a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute.


title: Crimean War

text: The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts in which military forces used modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways and telegraphs. The war was also one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and in photographs. The war quickly became a symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and of mismanagement. The reaction in Britain led to a demand for professionalisation of medicine, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modern nursing while she treated the wounded.


title: Crimean War

text: The Crimean War marked a turning point for the Russian Empire. The war weakened the Imperial Russian Army, drained the treasury and undermined Russia's influence in Europe. The empire would take decades to recover. Russia's humiliation forced its educated elites to identify its problems and to recognise the need for fundamental reforms. They saw rapid modernisation as the sole way to recover the empire's status as a European power. The war thus became a catalyst for reforms of Russia's social institutions, including the abolition of serfdom and overhauls in the justice system, local self-government, education and military service.


title: Crimean War

text: As the Ottoman Empire steadily weakened during the 19th century, the Russian Empire stood poised to take advantage by expanding southward. In the 1850s, the British and the French Empires were allied with the Ottoman Empire and were determined to prevent that from happening. The historian A. J. P. Taylor argued that the war had resulted not from aggression, but from the interacting fears of the major players:


title: Crimean War

text: In the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire suffered a number of existential challenges. The Serbian Revolution in 1804 resulted in the autonomy of the first Balkan Christian nation under the empire. The Greek War of Independence, which began in early 1821, provided further evidence of the empire's internal and military weakness, and the commission of atrocities by Ottoman military forces (see Chios massacre) further undermined the empire. The disbandment of the centuries-old Janissary corps by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 (Auspicious Incident) helped the empire in the longer term but deprived it of its existing standing army in the short term. In 1827, the Anglo-Franco-Russian fleet destroyed almost all of the Ottoman naval forces at the Battle of Navarino. In 1830, Greece became independent after ten years of war and the Russo-Turkish War (1828–29). The Treaty of Adrianople (1829) granted Russian and Western European commercial ships free passage through the Black Sea straits. Also, Serbia received autonomy, and the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) became territories under Russian protection.


title: Crimean War

text: France took the opportunity to occupy Algeria, which had been under Ottoman rule, in 1830. In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, the most powerful vassal of the Ottoman Empire, declared independence. Ottoman forces were defeated in a number of battles, which forced Mahmud II to seek Russian military aid. A Russian army of 10,000 landed on the shores of the Bosphorus in 1833 and helped prevent the Egyptians from capturing Constantinople.


title: Crimean War

text: "The reasons for the Tsar's disquietude are not obscure. Not Turkey alone was threatened by the advance of Ibrahim. The rights secured to Russia by a succession of treaties were also directly jeopardized. The substitution of a virile Albanian dynasty at Constantinople in place of the effete Osmanlis was the last thing desired by the Power which wished, naturally enough, to command the gate into the Mediterranean". Russia was satisfied with the weak government in Constantinople (Istanbul).


title: Crimean War

text: As a result, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi was signed and greatly benefited Russia. It provided for a military alliance between the Russian and the Ottoman Empires if one of them was attacked, and a secret additional clause allowed the Ottomans to opt out of sending troops but to close the Straits to foreign warships if Russia was under threat. Egypt remained nominally under Ottoman sovereignty but was "de facto" independent.


title: Crimean War

text: In 1838 in a situation similar to that of 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt was not happy about his lack of control and power in Syria, and he resumed military action. The Ottomans lost to the Egyptians at the Battle of Nezib on 24 June 1839 but were saved by Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia, who signed a convention in London on 15 July 1840 that granted Muhammad Ali and his descendants the right to inherit power in Egypt in exchange for the removal of Egyptian forces from Syria and Lebanon. Moreover, Muhammad Ali had to admit a formal dependence to the Ottoman sultan. After Muhammad Ali refused to obey the requirements of the convention, the allied Anglo-Austrian fleet blockaded the Nile Delta, bombarded Beirut and captured Acre. Muhammad Ali then accepted the convention's conditions.


title: Crimean War

text: On 13 July 1841, after the expiry of the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, the London Straits Convention was signed under pressure from the European countries. The new treaty deprived Russia of its right to block warships from passing into the Black Sea in case of war. Thus, the way to the Black Sea was open for British and French warships during a possible Russo-Ottoman conflict.


title: Crimean War

text: Russian historians tend to view that history as evidence that Russia lacked aggressive plans. The Russian historian V. N. Vinogradov writes: "The signing of the documents was the result of deliberate decisions: instead of bilateral (none of the great powers recognized this Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi), the new Treaty of London was obligatory for all, it closed the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. In the absence of expansion plans, this was a sound decision".


title: Crimean War

text: In 1838, Britain lost interest in crushing the Ottoman Empire. On the contrary, after the conclusion of the trade treaty of 1838 (see Treaty of Balta Liman), Britain received unlimited access to the markets of the Ottoman Empire, and therefore its trade interests pushed it to protect the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. In the long term, the Ottoman Empire lost the opportunity to modernize and industrialize, but in the short term, it gained the opportunity to receive the support of European powers (primarily Britain) in opposing the desire of the conquered peoples for self-determination and Russia, which sought to crush its influence in the Balkans and Asia.


title: Crimean War

text: Publicly, European politicians made broad promises to the Ottomans. Lord Palmerston, the head of British diplomacy, said in 1839: "All that we hear about the decay of the Turkish Empire, and its being a dead body or a sapless trunk, and so forth, is pure and unadulterated nonsense. Given 10 years of peace under European protection, coupled with internal reform, there seemed to him no reason why it should not become again a respectable Power". Needless to say, nothing like this has happened after 10, 20, or even more years.


title: Crimean War

text: "British exports to the Ottoman Empire, including Egypt and the Danubian principalities, increased nearly threefold from 1840 to 1851 (...) Thus it was very important, from the financial point of view, for Britain to prevent the Ottoman Empire from falling into other hands".