title: God of War (franchise)

text: On October 18, 2010, "" was released on the iTunes Store by SIE. It was also included as downloadable content as part of the "Ghost of Sparta" pre-order package and includes three previously unreleased tracks from "Chains of Olympus". Several tracks were cited as being intended for purely contextual purposes, and the remaining tracks rated well in comparison to the soundtracks of the main installments in the series. "" differed from the previously released soundtracks as it was composed by Tyler Bates alone, and is the only "God of War" score that he has worked on. It was released on March 5, 2013, on iTunes by SIE and La-La Land Records. It was included as downloadable content in the "God of War: Ascension–Collector's Edition" and "Special Edition". Reviewers praised it for being powerful, rich, and pulsing, though felt it was repetitive at times.


title: God of War (franchise)

text: For both "God of War" (2018) and "God of War Ragnarök", famed TV series composer Bear McCreary was employed to compose the music. "God of War (PlayStation Soundtrack)" was released on April 20, 2018, by Sony Classical Records. McCreary composed completely new music for the game, not reusing any music from the Greek era. However, he was inspired by their sounds, such as "deep choirs, pounding drums, and shrieking brass", and reinvented them for the Nordic setting using Nordic ethnic instruments. The soundtrack was well received, receiving various nominations at award shows as well as winning the award for Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition at the 22nd Annual D.I.C.E. Awards. "God of War Ragnarök (Original Soundtrack)" was released on November 9, 2022, by Sony Classical Records. Faroese singer Eivør was brought back to contribute to the soundtrack. Irish folk artist Hozier was also featured on the song, "Blood Upon the Snow".


title: God of War (franchise)

text: "God of War: Blood & Metal" is a heavy metal homage by various bands on the Roadrunner Records label, and features original music inspired by the "God of War" video game series. The EP was released for purchase on March 2, 2010, and is available from ShockHound and the iTunes Store. It was also included as downloadable content in the "God of War III Ultimate Edition" and "Ultimate Trilogy Edition" collections, which included a bonus track. The second track, "Shattering the Skies Above" by Trivium, and the bonus track, "Even Gods Cry" by The Turtlenecks, were made into music videos. 1UP.com (2.5/5) said, "it's not offensive to [the] ears" and "mainstream listeners may enjoy [the album]". Square Enix Music Online (8/10) stated the album is a "good selection of metal music" and listeners will be "surprised with the variety of music".


title: God of War (franchise)

text: With physical and digital copies combined, the "God of War" franchise has sold over 51 million games worldwide (as of November 2020). "God of War" (2005), "God of War II", "Chains of Olympus", "God of War Collection", "God of War III", "God of War" (2018), and "Ragnarök" each received critical acclaim from several reviewers as compiled by review aggregator Metacritic, with the 2005, 2018, and "Ragnarök" titles being tied for the highest score in the franchise at 94/100. "Betrayal" and "Ghost of Sparta" only received generally favorable reception. "Ascension" also only had a generally favorable reception and, not including the PlayStation Vita port of "God of War Collection", it has the lowest score in the series from Metacritic (80/100).


title: God of War (franchise)

text: At the time of its release, Raymond Padilla of GameSpy wrote that the original "God of War" was the "best action game ever to grace the PS2". Other critics similarly said that it was one of the best action games of all time; it received over a dozen "Game of the Year" awards. In 2009, it was named the "seventh-best" PlayStation 2 game of all time on IGN's "Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time" list. "God of War II" was also on IGN's list, and was named the "second-best" PlayStation 2 game of all time. "God of War II" was similarly called one of the best action games of all time and is considered the swan song of the PlayStation 2 era. In November 2012, Complex.com named "God of War II" the best PlayStation 2 game of all time—where "God of War" was named the 11th best—and consider it better than its successor, "God of War III". "Betrayal" was acclaimed for its fidelity to the series in terms of gameplay, art style, and graphics.


title: God of War (franchise)

text: "Chains of Olympus" was praised for "fantastic" graphics and "tight and responsive" controls for the PSP at the time. In 2008, IGN awarded "Chains of Olympus" the "Best PSP Action Game", and in September 2010, it was listed as the best PSP game by "GamePro". "God of War III" received praise for its graphics, in particular of Kratos; at the time, IGN stated that Kratos was "perhaps the single most impressive-looking character ever in videogames." IGN also said that, at the time, "God of War III" "redefines what the word 'scale' means with regards to videogames, as it throws you into scenes with Titans that are larger than entire levels in some other games." "God of War III" received awards for "Most Anticipated Game of 2010" and "Best PS3 Game" at the 2009 and 2010 Spike Video Game Awards, respectively. The game also won the "Artistic Achievement" award at the 2011 BAFTA awards. "Ghost of Sparta" was praised for its graphics and story, with Chris Pereira of 1UP saying that it was "a more personal story than the [previous] "GOW" games." It received several awards at E3 2010, including "Best Handheld Game", "Best PSP Game", and "PSP Game of Show", and won "Best Handheld Game" at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards. 2018's "God of War" received particular praise for its art direction, graphics, combat system, music, story, use of Norse mythology, characters, and cinematic feeling. Many also felt that it had successfully revitalized the series without losing the core identity of its predecessors. It won several awards, among which were "Game of the Year" and "Best Game Direction" at The Game Awards 2018 and "Best Storytelling" and "PlayStation Game of the Year" at the 2018 Golden Joystick Awards.


title: God of War (franchise)

text: The series has also received criticism because of problems with puzzles, weapons, and technical issues. "Chains of Olympus" was criticized by G4, who stated that the game "occasionally suffers from screen tearing and framerate drops", and that some of the puzzles "are so maddeningly difficult to solve". The game was also criticized for its lack of variety in enemies, its continued use of puzzles that require players to move boxes, and its relatively short story. "God of War III" also received some criticism. GameFront's Phil Hornshaw said it had an overly cruel protagonist, and the game assumed that the players reveled in the misery and violence as much as Kratos did. IGN complained about the game's weapons, and said "that two of the three additional weapons that you'll earn are extremely similar to your blades. They have unique powers and slightly different moves, but by and large, they're more of the same." "Ghost of Sparta" received criticism from "Eurogamer", which said that the "game's primary problem ... is in its in-built focus" and that "there is a sense that "Ghost of Sparta" is a step back for the series if you've played ["God of War III"]." Some reviewers stated that "Ascension"s story was not as compelling as previous installments, with IGN stating that in comparison to Zeus and Ares, "the Furies don't quite cut it". The multiplayer received a mixed response. Although reviewers claimed gameplay translated well into the multiplayer, they were critical of the balance and depth of combat. "Edge" magazine approved of the multiplayer, stating it was an "evolutionary step" with "some fine ideas ... that [would] form part of this genre's future template." 2018's "God of War" received some criticism, for example, a couple of reviewers disliked that the fast travel option unlocked very late into the game.


title: God of War (franchise)

text: The collections have also received praise. IGN (9.4/10) awarded "God of War Collection" (PS3) the "Editor's Choice" Award and praised the enhanced resolutions, lower price point and smoother frame rates, and stated it was the "definitive way to play the game[s]". Due to the success of "God of War Collection", Sony announced that further titles would receive similar treatment for release under its new "Classics HD" brand. The "Origins Collection" was similarly well received. IGN (9/10) stated "Sony succeeded at making good games better", although "GamePro" criticized it for its lack of new bonus content. "God of War Saga" also received praise. Ryan Fleming of Digital Trends wrote that the collection "is perhaps the best value buy for any console available," although the collection is not likely for fans of the series, but rather inexperienced players or newcomers. "God of War III Remastered" was met with generally favorable reception. Praise was given to the smoother textures and improved frame rate, though because the original already had remarkable graphics, the changes were not major, and reviewers said these changes were not a strong enough argument to rebuy the game for US$40.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Woodrow Tracy Harrelson (born July 23, 1961) is an American actor and playwright. He is the recipient of various accolades, including a Primetime Emmy Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards, in addition to nominations for three Academy Awards and four Golden Globe Awards.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson first became known for his role as bartender Woody Boyd on the NBC sitcom "Cheers" (1985–1993), for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series from a total of five nominations. He went on to receive three Academy Award nominations: Best Actor for "The People vs. Larry Flynt" (1996), and Best Supporting Actor for both "The Messenger" (2009) and "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri" (2017). Harrelson was also nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for his role as Marty Hart in the crime anthology series "True Detective" (2014).


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Woodrow Tracy Harrelson was born in Midland, Texas, on July 23, 1961, to secretary Diane (née Oswald) and convicted hitman Charles Voyde Harrelson. He was raised in a Presbyterian household alongside his two brothers, Jordan and Brett, the latter of whom also became an actor. Their father received a life sentence for the 1979 killing of federal judge John H. Wood Jr. Harrelson has stated that his father was rarely around during his childhood. Charles died in the United States Penitentiary, Administrative Maximum Facility on March 15, 2007. Harrelson's family was poor and relied on his mother's wages. In 1973, he moved to his mother's native city of Lebanon, Ohio, where he attended Lebanon High School, from which he graduated in 1979. He spent the summer of 1979 working at Kings Island amusement park.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson attended Hanover College in Hanover, Indiana, where he studied theatre and English. While there, he was a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity and also friends with former Vice President of the United States Mike Pence. He graduated in 1983.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson is widely known for his work on the NBC sitcom "Cheers". He played bartender Woody Boyd, who replaced Coach (played by Nicholas Colasanto, who died in February 1985). He joined the cast in 1985 in season four, spending the final eight seasons (1985–1993) on the show. For this role, Harrelson was nominated for five Emmy Awards, winning once in 1989. His character, Woody Boyd, was from Hanover, Indiana, where Harrelson attended college. In 1999, Harrelson guest-starred in the "Cheers" spin-off success "Frasier", in which he reprised the role of Woody Boyd. He was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for this performance. He appeared in several 2001 episodes of "Will & Grace" as Grace's new boyfriend Nathan.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: On the November 12, 2009, episode of the Comedy Central show "The Colbert Report", Harrelson was interviewed by Stephen Colbert, to promote his movie "The Messenger". In response to Colbert's questioning of his support for the troops, Harrelson agreed to let Colbert shave his head on camera. Harrelson returned to television in 2014, starring along with Matthew McConaughey in the first season of the HBO crime series "True Detective", where he played Marty Hart, a Louisiana cop investigating murders that took place over a timespan of 17 years.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: On June 6, 2010, Harrelson took part playing in for UNICEF UK at Old Trafford in Manchester. The match was broadcast live on UK's ITV television. After being brought on as a substitute for Gordon Ramsay, Harrelson took the final penalty in the penalty shootout, following a 2–2 draw after 91.2 minutes. Despite being initially unaware of exactly from where his kick had to be taken, Harrelson scored to win the game for "The Rest of the World" team, beating England for the first time since the tournament began. When later interviewed, he claimed that he "didn't even remember the moment of scoring."


title: Woody Harrelson

text: While still working on "Cheers", Harrelson restarted his film career. His first movie had been "Wildcats", a 1986 football comedy with Goldie Hawn. He followed his performance in "Wildcats" with the 1990 romantic comedy "Cool Blue", alongside Hank Azaria. He reunited with Wesley Snipes (who also had debuted in "Wildcats") in the box-office hit "White Men Can't Jump" (1992) and the action movie "Money Train" (1995). In 1993, Harrelson starred opposite Robert Redford and Demi Moore in the drama "Indecent Proposal", which was a box office success, earning a worldwide total of over $265,000,000. He then played Mickey Knox in Oliver Stone's "Natural Born Killers" and Dr. Michael Raynolds in the Michael Cimino film "The Sunchaser". Starred alongside Keifer Sutherland in "The Cowboy Way" (1994). In 1996, he starred in the comedy "Kingpin" for the Farrelly brothers.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson's career gained momentum when he starred in the Miloš Forman film "The People vs. Larry Flynt", in which he played Larry Flynt, publisher of "Hustler" magazine. The film was a success and Harrelson's performance was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and an Academy Award for Best Actor. After that, Harrelson was cast in more serious film roles. He starred in the 1997 war film "Welcome to Sarajevo" and in 1997 had a featured role as Sergeant Schumann in "Wag the Dog" and as Will Huffman in the 1997 family film "Road to Manhattan." In 1998, Harrelson starred in the thriller "Palmetto" and played Sergeant Keck in "The Thin Red Line", a war film nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1999. Harrelson made other films such as "The Hi-Lo Country" and portrayed Ray Pekurny in the comedy "EDtv". Also in 1999, he appeared as boxer Vince Boudreau in the Ron Shelton film "Play It to the Bone". Harrelson did not appear in films again until 2003, when he co-starred as Galaxia in the comedy film "Anger Management". He appeared in the action film "After the Sunset" and the Spike Lee film "She Hate Me".


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2005, Harrelson was in "The Big White" and "North Country". Also in 2005 he appeared as Kelly Ryan, husband of a contest-obsessed woman in the film "The Prize Winner of Defiance, Ohio". Harrelson made two films in 2006, the animated film version of "Free Jimmy" and also "A Scanner Darkly". In 2007 he played Carter Page III, gay escort of privileged Washington D.C. women, in the film "The Walker". In the Oscar-winning 2007 crime thriller "No Country for Old Men", Harrelson had a key role as Carson Wells, a bounty hunter. The film won Best Picture and Best Director for Joel Coen and Ethan Coen. Harrelson also won a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Cast, along with Tommy Lee Jones, Javier Bardem, Josh Brolin, and Kelly Macdonald. In 2007's "Battle in Seattle", Harrelson played another key role of a Seattle police officer whose pregnant wife loses her baby during the 1999 World Trade Organization protests. In 2008, Harrelson appeared in several films, among them the Will Ferrell basketball comedy "Semi-Pro" and the stark Will Smith drama "Seven Pounds" as a blind vegan meat salesman named Ezra Turner.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2009, Harrelson received significant praise for his performance as Captain Tony Stone in "The Messenger". In what many critics considered to be his best role, Harrelson was nominated for a Satellite Award, an Independent Spirit Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Harrelson has also won the Best Supporting Actor award in the 2009 National Board of Review award ceremonies and received accolades from various critics' societies. Also that same year, Harrelson co-starred in the horror comedy "Zombieland", followed by Roland Emmerich's "2012," where he played Charlie Frost, a man who warns of the end of the world. In 2010, he starred as a bartender and mentor in the futuristic western martial arts film "Bunraku". In 2011, he starred as Tommy in the movie "Friends with Benefits". Harrelson directed the 2011 film "ETHOS", which explores the idea of a self-destructing modern society, governed by unequal power and failed democratic ideals. He played Haymitch Abernathy in 2012's "The Hunger Games", and reprised the role in all three subsequent films in the series. In 2012, he had a leading role in "Game Change" as republican strategist Steve Schmidt. On February 3, 2012, he participated in an "Ask Me Anything" session on the website Reddit. The AMA turned into a PR disaster when Harrelson failed to make meaningful responses to any questions and soon specifically refused to respond to anything not directly related to the then-upcoming worldwide release of the movie "Rampart", in which he starred.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2015, Woody Harrelson and daughter Zoe starred in a 7-minute short film for U2's 'Song for Someone.' In 2016, Harrelson announced that he would direct, write, produce, and star in a film, "Lost in London", which was shot as a single take and premiered live on January 19, 2017. Harrelson played police chief Bill Willoughby in the black comedy crime film "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri", released in 2017, for which he received nominations for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role. In 2017, he played the antagonist The Colonel in the science fiction film "War for the Planet of the Apes". Also that year, he starred in comedic drama film "The Glass Castle," an adaptation of Jeannette Walls's memoir.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2018, Harrelson played Tobias Beckett, a criminal and Han Solo's mentor in Lucasfilm's "." In 2018, Harrelson appeared in a cameo at the end of the film "Venom", portraying Cletus Kasady, and he reprised the role as the main antagonist, also voicing the symbiote Carnage who joins with Kasady, in the 2021 sequel "." In 2019, he starred with Kevin Costner in "The Highwaymen". In November 2019, he starred in Roland Emmerich's blockbuster movie "Midway", playing Admiral Chester Nimitz. The same year he reprised his role of Tallahassee in "".


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In March 2021, he is set to portray Felix Kersten in "The Man with the Miraculous Hands", the feature film adaptation of Joseph Kessel's 1960 novel of the same title.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 1999, Harrelson directed his own play, "Furthest from the Sun", at the Theatre de la Jeune Lune in Minneapolis. He followed next in Roundabout's Broadway revival of the N. Richard Nash play "The Rainmaker" in 2000, Sam Shepard's "The Late Henry Moss" in 2001, John Kolvenbach's "On an Average Day" opposite Kyle MacLachlan in London's West End in the fall of 2002, and in the summer of 2003, Harrelson directed the Toronto premiere of Kenneth Lonergan's "This is Our Youth" at the Berkley Street Theater.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In the winter of 2005-06 Harrelson returned to London's West End, starring in Tennessee Williams' "Night of the Iguana" at the Lyric Theater. Harrelson directed "Bullet for Adolf" (a play he wrote with Frankie Hyman) at the esteemed Hart House Theatre in Toronto, Ontario, which ran from April 21 to May 7, 2011. "Bullet for Adolf" opened Off-Broadway (New World Stages) with previews beginning July 19, 2012, and closed on September 30, 2012, canceling its announced extension through October 21. The play was panned by New York critics.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: On May 13, 2022, Harrelson opened The Woods WeHo—a cannabis dispensary off Melrose Ave in Los Angeles, California.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 1985, Harrelson married Nancy Simon (daughter of playwright Neil Simon) in Tijuana. The union was not intended to be serious, and the two had planned to divorce the following day, but the storefront marriage/divorce parlor was closed when they returned to it and they remained married for another ten months. In 2008, he married Laura Louie, a co-founder of the organic food delivery service Yoganics. They met in 1987 when she worked as his personal assistant. They reside in Maui, Hawaii, and have three daughters named Deni, Zoe, and Makani.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson is a fan of chess. In November 2018, he attended the first game of the World Chess Championship in London, played between Norwegian champion Magnus Carlsen and American contender Fabiano Caruana. He made the ceremonial first move for the game. He had also played the ceremonial first move for the previous World Chess Championship, held in New York in 2016.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 1999 in Prague, Woody Harrelson, playing White employed the Parham Attack, named after Bernard Parham, to draw World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov. However, Harrelson was aided by several chess Grandmasters who were in Prague to spectate the chess match between GM Alexei Shirov and GM Judit Polgár.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2020, Harrelson was seen practicing Brazilian jiu-jitsu while filming, having received the first stripe on his white belt.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson follows a raw vegan diet. Along with not eating meat or dairy, Harrelson does not eat sugar or flour. In "Zombieland", in which he plays a character with an affinity for Twinkies, the Twinkies were replaced with vegan faux-Twinkies made from cornmeal. He appeared on a postage stamp (as a PhotoStamp) in 2011 as one of PETA's 20 famous vegetarians, and he was named PETA's Sexiest Vegetarian in 2012 (along with Jessica Chastain).


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson was a religious Presbyterian as a child, and studied theology during college. Harrelson told "Playboy" in October 2009, "I was getting into theology and studying the roots of the Bible, but then I started to discover the man-made nature of it. I started seeing things that made me ask, 'Is God really speaking through this instrument?' My eyes opened to the reality of the Bible being just a document to control people." He describes himself as having "a strong spiritual life".


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In April 2020, Harrelson made a post on Instagram promoting the conspiracy theory that claims a link between 5G networks and COVID-19, which was later deleted. In May 2022, Harrelson said he "doesn't believe in the germ theory" and finds face masks as a preventative measure against COVID-19 "absurd", adding, "I'm sick of like, you're wearing a mask, and you think it contains your breath—but if it did you'd die, you'd be breathing in your own carbon monoxide ."


title: Woody Harrelson

text: On June 1, 1996, Harrelson was arrested in Lee County, Kentucky, after symbolically planting four hemp seeds to challenge the state law that did not distinguish between industrial hemp and marijuana. Harrelson had arrived in the county with his attorney, former Kentucky Governor Louie B. Nunn, an agent and a camera crew from CNN. While at a local hotel, Harrelson phoned the county sheriff, Junior Kilburn, to advise him of his intentions. Kilburn and deputy sheriff Danny Towsend arrived at the location where Harrelson informed them he would be. With the cameras rolling, Harrelson planted the hemp seeds into the ground. Once planted, Kilburn placed Harrelson under arrest for cultivating marijuana and booked him into the county jail. He was released on $200 bail the same day. He later signed autographs and posed for photos with deputies. He was acquitted of those charges with the help of Nunn after just 25 minutes. The events were featured in the 2010 Michael P. Henning documentary film "".


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2002, Harrelson was arrested in London after an incident in a taxi that ended in a police chase. Harrelson was taken to a London police station and later released on bail. The case was later dismissed after Harrelson paid the taxi driver involved in the incident £550 ($844). This became the inspiration for his 2017 live-streamed film "Lost in London".


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In 2008, "TMZ" photographer Josh Levine filed a lawsuit against Harrelson for an alleged attack outside a Hollywood nightclub in 2006. A video of the incident appeared to show Harrelson grabbing a camera and clashing with the photographer. Los Angeles prosecutors declined to press charges against the actor, but Levine filed a suit that summer asking for $2.5 million in damages. The case was dismissed in April 2010.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson is an enthusiast and supporter of the legalization of marijuana and hemp. He was a guest on Ziggy Marley's track "Wild and Free", a song advocating the growing of cannabis. Since 2003, Harrelson has served as a member on NORML's advisory board.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson has attended environmental events such as the PICNIC'07 festival that was held in Amsterdam in September 2007. PICNIC describes its annual festival as "three intensive days [when] we mix creativity, science, technology, media, and business to explore new solutions in the spirit of co-creation". He once scaled the Golden Gate Bridge with members of North Coast Earth First! group to unfurl a banner that read, "Hurwitz, aren't ancient redwoods more precious than gold?" in protest of Maxxam Inc. CEO Charles Hurwitz, who once stated, "He who has the gold, makes the rules."


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson once traveled to the west coast in the U.S. on a bike and a domino caravan with a hemp oil-fueled biodiesel bus with the Spitfire Agency (the subject of the independent documentary "Go Further") and narrated the 1999 documentary "Grass". He briefly owned an oxygen bar in West Hollywood called "O2".


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson has spoken publicly against the 2003 invasion of Iraq as well as previously protesting against the First Gulf War, both at UCLA as well as during a college concert tour in Iowa and Nebraska in 1991 under the auspices of "Woody Harrelson Educational Tours". In October 2009, he was given an honorary degree by York University for his contributions in the fields of environmental education, sustainability, and activism.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: In June 2010, Harrelson took part in Soccer Aid at Old Trafford in Manchester to raise money for UNICEF. He played for the Rest of the World team alongside former professionals Zinedine Zidane and Luís Figo as well as chef Gordon Ramsay and fellow Hollywood actors Mike Myers and Michael Sheen. Harrelson played the last 15 minutes and scored the winning goal in the penalty shootout following a 2–2 draw during normal time. He played in the UNICEF game 2012, playing the last 10 minutes of the game for the Rest of the World team, losing 3–1 to England.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Harrelson identifies as an anarchist. In a conversation with Howard Zinn, Harrelson admitted that he considers Zinn to be a personal hero of his. In 2002, Harrelson wrote an article in the British newspaper "The Guardian" condemning President George W. Bush's preparation for a US invasion of Iraq as a "racist and imperialist war". He also stated that he was against the U.S.'s previous war in Iraq and President Bill Clinton's sanctions against Iraq. In 2013, Harrelson condemned President Barack Obama for failing to withdraw U.S. troops from Afghanistan, negatively comparing him to Richard Nixon.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: With a career portfolio of filmography and other performances spanning a variety of genres, Harrelson is known for his roles both in front of and behind the camera on several projects. His acting credits have earned him global recognition, having garnered him nominations for seven Primetime Emmy Awards, three Academy Awards, a BAFTA Award, four Golden Globe Awards, and seven Screen Actors Guild Awards. His Oscar nominations include a Best Actor nod for his role as Larry Flynt in the 1996 biographical drama "The People vs. Larry Flynt", and Best Supporting Actor for his portrayals of a Gulf War veteran and a police chief in 2009's "The Messenger" and 2017's "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri", respectively. On television, his breakthrough role as bartender Woody Boyd earned him five Emmy nominations in the category of Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series, with one win. Harrelson later returned to the small screen with roles in the comedy series "Frasier" and the 2012 television film "Game Change", for which he received two more Emmy nominations: for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie, respectively.


title: Woody Harrelson

text: Aside from his numerous successes in the industry, other credits include "North Country" (2005), "No Country for Old Men" (2007), "2012", "Zombieland" (both 2009), "Now You See Me" (2013) and its 2016 sequel, "The Hunger Games" film series (2012–2015), "The Edge of Seventeen", "LBJ" (both 2016), "The Glass Castle" (2017) and "Kate" (2021), Harrelson has also starred in critically panned films, with his role in 1993's "Indecent Proposal" winning him the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor in 1994.


title: Jungkook

text: Jeon Jung-kook (; born September 1, 1997), known mononymously as Jungkook (stylized as Jung Kook), is a South Korean singer. He is the youngest member and vocalist of the South Korean boy band BTS.


title: Jungkook

text: Jungkook has released three solo tracks as part of BTS discography: "Begin" in 2016, "Euphoria" in 2018, and "" in 2020, all of which have charted on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart. He also sang the soundtrack for the BTS-based webtoon "7Fates: Chakho", titled "Stay Alive". In 2022, he was featured on the single "Left and Right" by American singer-songwriter Charlie Puth, which peaked at number 22 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100. Later that year, he became the first South Korean singer to release a song for the FIFA World Cup soundtrack, with "Dreamers", which he subsequently performed at the 2022 FIFA World Cup Opening Ceremony. Jungkook's tracks as a soloist have also seen success on Spotify charts, with "Dreamers", "Stay Alive", and "Left and Right" all breaking records as the highest-debuting songs by a Korean soloist on the Spotify Global chart.


title: Jungkook

text: Jeon Jung-kook () was born on September 1, 1997, in Busan, South Korea. His family consists of his parents and an elder brother. He attended Baekyang Elementary and Middle School in Busan. When he became a trainee, he transferred to Singu Middle School in Seoul. Jungkook initially had dreams of becoming a badminton player when he was younger, but after seeing G-Dragon perform "Heartbreaker" on television, it influenced him to want to become a singer.


title: Jungkook

text: In 2011, Jungkook auditioned for the South Korean talent show "Superstar K" during its auditions in Daegu. Though he was not selected, he received casting offers from seven entertainment companies. He eventually chose to become a trainee under Big Hit Entertainment after seeing RM, now his fellow band member and leader in BTS, perform. To work on his dance skills in preparation for debut, he went to Los Angeles during the summer of 2012 to receive dance training from Movement Lifestyle. In June 2012, he appeared in Jo Kwon's "I'm Da One" music video and also worked as a backup dancer for Glam before his debut.


title: Jungkook

text: He graduated from School of Performing Arts Seoul, an arts high school, in 2017. In November 2016, he decided to forgo taking the CSATs, Korea's nationwide university entrance exam. In March 2022, he received his degree from Global Cyber University's Department of Broadcasting and Entertainment. He was awarded the President's Award, the school's highest honor.


title: Jungkook

text: On June 12, 2013, Jungkook made his debut as a member of BTS with the release of the single "2 Cool 4 Skool". Under BTS, he has sung three solo songs. The first, a pop track titled "Begin", from the 2016 album "Wings", tells his story of moving to Seoul at a young age to become an idol and expresses his gratitude towards his bandmates for taking care of him during that time. The second, a future bass song titled "Euphoria", was released with an accompanying nine-minute short film on April 5, 2018, as the introduction to the third part of BTS' "Love Yourself" series. Produced by DJ Swivel, the song charted at number five on the "Billboard" Bubbling Under Hot 100. Its full studio version was included on BTS' "" compilation album, released on August 24. The third solo, "My Time", off the band's 2020 studio album "", is an R&B song about forgoing teenage experiences because of his career, and charted at number 84 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. "Euphoria" and "My Time" are the first and second longest-charting solo tracks among K-pop singers on the "Billboard" World Digital Song Sales chart, having spent a record 90 and 85 weeks respectively on the ranking.


title: Jungkook

text: Aside from singing, Jungkook has also helped produce two songs for BTS: "Love is Not Over", from the band's 2015 extended play (EP) "The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Pt. 1", and "Magic Shop", from the band's 2018 album ""—he is credited as the main producer for both tracks.


title: Jungkook

text: In October 2018, Jungkook was ordained alongside his bandmates with the fifth-class Hwagwan Order of Cultural Merit by the President of South Korea, Moon Jae-in. He was appointed Special Presidential Envoy for Future Generations and Culture, again alongside his bandmates, by Moon in July 2021, in order to help "lead the global agenda for future generations, such as sustainable growth" and "expand South Korea's diplomatic efforts and global standing" in the international community.


title: Jungkook

text: In September 2015, Jungkook participated in the "One Dream, One Korea" campaign, taking part in a song collaboration alongside various Korean artists in memory of the Korean War. The song was released on September 24 and presented at the One K Concert in Seoul on October 15. The following year, Jungkook was cast in the pilot episode of "Flower Crew". He also appeared on "Celebrity Bromance", and competed on "King of Mask Singer" under the name "Fencing Man", appearing in episode 72. On November 6, 2018, Jungkook collaborated with American singer Charlie Puth for a special duet performance of the latter's "We Don't Talk Anymore" single at the MBC Plus X Genie Music Awards. He released the self-produced song "Still With You" for free on SoundCloud on June 4, 2020, as part of BTS' annual debut anniversary celebrations.


title: Jungkook

text: In February 2022, Jungkook sang the soundtrack for "7Fates: Chakho", a new BTS-based webtoon. Titled "Stay Alive", and produced by bandmate Suga, the song earned Jungkook his first solo entry on the "Billboard" Hot 100 with its debut at number 95; his first solo top-ten entry on the "Billboard" Global Excl. U.S chart at number eight; and became the first Korean soundtrack in history to debut on the Official Singles Chart in the UK, at number 89. Jungkook collaborated again with Puth, featuring on the single "Left and Right", which was released on June 24. On November 20, Jungkook released the single "Dreamers" ahead of his performance at the opening ceremony for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar later that same day—the single will be included on the tournament's official soundtrack album. He headlined the event at Al Bayt Stadium and performed the song together with Qatari singer Fahad Al Kubaisi, becoming the first Korean artist to sing an official theme for the World Cup and perform at an opening ceremony for the event.


title: Jungkook

text: In a 2019 survey conducted by Gallup Korea, Jungkook ranked as the third most-loved celebrity of the year in South Korea. He debuted on the list in 2016 at 20th, then ranked 17th in 2017, and then 8th in 2018. In 2018, Jungkook placed first for 10 weeks in a row for magazine "Hi China", under the most beloved celebrities list in China. Jungkook is also extremely popular on social media amongst fans. In December 2018, a video of him singing in the studio became the most retweeted tweet in South Korea that year. Various artists have cited him as an influence and role model, such as Kim Dong-han and Hyeongseop X Euiwoong.


title: Jungkook

text: Jungkook's popularity has earned him the nickname "Sold Out King" as items that he is seen using often sell out quickly. These include shoes, Downy fabric softener, wine, novels—namely "I Decided to Live as Me" by Kim Soo-hyun, which became a best-seller in both Korea and Japan—and Hanbok. Korean media reported that Jungkook had created a "Modern Hanbok" fashion trend in the Korean entertainment industry when celebrities such as Jun Hyun-moo, Jang Do-yeon, Gong Hyo-jin, MC Oh Seung-hwan and "The Return of Superman"s Park Joo-ho began wearing similar clothing after he was photographed wearing it.


title: Jungkook

text: Jungkook was 2019's most-searched male K-pop idol on Google according to their mid-year chart. He topped the chart again in 2020, and was the most searched K-pop idol on YouTube in 2019 and 2020. On Tumblr, he ranked 1st in 'Top K-Pop Stars' for 3 consecutive years. On Twitter, he had the most retweeted tweet of 2019, and the 2nd most retweeted tweet of 2020. In March 2021, Jungkook set a new all-time record for the most real-time viewers in V Live history when his solo live broadcast surpassed 22 million simultaneous viewers—he first broke the record in October 2018, when his broadcast surpassed 3.7 million viewers worldwide.


title: Jungkook

text: In June 2021, a lawmaker of the Justice Party used photos of him to promote the legalization of tattoos in South Korea, which works under regulations. The posts were widely condemned by netizens, who accused the lawmaker of taking advantage of Jungkook's fame for political purposes. In the same year images of Jungkook were posted by the mayor of Tagbilaran in the Philippines, John Geesnell Yap, to convince citizens to receive the COVID shot.


title: Jungkook

text: In 2017, Jungkook collapsed during a concert in Chile. It was later revealed that he had been feeling unwell that day and there were no underlying issues. He suffered a heel injury on the Love Yourself World Tour in 2018, preventing him from participating in choreography; as a result, he sang while seated during part of the European leg of the tour.


title: Jungkook

text: In November 2019, Jungkook was involved in a car accident with a taxi. Neither party had any major injuries and an amicable settlement was agreed upon.


title: Jungkook

text: Since 2018, Jungkook has lived in Hannam-dong, Seoul, South Korea with his bandmates. In July 2019, he purchased an apartment in Yongsan District, Seoul worth ₩4 billion, which he gifted to his older brother in December 2020. As of July 2021, Jungkook's net worth was estimated to be US$20 million.


title: Jungkook

text: All song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.


title: Sadie Sink

text: Sadie Elizabeth Sink (born April 16, 2002) is an American actress. She began acting at age seven in local theater productions, and played the title role in "Annie" (2012–14) and young Queen Elizabeth II in "The Audience" (2015) on Broadway. She made her television debut in a 2013 episode of "The Americans" and her film debut in the sports film "Chuck" (2016).


title: Sadie Sink

text: Sink had her breakthrough portraying Max Mayfield in the Netflix science fiction series "Stranger Things" (2017–present). In 2021, she appeared in the horror film trilogy "Fear Street" and played the lead role in Taylor Swift's short film "". Sink has since starred in Darren Aronofsky's psychological drama "The Whale" (2022), for which she was nominated for the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Young Performer.


title: Sadie Sink

text: Sink was born in Brenham, Texas, on April 16, 2002. Her father is a football coach and her mother is a math teacher. She has three older brothers and a younger sister. While her family was sports-oriented, Sink was interested in performing arts. She began acting in community theater near Houston, starting with a production of "The Best Christmas Pageant Ever" in Brenham at age seven. She then auditioned for and got the part of the lead role in a local production of "The Secret Garden". After this experience, she decided to further pursue an acting career. Her family moved to New Jersey when she was a teenager for the proximity to New York City to support her acting career.


title: Sadie Sink

text: Sink performed in plays at Theater Under the Stars in Houston during the 2011–2012 season, including musical productions of "White Christmas" (2011) and the title role in "Annie" (2012). She made her Broadway debut in the 2012–14 "Annie" revival, playing both Annie and Duffy. During the Broadway run, she made her television debut in 2013 in an episode of the Emmy Award-winning series "The Americans". She also played a guest role in an episode of the police procedural series "Blue Bloods" (2014).


title: Sadie Sink

text: In 2015, Sink played Suzanne Ballard in the NBC action thriller series "American Odyssey", and portrayed a young Queen Elizabeth II alongside Helen Mirren in the Broadway production of "The Audience". She attended school while appearing in small roles in television and film, such as Kimberly in the 2016 sports drama film "Chuck", a guest character in an episode of the sitcom "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt", and young Lori Walls in the biographical drama film "The Glass Castle" (2017). Sink auditioned for Max Mayfield for the second season of Netflix's science fiction horror drama series "Stranger Things", and was cast as a series regular in October 2016. Max proved to be Sink's breakthrough role, becoming a fan-favorite character and an integral part of the series.


title: Sadie Sink

text: In 2018, she collaborated with Rooney Mara, Sia, Joaquin Phoenix, and Kat von D to narrate the animal rights Australian documentary film "Dominion". She also walked the runway at Paris Fashion Week, making her modeling debut at age 15. "The Hollywood Reporter" listed Sink as one of the top 30 stars under age 18, and "Variety" listed her on their Young Hollywood Up Next Report. Sink, along with her "Stranger Things" cast members, was nominated for the SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. The following year, Sink played a supporting role in the Netflix horror film "Eli".


title: Sadie Sink

text: In 2021, she played the main role of Ziggy Berman in the acclaimed "The Fear Street Trilogy", appearing in the second and third installments, "" and "". Her performance in the former received critical praise, with Lovia Gyarkye of "The Hollywood Reporter" writing that she makes the role her own, and "Empire"s Ian FreerSink calling her "the stand-out". She then played the lead in Taylor Swift's 2021 short film "" opposite Dylan O'Brien, receiving critical acclaim for her performance. In 2022, she played the lead role of Tess DeNunzio in the drama "Dear Zoe" (2022).


title: Sadie Sink

text: Sink's performance in the fourth season of "Stranger Things", particularly the episode "", received acclaim as well. "The A.V. Club"s Saloni Gajjar said she "sinks into her role and ends up delivering the best performance of the gang, especially in the outstanding fourth episode", while Valerie Ettenofear of "/Film" praised her "traumatizingly good performance", and "Variety" Daniel D'Addario stated that she "distinguished herself as a major young performer throughout the season". For her performance, Sink won the Hollywood Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Streaming Series, Drama, and received a Saturn Award nomination for Performance by a Younger Actor. She played Ellie, the troubled daughter of an overweight gay man, in Darren Aronofsky's drama film "The Whale" (2022). Hannah Strong of "Little White Lies" praised Sink's "tricky role" in which she "captures the anger and sadness that comes from parental abandonment".


title: Sadie Sink

text: Sink will next feature in the thriller film "Berlin Nobody", an adaptation of Nicholas Hogg's 2015 novel "Tokyo".


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The Peaky Blinders were a street gang based in Birmingham, England, which operated from the 1880s until the 1910s. The group consisted largely of young criminals from lower- to middle-class backgrounds. They engaged in robbery, violence, racketeering, illegal bookmaking, and control of gambling. Members wore signature outfits that typically included tailored jackets, lapelled overcoats, buttoned waistcoats, silk scarves, bell-bottom trousers, leather boots, and peaked flat caps.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The Blinders' dominance came about from beating rivals, including the "Sloggers" ("a pugilistic term for someone who could strike a heavy blow in the ring"), whom they fought for territory in Birmingham and its surrounding districts. They held “control” for nearly 20 years until 1910, when a larger gang, the Birmingham Boys, led by Billy Kimber, overtook them. Although they had disappeared by the 1920s, the name "Peaky Blinders" became synonymous slang for any street gang in Birmingham.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: In 2013, the name was reused for a BBC television series entitled "Peaky Blinders". The series, which stars Cillian Murphy, Paul Anderson, and Joe Cole, is a crime story about a fictional crime family operating in Birmingham just after World War I.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The folk etymology of "Peaky Blinder" is that the gang members would stitch disposable razor blades into the peaks of their flat caps, which could then be used as weapons. However, as the Gillette company introduced the first replaceable safety razor system in 1903, in the United States, and the first factory manufacturing them in Great Britain opened in 1908, this idea of the origin of the name is considered to be apocryphal. British author John Douglas, from Birmingham, claimed hats were used as a weapon in his novel "A Walk Down Summer Lane" – members with razor blades sewn into their caps would headbutt enemies to potentially blind them, or the caps would be used to slash foreheads, causing blood to pour down into the eyes of their enemies, temporarily blinding them.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Birmingham historian Carl Chinn believes the name is actually a reference to the gang's sartorial elegance. He says the popular usage of "peaky" at the time referred to any flat cap with a peak. "Blinder" was a familiar Birmingham slang term (still used today) to describe something or someone of dapper appearance. A further explanation might be from the gang's own criminal behaviour; they were known to sneak up from behind, then pull the hat peak down over victims' faces so they could not describe who robbed them.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Economic hardship in Birmingham led to a violent youth subculture. Poor youths frequently robbed and picked the pockets of men walking on the streets of slum areas of the city. These efforts were executed through assaults, beatings, stabbings, and manual strangulation. The origins of this subculture can be traced back to the 1850s, in a time where Birmingham's streets were filled with gambling dens and youth playing rough sports. When the police started to crack down on these activities due to pressure from the higher classes, the youth fought back, banding together in what became known as "slogging gangs". These gangs frequently fought the police, and assaulted members of the public walking in the streets. During the 1890s, youth street gangs consisted of men and boys between the ages of 12 and 30. The late 1890s saw the organisation of these men into a soft hierarchy.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The most violent of these youth street gangs organised themselves as a singular group known as the "Peaky Blinders". They were likely founded in Small Heath, possibly by a man named Thomas Mucklow, as suggested by a newspaper article entitled, "A murderous outrage at Small Heath, a man's skull fractured" (printed in the 24 March 1890 edition of "The Birmingham Mail"). This article is possibly the earliest evidence of the Peaky Blinders in print:


title: Peaky Blinders

text: After some gangsters attacked a man in 1890, they sent a letter to various national newspapers declaring themselves as members of this specific group. Their first activities primarily revolved around occupying favourable land, notably the communities of Small Heath and Cheapside, Birmingham. Their expansion was noted by their first gang rival, the "Cheapside Sloggers", who battled against them in an effort to control land. The Sloggers originated in the 1870s and were known for street fights in the Bordesley and Small Heath areas – extremely poor slums of Birmingham.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The Peaky Blinders, after they established controlled territory in the late 19th century, began expanding their criminal enterprise. Their activities included protection rackets, fraud, land grabs, smuggling, hijacking, robbery, and illegal bookmaking. Historian Heather Shor of the University of Leeds claims that the Blinders were more focused on street fighting, robbery, and racketeering, as opposed to more organised crime.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The group was known for its violence, not only towards rival gangs, but also against innocent civilians and constables. Gang wars between rival gangs frequently erupted in Birmingham, which led to brawls and shootouts. The Peaky Blinders also deliberately attacked police officers, in what became known as "constable baiting". Constable George Snipe was killed by the gang in 1897, as was Charles Philip Gunter in 1901. Hundreds more were injured and some left the force because of the violence.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Soon, the term "Peaky Blinder" became a generic term for young street criminals in Birmingham. In 1899, an Irish police chief named Charles Haughton Rafter was contracted to enforce local law in Birmingham. However, police corruption and bribery diminished the effectiveness of his enforcement for a time.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The most powerful member of the Peaky Blinders was a man known as Kevin Mooney. His real name was Thomas Gilbert, but he routinely changed his last name.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Other prominent members of the gang were David Taylor, Earnest Haynes, Harry Fowles, and Stephen McNickle. Harry Fowles, known as "Baby-faced Harry", was arrested at age 19 for stealing a bicycle in October 1904. McNickle and Haynes were also arrested at the same time, for stealing a bicycle and home invasion, respectively. Each was held for one month for their crimes. West Midlands police records described the three arrested as "foul-mouthed young men who stalk the streets in drunken groups, insulting and mugging passers-by". Taylor was arrested at age 13 for carrying a loaded firearm.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Many gang members later fought in the First World War. Henry Lightfoot, the first person to be named as a Peaky Blinder, joined the British Army three times in his life and participated in the Battle of the Somme in 1916. Henry Fowler, one of the youngest inducted members, was buried alive in the trenches years later and, after being extricated, could not speak or see for some time following the war.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: In addition to guns, the Peaky Blinders used an assortment of melee weapons, such as belt buckles, metal-tipped boots, fire irons, canes, and knives. In the case of George Eastwood, he was beaten by belt buckles. Percy Langridge used a knife to stab Police Constable Barker in June 1900. Firearms such as Webley revolvers were used, such as in the shooting and killing of a Summer Hill gang member by Peaky Blinder William Lacey in September 1905.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Gang members frequently wore tailored clothing, which was uncommon for gangs of the time. Almost all members wore a flat cap and an overcoat. The Peaky Blinders wore tailored suits usually with bell-bottom trousers and button jackets. Wealthier members wore silk scarves and starched collars with metal tie buttons. Their distinctive dress was easily recognisable by city inhabitants, police, and rival gang members. The wives, girlfriends, and mistresses of the gang members were known for wearing lavish clothing. Pearls, silks, and colourful scarves were commonplace.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: After nearly a decade of political control, their growing influence brought on the attention of a larger gang, the Birmingham Boys. The Peaky Blinders' expansion into racecourses led to violent backlash from the Birmingham Boys gang. Peaky Blinder families physically distanced themselves from Birmingham's centre into the countryside. With the Blinders' withdrawal from the criminal underworld, the Sabini gang moved in on the Birmingham Boys gang, and solidified political control over Central England in the 1930s.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: Other elements such as education, discipline, and harsher policing and sentencing also contributed to the decrease of the Blinders' influence and, by the 1920s, they had disappeared. As the specific gang known as the Peaky Blinders diminished, their name came to be used as generic term to describe violent street youth. The gang's activities lasted from the 1880s until the 1910s.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The BBC television drama series "Peaky Blinders", starring Cillian Murphy, Paul Anderson, Sam Neill, and Helen McCrory, premiered in September 2013. It presents a fictional story in which the Peaky Blinders contend in the underworld with the Birmingham Boys and the Sabini gang, and it follows the gang based in post-World War I Birmingham's Small Heath area. The gang had houses located in and around Birmingham, ranging from Longbridge to Sutton Coldfield. Many of the show's exteriors have been filmed on location at the Black Country Living Museum.


title: Peaky Blinders

text: The song "Cheapside Sloggers" (2019) by the Danish hard-rock band Volbeat was written about the rivalry between the two gangs.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: [máːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠]; English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire lasting from 27 BC to 180 AD. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus Aurelius was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised him. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus's uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus Aurelius acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who reigned under the name Lucius Verus. Under his rule the Roman Empire witnessed heavy military conflict. In the East, the Romans fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during his reign, but his involvement in this is unlikely, as early Christians living in the 2nd century never claimed him as a persecutor and Tertullian even called Marcus a "protector of Christians". The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five to ten million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. "Meditations", the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus – are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. These writings have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus Aurelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the "Historia Augusta", claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about AD 395. The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate. For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166. Marcus's own "Meditations" offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs. The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective. Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the "Digest" and "Codex Justinianeus" on Marcus' legal work. Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His birth name is sometimes given as Marcus Annius Verus, but sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age. He may have been known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, at birth or some point in his youth, or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus. Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and, upon his ascension, he was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus until his death; Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors included in his "On Weights and Measures", calls him "Marcus Aurelius Verus".


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus' paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III). The gens Annia was of Italic origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it, the "Annii Veri", moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica. This branch rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the "Historia Augusta") ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74. Through his grandmother Rupilia Faustina, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the step-mother of Rupilia and her step-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the "Horti Domitia Calvillae" (or "Lucillae"), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome. Marcus himself was born and raised in the "Horti" and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo-Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123. His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship. Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his "Meditations" that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation. His mother Lucilla did not remarry and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses', and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of "patria potestas" over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different "patria potestas". Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather. Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood. Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'. He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia. Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for wrestling and boxing. He trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and joined the Salii, an order of priests dedicated to the god Mars that were responsible for the sacred shields, called Ancilia, and possibly for heralding war season's beginning and end. Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends; he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools. One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life. In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed. A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of Latin – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133. Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling. Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus' "Meditations".


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son, according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'. While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne. As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own. After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the scheduled speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius. Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius. Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the Senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming "quaestor" before his twenty-fourth birthday. The Senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139. Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become "triumvir monetalis", a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138. His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli. The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days. For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal. He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a "seviri", one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became "princeps iuventutis", head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar. Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'. At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges ("pontifices", "augures", "quindecimviri sacris faciundis", "septemviri epulonum", etc.); direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the "aulicum fastigium" or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus' objections. Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace' – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the "Meditations" for 'abusing court life' in front of company.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators. But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'. He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer. He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'. Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'. Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses. In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138. Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'. Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as "Pontifex Maximus", would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: After taking the "toga virilis" in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory. He had three tutors in Greek (Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus) and one in Latin (Marcus Cornelius Fronto). The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time, but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome. This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his "Meditations" Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner. Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions. He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said. In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his "Meditations", in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters, he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him. He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived. The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence. Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'. His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always suffering – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses. Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus. Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows. Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus' tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct, but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'. The outcome of the trial is unknown.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to "be" a judge is noble work'. Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it. In any case, Marcus' formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: "It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy [...] than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is". He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle. Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training. Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy. He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory. He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian ("r". 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century; the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one). Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea:


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.'


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty-three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the "imperium" – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147. The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care. Domitia would die in 151.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend "temporum felicitas", 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius. Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'. He quoted from the "Iliad" what he called the "briefest and most familiar saying [...] enough to dispel sorrow and fear":


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died. Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153. Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates "fecunditati Augustae", 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia. By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown. In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154, and was consul again with Marcus in 161. Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights. He did not marry until 164.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157. In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria, about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome. He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died. His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The Senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title "imperator", and he would soon be formally elected as "pontifex maximus", chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power. This may have been a genuine "horror imperii", 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his "Meditations"), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans. Thus, although the Senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers. The Senate accepted, granting Lucius the "imperium", the tribunician power, and the title Augustus. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more "auctoritas", or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was "pontifex maximus". It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote: "Verus obeyed Marcus [...] as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor".


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Immediately after their Senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as "imperatores". Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special "donativum". This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles. Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from to .


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'. If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been cremated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the Senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A "flamen", or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself. The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina. (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other. On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children. The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Soon after the emperor's accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle). At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their "civiliter" ("lacking pomp") behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius".


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The "ab epistulis" Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury ("aerarium Saturni"). He was made consul soon after. Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality". Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors. Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.' Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection. Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the "felicitas temporum" ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In either autumn 161 or spring 162, the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention. In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'. Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished. Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the Senate had been awed: "Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech". Fronto was hugely pleased.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him. One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161. Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself. The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonoteichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the "limes". Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions. Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany, II Adiutrix from Aquincum, and V Macedonica from Troesmis.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible. M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties, and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?' He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the "palaestra", fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back. Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled "De bello Parthico" ("On the Parthian War"). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity. Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor. Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch. Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle, saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through', and enjoyed the company of actors. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen. Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, who was made "comes Augusti", 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at. Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen. He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.


title: Marcus Aurelius

text: The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163. At the end of the year, Lucius took the title "Armeniacus", despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year. When Lucius was hailed as "imperator" again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the "Imperator II" with him.