title: Berserk (manga)

text: Writing for "SciFi.com", Zac Bertschy said: "Kentaro Miura has managed to create a story that's not only darkly disturbing, but also absorbing and affecting on a deeper level than most manga titles can achieve." Bertschy praised the story and character development, concluding: "Not for the faint of heart, "Berserk" is perfect for mature manga fans who like a little blood with their drama." In "", author Jason Thompson gave "Berserk" 4 out of four stars. He called it "[a] blood-soaked sword-and-sorcery epic with elements of Clive Barker's "Hellraiser"," and wrote: ""Berserk"s medieval European world of mud and blood is so realistic—and drawn in such realistic detail—that when dark fantasy elements begin to intrude upon it, they do so with a slow, dawning horror." Thompson, in a review for "j-pop.com", also wrote: "Despite the slaughter, "Berserk" doesn't feel as amoral as it could be; our hero is a killer, but given his well-developed back story, his occasional tears of remorse seem more genuine than, say, "Crying Freeman"s." In another article, writing for Anime News Network (ANN), Thompson said that "Berserk" started as "the story of a lone swordsman traveling the world fighting demons with blood and sweat," and it was later turned into a "fantasy RPG party of heroes with a magic-user, a thief, a fighter, some elves, etc.," commenting that Miura apparently was "aiming the series at a younger age group." Despite this, Thompson stated: "I'm still impressed by Miura's great art and his ability to create such a long storyline with so much scope and (relative to other manga, at least) so little filler. No other seinen fantasy manga has such well-developed characters with such deep backstories, even for the minor characters." Matt Fagaly, writing for Crunchyroll, analyzed "Berserk"s use of "shōnen" and "shōjo" manga tropes in the Lost Children arc (volumes 14–16), which resulted in an "entirely original and moving narrative." Fagaly commented about the arc protagonist, Jill, and her hopeful words at the end of that story, further adding: "I have never seen another Shonen or Shojo express this notion with the same audacity, depth, and idiosyncrasy as "Berserk"." Carl Kimlinger, writing for ANN, in his review of the thirty-fifth volume, compared Guts' "monster-plagued" trip to Elfhelm to the fantasy tales of Robert E. Howard and, in comparing the volume to the previous ones, he wrote that series dropped down a notch, although he stated that it was not a "disastrous drop," but "just the series falling back into a comfortable, classical adventure mode." Brittany Vincent of "Otaku USA" said: ""Berserk" is undoubtedly one of the most unique and engaging Western-style fantasies of all time." Writing for Syfy Wire, Eric Frederiksen said: ""Berserk" is one of the longest-running manga, and consistently one of the darkest out there, but also one of the most emotionally powerful and rewarding." Writing for Crunchyroll, Peter Fobian expressed: ""Berserk" is one of the most deeply personal works I've ever read, both for myself and in my perception of Miura's works. The series' transformation in the past 30 years artistically and thematically is so singular it's difficult to find another work that comes close."


title: Berserk (manga)

text: Miura's artwork has been particularly praised by critics. Bertschy said that the artwork is where "Berserk" "really shines," adding: "The cross-hatching work, the level of detail, it's all stunning. Every page is a work of art, each scene drawn with the outmost attention to detail and atmosphere." He compared the art to the 1950s horror comics from EC Comics and found it fitting to the series' "gruesome nature." Bertschy concluded: "Miura is a fabulously talented artist and author, and future manga series by him will be met with great anticipation." Thompson said: "Miura's art is one of the real attractions. The people may occasionally look funky, but castles, knights, horses, and Baroque and Romanesque trappings are drawn with detail and accuracy." McElhatton wrote that he was "pretty unimpressed" with Miura's art at first, but he changed his mind after the demons appeared, stating: "Miura draws demons in such a wrong and disturbing manner that it's unsettling. That's how demons should look, of course." "Publishers Weekly" wrote: "this work has a style characteristic of other 1980s manga, with sparse dialogue, spectacular action sequences and gritty character art. The pencil shading and use of shadows lend an ominous tone." Campbell wrote: "You just can't know what 'attention to detail' means until you read "Berserk"—it's rare when it comes to what it has to offer to all the readers out there, so really it's no wonder that it stands out as much as it does." Campbell also commented: "The closest thing visually that "Berserk" could be compared to might be "Claymore", another very good manga—but really "Berserk" is on a plain of its own." Writing for "Advanced Media Network", Serdar Yegulalp said that the artwork of the first volumes are "a little rougher and less polished than the later ones," but that after the eighth volume "there is scarcely a page that doesn't look spectacular," adding that "Miura's loving attention to detail on most any page or panel is stupefying." Writing for ANN, Casey Brienza stated: "Miura's artwork is exquisite and, remarkably, drawn without the help of an army of assistants. And while he has been great right from the first page of volume one, he has improved over the many years of working on "Berserk"." In another review for "Graphic Novel Reporter", Brieza wrote: "Unlike virtually all other commercially successful manga artists, Miura produces his artwork without assistants, and the exquisite detail of this erotic-grotesque, "Dungeons & Dragons"-esque high fantasy issues from his hand and his hand alone," adding that it is "one that appeals to men and women alike." Carlo Santos, reviewer from ANN, wrote: "Miura's complete command of light and shadow gives every moment an otherworldly quality—this is one of the few series that can honestly claim to transport its readers to another time and place—and the attention to backgrounds is a welcome sight when so many other artists are too lazy to be bothered." Kimlinger wrote that Miura's art "is among the most intricate, evocative and plain beautiful art ever to be put to page and arranged cinematically. He draws wonderfully expressive faces, awe-inspiring monsters, gorgeous armor and some of the finest gore to be found just about anywhere." Chetri described Miura's otherworld featured in the first arc as "something a drug-addled MC Escher would have painted," also noting homages to "Hellraiser" and H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, and called Miura a "splendid storyteller whose artwork is stark and bold enough to bring the world of Guts to life magnificently." Writing for "IGN", Bruna Penilhas commented that Miura's level of detail in his illustrations is "impressive from start to finish," praising the design and features of his characters, adding that he was able to "perfectly illustrate characteristics and feelings such as pain, anger and sadness." Alex Traub from "The New York Times" commented about the comparison of Miura's drawings to Hieronymus Bosch's paintings, particularly for Miura's images of "little human figures occupying sweeping fantastical landscapes," adding: "Mr. Miura was known for his spectacular, apocalyptic style; specific images—a humongous sword, a monster cloaked in shadow—are immediately recognizable to his fans."


title: Berserk (manga)

text: "Berserk" is regarded as one of the most influential dark fantasy works. Peter Fobian, in an essay of the legacy and impact of "Berserk", called it a "monolith not only for anime and manga, but also fantasy literature, video games, you name it," comparing its level of influence to "Blade Runner", further adding: "it's difficult to imagine what the world might look like without it, and the generations of creators the series inspired."


title: Berserk (manga)

text: According to writer and editor Kazushi Shimada, series like "Fullmetal Alchemist", "Attack on Titan", "" or "Jujutsu Kaisen" would not have existed if not for "Berserk". Some dark fantasy manga authors who have declared influence from "Berserk" include Hajime Isayama ("Attack on Titan"), Kazue Kato ("Blue Exorcist") and Yana Toboso ("Black Butler"). Other authors influenced by "Berserk" include Makoto Yukimura ("Vinland Saga"), Yūki Tabata ("Black Clover") and Ryōgo Narita ("Baccano!" and "Durarara!!"). Adi Shankar, showrunner of the "Castlevania" animated series, said in an interview that he would like to adapt "Berserk", calling the "hyper-detailed beauty" of Miura's artwork a "true masterpiece", while Adam Deats, "Castlevania" assistant director, stated that the show was inspired by "Berserk".


title: Berserk (manga)

text: Critics like Gene Park of "The Washington Post" and Ramsey Isler of "IGN" stated that "Berserk" started a visual trend of characters wielding giant swords that spread to Cloud Strife from "Final Fantasy VII", Dante from "Devil May Cry", and Ichigo Kurosaki from "Bleach".


title: Berserk (manga)

text: "Berserk" has also inspired a number of video games, including the "Dynasty Warriors" series, the "Final Fantasy" series (considerably "Final Fantasy VII" and "XIV"), the "Dark Souls" series, "Bloodborne", "", "Elden Ring", and Capcom's "Devil May Cry" and "Dragon's Dogma" series.


title: Berserk (manga)

text: Finnish heavy metal band Battle Beast have written songs about "Berserk", including several on their 2013 self-titled album. When guitarist Anton Kabanen left Battle Beast in 2015, he formed Beast in Black and continues to write songs about the series. The deathcore band Brand of Sacrifice released the album "God Hand" in 2019. Both the band and album are hugely inspired by "Berserk". In 2021, deathcore band Slaughter to Prevail released a music video for their song "Zavali Ebalo", which featured scenes from the "Berserk" 1997 anime series.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Pooja Hegde (; born 13 October 1990) is an Indian actress who appears predominantly in Telugu films, in addition to Hindi and Tamil films. She began her career as a model and was crowned as the second runner-up at the 2010 I Am She–Miss Universe India pageant. She made her acting debut with the Tamil film "Mugamoodi" (2012) and had her first Telugu release in "Oka Laila Kosam" (2014). Hegde established herself as one of the leading actresses in Telugu cinema.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Hegde won the SIIMA Award for Best Actress – Telugu for her performance in "Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo" (2020) and was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu for "Oka Laila Kosam" and "Aravinda Sametha Veera Raghava" (2018). Her other commercially successful films include "Duvvada Jagannadham" (2017), "Maharshi" (2019), "Gaddalakonda Ganesh" (2019), "Housefull 4" (2019), and "Most Eligible Bachelor" (2021). In 2022, three of her films were poorly received namely "Beast", "Radhe Shyam" and "Acharya" which impeded her career.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Pooja Hegde was born and brought up in Mumbai, Maharashtra in a Tulu-speaking family. Her parents are Manjunath Hegde and Latha Hegde. They are originally from Udupi, Karnataka. She also has an elder brother Rishabh Hegde, who is an orthopaedic surgeon. Besides Tulu, she is fluent in Kannada, English, Hindi and Marathi. She later learnt Telugu and Tamil following a career in her respective cinema. She did her schooling in Maneckji Cooper Education Trust School, Mumbai. She went to M. M. K. College, where she regularly participated in dance and fashion shows.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Hegde competed in the Miss India 2009 competition, but was eliminated in an early round despite winning the Miss India Talented 2009 honour. She re-applied the following year and was the second runner-up in the Miss Universe India 2010 competition, while also being crowned Miss India South Glamorous Hair 2010 in the subsidiary competition.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Hegde made her acting debut in Mysskin's Tamil superhero film "Mugamoodi" (2012) opposite Jiiva, portraying the female lead character of Shakthi, a fun-loving girl who inspires the male lead to change his outlook on society. She was selected after Mysskin had seen still photographs from her pageant success, and Hegde helped practice Tamil dialogue for the film by writing and memorising words in English, adding that the similarity between Tamil and her native tongue Tulu was also useful. Prior to release, the film garnered high expectations as a result of the novel theme of a superhero in Tamil films and the film took a grand opening at the box office in August 2012. "Times of India" stated that "Pooja Hegde though has little to do and comes across as just another pretty face." "NDTV" wrote "Pooja Hegde, the debutante may have floored everyone with her amiable appearance, but she definitely needs some coaching in expressions." She earned a nomination for the Best Tamil Female Debut Actress at the 2nd South Indian International Movie Awards.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Hegde's second film release, the Telugu film "Oka Laila Kosam" (2014), featured her opposite Naga Chaitanya. She was praised for her performance in the movie. Around the same time, she bagged the nomination for Best Actress at the 62nd Filmfare Awards (South). Following a production house and the success of the director Vijay Konda's previous venture, had prompted her to work on the project. She undertook Telugu lessons to help her portray the leading female role. In her second Telugu film, Hegde impressed many with her memorable performance in "Gopikamma" song from "Mukunda" (2014). It was a romantic-action tale, set in the backdrop of a village, released in late 2014.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: In July 2014, Hegde agreed terms to make her Bollywood debut opposite Hrithik Roshan in Ashutosh Gowariker's period film "Mohenjo Daro", set against the backdrop of the Indus Valley civilisation. She was selected after Gowariker's wife had spotted her in an advertisement and called her to audition, which she successfully completed. As a result of her commitment to the film, she revealed that she would take a break from appearing in regional Indian movies until her Hindi film's release and rejected an opportunity to work in a film directed by Mani Ratnam. "Mohenjo Daro" released in 2016 which was panned by critics and became major box office flop. In 2017, she appeared in Telugu-language vigilante action comedy film "Duvvada Jagannadham" alongside actor Allu Arjun. Writing for "The Indian Express", Manoj Kumar R found that "Pooja Hegde has convincingly done the given job that is to look stunning in every frame of the film. Especially, she looks ravishing in all the song sequences." The film was successful in box office grossing over crore.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: In 2018, Hegde featured in three Telugu films. The first is a special appearance in the song "Jigelu Rani" for the period action "Rangasthalam". The song was trending in the YouTube and she was praised for her performance. Later in "Saakshyam", alongside Bellamkonda Sreenivas and Trivikram Srinivas-directed action-drama "Aravinda Sametha Veera Raghava", opposite Jr. NTR. In 2019 too, she made an appearance in three films which are "Maharshi", "Gaddalakonda Ganesh" and "Housefull 4". "Maharshi" is a Telugu film directed by Vamsi Paidipally co-starring by Mahesh Babu. It received mixed reviews on release. Her second Telugu film in the same year was the Harish Shankar-directed "Gaddalakonda Ganesh," a remake of the 2014 Tamil-language film "Jigarthanda", featuring Varun Tej and Atharvaa along with her. Hegde returned to Bollywood after a gap of three years with Sajid Nadiadwala's comedy film directed by Farhad Samji, featuring her as Rajkumari Mala and Pooja (reincarnated), which went on to gross over crore worldwide.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Her 2020 Telugu-language action drama film "Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo", alongside Allu Arjun and directed by Trivikram marks their collaboration with both Arjun and Trivikram, for the second time, after "" (2017) and "Aravinda Sametha Veera Raghava" (2018). On her performance, a "The Times of India" critic wrote, "Pooja Hegde manages to bring in spunk into a character that is nothing more than a manic pixie dream girl, but she sure is a delight to watch on-screen." The film became one of the highest-grossing Telugu films of all time, grossing over crore. Her performance fetched her several awards, including the SIIMA Award for Best Actress – Telugu. Hegde's dance performance in the song "Butta Bomma" received wide response.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: In 2021, Hegde starred in "Most Eligible Bachelor", directed by Bommarillu Bhaskar opposite Akhil Akkineni in which she played the role of a stand-up comedian. Her performance in the film received critical acclaim and won her the SIIMA Award for Best Actress – Telugu. In 2022, Hegde starred in the multilingual period romance film "Radhe Shyam" with Prabhas directed by Radha Krishna Kumar. Hegde's performance received positive reviews. The film's song "Aashiqui Aa Gayi" also gained more popularity among audiences with Hegde's grace and style being appreciated. Her second film in the same year was Tamil film "Beast" directed by Nelson, alongside Vijay. Released on 13 April, the film marked her return to Tamil cinema after a gap of 9 years. Her next brief appearance was in the Koratala Siva-directed film "Acharya" alongside Chiranjeevi and Ram Charan. These three films were commercial failures. She performed her second dance number in the film, "F3" alongside Venkatesh and Varun Tej in the party song "Life Ante Itta Vundaala".


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Her upcoming projects include the Hindi film "Cirkus" directed by Rohit Shetty where she is playing one of the female leads opposite Ranveer Singh She will also star opposite Salman Khan in "Kisi Ka Bhai Kisi Ki Jaan", directed by Farhad Samji, which is scheduled to release on 21 April 2023. Additionally, she will appear in Trivikram Srinivas next film with Mahesh Babu tentatively titled "#SSMB28". The film, which went on floors last week, she will join the sets after Dussehra.


title: Pooja Hegde

text: Hegde is considered among the most popular actor of Telugu cinema. Hegde has frequently featured in The Times of India's listing of the "Most Desirable Woman" and the winner of the "Hyderabad Most Desirable women" of year 2017. Hegde is an active endorser for several brands and products. Hegde stood in the 7th place on Forbes India's Most Influential Stars on Instagram in South Cinema for the year 2021.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nottingham Forest Football Club is an association football club based in West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire, England. Nottingham Forest was founded in 1865 and have been playing their home games at the City Ground, on the banks of the River Trent, since 1898. Forest are one of four English clubs to have won the European Cup/UEFA Champions League more than once and one of two English clubs to have won the competition back-to-back. Forest have two stars above their club crest to commemorate their two European Cup victories. The club competes in the Premier League, the top division of the English football league system.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nottingham Forest have won two European Cups, one UEFA Super Cup, one League title, two FA Cups, four League Cups, and one FA Charity Shield. The club has competed in the top two tiers of English football since its admission to the Football League, with the exception of five seasons in the third tier. Its most successful period was under the management of Brian Clough and Peter Taylor in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which included back-to-back wins in the European Cup in 1979 and 1980.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In Clough's last decade at the club, the Nottingham Forest team won the 1989 and 1990 League Cups and were losing finalists in the 1991 FA Cup Final and 1992 League Cup Final, before relegation from the Premier League in 1993. Upon an immediate return Forest finished third in the Premier League in 1995, before the club suffered relegations from the top flight again in 1997 and 1999. The team returned to the Premier League by winning the 2022 Championship play-off final against Huddersfield Town.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The club's fiercest rivalry is with Derby County, with whom they contest the East Midlands derby. The two clubs have met a total of 109 times, with Forest claiming the most victories (43), the longest win streak (5), and the longest unbeaten run (10) which runs from the 11th March 2018 to the present day.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In 1865 a group of shinty players met at the Clinton Arms on Nottingham's Shakespeare Street. J. S. Scrimshaw's proposal to play association football instead was agreed and Nottingham Forest Football Club was formed. It was agreed at the same meeting that the club would purchase twelve tasselled caps coloured 'Garibaldi Red' (named after the leader of the Italian 'Redshirts' fighters). Thus the club's official colours were established.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nottingham Forest claims to be the oldest remaining club in the English Football League. In 2019, when Notts County were relegated from the league, Stoke City claimed to be the oldest remaining club, but football historian Mark Metcalf stated that Stoke was formed in 1868, rather than the 1863 date on the club's badge, and therefore Forest was the oldest club. The EFL also stated that Nottingham Forest was the oldest.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest's first ever official game was played against Notts County taking place on 22 March 1866. On 23 April 1870, when the team played their first game in league play, the steward of the club was John Lymberry and William Henry Revis scored the first goal. On that day, Revis also won the prize for kicking a football furthest with a kick of 69 feet 69 inches.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In their early years Nottingham Forest were a multi-sports club. As well as their roots in bandy and shinty, Forest's baseball club were British champions in 1899. Forest's charitable approach helped clubs like Liverpool, Arsenal and Brighton & Hove Albion to form. In 1886, Forest donated a set of football kits to help Arsenal establish themselves – the North London team still wear red. Forest also donated shirts to Everton and helped secure a site to play on for Brighton.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In 1878–79 season Nottingham Forest entered the FA Cup for the first time. Forest beat Notts County 3–1 in the first round at Beeston Cricket Ground before eventually losing 2–1 to Old Etonians in the semi-final.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nottingham Forest's application was rejected to join the Football League at its formation in 1888. Forest instead joined the Football Alliance in 1889.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: They won the competition in 1892 before then entering the Football League. That season they reached and lost in an FA Cup semi-final for the fourth time to date. This time it was to West Bromwich Albion after a replay.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nottingham Forest's first FA Cup semi-final win was at the fifth attempt, the 1897–98 FA Cup 2–0 replay win against Southampton. The first game was drawn 1–1. Derby County beat Nottingham Forest 5–0 five days before the final. Six of the cup final side were rested in that league game. In that 1898 FA Cup Final at Crystal Palace before 62,000 fans, Willie Wragg passed a 19th minute free kick to Arthur Capes. Capes shot through the defensive wall to score. Derby equalised with a free kick headed home by Steve Bloomer off the underside of the cross bar after 31 minutes. In the 42nd minute Jack Fryer was unable to hold a Charlie Richards shot giving Capes a tap in for his second goal. Wragg's injury meant Forest had to change their line up with Capes dropping back to midfield. In the 86th minute John Boag headed away a corner by Nottingham Forest. John McPherson moved in to collect shooting low into the goal to win 3–1.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest lost FA Cup semi-finals in 1900 and 1902. They finished fourth in the 1900–01 Football League followed with fifth place the season after. The club then started to slide down the table. Forest were relegated for the first time in 1905–06. Grenville Morris had his first of five seasons as the club's highest scorer en route to becoming the all-time club highest goalscorer with 213 goals.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Promotion as champions was immediate in 1906–07. The club was relegated a second time to the Second Division in 1911, and had to seek re-election in 1914 after finishing bottom of that tier; as the First World War approached it was in serious financial trouble. The outbreak of the War, along with the benevolence of the committee members, prevented the club going under.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In 1919, the Football League First Division was to be expanded from twenty clubs to twenty-two in time for the 1919–20 Football League: Forest was one of eight clubs to campaign for entry, but received only three votes. Arsenal and Chelsea gained the two additional top tier slots.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In a turnaround from the first six seasons struggling back in the Second Division, Forest were promoted as champions in 1921–22. They survived each of the first two seasons back in the top flight by one position. In the third season after promotion they were relegated as the division's bottom club in 1924–25. They remained in the second tier until relegation in 1949 to the Football League Third Division.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: They were quickly promoted back two years later as champions having scored a record 110 goals in the 1950–51 season. They regained First Division status in 1957.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Johnny Quigley's solitary 1958–59 FA Cup semi-final goal beat Aston Villa. Billy Walker's Forest beat Luton Town 2–1 in the 1959 FA Cup Final. Like in 1898 Forest had lost heavily to their opponents only weeks earlier in the league. Stewart Imlach crossed for a 10th-minute opener by Roy Dwight (the cousin of Reg Dwight better known as Elton John). Tommy Wilson had Forest 2–0 up after 14 minutes. The game had an unusually large number of stoppages due to injury, particularly to Forest players. This was put down to the lush nature of the Wembley turf. The most notable of these stoppages was Dwight breaking his leg in a 33rd minute tackle with Brendan McNally. Forest had been on top until that point. Luton though gradually took control of the match with Dave Pacey scoring midway through the second half. Forest were reduced to nine fit men with ten minutes remaining when Bill Whare crippled with cramp became little more than a spectator. Despite late Allan Brown and Billy Bingham chances Chick Thomson conceded no further goals for Forest to beat the Wembley 1950s 'hoodoo' (where one team was hampered by losing a player through injury). Club record appearance holder Bobby McKinlay played in the final winning team captained by Jack Burkitt.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: By this time Forest had replaced Notts County as the biggest club in Nottingham. Johnny Carey assembled a team including Joe Baker and Ian Storey-Moore that for a long spell went largely unchanged in challenging for the 1966–67 Football League title. They beat title rivals Manchester United 4–1 at the City Ground on 1 October. The 3–0 win against Aston Villa on 15 April had Forest second in the table a point behind United. Injuries eventually took effect meaning Forest had to settle for being League runners-up and losing in the FA Cup semi-final to Dave Mackay's Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The 1966-67 season's success seemed an opportunity to build upon with crowds of 40,000 virtually guaranteed at the time. Instead a mixture at the club of poor football management, the unique committee structure and proud amateurism meant decline after the 1966-67 peak. Forest were relegated from the top flight in 1972. Matt Gillies' October 1972 managerial departure was followed by short managerial reigns by Dave Mackay and Allan Brown. A 2–0 Boxing Day home defeat by Notts County prompted the committee (Forest had no board of directors then) to sack Brown.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Brian Clough became manager of Forest on 6 January 1975, twelve weeks after the end of his 44-day tenure as manager of Leeds United. Clough brought Jimmy Gordon to be his club trainer as Gordon had been for him at Derby County and Leeds. Scottish centre-forward Neil Martin scored the only goal in Clough's first game in charge, beating Tottenham Hotspur in an FA Cup third round replay.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Ian Bowyer was already at Forest and had won domestic and European trophies with Manchester City. Clough signed Scots duo John McGovern and John O'Hare in February who both were part of Clough's Derby County 1971–72 Football League title win. He signed Colin Barrett in March initially on loan. Clough brought John Robertson and Martin O'Neill back into the fold after they had requested transfers under Brown. Viv Anderson had previously debuted for the first team and became a regular under Clough. The young Tony Woodcock was at Forest but was then unrated by Clough and was to be loaned to Lincoln City. Forest were 13th in English football's second tier when Clough joined. They finished that season 16th. Forest signed Frank Clark in July of that close season on a free transfer. The season after Forest finished eighth in Clough's 1975–76 Football League first full season in charge. It was in this season McGovern became long standing club captain taking over from a game in which Bob "Sammy" Chapman and Liam O'Kane were both injured.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Peter Taylor on 16 July 1976 rejoined Clough, becoming his assistant manager as he had been when winning the league at Derby. Taylor included being the club's talent spotter in his role. After assessing the players Taylor told Clough "that was a feat by you to finish eighth in the Second Division because some of them are only Third Division players". Taylor berated John Robertson for allowing himself to become overweight and disillusioned. He got Robertson on a diet and training regime that would help him become a European Cup winner. Taylor turned Woodcock from a reserve midfielder into a 42 cap England striker. In September 1976 he bought striker Peter Withe to Forest for £43,000, selling him to Newcastle United for £250,000 two years later. Withe was replaced in the starting team by Garry Birtles who Taylor had scouted playing for non-league Long Eaton United. Birtles also went on to represent England. In October 1976 Brian Clough acting on Peter Taylor's advice signed Larry Lloyd for £60,000 after an initial loan period.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Together Clough and Taylor took Forest to new heights. The first trophy of the Clough and Taylor reign was the 1976–77 Anglo-Scottish Cup. Forest beat Orient 5–1 on aggregate in the two-legged final played in December 1976. Clough valued winning a derided trophy as the club's first silverware since 1959. He said, "Those who said it was a nothing trophy were absolutely crackers. We'd won something, and it made all the difference."


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: On 7 May 1977, Jon Moore's own goal meant Forest in their last league game of the season beat Millwall 1–0 at the City Ground. This kept Forest in the third promotion spot in the league table and dependent on Bolton Wanderers dropping points in three games in hand in the fight for third place. On 14 May Kenny Hibbitt's goal from his rehearsed free kick routine with Willie Carr gave Wolves a 1–0 win at Bolton. Bolton's defeat reached the Forest team mid-air en route to an end of season break in Mallorca. Forest's third place promotion from the 1976–77 Football League Second Division was the fifth-lowest points tally of any promoted team in history, 52 (two points for a win in England until 1981).


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Taylor secretly followed Kenny Burns concluding Burns's reputation as a hard drinker and gambler was exaggerated. Taylor sanctioned his £150,000 July signing. Burns became FWA Footballer of the Year in 1977–78 after being moved from centre-forward to centre-back. Forest started their return to the top league campaign with a 3–1 win at Everton. Three further wins in league and cup followed without conceding a goal. Then came five early September goals conceded in losing 3–0 at Arsenal and beating Wolves 3–2 at home. Peter Shilton then signed for a record fee for a goalkeeper of £325,000. Taylor reasoned: "Shilton wins you matches." 20-year-old John Middleton was first team goalkeeper pre-Shilton. Middleton later in the month went in part exchange with £25,000 to Derby County for Archie Gemmill transferring to Forest. Gemmill was another Scottish former 1972 Derby title winner.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest lost only three of their first 16 league games the last of which was at Leeds United on 19 November 1977. They lost only one further game all season, the 11 March FA Cup sixth round defeat at West Bromwich Albion. Forest won the 1977–78 Football League seven-points ahead of runners-up Liverpool. Forest became one of the few teams (and the most recent team to date) to win the First Division title the season after winning promotion from the Second Division. This made Clough the third of four managers to win the English league championship with two different clubs. Forest conceded just 24 goals in 42 league games. They beat Liverpool 1–0 in the 1978 Football League Cup Final replay despite cup-tied Shilton, Gemmill and December signing David Needham missing out. Chris Woods chalked up two clean sheets in the final covering Shilton's League Cup absence. McGovern missed the replay through injury, meaning Burns lifted the trophy as deputising captain. Robertson's penalty was the only goal of the game.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest started season 1978–79 by beating Ipswich Town 5–0 for an FA Charity Shield record winning margin. In the 1978–79 European Cup they were drawn to play the trophy winners of the past two seasons, Liverpool. Home goals by Birtles and Barrett put Forest through 2–0 on aggregate. 26-year-old Barrett suffered a serious leg injury ten days later against Middlesbrough that ultimately ended his professional career two years later. On 9 December 1978, Liverpool ended Forest's 42 match unbeaten league run dating back to November the year before. The unbeaten run was the equivalent of a whole season surpassing the previous record of 35 games held by Burnley in 1920/21. The record stood until surpassed by Arsenal in August 2004, a month before Clough's death. Arsenal played 49 league games without defeat.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In February 1979, Taylor authorised the English game's first £1 million transfer signing Trevor Francis from Birmingham City. In the European Cup semi-final first leg at home against 1. FC Köln, Forest were two goals behind after 20 minutes, then scored three to edge ahead before Köln equalised to start the German second leg ahead on the away goals rule. Ian Bowyer's goal in Germany put Forest through. Günter Netzer asked afterwards, "Who is this McGovern? I have never heard of him, yet he ran the game." Forest beat Malmö 1–0 in Munich's Olympiastadion in the 1979 European Cup Final; Francis, on his European debut, scored with a back post header from Robertson's cross. Forest beat Southampton in the final 3–2 to retain the League Cup; Birtles scored twice as did Woodcock once. Forest finished second in the 1978–79 Football League, eight points behind Liverpool.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest declined to play in the home and away 1979 Intercontinental Cup against Paraguay's Club Olimpia. Forest beat F.C. Barcelona 2–1 on aggregate in the 1979 European Super Cup in January and February 1980, Charlie George scoring the only goal in the home first leg, while Burns scored an equaliser in the return in Spain. In the 1979–80 Football League Cup Forest reached a third successive final. A defensive mix up between Needham and Shilton let Wolves' Andy Gray tap in to an empty net. Forest passed up numerous chances, losing 1–0. In the 1979–80 European Cup quarter-final, Forest won 3–1 at Dinamo Berlin to overturn a 1–0 home defeat. In the semi-final they beat Ajax 2–1 on aggregate. They beat Hamburg 1–0 in the 1980 European Cup Final at Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium to retain the trophy; after 20 minutes Robertson scored, after exchanging passes with Birtles, and Forest then defended solidly. Forest finished fifth in the 1979–80 Football League.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In the 1980–81 European Cup first round, Forest lost 2–0 on aggregate to 1–0 defeats home and away by CSKA Sofia. McGovern subsequently said the double defeat by CSKA affected the team's self-confidence, in that they had lost out to modestly talented opponents. Forest lost the 1980 European Super Cup on away goals after a 2–2 aggregate draw against Valencia; Bowyer scored both Forest goals in the home first leg. On 11 February 1981, Forest lost 1–0 in the 1980 Intercontinental Cup against Uruguayan side, Club Nacional de Football. The match was played for the first time at the neutral venue National Stadium in Tokyo before 62,000 fans.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The league and European Cup winning squad was broken up to capitalise on player sale value. Clough and Taylor both later said this was a mistake. The rebuilt side comprising youngsters and signings such as Ian Wallace, Raimondo Ponte and Justin Fashanu did not challenge for trophies. Taylor said in 1982,


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Anderlecht beat Forest in the 1983–84 UEFA Cup semi-finals in controversial circumstances. Several contentious refereeing decisions went against Forest. Over a decade later, it emerged that before the match, referee Guruceta Muro had received a £27,000 "loan" from Anderlecht's chairman Constant Vanden Stock. Anderlecht went unpunished until 1997, when UEFA banned the club from European competitions for one year. Muro died in a car crash in 1987.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest beat Sheffield Wednesday on penalties in the Football League Centenary Tournament final in April 1988 after drawing 0–0. Forest finished third in the league in 1988 and made the 1987–88 FA Cup semi-finals. Stuart Pearce won the first of his five successive selections for the PFA Team of the Year.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: On 18 January 1989 Clough joined the fray of a City Ground pitch invasion by hitting two of his own team's fans when on the pitch. The football authorities responded with a fine and touchline ban for Clough. The match, against QPR in the League Cup, finished 5–2 to Forest.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest beat Everton 4–3 after extra time in the 1989 Full Members Cup final, then came back to beat Luton Town 3–1 in the 1989 Football League Cup Final. This set Forest up for a unique treble of domestic cup wins, but tragedy struck a week after the League Cup win. Forest and Liverpool met for the second season in a row in the FA Cup semi-finals. The Hillsborough disaster claimed the lives of 97 Liverpool fans. The match was abandoned after six minutes. When the emotional replay took place, Forest struggled as Liverpool won 3–1. Despite these trophy wins, and a third-place finish in the First Division, Forest were unable to compete in the UEFA Cup, as English clubs were still banned from European competitions following the Heysel Stadium Disaster. Des Walker won the first of his four successive selections for the PFA Team of the Year.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nigel Jemson scored as Forest beat Oldham Athletic 1–0 to retain the League Cup in 1990. English clubs were re-admitted to Europe for the following season, but only in limited numbers, and Forest's League Cup win again did not see them qualify. The only UEFA Cup place that season went to league runners-up Aston Villa.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Brian Clough reached his only FA Cup final in 1991 after countless replays and postponements in the third, fourth and fifth rounds. Up against Tottenham Hotspur, Forest took the lead from a Pearce free kick, but Spurs equalised to take the game to extra-time, ultimately winning 2–1 after an own goal by Walker. Roy Keane declared himself fit to play in the final and was selected in preference to Steve Hodge; years later, Keane admitted he had not actually been fit to play, hence his insignificant role in the final.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In the summer of 1991, Millwall's league top scorer Teddy Sheringham became Forest's record signing, for a fee of £2.1 million. That season, Forest beat Southampton 3–2 after extra time in the Full Members Cup final, but lost the League Cup final 1-0 to Manchester United thanks to a Brian McClair goal. This meant that Forest had played in seven domestic cup finals in five seasons, winning five of them. Forest finished eighth in the league that season to earn a place in the new FA Premier League.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Walker transferred to Sampdoria during the summer of 1992. On 16 August 1992, Forest beat Liverpool 1–0 at home in the first-ever Premier League game to be televised live, with Sheringham scoring the only goal of the match. A week later, Sheringham moved to Tottenham. Forest's form slumped, and Brian Clough's 18-year managerial reign ended in May 1993 with Forest relegated from the inaugural Premier League. The final game of that season was away at Ipswich. Forest lost 2–1 with Clough's son, Nigel, scoring the final goal of his father's reign. Relegation was followed by Keane's £3.75 million British record fee transfer to Manchester United.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Frank Clark from Forest's 1979 European Cup winning team returned to the club in May 1993 succeeding Brian Clough as manager. Clark's previous greatest management success was promotion from the Fourth Division with Leyton Orient in 1989. Clark convinced Stuart Pearce to remain at the club and also signed Stan Collymore, Lars Bohinen and Colin Cooper. Clark brought immediate return to the Premier League when the club finished Division One runners-up at the end of the 1993–94 season.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest finished third in 1994–95 and qualified for the UEFA Cup – their first entry to European competition in the post-Heysel era. Collymore then transferred in the 1995–96 close season to Liverpool for a national record fee of £8.5million. Forest reached the 1995–96 UEFA Cup quarter-finals, the furthest an English team reached in UEFA competition that season. They finished ninth in the league.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: 34-year-old captain Stuart Pearce was installed as player-manager on a temporary basis just before Christmas in 1996 and he inspired a brief upturn in the club's fortunes. However, in March 1997 he was replaced on a permanent basis by Dave Bassett and left the club that summer after 12 years. Forest were unable to avoid relegation and finished the season in bottom place. They won promotion back to the Premier League at the first attempt, being crowned Division One champions in 1997–98. Bassett was sacked in January 1999, with Ron Atkinson replacing him.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Ron Atkinson was unable to prevent Forest from once again slipping back into Division One, and announced his retirement from football management when Forest's relegation was confirmed on 24 April 1999, with three weeks of the Premier League season still to play.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Former England captain David Platt succeeded Atkinson and spent approximately £12 million on players in the space of two seasons, including the Italian veterans Moreno Mannini, Salvatore Matrecano and Gianluca Petrachi. However, Forest could only finish 14th in Platt's first season and 11th in his second. He departed in July 2001 to manage the England U21 side and was succeeded by youth team manager Paul Hart.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Joe Kinnear was subsequently appointed and led the club to a secure 14th place in the final league table. The 2004–05 season saw Forest drop into the relegation zone once more, leading to Kinnear's resignation in December 2004. Mick Harford took temporary charge of Forest over Christmas, before Gary Megson was appointed in the new year. Megson had already won two promotions to the Premier League with his previous club West Bromwich Albion, having arrived at the club when they were in danger of going down to Division Two, but failed to stave off relegation as the club ended the season second from bottom in 23rd place, becoming the first European Cup-winners ever to fall into their domestic third division.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In Forest's first season in the English third tier in 54 years, a 3–0 defeat at Oldham Athletic in February 2006 led to the departure of Megson by "mutual consent" leaving the club mid-table only four points above the relegation zone. Frank Barlow and Ian McParland took temporary charge for the remainder of the 2005–06 season, engineering a six-match winning run and remaining unbeaten in ten games, the most notable result a 7–1 win over Swindon Town. Forest took 28 points from a possible 39 under the two, narrowly missing out on a play-off place, as they finished in 7th place.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Colin Calderwood, previously of Northampton Town, was appointed as Forest's new manager in May 2006. He was their 12th new manager to be appointed since the retirement of Brian Clough 13 years earlier, and went on to become Forest's longest-serving manager since Frank Clark. The Calderwood era was ultimately one of rebuilding, and included the club's first promotion in a decade. In his first season, he led the club to the play-offs, having squandered a 7-point lead at the top of League One which had been amassed by November 2006. Forest eventually succumbed to a shock 5–4 aggregate defeat in the semi-finals against Yeovil Town; they had taken a 2–0 lead in the first leg at Huish Park, but were then beaten 5–2 on their own soil by the Somerset club. Calderwood achieved automatic promotion in his second year at the club, following an impressive run which saw Forest win six out of their last seven games of the season, culminating in a dramatic final 3–2 win against Yeovil Town at the City Ground. Forest kept a league record of 24 clean sheets out of 46 games, proving to be the foundation for their return to the second tier of English football and leaving them just one more promotion away from a return to the Premier League.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: However, Calderwood's side struggled to adapt to life in the Championship in the 2008–09 campaign and having been unable to steer Forest out of the relegation zone, Calderwood was sacked following a Boxing Day 4–2 defeat to the Championship's bottom club Doncaster Rovers.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Under the temporary stewardship of John Pemberton, Forest finally climbed out of the relegation zone, having beaten Norwich City 3–2. Billy Davies, who had taken Forest's local rivals Derby County into the Premier League two seasons earlier, was confirmed as the new manager on 1 January 2009 and watched Pemberton's side beat Manchester City 3–0 away in the FA Cup, prior to taking official charge. Under Davies, Forest stretched their unbeaten record in all competitions following Calderwood's sacking to six matches, including five wins. He also helped them avoid relegation as they finished 19th in the Championship, securing survival with one game to go.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest spent most of the 2009–10 campaign in a top-three position, putting together an unbeaten run of 19 league games, winning 12 home league games in a row (a club record for successive home wins in a single season), going unbeaten away from home from the beginning of the season until 30 January 2010 (a run spanning 13 games) whilst also claiming memorable home victories over local rivals Derby County and Leicester City. The club finished third, missing out on automatic promotion, and in the two-legged play-off semi-final were beaten by Blackpool, 2–1 away and 4–3 in the home leg, the club's first defeat at home since losing to the same opposition in September 2009.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The 2010–11 season saw Forest finish in sixth place in the Championship table with 75 points, putting them into a play-off campaign for the fourth time in the space of eight years. Promotion was yet again to elude Forest, as they were beaten over two legs by eventual play-off final winners Swansea City. Having drawn the first leg 0–0 at the City Ground, they were eventually beaten 3–1 in the second leg.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In June 2011, Billy Davies had his contract terminated, and was replaced as manager by Steve McClaren, who signed a three-year contract. Forest started the 2011–12 season with several poor results and after a 5–1 defeat away to Burnley, David Pleat and Bill Beswick left the club's coaching setup. Less than a week later, following a home defeat to Birmingham City, McClaren resigned, and chairman Nigel Doughty announced that he intended to resign at the end of the season. In October 2011, Nottingham Forest underwent several changes. These changes included the appointment of Frank Clark as new chairman of the club and also that of Steve Cotterill, replacing the recently departed Steve McClaren.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The Al-Hasawi family from Kuwait purchased the club in July 2012. They told the press that they had a long-term vision for the club based on a 3–5 year plan, and after interviewing several potential new managers, appointed Sean O'Driscoll, formerly the manager at Doncaster Rovers and Crawley Town, as the manager on 19 July 2012. He was known for playing an attractive brand of passing football (which had taken Doncaster Rovers into the league's second tier for the first time since the 1950s) and what football fans would consider the Forest way. O'Driscoll had spent five months at the City Ground as coach under Steve Cotterill in the 2011–12 season.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: By 15 December 2012, after the team's 0–0 draw away to Brighton, Forest sat in ninth position with 33 points, just three points off the play-off positions. On the same weekend, the club announced that Omar Al-Hasawi had stepped down due to personal reasons and Fawaz Al-Hasawi, the majority shareholder with 75% had taken the position, with his brother Abdulaziz Al-Hasawi holding a 20% share and his cousin Omar Al-Hasawi holding a 5% share.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: On 26 December 2012, Driscoll was sacked following a 4–2 victory over Leeds United with the club stating their intentions of a change ahead of the January transfer window and hopes of appointing a manager with Premier League experience, eventually hiring Alex McLeish. Chief executive Mark Arthur as well as scout Keith Burt and club ambassador Frank Clark were dismissed in January 2013. On 5 February 2013, Forest and McLeish parted company by mutual agreement after 40 days of cooperation. Forest supporters and pundits alike registered their concern for the state of the club, with journalist Pat Murphy describing the situation as a "shambles".


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Two days after McLeish's departure, the club re-appointed Billy Davies as manager, having been sacked as the team's manager twenty months previously. His first match in charge was a draw, followed by a run of 10 undefeated games. In March 2014, the club terminated Davies's employment, following a 5–0 defeat by Derby County. After initially rejecting the job in March 2014, fans favourite Stuart Pearce was named the man to replace Billy Davies, taking over from caretaker manager Gary Brazil. He signed a two-year contract commencing on 1 July 2014. Pearce led Forest to an unbeaten start to the season but failed to keep up the form. He was sacked in February 2015 and replaced by another former Forest player, Dougie Freedman.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Another mid-table finish meant that Forest began the 2015–16 season still in the Championship and now in their 17th season away from the Premier League. On 13 March 2016, Freedman was sacked, following a 3–0 defeat at home to Sheffield Wednesday, and Paul Williams was then appointed as temporary manager. Former Boulogne, Valenciennes, Real Sociedad, and Rennes head coach Philippe Montanier was appointed on a two-year contract on 27 June 2016 becoming the club's first manager from outside the British isles, but was sacked after fewer than seven months in charge. Mark Warburton was named as the club's new manager on 14 March 2017. Forest narrowly avoided relegation on the final day of the 2016–17 season, where a 3–0 home victory against Ipswich Town ensured their safety at the expense of Blackburn Rovers.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: On 18 May 2017, Evangelos Marinakis completed his takeover of Nottingham Forest, bringing an end to Al-Hasawi's reign as Forest owner. Incumbent manager Mark Warburton was sacked on 31 December 2017 following a 1–0 home defeat to struggling Sunderland, with a record of one win in seven. He was replaced by Spaniard Aitor Karanka, who arrived on 8 January 2018, immediately after caretaker manager Gary Brazil had masterminded a 4–2 home win over holders Arsenal in the third round of the FA Cup. Karanka made 10 new signings during the January transfer window, and following a 17th-place finish, he made 14 new signings during the summer transfer window and the following season results improved. Despite a strong league position, Karanka left his position on 11 January 2019 after requesting to be released from his contract. He was replaced with former Republic of Ireland boss Martin O'Neill four days later. O'Neill was sacked in June after reportedly falling out with some of the senior first team players, and was replaced with Sabri Lamouchi on the same day. In Lamouchi's first season in charge, despite spending most of the season in the playoffs, Forest dropped to seventh place on the final day. On 6 October 2020, Lamouchi was sacked by the club following a poor start to the 2020–21 season. He was replaced by former Brighton manager Chris Hughton. After an ultimately unsuccessful 11 months in charge, Hughton was sacked on 16 September 2021 after failing to win any of the club's opening seven games of the 2021–22 season.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest chairman Nicholas Randall had initially promised that Forest planned to return to playing European football within five seasons, and yet poor transfers and a toxic club culture meant that Forest remained in the Championship four years into the Marinakis era. In the summer of 2021, structural changes were made at the club to try and correct the previous mistakes. Forest appointed Dane Murphy as Chief Executive, and George Syrianos was brought in as head of recruitment to bring about a more analytics driven transfer policy. The Forest hierarchy committed to avoiding the "short-termism" of previous windows by no longer signing players for more than £18,000 a week and mostly targeting younger signings that could be sold for a profit.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: On 21 September 2021, Forest announced the appointment of Steve Cooper as the club's new head coach. Cooper inspired a turnaround in form, arriving with the club in last place yet having them in 7th at Christmas, and all the way up in 4th by the end of the season, qualifying Forest for the playoffs for the first time since the 2010–11 season. In the 2022 Championship play-off semi-final, Forest defeated Sheffield United on penalties to advance to the final against Huddersfield Town, who they beat 1–0 at Wembley Stadium, and were promoted to the Premier League for the first time since the 1998–99 season. Having entered the Premier League with a depleted squad after the promotion, in the leadup to the next season Forest signed 21 players for the first team squad. This was a British transfer record. The club record fee was also broken multiple times and the last such occasion in the transfer window was when Morgan Gibbs-White joined the club for £25 million with a potential to rise to £42 million subject to performance.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Nottingham Forest have worn red since the club's foundation in 1865. At the meeting in the Clinton Arms which established Nottingham Forest as a football club, the committee also passed a resolution that the team colours should be 'Garibaldi red'. This decision was made in honour of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian patriot who was the leader of the redshirts volunteers. At this time, clubs identified themselves more by their headgear than their shirts and a dozen red caps with tassels were duly purchased, making Forest the first club to 'officially' wear red, a colour that has since been adopted by a significant number of others. Forest's kit is the reason behind Arsenal's choice of red, the club having donated a full set of red kits to Arsenal following their foundation (as Woolwich Arsenal) in 1886. Forest's tour of South America in 1905 inspired Argentine club Independiente to adopt red as their club colour, after club's President Arístides Langone described the tourists as looking like "diablos rojos" ("red devils"), which would become Independiente's nickname.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The first club crest used by Forest was the city arms of Nottingham, which was first used on kits in 1947. The current club badge was introduced in 1974. The logo has been reported as being the brainchild of manager Brian Clough. However, he did not arrive at the club until the following year. Forest have two stars above the club badge to commemorate their European Cup victories in 1979 and 1980.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In March 1973, a competition was announced to design a new badge for Forest. The winning design was by Trent Polytechnic graphic design lecturer David Lewis. Lewis entered his design using his mother's maiden name in order to maintain anonymity, as one of the five judges was W. Payne, Associate Head of the Graphics Department at the polytechnic where Lewis taught. David Lewis also designed the Nottinghamshire County Council logo.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The club has garnered many nicknames over time. Historically, the nickname of "Foresters" was used, as was "Garibaldis". "The Forest" or the simpler "Forest" – as used on the club crest – is commonly used, as is "the Reds". Another, lesser-used, nickname referring to the club is the "Tricky Trees".


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Since 1898 Nottingham Forest have played their home games at the City Ground in West Bridgford, on the banks of the River Trent. Prior to moving to the City Ground, Forest played their home games at Forest Recreation Ground, then Trent Bridge, and finally the purpose-built Town Ground. Since 1994 the City Ground has been all-seater, a preparation that was made in time for the ground to be a venue for Euro 96, and currently has a capacity of 30,445.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: The City Ground is 300 yards away from Notts County's Meadow Lane stadium on the opposite side of the Trent, meaning the two grounds are the closest professional football stadia geographically in England. In 1898 the City Ground was within the boundaries of Nottingham, which had been given city status the year before and gave rise to the name of the stadium, however a boundary change in the 1950s means that the City Ground now stands just outside of the city's boundaries in the town of West Bridgford.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: On 28 February 2019 Nottingham Forest announced plans to redevelop the City Ground and surrounding area, including the "creation of a new, world-class Peter Taylor Stand". It is expected this will increase the capacity of the stadium to 38,000, making it the largest football stadium in the East Midlands. The club were hopeful that building work could begin at the end of the 2019-20 season, but the development was put on hold due to "delays in the planning process". In September 2022, Rushcliffe Borough Council's planning committee approved the club's request for planning permission, with work on the new stand expected to begin at the end of the 2022-23 season.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Whilst Notts County is the closest professional football club geographically, Forest have remained at least one division higher since the 1994–95 season and the club's fiercest rivalry is with Derby County, located 14 miles away. The rivalry stems from the 1898 FA Cup Final when Forest caused a major upset, beating strong favourites Derby County 3-1. The two clubs contest the East Midlands derby, a fixture which has taken on even greater significance since the inception of the Brian Clough Trophy in 2007. The Trophy will remain with Nottingham Forest until at least August 2023, with the teams now separated by two divisions.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Leicester City were widely considered to be Forest's main East Midlands rivals prior to Brian Clough's success at both Derby and Forest. The ferocity is now most fiercely felt by fans who live around the Leicestershire-Nottinghamshire border.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: Forest's other regional rival is Sheffield United, based in the neighbouring county of South Yorkshire, a rivalry which has roots in the UK miners' strike of 1984–85 when the miners of South Yorkshire walked out on long strikes but some Nottinghamshire miners, who insisted on holding a ballot, continued to work. The 2003 Football League Championship Play-off semi-final between the two clubs, in which Sheffield United finished as 5–4 aggregate winners, also fuelled the rivalry.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: † By agreement with Leicester City, the game was a replay as the original match three weeks previous was abandoned at half time, due to the collapse of Leicester player Clive Clarke, with Forest leading 1–0.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: ‡ Forest received £14,000,000 from Aston Villa for Matty Cash, but with add-on's this fee could potentially rise to £16,000,000.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In 1997 and 1998, as part of the release of the book "The Official History of Nottingham Forest", a vote was carried out to decide on the club's official All Time XI.


title: Nottingham Forest F.C.

text: In 2016, Nottingham Forest season ticket holders voted for the club's greatest eleven to commemorate the club's 150th anniversary.


title: Watts family murders

text: In the early hours of August 13, 2018, in Frederick, Colorado, American oil field operator Christopher Lee Watts (born May 16, 1985) murdered his pregnant wife Shanann (34) by strangulation, and their two children Bella (4) and Celeste (3) by smothering them. He buried Shanann in a shallow grave near an oil-storage facility, and dumped his children's bodies into crude oil tanks. Watts initially maintained his innocence in his family’s disappearance, but was arrested on August 15 after confessing to murdering Shanann in an interview with detectives. He later admitted to murdering his children.


title: Watts family murders

text: On November 6, 2018, Watts pleaded guilty to multiple counts of first-degree murder as part of a plea deal when the death penalty (which was later abolished in Colorado in 2020) was removed from sentencing. He was sentenced to five life sentences without the possibility of parole, three to be served consecutively.


title: Watts family murders

text: Christopher Lee Watts and Shanann Cathryn Watts (née Rzucek, January 10, 1984 – August 13, 2018) were from North Carolina: Christopher from Spring Lake and Shanann from Aberdeen. They met in 2010 and were married in Mecklenburg County on November 3, 2012, according to online records. The couple had two daughters: Bella Marie Watts (December 17, 2013 – August 13, 2018) and Celeste Cathryn "CeCe" Watts (July 17, 2015 – August 13, 2018). At the time of her death, Shanann was 15 weeks pregnant with a son who was to be named Nico.


title: Watts family murders

text: The Watts family lived in a five-bedroom home at 2825 Saratoga Trail in Frederick, Colorado, which they purchased in 2013, and declared bankruptcy in 2015. Christopher was employed by Anadarko Petroleum, while Shanann worked from home selling a product called Thrive for the multi-level marketing company Le-Vel.


title: Watts family murders

text: At approximately 1:48 am on Monday August 13, 2018, Shanann, returning from a business trip to Arizona, was driven home by her friend and colleague Nickole Utoft Atkinson. Over that weekend Watts was home with their daughters. Later that day, Shanann and the girls were reported missing by Atkinson, who became concerned when Shanann missed a scheduled obstetrics and gynecology appointment and failed to return her text messages. After Shanann missed a business meeting, Atkinson went to the Watts residence at about 12:10 pm. When the doorbell and knocks went unanswered, Atkinson notified Christopher, who was at work, and called the Frederick Police Department.


title: Watts family murders

text: A Frederick police officer arrived to conduct a welfare check at about 1:40 pm. During the welfare check, Christopher gave the police officer permission to search the house, where the family dog was discovered unharmed, but no sign of Shanann or the girls was found. Searchers discovered Shanann's purse containing her keys and the children's medicine. Her phone was later located between the couch cushions in the family home. Her car, which still contained the girls' car seats, was in the garage. Shanann's wedding ring was found on the bedside table.


title: Watts family murders

text: The FBI and the Colorado Bureau of Investigation (CBI) joined the investigation the next day. Watts initially told police that he had no idea where his family might be and that he had not seen his wife since 5:15 am the previous day, when he left for work. He gave interviews to Denver stations KMGH-TV and KUSA-TV outside the house, pleading for the return of his wife and daughters. Investigators with search dogs could be heard on the property during the interview.


title: Watts family murders

text: Watts was arrested on August 15, 2018. According to the arrest affidavit and footage from a security camera in the interview room, he failed a polygraph test and subsequently confessed to murdering Shanann. He asked to speak to his father before confessing. According to the affidavit, Watts was having an affair and claimed he asked for a separation from Shanann. During the investigation, he claimed Shanann had strangled the girls in response to his request for separation and that he had then strangled her in a fit of rage and transported the bodies to a remote oil-storage site leased by his employer, Anadarko Petroleum.


title: Watts family murders

text: Watts was fired by the company on August 15, the day of his arrest. The authorities located the bodies of the Watts family on the oil-storage site, situated approximately 3 miles north of Roggen, on August 16. The girls' bodies were found in crude oil storage tanks, while Shanann was buried in a shallow grave nearby. Bella and Celeste's bodies had each been pushed through a hatch at the top of a different oil tank, with the lid being 8 inches in diameter. According to the medical examiner, "Bella had scratches on her left buttock from being shoved through this hole. A tuft of blonde hair was found on the edge of one of these hatches."


title: Watts family murders

text: On August 21, Watts was charged with three counts of first-degree murder, including an additional one count per child cited as "death of a child who had not yet attained 12 years of age and the defendant was in a position of trust", unlawful termination of a pregnancy, and three counts of tampering with a deceased human body. He was denied bail at his first court appearance. At a later hearing, his bail was set at $5 million, with him being required to put down 15% to be released.


title: Watts family murders

text: The case has been connected in the media to the crime of family annihilation (familicide). Many of these crimes occur in August, before school starts, which may delay detection and investigation. According to former FBI profiler Candice DeLong, cases such as the Watts' are rare because "family annihilators usually commit suicide after the murders", an action that Watts claimed to have contemplated out of guilt for his actions.


title: Watts family murders

text: In an interview on "Dr. Phil", Watts's lawyer claimed that he confessed to killing Shanann after an argument regarding divorce. During the murder, Bella walked in on the couple. Watts then told her that Shanann was sick. He loaded Shanann's body and the girls, without their car seats, into the back seat of his work truck. He later smothered the girls, one after the other.


title: Watts family murders

text: Watts pleaded guilty to the murders on November 6. The death penalty was not put forward by the district attorney on the request of Shanann's family, who did not wish for any further deaths. They were supportive of his decision to accept the plea deal. On November 19, he was sentenced to five life sentences—three consecutive and two concurrent—without the possibility of parole. He received an additional 48 years for the unlawful termination of Shanann's pregnancy and 36 years for three charges of tampering with a deceased body. His sentence began immediately.


title: Watts family murders

text: On December 3, 2018, Watts was moved to an out-of-state location due to "security concerns". On December 5, he arrived at Dodge Correctional Institution, a maximum-security prison in Waupun, Wisconsin, to continue serving his life sentences.


title: Watts family murders

text: On a December 2018 episode of the ABC News series "20/20", Shanann's parents were interviewed for the first time since the murders. HLN aired a special report that same month titled "Family Massacre: Chris Watts Exposed", in which footage of Watts from police body cameras and security cameras in the police station's interview room were revealed. In a recorded interview released by the CBI with Christopher's girlfriend, she revealed his behavioral changes in the days prior to the murders.


title: Watts family murders

text: On a December 2018 episode of the American talk show "Dr. Phil", Phil McGraw consulted with four crime experts: former prosecutor and TV journalist Nancy Grace, former FBI profiler Candice DeLong, law enforcement consultant Steve Kardian, and body language expert Susan Constantine. The experts analyzed the motivation, secret life, and profiling of Watts. On a January 2019 episode of the talk show "The Dr. Oz Show", commentary is provided on his case by the neighbor who helped build the case against him, who is interviewed in-studio.


title: Watts family murders

text: In June 2021, "Inside Edition" reported further confessions from Chris Watts to a pen pal. In multiple letters, Watts explained that he had planned the murder for several weeks and that the oxycontin found in Shanann's system was given to her by him, hoping to end her pregnancy because he believed that would make it easier for him to be with his girlfriend. He also offered new details about the murder of his daughters: he tried to smother them in their beds at home, but failed.


title: Watts family murders

text: On December 7, 2019, Oxygen released a one hour documentary about the case as the first episode of series three of their television program Criminal Confessions.


title: Watts family murders

text: On January 26, 2020, Lifetime released a film called "Chris Watts: Confessions of a Killer" as part of its "Ripped from the Headlines" feature film series. It stars Sean Kleier as Christopher Watts and Ashley Williams as Shanann. Shanann's family spoke out against the film, stating that they had not been consulted about it and were not aware of its making until it was already in production. They have also said they are not making any money from it and fear that it will only increase the harassment online that they had already been receiving.


title: Watts family murders

text: On September 30, 2020, Netflix released "", a documentary about the murders. The documentary features archival footage including home videos, social media posts, text messages, and law enforcement recordings.


title: Apartheid

text: Apartheid (, , ; , "aparthood") was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. Apartheid was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on "baasskap" (boss-hood or boss-ship), which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation's minority white population. According to this system of social stratification, white citizens had the highest status, followed by Indians and Coloureds, then black Africans. The economic legacy and social effects of apartheid continue to the present day.


title: Apartheid

text: Broadly speaking, apartheid was delineated into "petty apartheid", which entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, and "grand apartheid", which dictated housing and employment opportunities by race. The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949, followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950, which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines. The Population Registration Act, 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle: "Black", "White", "Coloured", and "Indian", the last two of which included several sub-classifications. Places of residence were determined by racial classification. Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million black Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods as a result of apartheid legislation, in some of the largest mass evictions in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the black population to ten designated "tribal homelands", also known as "bantustans", four of which became nominally independent states. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans.


title: Apartheid

text: Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the 20th century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about extensive arms and trade embargoes on South Africa. During the 1970s and 1980s, internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant, prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party government and protracted sectarian violence that left thousands dead or in detention. Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and Coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed to appease most activist groups.


title: Apartheid

text: Between 1987 and 1993, the National Party entered into bilateral negotiations with the African National Congress (ANC), the leading anti-apartheid political movement, for ending segregation and introducing majority rule. In 1990, prominent ANC figures such as Nelson Mandela were released from prison. Apartheid legislation was repealed on 17 June 1991, leading to multiracial elections in April 1994.


title: Apartheid

text: "Apartheid" is an Afrikaans word meaning "separateness", or "the state of being apart", literally "apart-hood" (from the Afrikaans suffix "-heid"). Its first recorded use was in 1929.


title: Apartheid

text: Racial discrimination and inequality against blacks in South Africa dates to the beginning of large-scale European colonization of South Africa with the Dutch East India Company's establishment of a trading post in the Cape of Good Hope in 1652, which eventually expanded into the Dutch Cape Colony. The Company began the Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars in which it displaced the local Khoikhoi people, replaced them with farms worked by white settlers, and imported black slaves from across the Dutch Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters.


title: Apartheid

text: In 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi (designated as "Hottentots") moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. This was confirmed by the British Colonial government in 1809 by the Hottentot Proclamation, which decreed that if a Khoikhoi were to move they would need a pass from their master or a local official. Ordinance No. 49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the sole purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi but not for other Africans, who were still forced to carry passes.


title: Apartheid

text: During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire captured and annexed the Dutch Cape Colony. Under the 1806 Cape Articles of Capitulation the new British colonial rulers were required to respect previous legislation enacted under Roman-Dutch law, and this led to a separation of the law in South Africa from English Common Law and a high degree of legislative autonomy. The governors and assemblies that governed the legal process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire.


title: Apartheid

text: The United Kingdom's Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act, the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835, which effectively changed the status of slaves to indentured labourers. This was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery.


title: Apartheid

text: The various South African colonies passed legislation throughout the rest of the 19th century to limit the freedom of unskilled workers, to increase the restrictions on indentured workers and to regulate the relations between the races. The discoveries of diamonds and gold in South Africa also raised racial inequality between whites and blacks.


title: Apartheid

text: In the Cape Colony, which previously had a liberal and multi-racial constitution and a system of Cape Qualified Franchise open to men of all races, the Franchise and Ballot Act of 1892 raised the property franchise qualification and added an educational element, disenfranchising a disproportionate number of the Cape's non-white voters, and the Glen Grey Act of 1894 instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold. Similarly, in Natal, the Natal Legislative Assembly Bill of 1894 deprived Indians of the right to vote. In 1896 the South African Republic brought in two pass laws requiring Africans to carry a badge. Only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand, and those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass. During the Second Boer War the British Empire used racial exploitation of blacks as a cause for its war against the Boer republics. However, the peace negotiations for the Treaty of Vereeniging demanded "the just predominance of the white race" in South Africa as a precondition for the Boer republics unifying with the British Empire.


title: Apartheid

text: In 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote and limited them to fixed areas, and in 1906 the Asiatic Registration Act of the Transvaal Colony required all Indians to register and carry passes. Beginning in 1906 the South African Native Affairs Commission under Godfrey Lagden began implementing a more openly segregationist policy towards nonwhites. The latter was repealed by the British government but re-enacted in 1908. In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created as a self-governing dominion, which continued the legislative program: the South Africa Act (1910) enfranchised white people, giving them complete political control over all other racial groups while removing the right of black people to sit in parliament; the Native Land Act (1913) prevented blacks, except those in the Cape, from buying land outside "reserves"; the Natives in Urban Areas Bill (1918) was designed to force black people into "locations"; the Urban Areas Act (1923) introduced residential segregation and provided cheap labour for industry led by white people; the Colour Bar Act (1926) prevented black mine workers from practicing skilled trades; the Native Administration Act (1927) made the British Crown rather than paramount chiefs the supreme head over all African affairs; the Native Land and Trust Act (1936) complemented the 1913 Native Land Act and, in the same year, the Representation of Natives Act removed previous black voters from the Cape voters' roll and allowed them to elect three whites to Parliament.


title: Apartheid

text: The United Party government of Jan Smuts began to move away from the rigid enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II, but faced growing opposition from Afrikaner nationalists who wanted stricter segregation. Post-war, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Smuts' government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill (1946), which banned land sales to Indians and Indian descendent South Africans. The same year, the government established the Fagan Commission. Amid fears integration would eventually lead to racial assimilation, the Opposition Herenigde Nasionale Party (HNP) established the Sauer Commission to investigate the effects of the United Party's policies. The commission concluded that integration would bring about a "loss of personality" for all racial groups. The HNP incorporated the commission’s findings into its campaign platform for the 1948 South African general election, which it won.


title: Apartheid

text: South Africa had allowed social custom and law to govern the consideration of multiracial affairs and of the allocation, in racial terms, of access to economic, social, and political status. Most white South Africans, regardless of their own differences, accepted the prevailing pattern. Nevertheless, by 1948 it remained apparent that there were gaps in the social structure, whether legislated or otherwise, concerning the rights and opportunities of nonwhites. The rapid economic development of World War II attracted black migrant workers in large numbers to chief industrial centres, where they compensated for the wartime shortage of white labour. However, this escalated rate of black urbanisation went unrecognised by the South African government, which failed to accommodate the influx with parallel expansion in housing or social services. Overcrowding, increasing crime rates, and disillusionment resulted; urban blacks came to support a new generation of leaders influenced by the principles of self-determination and popular freedoms enshrined in such statements as the Atlantic Charter. Black political organizations and leaders such as Alfred Xuma, James Mpanza, the African National Congress, and the Council of Non-European Trade Unions began demanding political rights, land reform, and the right to unionise.


title: Apartheid

text: Whites reacted negatively to the changes, allowing the Herenigde Nasionale Party (or simply the National Party) to convince a large segment of the voting bloc that the impotence of the United Party in curtailing the evolving position of nonwhites indicated that the organisation had fallen under the influence of Western liberals. Many Afrikaners resented what they perceived as disempowerment by an underpaid black workforce and the superior economic power and prosperity of white English speakers. Smuts, as a strong advocate of the United Nations, lost domestic support when South Africa was criticised for its colour bar and the continued mandate of South West Africa by other UN member states.


title: Apartheid

text: Afrikaner nationalists proclaimed that they offered the voters a new policy to ensure continued white domination. This policy was initially expounded from a theory drafted by Hendrik Verwoerd and was presented to the National Party by the Sauer Commission. It called for a systematic effort to organise the relations, rights, and privileges of the races as officially defined through a series of parliamentary acts and administrative decrees. Segregation had thus far been pursued only in major matters, such as separate schools, and local society rather than law had been depended upon to enforce most separation; it should now be extended to everything. The Commission's goal was to completely remove blacks from areas designated for whites, including cities, with the exception of temporary migrant labor. Blacks would then be encouraged to create their own political units in land reserved for them. The party gave this policy a name"apartheid". Apartheid was to be the basic ideological and practical foundation of Afrikaner politics for the next quarter of a century.


title: Apartheid

text: The National Party's election platform stressed that apartheid would preserve a market for white employment in which nonwhites could not compete. On the issues of black urbanisation, the regulation of nonwhite labour, influx control, social security, farm tariffs and nonwhite taxation, the United Party's policy remained contradictory and confused. Its traditional bases of support not only took mutually exclusive positions, but found themselves increasingly at odds with each other. Smuts' reluctance to consider South African foreign policy against the mounting tensions of the Cold War also stirred up discontent, while the nationalists promised to purge the state and public service of communist sympathisers.


title: Apartheid

text: First to desert the United Party were Afrikaner farmers, who wished to see a change in influx control due to problems with squatters, as well as higher prices for their maize and other produce in the face of the mineowners' demand for cheap food policies. Always identified with the affluent and capitalist, the party also failed to appeal to its working class constituents.


title: Apartheid

text: Populist rhetoric allowed the National Party to sweep eight constituencies in the mining and industrial centres of the Witwatersrand and five more in Pretoria. Barring the predominantly English-speaking landowner electorate of the Natal, the United Party was defeated in almost every rural district. Its urban losses in the nation's most populous province, the Transvaal, proved equally devastating. As the voting system was disproportionately weighted in favour of rural constituencies and the Transvaal in particular, the 1948 election catapulted the Herenigde Nasionale Party from a small minority party to a commanding position with an eight-vote parliamentary lead. Daniel François Malan became the first nationalist prime minister, with the aim of implementing the apartheid philosophy and silencing liberal opposition.


title: Apartheid

text: When the National Party came to power in 1948, there were factional differences in the party about the implementation of systemic racial segregation. The "baasskap" (white domination or supremacist) faction, which was the dominant faction in the NP, and state institutions, favoured systematic segregation, but also favoured the participation of black Africans in the economy with black labour controlled to advance the economic gains of Afrikaners. A second faction were the "purists", who believed in "vertical segregation", in which blacks and whites would be entirely separated, with blacks living in native reserves, with separate political and economic structures, which, they believed, would entail severe short-term pain, but would also lead to independence of white South Africa from black labour in the long term. A third faction, which included Hendrik Verwoerd, sympathised with the purists, but allowed for the use of black labour, while implementing the purist goal of vertical separation. Verwoerd would refer to this policy as a policy of "good neighbourliness" as a means of justifying such segregation.


title: Apartheid

text: NP leaders argued that South Africa did not comprise a single nation, but was made up of four distinct racial groups: white, black, Coloured and Indian. Such groups were split into 13 nations or racial federations. White people encompassed the English and Afrikaans language groups; the black populace was divided into ten such groups.


title: Apartheid

text: The state passed laws that paved the way for "grand apartheid", which was centred on separating races on a large scale, by compelling people to live in separate places defined by race. This strategy was in part adopted from "left-over" British rule that separated different racial groups after they took control of the Boer republics in the Anglo-Boer war. This created the black-only "townships" or "locations", where blacks were relocated to their own towns. As the NP government's minister of native affairs from 1950, Hendrik Verwoerd had a significant role in crafting such laws, which led to him being regarded as the 'Architect of Apartheid'. In addition, "petty apartheid" laws were passed. The principal apartheid laws were as follows.


title: Apartheid

text: The first grand apartheid law was the Population Registration Act of 1950, which formalised racial classification and introduced an identity card for all persons over the age of 18, specifying their racial group. Official teams or boards were established to come to a conclusion on those people whose race was unclear. This caused difficulty, especially for Coloured people, separating their families when members were allocated different races.


title: Apartheid

text: The second pillar of grand apartheid was the Group Areas Act of 1950. Until then, most settlements had people of different races living side by side. This Act put an end to diverse areas and determined where one lived according to race. Each race was allotted its own area, which was used in later years as a basis of forced removal. The Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act of 1951 allowed the government to demolish black shanty town slums and forced white employers to pay for the construction of housing for those black workers who were permitted to reside in cities otherwise reserved for whites. The Native Laws Amendment Act, 1952 centralised and tightened pass laws so that blacks could not stay in urban areas longer than 72 hours without a permit.


title: Apartheid

text: The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 prohibited marriage between persons of different races, and the Immorality Act of 1950 made sexual relations with a person of a different race a criminal offence.


title: Apartheid

text: Under the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act of 1953, municipal grounds could be reserved for a particular race, creating, among other things, separate beaches, buses, hospitals, schools and universities. Signboards such as "whites only" applied to public areas, even including park benches. Black South Africans were provided with services greatly inferior to those of whites, and, to a lesser extent, to those of Indian and Coloured people.


title: Apartheid

text: Further laws had the aim of suppressing resistance, especially armed resistance, to apartheid. The Suppression of Communism Act of 1950 banned the Communist Party of South Africa and any party subscribing to Communism. The act defined Communism and its aims so sweepingly that anyone who opposed government policy risked being labelled as a Communist. Since the law specifically stated that Communism aimed to disrupt racial harmony, it was frequently used to gag opposition to apartheid. Disorderly gatherings were banned, as were certain organisations that were deemed threatening to the government. It also empowered the Ministry of Justice to impose banning orders.


title: Apartheid

text: After the Defiance Campaign, the government used the act for the mass arrests and banning of leaders of dissent groups such as the African National Congress (ANC), the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). After the release of the Freedom Charter, 156 leaders of these groups were charged in the 1956 Treason Trial. It established censorship of film, literature, and the media under the Customs and Excise Act 1955 and the Official Secrets Act 1956. The same year, the Native Administration Act 1956 allowed the government to banish blacks.


title: Apartheid

text: The Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 created separate government structures for blacks and whites and was the first piece of legislation to support the government's plan of separate development in the bantustans. The Bantu Education Act, 1953 established a separate education system for blacks emphasizing African culture and vocational training under the Ministry of Native Affairs and defunded most mission schools. The Promotion of Black Self-Government Act of 1959 entrenched the NP policy of nominally independent "homelands" for blacks. So-called "self–governing Bantu units" were proposed, which would have devolved administrative powers, with the promise later of autonomy and self-government. It also abolished the seats of white representatives of black South Africans and removed from the rolls the few blacks still qualified to vote. The Bantu Investment Corporation Act of 1959 set up a mechanism to transfer capital to the homelands to create employment there. Legislation of 1967 allowed the government to stop industrial development in "white" cities and redirect such development to the "homelands". The Black Homeland Citizenship Act of 1970 marked a new phase in the Bantustan strategy. It changed the status of blacks to citizens of one of the ten autonomous territories. The aim was to ensure a demographic majority of white people within South Africa by having all ten Bantustans achieve full independence.


title: Apartheid

text: The government tightened pass laws compelling blacks to carry identity documents, to prevent the immigration of blacks from other countries. To reside in a city, blacks had to be in employment there. Until 1956 women were for the most part excluded from these "pass" requirements, as attempts to introduce "pass laws" for women were met with fierce resistance.


title: Apartheid

text: In 1950, D. F. Malan announced the NP's intention to create a Coloured Affairs Department. J.G. Strijdom, Malan's successor as Prime Minister, moved to strip voting rights from black and Coloured residents of the Cape Province. The previous government had introduced the Separate Representation of Voters Bill into Parliament in 1951, turning it to be an Act on 18 June 1951; however, four voters, G Harris, W D Franklin, W D Collins and Edgar Deane, challenged its validity in court with support from the United Party. The Cape Supreme Court upheld the act, but reversed by the Appeal Court, finding the act invalid because a two-thirds majority in a joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament was needed to change the entrenched clauses of the Constitution. The government then introduced the High Court of Parliament Bill (1952), which gave Parliament the power to overrule decisions of the court. The Cape Supreme Court and the Appeal Court declared this invalid too.


title: Apartheid

text: In 1955 the Strijdom government increased the number of judges in the Appeal Court from five to 11, and appointed pro-Nationalist judges to fill the new places. In the same year they introduced the Senate Act, which increased the Senate from 49 seats to 89. Adjustments were made such that the NP controlled 77 of these seats. The parliament met in a joint sitting and passed the Separate Representation of Voters Act in 1956, which transferred Coloured voters from the common voters' roll in the Cape to a new Coloured voters' roll. Immediately after the vote, the Senate was restored to its original size. The Senate Act was contested in the Supreme Court, but the recently enlarged Appeal Court, packed with government-supporting judges, upheld the act, and also the Act to remove Coloured voters.


title: Apartheid

text: The 1956 law allowed Coloureds to elect four people to Parliament, but a 1969 law abolished those seats and stripped Coloureds of their right to vote. Since Indians had never been allowed to vote, this resulted in whites being the sole enfranchised group.


title: Apartheid

text: A 2016 study in "The Journal of Politics" suggests that disenfranchisement in South Africa had a significant negative effect on basic service delivery to the disenfranchised.


title: Apartheid

text: Before South Africa became a republic in 1961, politics among white South Africans was typified by the division between the mainly Afrikaner pro-republic conservative and the largely English anti-republican liberal sentiments, with the legacy of the Boer War still a factor for some people. Once South Africa became a republic, Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd called for improved relations and greater accord between people of British descent and the Afrikaners. He claimed that the only difference was between those in favour of apartheid and those against it. The ethnic division would no longer be between Afrikaans and English speakers, but between blacks and whites.