title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The F-14 began replacing the F-4 Phantom II in U.S. Navy service starting in September 1974 with squadrons VF-1 "Wolfpack" and VF-2 "Bounty Hunters" aboard and participated in the American withdrawal from Saigon. The F-14 had its first kills in U.S. Navy service on 19 August 1981 over the Gulf of Sidra in what is known as the Gulf of Sidra incident. In that engagement, two F-14s from VF-41 Black Aces were engaged by two Libyan Su-22 "Fitters". The F-14s evaded the Libyan missile and returned fire, downing both Libyan aircraft with AIM-9L Sidewinders. U.S. Navy F-14s once again were pitted against Libyan aircraft on 4 January 1989, when two F-14s from VF-32 shot down two Libyan MiG-23 "Floggers" over the Gulf of Sidra in a second Gulf of Sidra incident.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Its first sustained combat use was as a photo reconnaissance platform. The Tomcat was selected to inherit the reconnaissance mission upon the departure of the dedicated North American RA-5C Vigilante and Vought RF-8G Crusaders from the fleet. A large pod called the Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS) was developed and fielded on the Tomcat in 1981. With the retirement of the last RF-8G Crusaders in 1982, TARPS F-14s became the U.S. Navy's primary tactical reconnaissance system. One of two Tomcat squadrons per airwing was designated as a TARPS unit and received 3 TARPS capable aircraft.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: While the Tomcat was being used by Iran in combat against Iraq in its intended air superiority mission in the early 1980s, the U.S. Navy found itself flying regular daily combat missions over Lebanon to photograph activity in the Bekaa Valley. At the time, the Tomcat had been thought too large and vulnerable to be used over land, but the need for imagery was so great that Tomcat aircrews developed high-speed medium altitude tactics to deal with considerable AAA and SA-7 SAM threat in the Bekaa area. The first exposure of a Navy Tomcat to an SA-2 missile was over Somalia in April 1983 when a local battery was unaware of two Tomcats scheduled for a TARPS mission in a prelude to an upcoming international exercise in the vicinity of Berbera. An SA-2 was fired at the second Tomcat while conducting mapping profile at max conserve setting. The Tomcat aircrews spotted the missile launch and dove for the deck thereby evading it without damage. The unexpected demand for combat TARPS laid the way for high altitude sensors such as the KA-93 Long Range Optics (LOROP) to be rapidly procured for the Tomcat as well as an Expanded Chaff Adapter (ECA) to be incorporated in an AIM-54 Phoenix Rail. Commercial "fuzz buster" type radar detectors were also procured and mounted in pairs in the forward cockpit as a stop gap solution to detect SAM radars such as the SA-6. The ultimate solution was an upgrade to the ALR-67 then being developed, but it would not be ready until the advent of the F-14A+ later in the 1980s.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The participation of the F-14 in the 1991 Operation Desert Storm consisted of Combat Air Patrol (CAP) over the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf and overland missions consisting of strike escort and reconnaissance. Until the waning days of Desert Storm, in-country air superiority was tasked to USAF F-15 Eagles due to the way the Air Tasking Orders (ATO) delegated primary overland CAP stations to the F-15. The governing Rules of Engagement (ROE) also dictated a strict Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) requirement when employing Beyond Visual Range weapons such as the AIM-7 Sparrow and particularly the AIM-54 Phoenix. This hampered the Tomcat from using its most powerful weapon. Furthermore, the powerful emissions from the AWG-9 radar are detectable at great range with a radar warning receiver. Iraqi fighters routinely retreated as soon as the Tomcats "lit them up" with the AWG-9. The U.S. Navy suffered its only F-14 loss from enemy action on 21 January 1991 when BuNo 161430, an F-14A upgraded to an F-14A+, from VF-103 was shot down by an SA-2 surface-to-air missile while on an escort mission near Al Asad airbase in Iraq. Both crew members survived ejection with the pilot being rescued by USAF Special Operation Forces and the RIO being captured by Iraqi troops as a POW until the end of the war. The F-14 also achieved its final kill in US service, a Mi-8 "Hip" helicopter, with an AIM-9 Sidewinder.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: In 1995, F-14s from VF-14 and VF-41 participated in Operation Deliberate Force as well as Operation Allied Force in 1999, and in 1998, VF-32 and VF-213 participated in Operation Desert Fox. On 15 February 2001, the Joint Direct Attack Munition or JDAM was added to the Tomcat's arsenal. On 7 October 2001, F-14s would lead some of the first strikes into Afghanistan marking the start of Operation Enduring Freedom and the first F-14 drop of a JDAM occurred on 11 March 2002. F-14s from VF-2, VF-31, VF-32, VF-154, and VF-213 would also participate in Operation Iraqi Freedom. The F-14Ds of VF-2, VF-31, and VF-213 obtained JDAM capability in March 2003. On 10 December 2005, the F-14Ds of VF-31 and VF-213 were upgraded with a ROVER III downlink for transmitting images to a ground Forward Air Controller (FAC). The Navy decided to retire the F-14 with the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet filling the roles of fleet defense and strike formerly filled by the F-14.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The last American F-14 combat mission was completed on 8 February 2006, when a pair of Tomcats landed aboard after one dropped a bomb over Iraq. During their final deployment with "Theodore Roosevelt", VF-31 and VF-213 collectively completed 1,163 combat sorties totaling 6,876 flight hours, and dropped of ordnance during reconnaissance, surveillance, and close air support missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. USS "Theodore Roosevelt" launched an F-14D, of VF-31, for the last time on 28 July 2006; piloted by Lt. Blake Coleman and Lt. Cmdr Dave Lauderbaugh as RIO. The last two F-14 squadrons, the VF-31 Tomcatters, and the VF-213 Black Lions conducted their last fly-in at Naval Air Station Oceana on 10 March 2006.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The official final flight retirement ceremony was on 22 September 2006 at Naval Air Station Oceana and was flown by Lt. Cmdr. Chris Richard and Lt. Mike Petronis as RIO in a backup F-14 after the primary aircraft experienced mechanical problems. The actual last flight of an F-14 in U.S. service took place 4 October 2006, when an F-14D of VF-31 was ferried from NAS Oceana to Republic Airport on Long Island, New York. The remaining intact F-14 aircraft in the U.S. were flown to and stored at the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group "Boneyard", at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona; in 2007 the U.S. Navy announced plans to shred the remaining F-14s to prevent any components from being acquired by Iran. In August 2009, the 309th AMARG stated that the last aircraft were taken to HVF West, Tucson, Arizona for shredding. At that time only 11 F-14s remained in desert storage.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The sole foreign customer for the Tomcat was the Imperial Iranian Air Force, during the reign of the last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In the early 1970s, the Imperial Iranian Air Force (IIAF) was searching for an advanced fighter, specifically one capable of intercepting Soviet MiG-25 reconnaissance flights. After a visit of U.S. President Richard Nixon to Iran in 1972, during which Iran was offered the latest in American military technology, the IIAF selected and initiated acquisition of the F-14 Tomcat, but offered McDonnell Douglas the chance to demonstrate its F-15 Eagle. The US Navy and Grumman Corporation arranged competitive demonstrations of the Eagle and the Tomcat at Andrews AFB for the Shah and high-ranking officers, and in January 1974 Iran placed an order for 30 F-14s and 424 AIM-54 Phoenix missiles, initiating Project "Persian King", worth US$300 million. A few months later, this order was increased to a total of 80 Tomcats and 714 Phoenix missiles as well as spare parts and replacement engines for 10 years, complete armament package, and support infrastructure (including construction of the Khatami Air Base near Isfahan).


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The first F-14 arrived in January 1976, modified only by the removal of classified avionics components, but fitted with the TF-30-414 engines. The following year 12 more were delivered. Meanwhile, training of the first groups of Iranian crews by the U.S. Navy was underway in the US; one of these conducted a successful shoot-down with a Phoenix missile of a target drone flying at .


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Following the overthrow of the Shah in 1979, the air force was renamed the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) and the post-revolution Interim Government of Iran canceled most Western arms orders. In 1980, an Iranian F-14 shot down an Iraqi Mil Mi-25 helicopter for its first air-to-air kill during the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988). According to research by Tom Cooper, Iranian F-14s scored at least 50 air-to-air victories in the first six months of the war against Iraqi MiG-21s, MiG-23s, and some Su-20s/22s. During the same period, only one Iranian F-14 suffered damage after being hit by debris from a nearby MiG-21 that exploded.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Iranian Tomcats were originally used as an early-warning platform assisting other less-sophisticated aircraft with targeting and defense. They were also crucial to the defense of areas deemed vital by the Iranian government, such as oil terminals on Kharg Island and industrial infrastructure in the capital Tehran. Many of these patrols had the support of Boeing 707-3J9C in-flight refueling tankers. As fighting escalated between 1982 and 1986, the F-14s gradually became more involved in the battle. They performed well, but their primary role was to intimidate the Iraqi Air Force and avoid heavy engagement to protect the fleet's numbers. Their presence was often enough to drive away opposing Iraqi fighters. The precision and effectiveness of the Tomcat's AWG-9 weapons system and AIM-54A Phoenix long-range air-to-air missiles enabled the F-14 to maintain air superiority. In December 1980, an Iraqi MiG-21bis accounted for the only confirmed kill of an F-14 by that type of aircraft. On 11 August 1984, a MiG-23ML shot down an F-14A using an R-60 missile. On 2 September 1986, a MiG-23ML using an R-24T missile mistakenly shot down an F-14 that was defecting to Iraq. On 17 January 1987, another Iranian F-14A was shot down; according to some sources it was shot down by a MiG-23ML. According to the latest data, the F-14A, which was shot down on 17 January, was destroyed by an R-40 missile fired by an Iraqi MiG-25PDS (pilot Captain Adnan Sae’ed), and the MiG-23 pilot did not claim any victory.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Iraq also obtained Mirage F.1EQ fighters from France in 1981, armed with Super530F and Magic Mk.2 air-to-air missiles. The Mirage F.1 fighters were eventually responsible for four confirmed F-14 kills. The IRIAF attempted to keep 60 F-14s operational throughout the war, but reports indicate this number was reduced to 30 by 1986 with only half fully mission-capable.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Based on research by Tom Cooper and Farzad Bishop, Iran claimed their F-14s shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft during the Iran–Iraq War, including 58 MiG-23s (15 of these are confirmed according to Cooper), 33 Mirage F1s, 23 MiG-21s, 23 Su-20s/22s, nine MiG-25s (one of these are confirmed according to Iraqi sources), five Tu-22s, two MiG-27s, one Mil Mi-24, one Dassault Mirage 5, one B-6D, one Aérospatiale Super Frelon, and two unidentified aircraft. Despite the circumstances the F-14s and their crews faced during the war against Iraq – lacking support from AWACS, AEW aircraft, and Ground Control Intercept (GCI) – the F-14 proved to be successful in combat. It achieved this in the midst of a confrontation with an enemy that was constantly upgrading its capabilities and receiving support from three major countries – France, the US, and the USSR. Part of the success is attributed to the resilient Iranian economy and IRIAF personnel.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: While Iraq's army claimed it shot down more than 70 F-14s, the Foreign Broadcast Information System in Washington DC estimated that Iran lost 12 to 16 F-14s during the war. Cooper writes three F-14s were shot down by Iraqi pilots and four by Iranian surface-to-air missiles (SAM). Two more Tomcats were lost in unknown circumstances during the battle, and seven crashed due to technical failure or accidents. During the war, the Iranian Air Force F-14s suffered 9 confirmed losses, one lost due to engine stall, one in unknown conditions, two by Iranian Hawk SAMs, two by MIG-23s and three were shot down by Mirage F-1s. There are also unconfirmed reports of the downing of 10 more Tomcats.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: On 31 August 1986, an Iranian F-14A armed with at least one AIM-54A missile defected to Iraq. Then again on 2 September 1986 another Iranian F-14A defected to Iraq. In addition, one or more of Iran's F-14A was delivered to the Soviet Union in exchange for technical assistance; at least one of its crew defected to the Soviet Union.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: On 24 July 2002, an Iranian F-14A confronted two Azerbaijani MiG-25s that were threatening an Iranian P-3F, securing a radar lock on one of the MiGs, which then turned away, during tensions over attempts by Azerbaijan to survey for oil in Iranian waters in the Caspian Sea.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Iran had an estimated 44 F-14s in 2009 according to Combat Aircraft. "Aviation Week" estimated it had 19 operational F-14s in January 2013, and FlightGlobal estimated that 28 were in service in 2014.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: Following the US Navy's retirement of its Tomcats in 2006, Iran sought to purchase spare parts for its aircraft. In January 2007, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that sales of spare F-14 parts would be suspended over concerns of the parts ending up in Iran. In July 2007, the remaining American F-14s were shredded to ensure that any parts could not be acquired. Despite these measures, Iran managed to significantly increase its stocks of spare parts, increasing the number of airworthy Tomcats, although as it did not manage to obtain spare parts for the aircraft's weapon systems, the number of combat ready Tomcats was still low (seven in 2008). In 2010, Iran requested that the U.S. deliver the 80th F-14 that it had purchased in 1974 but never received due to the Islamic Revolution. In October 2010, an Iranian Air Force commander claimed that the country overhauls and optimizes different types of military aircraft, mentioning their Air Force has installed Iran-made radar systems on the F-14. In 2012, the Iranian Air Force's Mehrabad Overhaul Center delivered an F-14 with upgraded weapon systems with locally sourced components, designated F-14AM. Shortages of Phoenix missiles led to attempts to integrate the Russian R-27 semi-active radar-guided missile, but these proved unsuccessful. An alternative was the use of modified MIM-23 Hawk missiles to replace the Tomcat's Phoenixes and Sparrows, but as the Tomcat could only carry two Hawks, this project was also abandoned, and the Fakour-90 missile, which used the guidance system of the Hawk packaged into the airframe of the Phoenix, launched. Pre-production Fakour-90s were delivered in 2017, and a production order for 100 missiles (now designated AIM-23B) was placed in 2018, intending to replace the F-14s AIM-7E Sparrow missiles.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: On 26 January 2012, an Iranian F-14 crashed three minutes after takeoff. Both crew members were killed.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: In November 2015, Iranian F-14s were reported flying escort for Russian Tu-95, Tu-160 and Tu-22M bombers on air strikes in Syria against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: On 14 May 2019 an Iranian F-14 crashed during landing at Isfahan-Shahid Beheshti Airport. Both crew members ejected and survived.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: A total of 712 F-14s were built from 1969 to 1991. F-14 assembly and test flights were performed at Grumman's plant in Calverton on Long Island, New York. Grumman facility at nearby Bethpage, New York was directly involved in F-14 manufacturing and was home to its engineers. The airframes were partially assembled in Bethpage and then shipped to Calverton for final assembly. Various tests were also performed at the Bethpage Plant. Around 34 F-14s has been lost over thirty years of service.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The F-14A was the initial two-seat, twin-engine, all-weather interceptor fighter variant for the U.S. Navy. It first flew on 21 December 1970. The first 12 F-14As were prototype versions (sometimes called YF-14As). Modifications late in its service life added precision strike munitions to its armament. The U.S. Navy received 478 F-14A aircraft and 79 were received by Iran. The final 102 F-14As were delivered with improved Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-414A engines. Additionally, an 80th F-14A was manufactured for Iran, but was delivered to the U.S. Navy.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The F-14 received its first of many major upgrades in March 1987 with the F-14A Plus (or F-14A+). The F-14A's TF30 engine was replaced with the improved F110-GE-400 engine. The F-14A+ also received the state-of-the-art ALR-67 Radar Homing and Warning (RHAW) system. Many of the avionics components, as well as the AWG-9 radar, were retained. The F-14A+ was later redesignated F-14B on 1 May 1991. A total of 38 new aircraft were manufactured and 43 F-14A were upgraded into B variants. In the late 1990s, 81 F-14Bs were upgraded to extend airframe life and improve offensive and defensive avionics systems. The modified aircraft became known as "F-14B (Upgrade)".


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The final variant of the F-14 was the F-14D Super Tomcat, first delivered in 1991. As with the F-14B, the F-14D was equipped with the F110-GE-400 engines. It also included newer digital avionics systems including a glass cockpit and replaced the AWG-9 with the newer AN/APG-71 radar. Other systems included the Airborne Self Protection Jammer (ASPJ), Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS), SJU-17(V) Naval Aircrew Common Ejection Seats (NACES), and Infrared search and track (IRST). A total of 37 new aircraft were completed, and 18 F-14A models were upgraded to D-models, designated F-14D(R) for a rebuild. Starting in 2005, some F-14Ds received the ROVER III upgrade.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: When the F-14 was still in development, Grumman had planned an upgrade path for the Tomcat's propulsion and avionics. The first "F-14B" was to be an improved version of the F-14A with more powerful "Advanced Technology Engine" Pratt & Whitney F401 turbofans; the F-14B prototype equipped with the F401 first flew in 1973. The "F-14C" was a projected variant of this initial F-14B with advanced multi-mission avionics. Grumman also offered an interceptor version of the F-14B in response to the U.S. Air Force's Improved Manned Interceptor Program to replace the Convair F-106 Delta Dart as an Aerospace Defense Command interceptor in the 1970s. The F-14B program was terminated in April 1974. The actual F-14B and D upgrades that went into service did somewhat follow the initially projected upgrade path in practice, although it was much more delayed and with fewer airframes.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: In the early 1990s, Grumman proposed a few improved "Super Tomcat" versions. The first was the "Quickstrike", which would have been an F-14D with navigational and targeting pods, additional attach points for weapons, and added ground attack capabilities to its radar, turning the Tomcat into a multirole strike fighter. The Quickstrike was to fill the role of the A-6 Intruder after it was retired. This was not considered enough of an improvement by Congress, so the company shifted to the "Super Tomcat 21" (ST-21) proposed design. The ST-21 was a proposed lower cost alternative to the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), and would mostly have the same shape and body as the Tomcat, and an upgraded AN/APG-71 radar. The improved General Electric F110-GE-429 engines were to provide a supercruise speed of Mach 1.3 and featured thrust vectoring nozzles. The version would have reshaped leading-edge gloves, increased fuel capacity and modified control surfaces for improved takeoffs and lower landing approach speed. The "Attack Super Tomcat 21" (AST-21) version was the last proposed Super Tomcat design, and was meant to be a more attack-oriented version of the ST-21 with possibly an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar from the canceled A-12 attack aircraft. The (A)ST-21 was to be able to be rebuilt from existing F-14 airframes.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The last "Tomcat" variant was the "ASF-14" (Advanced Strike Fighter-14), Grumman's replacement for the NATF concept. By all accounts, it would not be even remotely related to the previous Tomcats save in appearance, incorporating the new technology and design know-how from the Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) and Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) programs. The ASF-14 would have been a new-build aircraft; however, its projected capabilities were not that much better than that of the (A)ST-21 variants. In the end, the proposed Super Tomcat variants were considered to be too costly and also faced opposition from the Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney. The Navy decided to pursue the cheaper F/A-18E/F Super Hornet to fill the fighter-attack, or strike fighter role.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The Tomcat logo design came when Grumman's Director of Presentation Services, Dick Milligan, and one of his artists, Grumman employee Jim Rodriguez, were asked for a logo by Grumman's Director of Business Development and former Blue Angels No. 5 pilot, Norm Gandia. Per Rodriguez, "He asked me to draw a lifelike Tomcat wearing boxing gloves and trunks sporting a six-shooter on his left side; where the guns are located on the F-14, along with two tails." The Cat was drawn up after a tabby cat was sourced and used for photographs, and named "Tom". The logo has gone through many variations, including one for the then–Imperial Iranian Air Force F-14, called "Ali-cat". The accompanying slogan "Anytime Baby!" was developed by Norm Gandia as a challenge to the U.S. Air Force's McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle.


title: Grumman F-14 Tomcat

text: The Grumman F-14 Tomcat was central to the 1986 film "Top Gun". The aviation-themed film was such a success in creating interest in naval aviation that the US Navy, which assisted with the film, set up recruitment desks outside some theaters. Producers paid the US Navy as reimbursement for flight time of aircraft in the film with an F-14 billed at per flight hour. The F-14 Tomcat was also featured in its . Two F-14As of VF-84 from the USS "Nimitz" were featured in the 1980 film "The Final Countdown", with four from the squadron in the 1996 release "Executive Decision". Multiple F-14s are featured in the 2008 documentary "Speed and Angels", featuring the story of two young Navy officers working to achieve their dream of becoming F-14 fighter pilots.


title: Criminal Minds

text: Criminal Minds is an American police procedural crime drama television series created and produced by Jeff Davis. The series premiered on CBS on September 22, 2005, and originally concluded on February 19, 2020; it was revived in 2022. It follows a group of criminal profilers who work for the FBI as members of its Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU), using behavioral analysis and profiling to investigate crimes and find the unsub (unknown subject), the team's term for perpetrators. The show tells the story of the team as they work various cases and tackle their personal struggles.


title: Criminal Minds

text: The show's original main cast consisted of seven characters: Jason Gideon (Mandy Patinkin), Aaron Hotchner (Thomas Gibson), Elle Greenaway (Lola Glaudini), Derek Morgan (Shemar Moore), Spencer Reid (Matthew Gray Gubler), Jennifer Jareau (A. J. Cook), and Penelope Garcia (Kirsten Vangsness). The cast underwent major changes throughout the series' run, with several of the show's original members being replaced by nine additional starring characters: Emily Prentiss (Paget Brewster), David Rossi (Joe Mantegna), Ashley Seaver (Rachel Nichols), Alex Blake (Jeanne Tripplehorn), Kate Callahan (Jennifer Love Hewitt), Tara Lewis (Aisha Tyler), Luke Alvez (Adam Rodriguez), Stephen Walker (Damon Gupton), and Matt Simmons (Daniel Henney).


title: Criminal Minds

text: "Criminal Minds" became a rating hit for CBS, regularly featuring as one of the network's most-watched shows throughout its 15-year-long run. Its success has spawned a media franchise, with several spinoffs, including a South Korean adaptation and a video game. The show was renewed for its fifteenth and final season of ten episodes, which aired from January 8, 2020, to February 19, 2020. It was the final series in the franchise to end, following its two spin-off series, "" and "", which had been cancelled previously due to low ratings. A sixteenth season of the series, "Criminal Minds: Evolution", premiered on Paramount+ in November 2022. A planned true-crime docuseries, titled "The Real Criminal Minds", was also ordered by Paramount+.


title: Criminal Minds

text: The series follows a group of criminal profilers who work for the FBI as members of its Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) using behavioral analysis and profiling to help investigate crimes and find the suspect known as the unsub (unknown subject). The team is supervised by Unit Chief Aaron Hotchner and later Emily Prentiss. The team included Jason Gideon, the founder of the BAU, who was known as the best profiler in Bureau; Derek Morgan, an ex-Chicago Police officer who is an expert on obsessional crimes; Spencer Reid, an expert on geographic profiling; Jennifer Jareau (JJ), the team's communications liaison, who later becomes a profiler; Elle Greenway, an expert on sex crimes; David Rossi, one of the original BAU agents who is also an expert in criminal profiling; Ashley Seaver, a rookie FBI agent; Alex Blake, a linguistics specialist; Kate Callahan, a seasoned undercover agent; Tara Lewis, a forensic psychologist; Luke Alvez, an expert fugitive tracker who becomes a profiler on the team; Stephen Walker, an expert on counterintelligence; and Matt Simmons, an expert profiler who joins the team from the FBI International Response Team.


title: Criminal Minds

text: In February 2021, a revival of the series was in early development at Paramount+, with a 10-episode sixteenth season revival officially greenlit. As of the Television Critics Association winter press tour a year later, it is still in development. In July 2022, Paramount+ officially gave the revival a full season order. The main cast of the previous seasons are all set to return, with the absence of Daniel Henney and Matthew Gray Gubler, the latter of whom has been with the series since the first episode. The season begin filming in August 2022.


title: Criminal Minds

text: The first season of "Criminal Minds" received mixed reviews from critics. It has a Metacritic score of 42 based on 21 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Criminal Minds

text: Dorothy Rabinowitz said, in her review for "The Wall Street Journal", "From the evidence of the first few episodes, "Criminal Minds" may be a hit, and deservedly" and gave particular praise to Gubler and Patinkin's performances. Ned Martel in "The New York Times" was less positive, saying, "The problem with "Criminal Minds" is its many confusing maladies, applied to too many characters." The reviewer felt that "as a result, the cast seems like a spilled trunk of broken toys, with which the audience—and perhaps the creators—may quickly become bored." The "Chicago Tribune" reviewer, Sid Smith, felt that the show "may well be worth a look", though he too criticized the "confusing plots and characters". Writing in "PopMatters", Marco Lanzagorta criticized the show after its premiere, saying it "confuses critical thinking with supernatural abilities" and that its characters conform to stereotypes. In the "Los Angeles Times", Mary McNamara gave a similar review, and praised Patinkin and Gubler's performances.


title: Criminal Minds

text: Gillian Flynn said, in her review for "Entertainment Weekly", "Like every procedural crime series of late, Minds is stocked with weary, overworked detective types. But here they also seem bored, bitter, and unengaged."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Ross Ruediger, had a more positive review, in his review for "Bullz-Eye.com", he said, "The producers and writers deserve major kudos for developing a strategy for keeping the show on the air without dumbing it down, and the second season of "Criminal Minds" sets a higher bar for this type of network series." He praised the show for not repeating its themes, and highlighted Matthew Gray Gubler's performance as the usual standout of the show. He also mentioned the performances from the rest of the cast, saying, "There isn’t a weak performer in the BAU ensemble."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Bruce Simmons said, in his review for "Screen Rant", "Last season, they started showing both sides of the equation... It took some of the fun out of wondering who or what, but they made up for it with decent character interaction and development, and there were many last season."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Cynthia Fuchs, in her review for "PopMatters", focuses on David Rossi's, played by Joe Mantegna, addition to the show. In her review, she said, "["Criminal Minds"] needs signs of effort, gritty character work rather than shorthand “traits” ripped off from other shows (how many times have you seen the enticing oddball researcher or the socially inept genius?) It’s tempting to think Patinkin was tired of the same-old. Rossi’s traditional earnestness and self-reliance, his recklessness and self-doubt, might juice this too-slick series into a semblance of originality, even relevance." She explained how she thought the addition of his character could shake up the formula of Criminal Minds, giving it a more interesting angle. She rated the season a 6 out of 10.


title: Criminal Minds

text: Todd R. Ramlow, in his review for "PopMatters", criticized the fourth season's depiction of Islam, saying that the "manipulation of racial assumptions and liberal guilt" is problematic, aligning themselves with the principle that if someone looks like a terrorist, than they are a terrorist. He criticizes the season for "further linking Islam to a so called 'culture of death', as opposed to the “culture of life” seemingly celebrated by the Christian West". He said, "It’s unfortunate that even when the architects of the “global war on terror” have changed their phrasing and perhaps their presumptions, Criminal Minds steps back in with such absolutism." He rated the season a 4/10.


title: Criminal Minds

text: Will Harris, in his review for "Bullz-Eye.com", focuses on the performances of the guest stars, citing how the opportunity to play villains within the show brings out some of their best acting performances. He said, "There’s clearly something about playing a bad guy on “Criminal Minds” that brings out the best in the show’s guest stars, as some of the season’s best episodes come courtesy of one-off performances by recognizable faces who have taken on that very challenge. Luke Perry plays a deluded cult leader, Mitch Pileggi plays a “normal” guy who snaps after a personal tragedy and turns into a killer, and Alex O’Loughlin is a murderer with enough of a conscience to leave messages at his crime scenes asking for help."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Anthony Ocasio, in his review for "Screen Rant", focused on Aaron Hotchner's storyline, which was one of the main points of the season. He stated the episode "100", which was also the show's 100th episode, was amazing and said, "The whole angle about Hotcher never being able to see his son again was pretty intense. I can't believe they went in that direction with it. It's something I wasn't expecting it at all." However, he heavily criticized the season's finale, citing that it was flat from the beginning and had a poor cliffhanger. He said, "The fifth season finale of Criminal Minds was terrible, at best. Even an amazing guest star like Tim Curry was unable to save this lack-luster 'cliffhanger'."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Darragh Mcmanus of "The Guardian", gave the season a positive review, saying that "Criminal Minds" was only getting better with each season. They said that despite the fact that it wasn't groundbreaking or new, it was still thoroughly entertaining. They said, "Season six has since settled into the groove nicely, with two excellent subsequent episodes rinsing out memories of Toothy Tim. JJ had a tense plot, almost like a play, centred on two Leopold and Loeb types, and a touching denouement as the titular Agent took her leave, while last Friday Remembrance Of Things Past was gruelling and gruesome, and scarier than usual, with the team tracking down a killer come out of retirement – a residual nightmare from Rossi's past."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Steve Marsi, in his review for "TV Fanatic", said that the season was overall good, rating it a 4 out of 5, but cited casting issues. He praised A.J Cook's performance as the "performance of a lifetime" and lamented her departure from the show that season. He said, "It's a shame that 'The Longest Night' marked a career high point for Jennifer Jereau, a character who just delivered so strongly, only to be shown the door next week. Was this CBS' way of sending her off on a high note? If so, it worked in a sense. She was great. But it made us even more confused and sad about Cook's departure."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Renatta Selliti, in her review for "TV Fanatic", gave the season a positive review with a 5 out of 5 rating, and said, "What's equally compelling as the profiling aspect on a show like Criminal Minds is the personal connection between the characters, and this group has it pitch perfect." She praised the season's writing and memorable moments such as Prentiss' return, stating that it created emotional scenes that kept viewers engaged, saying, "Moments like these are what primetime television viewers live for."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Anthony Ocasio, in his review for "Screen Rant", also had a positive review. He said that the storyline which focused on Emily Prentiss' fake death, and the aftermath of such, was a new format that while it wasn't the representation of an amazing Criminal Minds case, it was refreshing from the usual case of the week approach. He stated that each character got their moment to shine, and the writing resulted in compelling character moments. Specifically, he praised Matthew Gray Gubler's performance, especially in the judiciary meeting scene and said, "The moment where the Senator stated “Calm down, Mr. Reid,” and Gubler replied, “I am calm - and its doctor,” may very well be one of the best performances of a line in the history of the series." Finally, he stated the season wrapped up well, and said, "Of course they’re going to be fine. Of course nobody from the team is going to be permanently suspended. But that doesn’t mean the manner in which we came to this resolution wasn’t appropriately earned, or deserved."


title: Criminal Minds

text: Douglas Wolf, in his review for "TV Fanatic", gave the show a positive review with a 5 out of 5 rating. He focused particularly on the two-part finale, which featured Mark Hamill, saying, "The Criminal Minds two-part finale left me on the edge of my seat, earning a perfect rating and leaving my jaw hanging open in shock." He stated that the buildup was really well done, and that it explored new layers of the characters. For example, he said that the depiction of the relationship between Strauss and Rossi was memorable, as it was unexpected. He said, "I didn't realize the depth of his commitment to Strauss, nor was I aware that he was pretty much cheering in her corner as she obtained her medallion for one year of sobriety. The writing around the relationship of these two was compelling and real - and so his agony over her death, and especially about how it would affect her kids, was compelling."


title: Criminal Minds

text: In 2016, a study by "The New York Times" of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "like several of the other police procedurals", "Criminal Minds" "is more popular in rural areas, particularly in the southeastern half of the country. It hits peak popularity in Alabama and rural Tennessee and is least popular in Santa Barbara, Calif."


title: Criminal Minds

text: The series is in syndication on the A&E Network and Ion Television, as well as on We TV and Sundance TV. Early seasons of the show have also begun airing on Rewind Networks's HITS TV channel in Southeast Asia, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.


title: Criminal Minds

text: All episodes are available to stream on Paramount+ in the United States and on Disney+ in Canada. The series, which ABC Studios co-produce while also handle worldwide distribution, was available on Disney+'s Star content hub in selected territories.


title: Criminal Minds

text: The Season 5 episode, "The Fight", introduced a second BAU team and launched a series called "Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior". The spin-off series debuted February 16, 2011, on CBS but was canceled after a short 13-episode season owing to low ratings. On September 6, 2011, CBS DVD released The Complete Series on a four-disc set. It was packaged as "The DVD Edition".


title: Criminal Minds

text: The cast features Forest Whitaker as the lead role of Sam Cooper; including Janeane Garofalo, Michael Kelly, Beau Garrett, Matt Ryan, Richard Schiff, and Kirsten Vangsness, who reprises her role as Penelope Garcia from the original series.


title: Criminal Minds

text: A proposed new series in the "Criminal Minds" franchise to be named "Criminal Minds: Beyond Borders" was announced in January 2015. Former "" star Gary Sinise (who is also a producer on the show) and Anna Gunn were cast in the lead roles of and Lily Lambert, though the latter departed after the backdoor pilot. Tyler James Williams was cast as Russ "Monty" Montgomery and Daniel Henney as Matt Simmons, with Alana de la Garza as Clara Seger and Annie Funke as Mae Jarvis further being cast as series regulars.


title: Criminal Minds

text: The series follows the FBI agents of the International Response Team (IRT) helping American citizens who are in trouble abroad. CBS aired a backdoor pilot on April 8, 2015, in the "Criminal Minds" slot, with a crossover episode titled "Beyond Borders". The second spin-off series debuted March 16, 2016, on CBS. On May 16, 2016, CBS renewed the series for a second season. On May 14, 2017, CBS canceled the series after two seasons due to low ratings.


title: Criminal Minds

text: A planned true-crime docuseries, titled "The Real Criminal Minds" was also ordered by Paramount+. The series will feature a real former FBI profiler and examine real cases and real behavior, illustrated by clips from the fictional "Criminal Minds" series.


title: Criminal Minds

text: In 2017, tvN launched their own Korean version of "Criminal Minds". The episodes are based on the original American version after its third season. On the cast is Lee Joon-gi as Kim Hyun-joon (Derek Morgan), Moon Chae Won as Ha Sun-woo (Emily Prentiss), Son Hyun-joo as Kang Ki-hyung (Aaron Hotchner), Yoo Sun as Nana Hwang (Penelope Garcia), Lee Sun-bin as Yoo Min-young (Jennifer Jareau), and Go Yoon as Lee Han (Spencer Reid).


title: Criminal Minds

text: CBS announced in October 2009 that Legacy Interactive would develop a video game based on the show. The game would require players to examine crime scenes for clues to help solve murder mysteries. The interactive puzzle game was released in 2012, but the show's cast was not involved with the project so it did not feature any of their voices. The second game, developed by Tilting Point, was released on November 20, 2018, for Android and iOS devices.


title: Dhanush

text: Venkatesh Prabhu Kasthuri Raja (born 28 July 1983), known professionally as Dhanush, is an Indian actor, producer, director, lyricist and playback singer who predominantly works in Tamil cinema. Starring in 46 films over his career, among his accolades are four National Film Awards (two as actor and two as producer), 14 SIIMA Awards, nine Vijay Awards, seven Filmfare Awards South, five Vikatan Awards, five Edison Awards and a Filmfare Award. He has been included in the "Forbes India" Celebrity 100 list six times, which is based on the earnings of Indian celebrities.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's first film was "Thulluvadho Ilamai", a 2002 coming-of-age film directed by his father, Kasthuri Raja. He achieved further success in "Polladhavan" (2007) and "Yaaradi Nee Mohini" (2008), both of which were critically acclaimed and commercially successful. His role as a rooster fight jockey in "Aadukalam" (2010) won him Best Actor at the 58th National Film Awards and Best Tamil Actor Award at the 60th Filmfare Awards South. He continued success with films including "Maryan" (2013), "Velaiilla Pattadhari" (2014), "Anegan" (2015), "Kodi" (2016), "Vadachennai" (2018), "Asuran" (2019), and "Thiruchitrambalam" (2022). "Vadachennai" emerged as the highest-grossing A-rated Tamil film of all time, while "Thiruchitrambalam" entered the 100 Crore Club within a month of its release and emerged as Dhanush's highest grossing film till date. During the 2010s, Dhanush also starred in the action films "Maari" (2015), "Maari 2" (2018), and "Velaiilla Pattadhari 2" (2017).


title: Dhanush

text: In 2011, Dhanush's popular song "Why This Kolaveri Di" from the romantic psychological thriller film "3" became the first Indian music video to cross 100 million views on YouTube. He made his Bollywood debut with Aanand L. Rai's "Raanjhanaa" (2013). His performance as an obsessive one-sided lover in the film won him the Best Male Debut Award and earned a Best Actor nomination at the 59th Filmfare Awards. Dhanush produces films through his production company, Wunderbar Films, and he made his directorial debut with "Pa Paandi" (2017). His song "Rowdy Baby" from "Maari 2" became one of the most-viewed Indian songs of all time. It is the only South Indian video song to reach 1 billion views on YouTube. Dhanush won his second National Film Award for Best Actor for "Asuran" (2019).


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush was born as Venkatesh Prabhu Kasthuri Raja to a Tamil film director and producer, Kasthuri Raja, and mother, Vijayalakshmi, in Madras, Tamil Nadu. Initially he wished to go to a school of hotel management and become a chef. However his brother, director Selvaraghavan, pressured him to become an actor.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush married Aishwarya, Rajinikanth's eldest daughter on 18 November 2004. They have two sons, Yatra and Linga, who were born in 2006 and 2010 respectively. The couple announced their separation on 17 January 2022 and reconciled on 6 October 2022 after 9 months of separation .


title: Dhanush

text: Venkatesh Prabhu adopted the screen name "Dhanush" after being inspired by the fictional covert operation from "Kuruthipunal" (1995). He debuted in the 2002 film "Thulluvadho Ilamai", directed by his father Kasthuri Raja, which became a sleeper hit. He then appeared in his brother Selvaraghavan's first directorial venture "Kaadhal Kondein" in 2003. The film portrayed Dhanush as a mentally-disturbed youth, Vinodh, who yearned for the love of his friend, eventually turning possessive of her. Upon release, the film won critical acclaim and also became a major commercial success, eventually becoming Dhanush's first major breakthrough in Tamil cinema. His next film was "Thiruda Thirudi".


title: Dhanush

text: In 2004, Dhanush appeared in "Pudhukottaiyilirundhu Saravanan" and "Sullan". Later, he also appeared in "Dreams", another film panned by critics. The film was directed by his father, like their previous ventures. In 2005, Dhanush appeared in "Devathaiyai Kanden" and in the same year, he also worked on Balu Mahendra's "Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam". In 2006, Dhanush worked under his brother in their gangster film "Pudhupettai". The film, about a young man's journey from street urchin to gangster received critical acclaim, with Dhanush's performance receiving especial praise. Dhanush went on to star in the commercial entertainer "Thiruvilaiyaadal Aarambam", romancing Shriya Saran.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's first release of 2007, "Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram" did not go well. The film was a remake of the successful Kannada language film "Jogi". However, his second film "Polladhavan" was released during Diwali 2007. "Polladhavan" was based on the 1948–Italian neorealist film "Bicycle Thieves" and Dhanush's performance was appreciated.


title: Dhanush

text: The remake of a Telugu film directed by his brother formed the plot line for Dhanush's next movie directed by debutant Mithran Jawahar. The movie was titled "Yaaradi Nee Mohini". He later appeared in a cameo appearance, for his father-in-law Rajinikanth's venture "Kuselan". His subsequent venture was Suraj's "Padikathavan", which was released in January 2009. His performance was praised and well received. His next two films "Kutty" and "Uthama Puthiran", were both collaborations with director Mithran Jawahar.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's first release in 2011, which he had shot for over three years, was "Aadukalam", marking his second collaboration with Vetrimaran. Dhanush played the role of a local cockfighter and described the venture as his "Dream Project" during production. The film gained highly positive reviews and won six awards at the 58th National Film Awards, with Dhanush receiving the National Film Award for Best Actor, becoming the youngest actor to win the award. Dhanush appeared in an extended guest appearance in Subramania Siva's "Seedan". His next two ventures were the action films, "Mappillai", a remake of his father-in-law's same-titled 1989 film and "Venghai", by Hari, which received mixed reviews but was a commercial success.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's next film, "Mayakkam Enna", in which he once again collaborated with his brother, casting him with Richa Gangopadhyay, received largely positive reviews. His only 2012 release was "3", directed by his wife, Aishwarya Rajinikanth with co-star Shruti Haasan. The movie was a moderate success, owing to the popularity of the song "Why This Kolaveri Di". The song quickly became viral, the first video from India to gain 100 million YouTube views. In 2013, he appeared in "Maryan" opposite Parvathy, which was applauded by critics, but became an above-average grosser at the box office. His next release was "Naiyaandi", directed by A. Sarkunam, which did not make any notable impact at the box office. He made his debut in Bollywood with the film "Raanjhanaa", directed by Aanand L.Rai opposite Sonam. The film was released on 21 June 2013 with the Tamil dubbed version "Ambikapathy" releasing a week later. This film had background score composed by A. R. Rahman, and it grossed over 135 crore rupees worldwide.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's first film of 2014 was "Velaiilla Pattadhari", which was also his 25th film and was directed by Velraj. It received mostly positive reviews and was a success, being among the highest-grossing Tamil films of 2014. The Telugu dubbed version, "Raghuvaran B. Tech", was also a success. His next release was "Shamitabh", released in year 2015 which was also his second Hindi film directed by R. Balki. It opened to very high positive reviews and was praised for the concept, but failed at the box office. His next film "Anegan", was a psychological thriller directed by K. V. Anand, which generated positive reviews and became a box office success.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's next release in 2015 was the action comedy "Maari", featuring Kajal Aggarwal, Robo Shankar and Vijay Yesudas. Directed by Balaji Mohan and composed by Anirudh Ravichander, it was released worldwide on 17 July 2015. He also appeared in "Thanga Magan", directed by Velraj with Samantha Ruth Prabhu, Amy Jackson, K. S. Ravikumar and Raadhika. In 2016, Dhanush appeared "Thodari", which was an action thriller film set on a train and "Kodi", a political action thriller.


title: Dhanush

text: He played a cameo in his directorial debut "Power Paandi", which released on 14 April 2017. "Velaiilla Pattadhari 2", directed by his sister-in-law Soundarya Rajinikanth, was his first film of 2017 as a lead actor. He penned the story and dialogues for movie. as well as producing it. It was one of the highest-grossing Tamil films of 2017. His films "Vadachennai" and "Maari 2", a sequel to "Maari", were released in 2018. "Vadachennai" was praised by critics and emerged as the highest-grossing A-rated Tamil film of all time, while "Maari 2" got mixed reviews. Dhanush's first international film, titled "The Extraordinary Journey of the Fakir", released in 2019 worldwide and was a flop. His main 2019 release, "Asuran", was praised by critics for its gritty portrayal of land and caste violence and became a box office success, entering the 100 Crore Club for grossing ₹100 crore within a month of its release. His next release, a romantic thriller titled "Enai Noki Paayum Thota" was released on 29 November 2019 after several delays due to financial problems and it received mixed reviews.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's first 2020 release, on Pongal, was the martial arts action film "Pattas", directed by R. S. Durai Senthilkumar, in which he played a double role. The film received positive reviews. Dhanush joined the ensemble cast of Chris Evans, Ryan Gosling and Ana de Armas in Russo brothers Netflix produced film "The Gray Man".


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush's first 2021 role was his starring role in "Karnan", directed by Mari Selvaraj, and featuring Lal, Natarajan Subramaniam, Yogi Babu, Rajisha Vijayan, Gouri Kishan, Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli alongside him. The film released on 9 April, to admiring reviews. His next project was the black comedy gangster film, "Jagame Thandhiram", written and directed by Karthik Subbaraj, which released on 18 June 2021. It also featured Joju George (in his Tamil debut), Aishwarya Lekshmi (in her Tamil debut), and James Cosmo. It received mixed reviews from critics. He also starred in Aanand L. Rai's August 2021 film "Atrangi Re", co-starring Akshay Kumar and Sara Ali Khan. Dhanush is reported to be playing an important character in the Vijay starrer "Thalapathy 67".


title: Dhanush

text: In 2022, Dhanush starred in "Thiruchitrambalam", directed by Mithran Jawahar, and featuring Nithya Menen, Priya Bhavani Shankar, Rashi Kanna, Bharathiraja, Prakash Raj, Munishkanth, all alongside Dhanush. The film released on 18 August, 2022, in theatres. It went to become the highest-grossing film in his career.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush is a singer, generally for his own films. He was introduced as a playback singer in "Pudhukottaiyilirundhu Saravanan", by its composer Yuvan Shankar Raja and collaborated again with him in his brother Selvaraghavan's directorial, "Pudhupettai". He sang further numbers in Selvaraghavan's films "Aayirathil Oruvan" and "Mayakkam Enna"; the former featured him alongside his wife Aishwarya Rajinikanth.


title: Dhanush

text: "Why This Kolaveri Di" was released on YouTube in 2011 as part of the soundtrack to the film 3, the directorial debut of Aishwarya Dhanush. The song became the most searched video in India. Anirudh Ravichander was the soundtrack composer for the film and Dhanush wrote much of the lyrics. He has also sung "No Problem" in the Kannada movie "Vajrakaya" and "Thikka" in the Telugu movie "Thikka".


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush has sung for the debutant musician Ganesh Chandrasekaran in the film "Ezhumin". The song was received well among the audience as he famously renders it emotionally.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush worked with WWF India to support Earth Hour 2012. In August 2013, Dhanush was signed by Perfetti India Ltd. as their brand ambassador for Center Fresh chewing gum.


title: Dhanush

text: Dhanush has won and received several nominations at the National Film Award, Filmfare Awards and Vijay Awards ceremony. He won the National Film Award for Best Actor, twice, in 2011 and 2021, for his films with Vetrimaaran, "Aadukalam" and "Asuran".


title: Education

text: Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Various researchers emphasize the role of critical thinking in order to distinguish education from indoctrination. Some theorists require that education results in an improvement of the student while others prefer a value-neutral definition of the term. In a slightly different sense, education may also refer, not to the process, but to the product of this process: the mental states and dispositions possessed by educated people. Education originated as the transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to the next. Today, educational goals increasingly encompass new ideas such as the liberation of learners, skills needed for modern society, empathy, and complex vocational skills.


title: Education

text: Types of education are commonly divided into formal, non-formal, and informal education. Formal education takes place in education and training institutions, is usually structured by curricular aims and objectives, and learning is typically guided by a teacher. In most regions, formal education is compulsory up to a certain age and commonly divided into educational stages such as kindergarten, primary school and secondary school. Nonformal education occurs as addition or alternative to formal education. It may be structured according to educational arrangements, but in a more flexible manner, and usually takes place in community-based, workplace-based or civil society-based settings. Lastly, informal education occurs in daily life, in the family, any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational, whether unintentional or intentional. In practice there is a continuum from the highly formalized to the highly informalized, and informal learning can occur in all three settings. For instance, homeschooling can be classified as nonformal or informal, depending upon the structure.


title: Education

text: Regardless of setting, educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion, and directed research. The methodology of teaching is called "pedagogy". Education is supported by a variety of different philosophies, theories and empirical research agendas.


title: Education

text: There are movements for education reforms, such as for improving quality and efficiency of education towards relevance in students' lives and efficient problem solving in modern or future society at large, or for evidence-based education methodologies. A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations. Global initiatives aim at achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 4, which promotes quality education for all.


title: Education

text: Numerous definitions of education have been suggested by theorists belonging to diverse fields. Many agree that education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, especially the transmission of knowledge. But they often include other aims as well, such as fostering skills and character traits. However, there are deep disagreements about the exact nature of education besides these general characteristics. According to some conceptions, it is primarily a process that occurs during events like schooling, teaching, and learning. Others understand it not as a process but as the achievement or product brought about by this process. On this view, education is what educated persons have, i.e. the mental states and dispositions that are characteristic of them. However, the term may also refer to the academic study of the methods and processes taking place during teaching and learning, as well as the social institutions involved in these processes. Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin word "ēducātiō" ("A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing") from "ēducō" ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym "ēdūcō" ("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from "ē-" ("from, out of") and "dūcō" ("I lead, I conduct").


title: Education

text: Some researchers, like R. S. Peters, have proposed precise definitions by spelling out the necessary and sufficient conditions of education, for example: (1) it is concerned with the transmission of knowledge and understanding; (2) this transmission is worthwhile and (3) done in a morally appropriate manner in tune with the student's interests. This and similar attempts are often successful at characterizing the most paradigmatic forms of education but have received numerous criticisms nonetheless, usually in the form of specific counterexamples for which the proposed criteria fail. These difficulties have led various theorists to develop less precise conceptions based on family resemblance. This means that all the different forms of education are similar to each other even though they need not share an essential set of features characteristic of all of them. This view can also be combined with the idea that the meaning of the term "education" is context-dependent and may thus vary depending on the situation in which it is used. Having a clear idea of what the term means is important for various issues: it is needed to identify and coherently talk about it as well as to determine how to achieve and measure it.


title: Education

text: There is disagreement in the academic literature on whether education is an evaluative concept. So-called "thick definitions" affirm this, for example, by holding that an improvement of the learner is a necessary requirement of education. However, different thick definitions may still disagree among themselves on what constitutes such an improvement. "Thin definitions", on the other hand, try to give a value-neutral account of education. A closely related distinction is that between "descriptive" and "prescriptive conceptions". Descriptive conceptions aim to describe how the term is actually used by regular speakers while prescriptive conceptions try to express what good education is or how it should be done.


title: Education

text: Many thick and prescriptive conceptions base their account on the aims of education, i.e. regarding the goals that the activity of education tries to achieve. These aims are sometimes categorized into "epistemic goods", like knowledge and understanding, "skills", like rationality and critical thinking, and character traits, like kindness and honesty. Some theorists focus on one overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end. This can take the form of socialization, in which accumulated knowledge is transmitted from one generation to the next with the goal of helping the student function as a regular citizen in society. More person-centered definitions focus on the well-being of the student instead: education is to help them lead a good life or the life they wish to lead. Various researchers emphasize critical thinking as an aim in order to distinguish education from indoctrination. This is motivated by the idea that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student without concern for their evidential status. Education, on the other hand, should also foster the rational ability to critically reflect on those beliefs and question them. However, some theorists contend that certain forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education until the child's mind is sufficiently developed.


title: Education

text: Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher, for example, in the form of transmitting knowledge and skills while doing so in a morally appropriate manner. Student-centered definitions, on the other hand, outline education based on the student's experience in the learning process, for example, based on how education transforms and enriches their subsequent experience. However, conceptualizations taking both perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing the process as the shared experience of a common world that involves discovery as well as posing and solving problems.


title: Education

text: There are various ways how forms of education are commonly subdivided into different types. The most common subdivision is between formal, non-formal, and informal education. However, some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education. A process of teaching constitutes formal education if it happens in a complex institutionalized framework. Such frameworks are usually chronologically and hierarchically organized as in modern schooling systems, which have different classes based on the student's age and progress, all the way from primary school to university. Because of its scale, formal education is usually controlled and guided by a governmental entity and is normally compulsory up to a certain age. Non-formal and informal education differ from formal education due to their lack of such a governmental institutionalized framework. Non-formal education constitutes a middle ground in the sense that it is also organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose in mind, such as tutoring, fitness classes, or the scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education is present in many different settings and happens throughout one's life, mostly in a spontaneous manner. This is how children usually learn their mother tongue from their parents or when learning how to prepare a certain dish by cooking together. Some accounts tie the difference between the three types mainly to the location where the learning takes place: in school for formal education, in places of the individual's day-to-day routine for informal education, and in other places occasionally visited for non-formal education. It has been argued that the motivation responsible for formal education is predominantly extrinsic, whereas it tends to be mainly intrinsic for non-formal and informal education. The distinction between the three types is normally clear for the paradigmatic cases but there are various intermediate forms of education that do not easily fall into one category.


title: Education

text: Formal education plays a central role in modern civilization. But in primitive cultures, most of the education happens not on the formal but on the informal level. This usually means that there is no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole environment may be seen as a form of school and many or all adults may act as teachers. An important reason for moving to formal forms of education is due to the sheer quantity of knowledge to be passed on, which requires both a formal setting and well-trained teachers to be transmitted effectively. A side effect of the process of formalization is that the educational experience becomes more abstract and more removed from daily life. In this regard, more emphasis is put on grasping general patterns instead of observing and imitating particular behavior.


title: Education

text: Closely related to the distinction between formal and informal education is that between conscious education, which is done with a clear purpose in mind, and unconscious education, which occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided. This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults by having indirect effects on the development of the student's personality. Another categorization depends on the age group of the learners and includes childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. The distinction can also be based on the subject, encompassing fields like science education, language education, art education, religious education, and physical education. The educational methodology may be used as well for classifications, such as the difference between the traditional teacher-centered education, in which the teacher takes the center stage in providing students with information, in contrast to student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping the classroom activities. The term "alternative education" is sometimes used for a wide range of educational methods and approaches outside mainstream pedagogy, for example, like the emphasis on narration and storytelling found in indigenous education or autodidacticism. Forms of education can also be categorized by the medium used, for example, as distance education, like online education, e-learning, or m-learning, in contrast to regular classroom or onsite education. Various types of online education take the form of open education, where the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers. Another classification is based on the social institution responsible for education and may include categories for institutions like family, school, civil society, state, and church. When the term education is used in the sense of an achievement or a product, expressions like "type" or "level of education" refer to the person's academic or professional qualification, such as high school completion, bachelor's degree, master's degree, doctor's degree, or degrees in vocational training.


title: Education

text: Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. It can be subdivided into various categories or levels. The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) was created by UNESCO as a statistical base to compare education systems. In 1997, it defined seven levels of education and 25 fields, though the fields were later separated out to form a different project. The current version ISCED 2011 has nine rather than seven levels, created by dividing the tertiary pre-doctorate level into three levels. It also extended the lowest level (ISCED 0) to cover a new sub-category of early childhood educational development programs, which target children below the age of three years.


title: Education

text: Education designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. The programmes are designed for children below the age of three. This is ISCED level 01. Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country when children enter primary education. The children now readily interact with their peers and the educator. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where the term "kindergarten" refers to the earliest levels of primary education. Kindergarten "provides a child-centred, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them." This is ISCED level 02.


title: Education

text: This is ISCED level 1. Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first four to seven years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five to seven, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, in 2008, around 89% of children aged six to twelve were enrolled in primary education, and this proportion was rising. Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and secondary education is quite arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fifteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as "primary schools "or "elementary schools". Primary schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.


title: Education

text: In India, for example, compulsory education spans over twelve years, with eight years of elementary education, five years of primary schooling and three years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.


title: Education

text: This covers the two ISCED levels, ISCED 2: Lower Secondary Education and ISCED 3: Upper Secondary Education.


title: Education

text: In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to ensure literacy, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.


title: Education

text: Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received higher wages.


title: Education

text: Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 6th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves date even further back.


title: Education

text: It spans the period between the typically universal compulsory, primary education to the optional, selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education of ISCED 5 and 6 (e.g. university), and the ISCED 4 Further education or vocational school.


title: Education

text: Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling.


title: Education

text: Programs at ISCED level 2, lower secondary education are usually organized around a more subject-oriented curriculum; differing from primary education. Teachers typically have


title: Education

text: students will have several teachers, each with specialized knowledge of the subjects they teach. Programmes at ISCED level 2, aim to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human development upon introducing theoretical concepts across a broad range of subjects which can be developed in future stages. Some education systems may offer vocational education programs during ISCED level 2 providing skills relevant to employment.


title: Education

text: Programs at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete the secondary education process. They lead to skills relevant to employment and the skill necessary to engage in tertiary courses. They offer students more varied, specialized and in-depth instruction. They are more differentiated, with range of options and learning streams.


title: Education

text: Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area.


title: Education

text: Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.


title: Education

text: The ISCED distinguishes four levels of tertiary education. ISCED 6 is equivalent to a first degree, ISCED 7 is equivalent to a masters or an advanced professional qualification and ISCED 8 is an advanced research qualification, usually concluding with the submission and defence of a substantive dissertation of publishable quality based on original research. The category ISCED 5 is reserved for short-cycle courses of requiring degree level study.


title: Education

text: Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.


title: Education

text: University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Some universities are composed of several colleges.


title: Education

text: One type of university education is a liberal arts education, which can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum." Although what is known today as liberal arts education began in Europe, the term "liberal arts college" is more commonly associated with institutions in the United States such as Williams College or Barnard College.


title: Education

text: Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts. Post 16 education, adult education and further education involve continued study, but a level no different from that found at upper secondary, and are grouped together as ISCED 4, post-secondary non-tertiary education.


title: Education

text: In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.


title: Education

text: After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling, and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, Walden's Path, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools.


title: Education

text: Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.


title: Education

text: In time, some ideas from these experiments and paradigm challenges may be adopted as the norm in education, just as Friedrich Fröbel's approach to early childhood education in 19th-century Germany has been incorporated into contemporary kindergarten classrooms. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison, and Ivan Illich.


title: Education

text: Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students."


title: Education

text: Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners, this includes language acquisition, cultural norms, and manners.


title: Education

text: In informal learning, there is often a reference person, a peer or expert, to guide the learner. If learners have a personal interest in what they are informally being taught, learners tend to expand their existing knowledge and conceive new ideas about the topic being learned. For example, a museum is traditionally considered an informal learning environment, as there is room for free choice, a diverse and potentially non-standardized range of topics, flexible structures, socially rich interaction, and no externally imposed assessments.


title: Education

text: While informal learning often takes place outside educational establishments and does not follow a specified curriculum, it can also occur within educational settings and even during formal learning situations. Educators can structure their lessons to directly use their students informal learning skills within the education setting.


title: Education

text: In the late 19th century, education through play began to be recognized as making an important contribution to child development. In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities. L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour, and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself, he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well." Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities. The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.


title: Education

text: Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-directed learning. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician).


title: Education

text: Evidence-based education is the use of well designed scientific studies to determine which education methods work best. It consists of evidence-based teaching and evidence-based learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase rate of learning. The evidence-based education movement has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based-practices.


title: Education

text: Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses, through open education, such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are prestigious private universities such as Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, the University of Pennsylvania, and Caltech, as well as notable public universities including Tsinghua, Peking, Edinburgh, University of Michigan, and University of Virginia.


title: Education

text: Open education has been called the biggest change in the way people learn since the printing press. Despite favourable studies on effectiveness, many people may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons.


title: Education

text: Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials.


title: Education

text: The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate.


title: Education

text: Out of 182 colleges surveyed in 2009 nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for campus-based ones.


title: Education

text: A 2010 meta-analysis found that online and blended educational approaches had better outcomes than methods that used solely face-to-face interaction.


title: Education

text: The education sector or education system is a group of institutions (ministries of education, local educational authorities, teacher training institutions, schools, universities, etc.) whose primary purpose is to provide education to children and young people in educational settings. It involves a wide range of people (curriculum developers, inspectors, school principals, teachers, school nurses, students, etc.). These institutions can vary according to different contexts.


title: Education

text: Schools deliver education, with support from the rest of the education system through various elements such as education policies and guidelines – to which school policies can refer – curricula and learning materials, as well as pre- and in-service teacher training programmes. The school environment – both physical (infrastructures) and psychological (school climate) – is also guided by school policies that should ensure the well-being of students when they are in school. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has found that schools tend to perform best when principals have full authority and responsibility for ensuring that students are proficient in core subjects upon graduation. They must also seek feedback from students for quality-assurance and improvement. Governments should limit themselves to monitoring student proficiency.


title: Education

text: The education sector is fully integrated into society, through interactions with numerous stakeholders and other sectors. These include parents, local communities, religious leaders, NGOs, stakeholders involved in health, child protection, justice and law enforcement (police), media and political leadership.


title: Education

text: The shape, methodologies, taught material – the curriculum – of formal education is decided by political decision makers along with federal agencies such as the state education agency in the United States.


title: Education

text: Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.


title: Education

text: Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE 476.


title: Education

text: In China, Confucius (551–479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was the country's most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era.


title: Education

text: The Aztecs had schools for the noble youths called Calmecac where they would receive rigorous religious and military training. The Aztecs also had a well-developed theory about education, which has an equivalent word in Nahuatl called "tlacahuapahualiztli." It means "the art of raising or educating a person", or "the art of strengthening or bringing up men". This was a broad conceptualization of education, which prescribed that it begins at home, supported by formal schooling, and reinforced by community living. Historians cite that formal education was mandatory for everyone regardless of social class and gender. There was also the word "neixtlamachiliztli", which is "the act of giving wisdom to the face." These concepts underscore a complex set of educational practices, which was oriented towards communicating to the next generation the experience and intellectual heritage of the past for the purpose of individual development and his integration into the community.


title: Education

text: After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.


title: Education

text: Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate which was established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.


title: Education

text: The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilizations – as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. Much of modern traditional Western and Eastern education is based on the Prussian education system.


title: Education

text: In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.


title: Education

text: Joseph Chimombo pointed out education's role as a policy instrument, capable of instilling social change and economic advancement in developing countries by giving communities the opportunity to take control of their destinies. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2015, calls for a new vision to address the environmental, social and economic concerns facing the world today. The Agenda includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 4 on education.


title: Education

text: Since 1909, the percentage of children in the developing world attending school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the twenty-first century, the majority of children in most regions of the world attended some form of school. By 2016, over 91 percent of children are enrolled in formal primary schooling. However, a learning crisis has emerged across the globe, due to the fact that a large proportion of students enrolled in school are not learning. A World Bank study found that "53 percent of children in low- and middle-income countries cannot read and understand a simple story by the end of primary school." While schooling has increased rapidly over the last few decades, learning has not followed suit.


title: Education

text: Universal Primary Education was one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education.


title: Education

text: A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles:


title: Education

text: Similarities – in systems or even in ideas – that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Programme facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes.


title: Education

text: The Programme for International Student Assessment and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement objectively monitor and compare the proficiency of students from a wide range of different nations.


title: Education

text: The internationalization of education is sometimes equated by critics with the westernization of education. These critics say that the internationalization of education leads to the erosion of local education systems and indigenous values and norms, which are replaced with Western systems and cultural and ideological values and orientation.


title: Education

text: Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. However, lack of technological advancement is still causing barriers with regards to quality and access to education in developing countries. Charities like One Laptop per Child are dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials.


title: Education

text: The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.


title: Education

text: In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.


title: Education

text: India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organisation launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost.


title: Education

text: A survey of literature of the research into low-cost private schools (LCPS) found that over a five-year period ending in July 2013, debate around LCPSs to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarized and finding growing coverage in international policy. The polarization was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reach disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, support or undermine equality, and are financially sustainable. The report examined the main challenges encountered by development organizations which support LCPSs. Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia. This success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for:


title: Education

text: The report showed some cases of successful voucher where there was an oversupply of quality private places and an efficient administrative authority and of subsidy programs. Evaluations of the effectiveness of international support to the sector are rare. Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.


title: Education

text: Pedagogy is often defined as the study or science of teaching methods. It investigates how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized. It is particularly interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools and some researchers restrict it to this domain. But in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools. In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.