title: Cannabis (drug)

text: In December 2012, the U.S. state of Washington became the first state to officially legalize cannabis in a state law (Washington Initiative 502) (but still illegal by federal law), with the state of Colorado following close behind (Colorado Amendment 64). On 1 January 2013, the first marijuana "club" for private marijuana smoking (no buying or selling, however) was allowed for the first time in Colorado. The California Supreme Court decided in May 2013 that local governments can ban medical marijuana dispensaries despite a state law in California that permits the use of cannabis for medical purposes. At least 180 cities across California have enacted bans in recent years.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: In December 2013, Uruguay became the first country to legalize growing, sale and use of cannabis. After a long delay in implementing the retail component of the law, in 2017 sixteen pharmacies were authorized to sell cannabis commercially. On 19 June 2018, the Canadian Senate passed a bill and the Prime Minister announced the effective legalization date as 17 October 2018. Canada is the second country to legalize the drug.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: In November 2015, Uttarakhand became the first state of India to legalize the cultivation of hemp for industrial purposes. Usage within the Hindu and Buddhist cultures of the Indian subcontinent is common, with many street vendors in India openly selling products infused with cannabis, and traditional medical practitioners in Sri Lanka selling products infused with cannabis for recreational purposes and well as for religious celebrations. Indian laws criminalizing cannabis date back to the colonial period. India and Sri Lanka have allowed cannabis to be taken in the context of traditional culture for recreational/celebratory purposes and also for medicinal purposes.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: On 17 October 2015, Australian health minister Sussan Ley presented a new law that will allow the cultivation of cannabis for scientific research and medical trials on patients.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: On 17 October 2018, Canada legalized cannabis for recreational adult use making it the second country in the world to do so after Uruguay and the first G7 nation. The Canadian Licensed Producer system aims to become the Gold Standard in the world for safe and secure cannabis production, including provisions for a robust craft cannabis industry where many expect opportunities for experimenting with different strains. Laws around use vary from province to province including age limits, retail structure, and growing at home.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: As the drug has increasingly been seen as a health issue instead of criminal behavior, marijuana has also been legalized or decriminalized in: Czech Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, Portugal, South Africa and Canada. Medical marijuana was legalized in Mexico in mid-2017; legislators plan to legalize its recreational use by late 2019.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: On 28 June 2021, Clarence Thomas, one of the U.S. Supreme Court's most conservative justices, possibly opened the door to federal legalization of cannabis in the United States when he wrote "A prohibition on interstate use or cultivation of marijuana may no longer be necessary or proper to support the federal government's piecemeal approach."


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: As of 2022, Uruguay and Canada are the only countries that have fully legalized the cultivation, consumption and bartering of recreational cannabis nationwide. In the United States, 21 states, 2 territories, and the District of Columbia have legalized the recreational use of cannabis – though the drug remains illegal at the federal level. Laws vary from state to state when it comes to the commercial sale. Court rulings in Georgia and South Africa have led to the legalization of cannabis consumption, but not legal sales. A policy of limited enforcement has also been adopted in many countries, in particular Spain and the Netherlands where the sale of cannabis is tolerated at licensed establishments. Contrary to popular belief, cannabis is not legal in the Netherlands, but it has been decriminalized since the 1970s. In 2021, Malta was the first European Union member to legalize the use of cannabis for recreational purposes. In Estonia, it is only legal to sell cannabis products with a THC content of less than 0.2%, although products may contain more cannabidiol. Lebanon has recently become the first Arab country to legalize the plantation of cannabis for medical use.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: Penalties for illegal recreational use ranges from confiscation or small fines to jail time and even death. In some countries citizens can be punished if they have used the drug in another country, including Singapore and South Korea.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: "Sinsemilla" (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless (i.e. parthenocarpic) infructescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination, thus inducing the development of parthenocarpic fruits gathered in dense infructescences. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: "Skunk" refers to several named strains of potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and sometimes hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of "Cannabis sativa" and "C. indica" (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: The average levels of THC in cannabis sold in the United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000. This is disputed for various reasons, and there is little consensus as to whether this is a fact or an artifact of poor testing methodologies. According to Daniel Forbes writing for slate.com, the relative strength of modern strains are likely skewed because undue weight is given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent, samples. Some suggest that results are skewed by older testing methods that included low-THC-content plant material such as leaves in the samples, which are excluded in contemporary tests. Others believe that modern strains actually are significantly more potent than older ones.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: The main producing countries of cannabis are Afghanistan, Canada, China, Colombia, India, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Paraguay, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: The price or street value of cannabis varies widely depending on geographic area and potency. Prices and overall markets have also varied considerably over time.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: After some U.S. states legalized cannabis, street prices began to drop. In Colorado, the price of smokable buds (infructescences) dropped 40 percent between 2014 and 2019, from $200 per ounce to $120 per ounce ($7 per gram to $4.19 per gram).


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varied from €2 to €20 per gram in 2008, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range €4–10.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: The gateway hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying "harder" drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use. A Pew Research Center poll found that political opposition to marijuana use was significantly associated with concerns about the health effects and whether legalization would increase weed use by children.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: Some studies state that while there is no proof for the gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs. Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be poly-drug users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug. Almost two-thirds of the poly drug users in the 2009–2010 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey used cannabis.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: The gateway effect may appear due to social factors involved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegal status of cannabis, its consumers are likely to find themselves in situations allowing them to acquaint with individuals using or selling other illegal drugs. Studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may additionally be regarded as gateway drugs; however, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs. In turn, alcohol and tobacco are typically easier to obtain at an earlier age than is cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those individuals, since they are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: A related alternative to the gateway hypothesis is the common liability to addiction (CLA) theory. It states that some individuals are, for various reasons, willing to try multiple recreational substances. The "gateway" drugs are merely those that are (usually) available at an earlier age than the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an extensive review that it is dangerous to present the sequence of events described in gateway "theory" in causative terms as this hinders both research and intervention.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: In 2020, the National Institute on Drug Abuse released a study backing allegations that marijuana is a gateway to harder drugs, though not for the majority of marijuana users. The National Institute on Drug Abuse determined that marijuana use is "likely to precede use of other licit and illicit substances" and that "adults who reported marijuana use during the first wave of the survey were more likely than adults who did not use marijuana to develop an alcohol use disorder within 3 years; people who used marijuana and already had an alcohol use disorder at the outset were at greater risk of their alcohol use disorder worsening. Marijuana use is also linked to other substance use disorders including nicotine addiction." It also reported that "These findings are consistent with the idea of marijuana as a "gateway drug." However, the majority of people who use marijuana do not go on to use other, "harder" substances. Also, cross-sensitization is not unique to marijuana. Alcohol and nicotine also prime the brain for a heightened response to other drugs and are, like marijuana, also typically used before a person progresses to other, more harmful substances."


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: Research on cannabis is challenging since the plant is illegal in most countries. Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national regulatory agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration.


title: Cannabis (drug)

text: There are also other difficulties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis also smoke tobacco. This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Prisoners is a 2013 American thriller film directed by Denis Villeneuve from a screenplay written by Aaron Guzikowski. The film has an ensemble cast including Hugh Jackman, Jake Gyllenhaal, Viola Davis, Maria Bello, Terrence Howard, Melissa Leo, and Paul Dano.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: The plot focuses on the abduction of two young girls in Pennsylvania and the subsequent search for the suspected abductor by the police. After police arrest a young suspect and release him, the father of one of the daughters takes matters into his own hands. The film was a financial and critical success, grossing US$122 million worldwide. It was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 2013, and at the 86th Academy Awards, it was nominated for Best Cinematography.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: In Pennsylvania, carpenter Keller Dover and his family visit their neighbors the Birches for Thanksgiving. That evening, the families' daughters, Anna and Joy, disappear. Detective Loki arrests Alex Jones, a man driving the RV pointed out by Keller's son. Loki then visits Alex's home where he lives with his aunt Holly, after getting no information via interrogation. Loki then later reveals to the Dovers that Alex is intellectually disabled with an IQ of a 10 year old and no physical evidence has been found in the RV or his home.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Loki investigates local sex offender and former priest Patrick Dunn, where he finds a corpse in a hidden cellar. Dunn reveals he killed the man after he confessed to murdering sixteen children. The following day, Alex is released. Convinced of his guilt, Keller assaults Alex outside the police station, during which Alex says "They didn't cry 'til I left them". Based on this, Keller kidnaps and holds Alex captive in his childhood home. Joy's father Franklin reluctantly accompanies Keller in interrogating and torturing Alex over the course of several days; his wife Nancy convinces Franklin to stop, but decides not to turn in Keller.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Loki visits the previous owner of the empty home the RV was seen parked in front of, Mrs. Milland. She tells him that her son Barry was kidnapped 26 years prior and was never found. During a vigil for Anna and Joy, Loki chases and fails to apprehend a hooded figure who then burglarizes the Dover and Birch residences; Keller's wife Grace, who has relapsed into a prescription drug addiction, notices this. Suspicious of Alex's disappearance, Loki follows Keller to the building but leaves when the hooded man, Bob Taylor, is located. Loki detains Taylor and discovers the walls in his home are covered in maze drawings. He stumbles upon several locked crates filled with snakes and bloody clothing. Taylor confesses to the kidnappings and draws mazes in his interrogation room. Frustrated, Loki assaults him, but Taylor gains control of another officer's gun and commits suicide.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: The Dover and Birch families identify photos of the bloodied clothing as their children's. Keller visits Holly to apologize for assaulting Alex. He learns she and her late husband adopted Alex after their son died of cancer. Meanwhile, Loki notices a resemblance between one of Taylor's mazes and a necklace belonging to the corpse in Dunn's basement. He is informed that most of the bloody clothes were store-bought and soaked with pig blood. He also finds Taylor's footprints below a window at the Dover house, along with Anna's sock.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Joy is found and reunited with her parents, and is hospitalized; the two children were drugged and staged an escape, but Anna was caught. When Keller asks Joy for information, she remembers little, but says she saw him there. Keller realizes she saw him at Holly's house and flees. Loki travels to Keller's building to find him, but instead finds Alex.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Keller arrives at Holly's and she holds him at gunpoint. She reveals that she and her husband abducted children of Christian families as a "war on God" to avenge their son's death and make similar families feel the same crisis of faith. Alex (Barry Milland) was their first abduction and Taylor their second. Holly drugs Keller and imprisons him in a hidden pit in her yard, where he finds his daughter's emergency whistle. Loki arrives at Holly's house to inform her Alex has been found. Seeing a photo of her late husband with the maze necklace, he realizes that Holly is the kidnapper and searches for her, finding her in process of giving Anna an injection. Loki kills Holly in a shootout, and rushes Anna to the hospital while wounded.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Anna and Joy visit Loki in the hospital to thank him. Grace acknowledges that Keller will be arrested if found, but insists he is a good man. Later, Loki returns to Holly's house, where he faintly hears Keller blowing the whistle.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Aaron Guzikowski wrote the script based on a short story he wrote, involving "a father whose kid was struck by a hit-and-run driver and then puts this guy in a well in his backyard". That short story was partially inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart".


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: After he wrote the spec, many actors and directors entered and exited the project, including actors Christian Bale and Leonardo DiCaprio and directors Antoine Fuqua and Bryan Singer.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Ultimately Guzikowski would credit producer Mark Wahlberg for getting the project on its feet, stating, "He was totally pivotal in getting the film made. That endorsement helped it get around." Principal photography began in Georgia in February 2013.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: "Prisoners" premiered at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival and was released theatrically in Canada and the United States on September 20, 2013. It was originally rated NC-17 by the MPAA for substantial disturbing violent content and explicit images; after being edited, it was re-rated R for disturbing violent content including torture, and language throughout. "Prisoners" opened in North America on September 20, 2013, in 3,260 theaters and grossed $20,817,053 in its opening weekend, averaging $6,386 per theater and ranking #1 at the box office. After 77 days in theaters, the film ended up earning $61,002,302 domestically and $61,124,385 internationally, earning a worldwide gross of $122,126,687, above its production budget of $46 million.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: On review aggregator web site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 253 reviews, with a rating average of 7.30/10. The website's critical consensus states: ""Prisoners" has an emotional complexity and a sense of dread that makes for absorbing (and disturbing) viewing." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Christopher Orr of "The Atlantic" wrote: "Ethical exploration or exploitation? In the end, I come down reservedly on the former side: the work done here by Jackman, Gyllenhaal, and especially Villeneuve is simply too powerful to ignore." Ed Gibbs of "The Sun Herald" wrote: "Not since "Erskineville Kings", in 1999, has Hugh Jackman appeared so emotionally exposed on screen. It is an exceptional, Oscar-worthy performance." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote that Gyllenhaal was "exceptional" and that "Villeneuve takes his unflashy time building character and revealing troubled psyches in the most unlikely of places."


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: The film was a second runner-up for the BlackBerry People's Choice Award at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival, behind "Philomena" and "12 Years a Slave". Gyllenhaal received the Best Supporting Actor of the Year Award at the 2013 Hollywood Film Festival for his "truly compelling, subtly layered" performance as Detective Loki.


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Reviews have not been all positive. Writing in "The New Republic", David Thomson declared that the film was "weary after ten minutes" and furthermore "hideous, cruel, degrading, depressing, relentless, prolonged, humorless, claustrophobic, and a mockery of any surviving tradition in which films are entertaining". A mixed review came from Sheila O'Malley of "RogerEbert.com", who gave the film 2.5 stars out of a possible 4. She wrote that Jackman's performance grew "monotonous" and that the film sometimes verged on pretentiousness, but was redeemed by a few excellent suspense sequences and Gyllenhaal's performance, whose "subtlety is welcome considering all the teeth gnashing going on in other performances".


title: Prisoners (2013 film)

text: Audiences polled by CinemaScore initially gave the film a grade "B+" on an A+ to F scale, but Warner Bros asked for a recount by the service and later said the film received a grade "A−".


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go is a statically typed, compiled programming language designed at Google by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. It is syntactically similar to C, but with memory safety, garbage collection, structural typing, and CSP-style concurrency. It is often referred to as Golang because of its former domain name, codice_1, but its proper name is Go.


title: Go (programming language)

text: A third-party source-to-source compiler, GopherJS, compiles Go to JavaScript for front-end web development.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go was designed at Google in 2007 to improve programming productivity in an era of multicore, networked machines and large codebases. The designers wanted to address criticism of other languages in use at Google, but keep their useful characteristics:


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go was publicly announced in November 2009, and version 1.0 was released in March 2012. Go is widely used in production at Google and in many other organizations and open-source projects.


title: Go (programming language)

text: In November 2016, the Go and Go Mono fonts were released by type designers Charles Bigelow and Kris Holmes specifically for use by the Go project. Go is a humanist sans-serif resembling Lucida Grande, and Go Mono is monospaced. Both fonts adhere to the WGL4 character set and were designed to be legible with a large x-height and distinct letterforms. Both Go and Go Mono adhere to the DIN 1450 standard by having a slashed zero, lowercase codice_2 with a tail, and an uppercase codice_3 with serifs.


title: Go (programming language)

text: In April 2018, the original logo was replaced with a stylized GO slanting right with trailing streamlines. (The Gopher mascot remained the same.)


title: Go (programming language)

text: The lack of support for generic programming in initial versions of Go drew considerable criticism. The designers expressed an openness to generic programming and noted that built-in functions "were" in fact type-generic, but are treated as special cases; Pike called this a weakness that might at some point be changed. The Google team built at least one compiler for an experimental Go dialect with generics, but did not release it.


title: Go (programming language)

text: In August 2018, the Go principal contributors published draft designs for generic programming and error handling and asked users to submit feedback. However, the error handling proposal was eventually abandoned.


title: Go (programming language)

text: In June 2020, a new draft design document was published that would add the necessary syntax to Go for declaring generic functions and types. A code translation tool, "", was provided to allow users to try the new syntax, along with a generics-enabled version of the online Go Playground.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go 1 guarantees compatibility for the language specification and major parts of the standard library. All versions up to the current Go 1.19 release have maintained this promise.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go is influenced by C (especially the Plan 9 dialect), but with an emphasis on greater simplicity and safety. It consists of:


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go's syntax includes changes from C aimed at keeping code concise and readable. A combined declaration/initialization operator was introduced that allows the programmer to write codice_9 or codice_10, without specifying the types of variables used. This contrasts with C's codice_11 and codice_12. Semicolons still terminate statements; but are implicit when the end of a line occurs. Methods may return multiple values, and returning a codice_13 pair is the conventional way a method indicates an error to its caller in Go. Go adds literal syntaxes for initializing struct parameters by name and for initializing maps and slices. As an alternative to C's three-statement codice_14 loop, Go's codice_15 expressions allow concise iteration over arrays, slices, strings, maps, and channels.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go has a number of built-in types, including numeric ones (, , , etc.), booleans, and byte strings (). Strings are immutable; built-in operators and keywords (rather than functions) provide concatenation, comparison, and UTF-8 encoding/decoding. Record types can be defined with the keyword.


title: Go (programming language)

text: For each type and each non-negative integer constant , there is an array type denoted ; arrays of differing lengths are thus of different types. Dynamic arrays are available as "slices", denoted for some type . These have a length and a "capacity" specifying when new memory needs to be allocated to expand the array. Several slices may share their underlying memory.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Pointers are available for all types, and the pointer-to- type is denoted . Address-taking and indirection use the and operators, as in C, or happen implicitly through the method call or attribute access syntax. There is no pointer arithmetic, except via the special type in the standard library.


title: Go (programming language)

text: For a pair of types , , the type is the type of hash tables mapping type- keys to type- values. Hash tables are built into the language, with special syntax and built-in functions. is a "channel" that allows sending values of type "T" between concurrent Go processes.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Aside from its support for interfaces, Go's type system is nominal: the keyword can be used to define a new "named type", which is distinct from other named types that have the same layout (in the case of a , the same members in the same order). Some conversions between types (e.g., between the various integer types) are pre-defined and adding a new type may define additional conversions, but conversions between named types must always be invoked explicitly. For example, the keyword can be used to define a type for IPv4 addresses, based on 32-bit unsigned integers:


title: Go (programming language)

text: With this type definition, interprets the value as an IP address. Simply assigning to a variable of type is a type error.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Constant expressions may be either typed or "untyped"; they are given a type when assigned to a typed variable if the value they represent passes a compile-time check.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Function types are indicated by the keyword; they take zero or more parameters and return zero or more values, all of which are typed. The parameter and return values determine a function type; thus, is the type of functions that take a and a 32-bit signed integer, and return a signed integer (of default width) and a value of the built-in interface type .


title: Go (programming language)

text: Any named type has a method set associated with it. The IP address example above can be extended with a method for checking whether its value is a known standard:


title: Go (programming language)

text: Due to nominal typing, this method definition adds a method to , but not on . While methods have special definition and call syntax, there is no distinct method type.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The second are its "interfaces", which provides runtime polymorphism. Interfaces are a class of types and provide a limited form of structural typing in the otherwise nominal type system of Go. An object which is of an interface type is also of another type, much like C++ objects being simultaneously of a base and derived class. Go interfaces were designed after protocols from the Smalltalk programming language. Multiple sources use the term duck typing when describing Go interfaces. Although the term duck typing is not precisely defined and therefore not wrong, it usually implies that type conformance is not statically checked. Since conformance to a Go interface is checked statically by the Go compiler (except when performing a type assertion), the Go authors prefer the term "structural typing".


title: Go (programming language)

text: The definition of an interface type lists required methods by name and type. Any object of type T for which functions exist matching all the required methods of interface type I is an object of type I as well. The definition of type T need not (and cannot) identify type I. For example, if , are defined as


title: Go (programming language)

text: then both a and a are implicitly a and can be assigned to a -typed variable. In formal language, Go's interface system provides structural rather than nominal typing. Interfaces can embed other interfaces with the effect of creating a combined interface that is satisfied by exactly the types that implement the embedded interface and any methods that the newly defined interface adds.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The Go standard library uses interfaces to provide genericity in several places, including the input/output system that is based on the concepts of and .


title: Go (programming language)

text: Besides calling methods via interfaces, Go allows converting interface values to other types with a run-time type check. The language constructs to do so are the "type assertion", which checks against a single potential type:


title: Go (programming language)

text: The "empty interface" codice_16 is an important base case because it can refer to an item of "any" concrete type. It is similar to the class in Java or C# and is satisfied by any type, including built-in types like . Code using the empty interface cannot simply call methods (or built-in operators) on the referred-to object, but it can store the codice_16 value, try to convert it to a more useful type via a type assertion or type switch, or inspect it with Go's codice_18 package. Because codice_16 can refer to any value, it is a limited way to escape the restrictions of static typing, like codice_20 in C but with additional run-time type checks.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The codice_16 type can be used to model structured data of any arbitrary schema in Go, such as JSON or YAML data, by representing it as a codice_22 (map of string to empty interface). This recursively describes data in the form of a dictionary with string keys and values of any type.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Interface values are implemented using pointer to data and a second pointer to run-time type information. Like some other types implemented using pointers in Go, interface values are codice_23 if uninitialized.


title: Go (programming language)

text: In Go's package system, each package has a path (e.g., codice_24 or codice_25) and a name (e.g., codice_26 or codice_27). References to other packages' definitions must "always" be prefixed with the other package's name, and only the "capitalized" names from other packages are accessible: codice_28 is public but codice_29 is not. The codice_7 command can retrieve packages stored in a remote repository and developers are encouraged to develop packages inside a base path corresponding to a source repository (such as example.com/user_name/package_name) to reduce the likelihood of name collision with future additions to the standard library or other external libraries.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The Go language has built-in facilities, as well as library support, for writing concurrent programs. Concurrency refers not only to CPU parallelism, but also to asynchrony: letting slow operations like a database or network read run while the program does other work, as is common in event-based servers.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The primary concurrency construct is the "goroutine", a type of light-weight process. A function call prefixed with the codice_31 keyword starts a function in a new goroutine. The language specification does not specify how goroutines should be implemented, but current implementations multiplex a Go process's goroutines onto a smaller set of operating-system threads, similar to the scheduling performed in Erlang.


title: Go (programming language)

text: While a standard library package featuring most of the classical concurrency control structures (mutex locks, etc.) is available, idiomatic concurrent programs instead prefer "channels", which send messages between goroutines. Optional buffers store messages in FIFO order and allow sending goroutines to proceed before their messages are received.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Channels are typed, so that a channel of type can only be used to transfer messages of type . Special syntax is used to operate on them; is an expression that causes the executing goroutine to block until a value comes in over the channel , while sends the value (possibly blocking until another goroutine receives the value). The built-in -like statement can be used to implement non-blocking communication on multiple channels; see below for an example. Go has a memory model describing how goroutines must use channels or other operations to safely share data.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The existence of channels sets Go apart from actor model-style concurrent languages like Erlang, where messages are addressed directly to actors (corresponding to goroutines). The actor style can be simulated in Go by maintaining a one-to-one correspondence between goroutines and channels, but the language allows multiple goroutines to share a channel or a single goroutine to send and receive on multiple channels.


title: Go (programming language)

text: From these tools one can build concurrent constructs like worker pools, pipelines (in which, say, a file is decompressed and parsed as it downloads), background calls with timeout, "fan-out" parallel calls to a set of services, and others. Channels have also found uses further from the usual notion of interprocess communication, like serving as a concurrency-safe list of recycled buffers, implementing coroutines (which helped inspire the name "goroutine"), and implementing iterators.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Concurrency-related structural conventions of Go (channels and alternative channel inputs) are derived from Tony Hoare's communicating sequential processes model. Unlike previous concurrent programming languages such as Occam or Limbo (a language on which Go co-designer Rob Pike worked), Go does not provide any built-in notion of safe or verifiable concurrency. While the communicating-processes model is favored in Go, it is not the only one: all goroutines in a program share a single address space. This means that mutable objects and pointers can be shared between goroutines; see , below.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Although Go's concurrency features are not aimed primarily at parallel processing, they can be used to program shared-memory multi-processor machines. Various studies have been done into the effectiveness of this approach. One of these studies compared the size (in lines of code) and speed of programs written by a seasoned programmer not familiar with the language and corrections to these programs by a Go expert (from Google's development team), doing the same for Chapel, Cilk and Intel TBB. The study found that the non-expert tended to write divide-and-conquer algorithms with one statement per recursion, while the expert wrote distribute-work-synchronize programs using one goroutine per processor. The expert's programs were usually faster, but also longer.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go's approach to concurrency can be summarized as "don't communicate by sharing memory; share memory by communicating". There are no restrictions on how go-routines access shared data, making race conditions possible. Specifically, unless a program explicitly synchronizes via channels or other means, writes from one go-routine might be partly, entirely, or not at all visible to another, often with no guarantees about ordering of writes. Furthermore, Go's "internal data structures" like interface values, slice headers, hash tables, and string headers are not immune to race conditions, so type and memory safety can be violated in multithreaded programs that modify shared instances of those types without synchronization. Instead of language support, safe concurrent programming thus relies on conventions; for example, Chisnall recommends an idiom called "aliases xor mutable", meaning that passing a mutable value (or pointer) over a channel signals a transfer of ownership over the value to its receiver.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The linker in the gc toolchain creates statically linked binaries by default; therefore all Go binaries include the Go runtime.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go deliberately omits certain features common in other languages, including (implementation) inheritance, assertions, pointer arithmetic, implicit type conversions, untagged unions, and tagged unions. The designers added only those facilities that all three agreed on.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Of the omitted language features, the designers explicitly argue against assertions and pointer arithmetic, while defending the choice to omit type inheritance as giving a more useful language, encouraging instead the use of interfaces to achieve dynamic dispatch and composition to reuse code. Composition and delegation are in fact largely automated by embedding; according to researchers Schmager "et al.", this feature "has many of the drawbacks of inheritance: it affects the public interface of objects, it is not fine-grained (i.e, no method-level control over embedding), methods of embedded objects cannot be hidden, and it is static", making it "not obvious" whether programmers will overuse it to the extent that programmers in other languages are reputed to overuse inheritance.


title: Go (programming language)

text: Exception handling was initially omitted in Go due to lack of a "design that gives value proportionate to the complexity". An exception-like / mechanism that avoids the usual codice_32 control structure was proposed and released in the March 30, 2010 snapshot. The Go authors advise using it for unrecoverable errors such as those that should halt an entire program or server request, or as a shortcut to propagate errors up the stack within a package. Across package boundaries, Go includes a canonical error type, and multi-value returns using this type are the standard idiom.


title: Go (programming language)

text: It also includes profiling and debugging support, runtime instrumentation (for example, to track garbage collection pauses), and a race condition tester.


title: Go (programming language)

text: An ecosystem of third-party tools adds to the standard distribution, such as codice_52, which enables code autocompletion in many text editors, codice_53, which automatically adds/removes package imports as needed, and codice_54, which detects code that might unintentionally ignore errors.


title: Go (programming language)

text: The following simple program demonstrates Go's concurrency features to implement an asynchronous program. It launches two lightweight threads ("goroutines"): one waits for the user to type some text, while the other implements a timeout. The statement waits for either of these goroutines to send a message to the main routine, and acts on the first message to arrive (example adapted from David Chisnall's book).


title: Go (programming language)

text: Test code (note that assert keyword is missing in Go; tests live in <filename>_test.go at the same package):


title: Go (programming language)

text: Other notable companies and sites using Go (generally together with other languages, not exclusively) include:


title: Go (programming language)

text: The interface system, and the deliberate omission of inheritance, were praised by Michele Simionato, who likened these characteristics to those of Standard ML, calling it "a shame that no popular language has followed [this] particular route".


title: Go (programming language)

text: Go was named Programming Language of the Year by the TIOBE Programming Community Index in its first year, 2009, for having a larger 12-month increase in popularity (in only 2 months, after its introduction in November) than any other language that year, and reached 13th place by January 2010, surpassing established languages like Pascal. By June 2015, its ranking had dropped to below 50th in the index, placing it lower than COBOL and Fortran. But as of January 2017, its ranking had surged to 13th, indicating significant growth in popularity and adoption. Go was awarded TIOBE programming language of the year 2016.


title: Go (programming language)

text: A 2011 evaluation of the language and its implementation in comparison to C++ (GCC), Java and Scala by a Google engineer found:


title: Go (programming language)

text: The evaluation got a rebuttal from the Go development team. Ian Lance Taylor, who had improved the Go code for Hundt's paper, had not been aware of the intention to publish his code, and says that his version was "never intended to be an example of idiomatic or efficient Go"; Russ Cox then optimized the Go code, as well as the C++ code, and got the Go code to run slightly faster than C++ and more than an order of magnitude faster than the code in the paper.


title: Go (programming language)

text: On November 10, 2009, the day of the general release of the language, Francis McCabe, developer of the Go! programming language (note the exclamation point), requested a name change of Google's language to prevent confusion with his language, which he had spent 10 years developing. McCabe raised concerns that "the 'big guy' will end up steam-rollering over" him, and this concern resonated with the more than 120 developers who commented on Google's official issues thread saying they should change the name, with some even saying the issue contradicts Google's motto of: Don't be evil.


title: Go (programming language)

text: On October 12, 2010, the issue was closed by Google developer Russ Cox (@rsc) with the custom status "Unfortunate" accompanied by the following comment: "There are many computing products and services named Go. In the 11 months since our release, there has been minimal confusion of the two languages."


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: Chicago Fire is an American drama television series created by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas, with Dick Wolf as an executive producer. It is the first installment of Wolf Entertainment's "Chicago" franchise, which deals with different public services in Chicago, Illinois. Chicago Fire follows the professional and personal lives of firefighters, rescue personnel, and paramedics of the Chicago Fire Department at the fictional Firehouse 51. The series premiered on NBC on October 19, 2012. , the series had 222 episodes. On February 27, 2020, NBC renewed the series for its ninth, tenth, and eleventh season. The tenth season premiered on September 22, 2021. The eleventh season premiered on September 21, 2022.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: The show explores the lives, both professional and personal, of the firefighters, rescue personnel, and paramedics of the Chicago Fire Department at the fictional Firehouse 51, home of the fictional Engine Company 51, Truck Company 81, Rescue Squad Company 3, Battalion 25, and Ambulance 61. Following the death of veteran firefighter Andrew Darden, loyalties fracture and divide as Lieutenant Matthew Casey, officer-in-charge of Truck Company 81, and Lieutenant Kelly Severide, officer-in-charge of Rescue Squad Company 3, blame each other for the death of their long-time friend and colleague. They are led by the heroic and determined Deputy District Chief Wallace Boden.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: The series pilot, co-written by creators Michael Brandt and Derek Haas, was filmed in Chicago and, according to an NBC representative, the series would continue to be filmed there. Producer John L. Roman was involved from the beginning having worked with the Chicago Fire Department and Deputy District Chief Steve "Chik" Chikerotis on "Backdraft". Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel made an appearance in the series' pilot episode. Emanuel stated: "It's easier being mayor than playing mayor. I told them I'd do it under one condition: the TV show is making an investment to the Firefighters' Widows and Orphans Fund."


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: The title "Chicago Fire" has sparked some confusion in the show's first season in regards to it being shared with a local major professional soccer team; the Chicago Fire Soccer Club (later renamed Chicago Fire FC). Actor Taylor Kinney has said "If you (say) 'We're working on "Chicago Fire,"' they ask you if you're a soccer player". Producer Dick Wolf hoped that fans of the team might watch the show. The Chicago Fire team themselves have accepted the shared name with the show and have shown the series premiere on October 2, 2012, at Toyota Park after a game with the Philadelphia Union.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: The network placed an order for the series in May 2012. After receiving an additional script order in October, "Chicago Fire" was picked up for a full season on November 8, 2012. On January 29, 2013, "Chicago Fire" had its episode total increased from 22 to 23. One week later, on February 6, 2013, "Chicago Fire" received one more episode, giving it a total of 24 episodes for season one. The pilot episode had an early release at NBC.com, before the series' premiere on television.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: On November 9, 2015, NBC renewed the series for a fifth season. The season premiered on October 11, 2016.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: On May 9, 2018, NBC renewed the series for a seventh season, which premiered on September 26, 2018. On February 26, 2019, NBC renewed the series for an eighth season, which premiered on September 25, 2019. In February 2020, the series was renewed for a ninth, tenth and eleventh season.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: The building used in the show for the firehouse exteriors is a working Chicago Fire Department firehouse, and is the headquarters of Engine 18, located at 1360 South Blue Island Avenue at Maxwell Street, between 13th & Racine. Housed here is ALS Engine 18, 2–2–1 (Deputy District Chief – 1st District), 2–1–21 (1st District Chief), 6–4–16 (High-Rise Response Unit), and ALS Ambulance 65. The interiors of Firehouse 51 are filmed at Cinespace Chicago Film Studios. The station house used for exteriors in "Chicago PD" is just a few blocks away at 949 West Maxwell Street at Morgan Street (interiors likewise filmed at Cinespace).


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: Chicago artist and retired firefighter Lee J. Kowalski's oil paintings of fire scenes can be spotted in several episodes.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: Molly's, a small bar owned by Herrmann, Dawson and Mouch, was filmed at Lotties in Bucktown. Filming no longer takes place on location to avoid disrupting business. Instead, the interior and exterior surroundings were recreated at Cinespace.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: In November 2012, WGN-TV reported a plane crash at 29th and Martin Luther King Drive on their morning newscast and showed live footage for a few minutes before realizing it was merely a set piece pre-staged for "Chicago Fire" and not an actual emergency situation.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: On March 13, 2020, Universal Television shut down production on the series due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: Production on the series was temporarily halted on September 14, 2022, after a shooting occurred near the set.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 49 out of 100 based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: On March 27, 2013, NBC announced plans for a proposed spin-off of "Chicago Fire", the police procedural drama "Chicago P.D." that would involve the Chicago Police Department, the spin-off series being created and produced by Dick Wolf, with Derek Haas, Michael Brandt, and Matt Olmstead serving as executive producers. It premiered on January 8, 2014.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: The show follows an Intelligence Unit of the police and is filmed entirely in Chicago. The main cast includes Jason Beghe, Jon Seda, Sophia Bush, Jesse Lee Soffer, Patrick Flueger, Elias Koteas, Marina Squerciati, LaRoyce Hawkins and Archie Kao.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: In February 2015, NBC announced plans to make another spin-off, the medical drama "Chicago Med". A special backdoor pilot episode of the show aired during "Chicago Fire"s third season. On May 1, 2015, "Chicago Med" was officially ordered to a series, starring Oliver Platt, S. Epatha Merkerson, Nick Gehlfuss, Yaya DaCosta, Torrey DeVitto, Rachel DiPillo, Marlyne Barrett, Colin Donnell and Brian Tee. It premiered on November 17, 2015.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: "Chicago Fire" was the first show of what would become the "Chicago" franchise. Additionally, "Chicago P.D." aired a backdoor pilot of the short-lived legal drama series "Chicago Justice", which ran from March 1, to May 14, 2017.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: "Chicago Fire" is broadcast by NBC in the United States. The latest five episodes of "Chicago Fire" are available on Hulu with a subscription. Season 4 is available on NBC.com and the NBC app with a cable subscription. All episodes are available from electronic sell-through platforms such as iTunes, Amazon Instant Video, and Vudu. The series is available for streaming on Peacock along with "Chicago P.D.", "Chicago Med", "Law & Order", "" and "".


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: In Malaysia, the series aired on PRIMEtime for eight seasons, then moved to Universal Channel Asia and AXN asia.


title: Chicago Fire (TV series)

text: Ion Television has acquired the off-network rights to air the series. Episodes began airing in June 2021. MyNetworkTV also acquired the off-network rights to air the series. Episodes began airing in September 2021.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona ( ; ; ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Four Corners region with Utah to the north, Colorado to the northeast, and New Mexico to the east; its other neighboring states are Nevada to the northwest, California to the west and the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California to the south and southwest.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is the 48th state and last of the contiguous states to be admitted to the Union, achieving statehood on February 14, 1912. Historically part of the territory of in New Spain, it became part of independent Mexico in 1821. After being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase.


title: Arizona

text: Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. Northern Arizona features forests of pine, Douglas fir, and spruce trees; the Colorado Plateau; mountain ranges (such as the San Francisco Mountains); as well as large, deep canyons, with much more moderate summer temperatures and significant winter snowfalls. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, and Tucson. In addition to the internationally known Grand Canyon National Park, which is one of the world's seven natural wonders, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments.


title: Arizona

text: Since the 1950s, Arizona's population and economy have grown dramatically because of migration into the state, and now the state is a major hub of the Sun Belt. Cities such as Phoenix and Tucson have developed large, sprawling suburban areas. Many large companies, such as PetSmart and Circle K, have headquarters in the state, and Arizona is home to major universities, including the University of Arizona and Arizona State University. Traditionally, the state is politically known for national conservative figures such as Barry Goldwater and John McCain, though it voted Democratic in the 1996 presidential race and in the 2020 presidential and senatorial elections.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is home to a diverse population. About one-quarter of the state is made up of Indian reservations that serve as the home of 27 federally recognized Native American tribes, including the Navajo Nation, the largest in the state and the United States, with more than 300,000 citizens. Since the 1980s, the proportion of Hispanics in the state's population has grown significantly owing to migration from Mexico. In terms of religion, a substantial portion of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).


title: Arizona

text: The state's name appears to originate from an earlier Spanish name, , derived from the O'odham name , meaning "small spring". Initially this term was applied by Spanish colonists only to an area near the silver mining camp of Planchas de Plata, Sonora. To the European settlers, the O'odham pronunciation sounded like "Arissona". The area is still known as in the O'odham language.


title: Arizona

text: Another possible origin is the Basque phrase ("the good oak"), as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area. A native Mexican of Basque ancestry established the (small rural settlement) of Arizona between 1734 and 1736 in the current Mexican state of Sonora. It became notable after a significant discovery of silver there, .


title: Arizona

text: The misconception that the state's name purportedly originated from the Spanish term ("Arid Zone") is considered a case of folk etymology.


title: Arizona

text: For thousands of years before the modern era, Arizona was home to many ancient Native American civilizations. Hohokam, Mogollon, and Ancestral Puebloan cultures were among those that flourished throughout the state. Many of their pueblos, cliffside dwellings, rock paintings and other prehistoric treasures have survived and attract thousands of tourists each year.


title: Arizona

text: In 1539, Marcos de Niza, a Spanish Franciscan, became the first European to contact Native Americans. He explored parts of the present state and made contact with native inhabitants, probably the Sobaipuri. The expedition of Spanish explorer Coronado entered the area in 1540–1542 during its search for Cíbola.


title: Arizona

text: Father Kino was the next European in the region. A member of the Society of Jesus ("Jesuits"), he led the development of a chain of missions in the region. He converted many of the Indians to Christianity in the Pimería Alta (now southern Arizona and northern Sonora) in the 1690s and early 18th century. Spain founded "presidios" ("fortified towns") at Tubac in 1752 and Tucson in 1775.


title: Arizona

text: When Mexico achieved its independence from the Kingdom of Spain and its Spanish Empire in 1821, what is now Arizona became part of its Territory of "Nueva California", ("New California"), also known as "Alta California" ("Upper California"). Descendants of ethnic Spanish and mestizo settlers from the colonial years still lived in the area at the time of the arrival of later European-American migrants from the United States.


title: Arizona

text: During the Mexican–American War (1847–1848), the U.S. Army occupied the national capital of Mexico City and pursued its claim to much of northern Mexico, including what later became Arizona Territory in 1863 and later the State of Arizona in 1912. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) specified that, in addition to language and cultural rights of the existing inhabitants of former Mexican citizens being considered as inviolable, the sum of $15million in compensation () be paid to the Republic of Mexico. In 1853, the U.S. acquired the land south below the Gila River from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase along the southern border area as encompassing the best future southern route for a transcontinental railway.


title: Arizona

text: What is now the state of Arizona was administered by the United States government as part of the Territory of New Mexico from 1850 until the southern part of that region seceded from the Union to form the Territory of Arizona. This newly established territory was formally organized by the federal government of the Confederate States on Saturday, January 18, 1862, when President Jefferson Davis approved and signed "An Act to Organize the Territory of Arizona", marking the first official use of the name "Territory of Arizona". The Southern territory supplied the Confederate government with men, horses, and equipment. Formed in 1862, Arizona scout companies served with the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. Arizona has the westernmost military engagement on record during the Civil War with the Battle of Picacho Pass (1862).


title: Arizona

text: The Federal government declared a new U.S. Arizona Territory, consisting of the western half of earlier New Mexico Territory, in Washington, D.C., on February 24, 1863.


title: Arizona

text: Although names including "Gadsonia", "Pimeria", "Montezuma" and "Arizuma" had been considered for the territory, when 16th President Abraham Lincoln signed the final bill, it read "Arizona", and that name was adopted. (Montezuma was not derived from the Aztec emperor, but was the sacred name of a divine hero to the Pima people of the Gila River Valley. It was probably consideredand rejectedfor its sentimental value before Congress settled on the name "Arizona".)


title: Arizona

text: Brigham Young, patriarchal leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City in Utah, sent Mormons to Arizona in the mid- to late 19th century. They founded Mesa, Snowflake, Heber, Safford, and other towns. They also settled in the Phoenix Valley (or "Valley of the Sun"), Tempe, Prescott, and other areas. The Mormons settled what became northern Arizona and northern New Mexico. At the time these areas were in a part of the former New Mexico Territory.


title: Arizona

text: During the nineteenth century, a series of gold and silver rushes occurred in the territory, the best known being the 1870s stampede to the silver bonanzas of Tombstone, Arizona in southeast Arizona, also known for its legendary outlaws and lawmen. By the late 1880s, copper production eclipsed the precious metals with the rise of copper camps like Bisbee, Arizona and Jerome, Arizona. The boom and bust economy of mining also left hundreds of ghost towns across the territory, but copper mining continued to prosper with the territory producing more copper than any other state by 1907, which earned Arizona the nickname "the Copper State" at the time of statehood. During the first years of statehood the industry experienced growing pains and labor disputes with the Bisbee Deportation of 1917 the result of a copper miners' strike.


title: Arizona

text: During the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, several battles were fought in the Mexican towns just across the border from Arizona settlements. Throughout the revolution, many Arizonans enlisted in one of the several armies fighting in Mexico. Only two significant engagements took place on U.S. soil between U.S. and Mexican forces: Pancho Villa's 1916 Columbus Raid in New Mexico, and the Battle of Ambos Nogales in 1918 in Arizona. The Mexicans won the first battle and the Americans won the latter.


title: Arizona

text: After Mexican federal troops fired on U.S. soldiers, the American garrison launched an assault into Nogales, Mexico. The Mexicans eventually surrendered after both sides sustained heavy casualties. A few months earlier, just west of Nogales, an Indian War battle had occurred, considered the last engagement in the American Indian Wars, which lasted from 1775 to 1918. U.S. soldiers stationed on the border confronted Yaqui Indians who were using Arizona as a base to raid the nearby Mexican settlements, as part of their wars against Mexico.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona became a U.S. state on February 14, 1912. Arizona was the 48th state admitted to the U.S. and the last of the contiguous states to be admitted.


title: Arizona

text: Cotton farming and copper mining, two of Arizona's most important statewide industries, suffered heavily during the Great Depression. But during the 1920s and even the 1930s, tourism began to develop as the important Arizonan industry it is today. Dude ranches, such as the K L Bar and Remuda in Wickenburg, along with the Flying V and Tanque Verde in Tucson, gave tourists the chance to take part in the flavor and activities of the "Old West". Several upscale hotels and resorts opened during this period, some of which are still top tourist draws. They include the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in central Phoenix (opened 1929) and the Wigwam Resort on the west side of the Phoenix area (opened 1936).


title: Arizona

text: Arizona was the site of German prisoner of war camps during World WarII and Japanese American internment camps. Because of wartime fears of a Japanese invasion of the U.S. West Coast (which in fact materialized in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in June 1942). From 1942 to 1945, they were forced to reside in internment camps built in the interior of the country. Many lost their homes and businesses. The camps were abolished after World WarII.


title: Arizona

text: The Phoenix-area German P.O.W. site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family (of major home appliance fame). It was developed as the site of the Phoenix Zoo. A Japanese-American internment camp was on Mount Lemmon, just outside the state's southeastern city of Tucson. Another POW camp was near the Gila River in eastern Yuma County.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona was also home to the Phoenix Indian School, one of several federal Indian boarding schools designed to assimilate Native American children into mainstream European-American culture. Children were often enrolled in these schools against the wishes of their parents and families. Attempts to suppress native identities included forcing the children to cut their hair, to take and use English names, to speak only English, and to practice Christianity rather than their native religions.


title: Arizona

text: Numerous Native Americans from Arizona fought for the United States during World WarII. Their experiences resulted in a rising activism in the postwar years to achieve better treatment and civil rights after their return to the state. After Maricopa County did not allow them to register to vote, in 1948 veteran Frank Harrison and Harry Austin, of the Mojave-Apache Tribe at Fort McDowell Indian Reservation, brought a legal suit, "Harrison and Austin v. Laveen", to challenge this exclusion. The Arizona Supreme Court ruled in their favor.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona's population grew tremendously with residential and business development after World WarII, aided by the widespread use of air conditioning, which made the intensely hot summers more comfortable. According to the "Arizona Blue Book" (published by the Arizona Secretary of State's office each year), the state population in 1910 was 294,353. By 1970, it was 1,752,122. The percentage growth each decade averaged about 20% in the earlier decades, and about 60% each decade thereafter.


title: Arizona

text: In the 1960s, retirement communities were developed. These age-restricted subdivisions catered exclusively to the needs of senior citizens and attracted many retirees who wanted to escape the harsh winters of the Midwest and the Northeast. Sun City, established by developer Del Webb and opened in 1960, was one of the first such communities. Green Valley, south of Tucson, was another such community, designed as a retirement subdivision for Arizona's teachers. Many senior citizens from across the U.S. and Canada come to Arizona each winter and stay only during the winter months; they are referred to as snowbirds.


title: Arizona

text: In March 2000, Arizona was the site of the first legally binding election ever held over the internet to nominate a candidate for public office. In the 2000 Arizona Democratic Primary, under worldwide attention, Al Gore defeated Bill Bradley. Voter turnout in this state primary increased more than 500% over the 1996 primary.


title: Arizona

text: In the 21st century, Arizona has frequently garnered national attention for its efforts to quell illegal immigration into the state. In 2004, voters passed Proposition 200, requiring proof of citizenship to register to vote. The Supreme Court of the United States struck this restriction down in 2013. In 2010, Arizona enacted SB 1070 which required all immigrants to carry immigration papers at all times, but the Supreme Court also invalidated parts of this law in "Arizona v. United States" in 2012.


title: Arizona

text: On January 8, 2011, a gunman shot congresswoman Gabby Giffords and 18 others at a gathering in Tucson. Giffords was critically wounded. The incident sparked national attention regarding incendiary political rhetoric.


title: Arizona

text: Three ships named USS "Arizona" have been christened in honor of the state, although only USS "Arizona" (BB-39) was so named after statehood was achieved.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico and before Nevada. Of the state's , approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land and Native American reservations. There are 24 National Park Service maintained sites in Arizona, including the three national parks of Grand Canyon National Park, Saguaro National Park, and the Petrified Forest National Park.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the state's southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This region's topography was shaped by prehistoric volcanism, followed by the cooling-off and related subsidence. Its climate has exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. The state is less well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau (see Arizona Mountains forests).


title: Arizona

text: Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona is marked by high mountains, the Colorado plateau, and mesas. Despite the state's aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day Romania or Greece. The world's largest stand of ponderosa pine trees is in Arizona.


title: Arizona

text: The Mogollon Rim (), a escarpment, cuts across the state's central section and marks the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau. In 2002, this was an area of the Rodeo–Chediski Fire, the worst fire in state history until 2011.


title: Arizona

text: Located in northern Arizona, the Grand Canyon is a colorful, deep, steep-sided gorge, carved by the Colorado River. The canyon is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World and is largely contained in the Grand Canyon National Parkone of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of designating the Grand Canyon area as a National Park, often visiting to hunt mountain lion and enjoy the scenery. The canyon was created by the Colorado River cutting a channel over millions of years, and is about long, ranges in width from and attains a depth of more than . Nearly twobillion years of the Earth's history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of sediment as the Colorado Plateau uplifted.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is home to one of the most well-preserved meteorite impact sites in the world. Created around 50,000 years ago, the Barringer Meteorite Crater (better known simply as "Meteor Crater") is a gigantic hole in the middle of the high plains of the Colorado Plateau, about west of Winslow. A rim of smashed and jumbled boulders, some of them the size of small houses, rises above the level of the surrounding plain. The crater itself is nearly a mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and deep.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is one of two U.S. states, along with Hawaii, that does not observe Daylight Saving Time, though the large Navajo Nation in the state's northeastern region does.


title: Arizona

text: Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of localized climate conditions. In the lower elevations, the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and extremely hot summers. Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of . November through February are the coldest months, with temperatures typically ranging from , with occasional frosts.


title: Arizona

text: About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise, with warm days, and cool, breezy nights. The summer months of June through September bring a dry heat from , with occasional high temperatures exceeding having been observed in the desert area. Arizona's all-time record high is recorded at Lake Havasu City on June 29, 1994, and July 5, 2007; the all-time record low of was recorded at Hawley Lake on January 7, 1971.


title: Arizona

text: Due to the primarily dry climate, large diurnal temperature variations occur in less-developed areas of the desert above . The swings can be as large as 83°F (46°C) in the summer months. In the state's urban centers, the effects of local warming result in much higher measured night-time lows than in the recent past.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona has an average annual rainfall of , which comes during two rainy seasons, with cold fronts coming from the Pacific Ocean during the winter and a monsoon in the summer. The monsoon season occurs toward the end of summer. In July or August, the dewpoint rises dramatically for a brief period. During this time, the air contains large amounts of water vapor. Dewpoints as high as 81°F (27°C) have been recorded during the Phoenix monsoon season. This hot moisture brings lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. These downpours often cause flash floods, which can turn deadly. In an attempt to deter drivers from crossing flooding streams, the Arizona Legislature enacted the Stupid Motorist Law. It is rare for tornadoes or hurricanes to occur in Arizona.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona's northern third is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers, though the climate remains semiarid to arid. Extremely cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and Canada occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below to the state's northern parts.


title: Arizona

text: Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff).


title: Arizona

text: Phoenix, in Maricopa County, is Arizona's capital and largest city. Other prominent cities in the Phoenix metro area include Mesa (Arizona's third largest city), Chandler (Arizona's fourth largest city), Glendale, Peoria, Buckeye, Sun City, Sun City West, Fountain Hills, Surprise, Gilbert, El Mirage, Avondale, Tempe, Tolleson and Scottsdale, with a total metropolitan population of just over 4.7million. The average high temperature in July, , is one of the highest of any metropolitan area in the United States, offset by an average January high temperature of , the basis of its winter appeal.


title: Arizona

text: Tucson, with a metro population of just over onemillion, is the state's second-largest city. Located in Pima County, approximately southeast of Phoenix, it was incorporated in 1877, making it the oldest incorporated city in Arizona. It is home to the University of Arizona. Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. It has an average July temperature of 100°F (38°C) and winter temperatures averaging 65°F (18°C). Saguaro National Park, just west of the city in the Tucson Mountains, is the site of the world's largest collection of Saguaro cacti.


title: Arizona

text: The Prescott metropolitan area includes the cities of Prescott, Cottonwood, Camp Verde and many other towns in the of Yavapai County area. With 212,635 residents, this cluster of towns is the state's third largest metropolitan area. The city of Prescott (population 41,528) lies approximately northwest of the Phoenix metropolitan area. Situated in pine tree forests at an elevation of about , Prescott enjoys a much cooler climate than Phoenix, with average summer highs around and winter temperatures averaging .


title: Arizona

text: Yuma is the center of the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Arizona. Located in Yuma County, it is near the borders of California and Mexico. It is one of the hottest cities in the United States, with an average July high of . (The same month's average in Death Valley is .) The city features sunny days about 90% of the year. The Yuma Metropolitan Statistical Area has a population of 160,000. Yuma attracts many winter visitors from all over the United States.


title: Arizona

text: Flagstaff, in Coconino County, is the largest city in northern Arizona, and is at an elevation of nearly . With its large Ponderosa pine forests, snowy winter weather and picturesque mountains, it is a stark contrast to the desert regions typically associated with Arizona. It is sited at the base of the San Francisco Peaks, the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona, which contains Humphreys Peak, the highest point in Arizona at . Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to numerous tourist attractions including: Grand Canyon National Park, Sedona, and Oak Creek Canyon. Historic U.S. Route 66 is the main east–west street in the town. The Flagstaff metropolitan area is home to 134,421 residents and the main campus of Northern Arizona University.


title: Arizona

text: Lake Havasu City, in Mohave County, known as "Arizona's playground", was developed on the Colorado River and is named after Lake Havasu. Lake Havasu City has a population of about 53,000 people. It is famous for huge spring break parties, sunsets and the London Bridge, relocated from London, England. Lake Havasu City was founded by real estate developer Robert P. McCulloch in 1963. It has two colleges, Mohave Community College and ASU Colleges in Lake Havasu City.


title: Arizona

text: The United States Census Bureau records Arizona's population as 7,151,502 in the 2020 census, a 12% increase since the 2010 United States census.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona remained sparsely settled for most of the 19th century. The 1860 census reported the population of "Arizona County" to be 6,482, of whom 4,040 were listed as "Indians", 21 as "free colored", and 2,421 as "white". Arizona's continued population growth puts an enormous stress on the state's water supply. , 61% of Arizona's children under age one belonged to racial groups of color.


title: Arizona

text: The population of metropolitan Phoenix increased by 45% from 1991 through 2001, helping to make Arizona the second fastest-growing state in the U.S. in the 1990s (the fastest was Nevada). , the population of the Phoenix area is estimated to be over 4.9million.


title: Arizona

text: According to the 2010 United States census, Arizona had a population of 6,392,017. In 2010, illegal immigrants constituted an estimated 8% of the population. This was the second highest percentage of any state in the U.S.


title: Arizona

text: Metropolitan Phoenix (4.7million) and Tucson (1.0million) are home to about five-sixths of Arizona's people (as of the 2010 census). Metro Phoenix alone accounts for two-thirds of the state's population.


title: Arizona

text: , 73% (4,215,749) of Arizona residents age five and older spoke only English at home, while 21% (1,202,638) spoke Spanish, 2% (85,602) Navajo, <1% (22,592) German, <1% (22,426) Chinese (which includes Mandarin), <1% (19,015) Tagalog, <1% (17,603) Vietnamese, <1% (15,707) Other North American Indigenous Languages (especially indigenous languages of Arizona), and French was spoken as a main language by <1% (15,062) of the population over the age of five. In total, 27% (1,567,548) of Arizona's population age five and older spoke a mother language other than English.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is home to the largest number of speakers of Native American languages in the 48 contiguous states, as more than 85,000 individuals reported speaking Navajo, and 10,403 people reported Apache, as a language spoken at home in 2005. Arizona's Apache County has the highest concentration of speakers of Native American Indian languages in the United States.


title: Arizona

text: The 2010 U.S. Religion Census: Religious Congregations & Membership Study by ARDA reported that the three largest denominational groups in Arizona were the Catholic Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and non-denominational Evangelical Protestants. The Catholic Church had the highest number of adherents in Arizona (at 930,001), followed by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 392,918 members reported and then non-denominational Evangelical Protestant churches, reporting 281,105 adherents. The religious body with the largest number of congregations is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (with 811 congregations) followed by the Southern Baptist Convention (with 323 congregations). This census accounted for about 2.4 million of Arizona's 6.4 million residents in 2010.


title: Arizona

text: According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, the fifteen largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 and 2000 were:


title: Arizona

text: Hinduism became the largest non-Christian religion (when combining all denominations) in 2010 with more than 32,000 adherents, followed by Judaism with more than 20,000 and Buddhism with more than 19,000.


title: Arizona

text: By the publication of the Public Religion Research Institute's 2020 study, 68% of the population identified as Christian. At the Pew Research Center's 2014 study, 67% of Arizona was Christian. Among the irreligious population from 2014 to 2020 per both studies, they have decreased from 27% of the population to 24% of self-identified irreligious or agnostic Arizonans.


title: Arizona

text: The 2020 total gross state product was $373billion. The composition of the state's economy is moderately diverse; although health care, transportation and the government remain the largest sectors.


title: Arizona

text: The state's per capita income is $40,828, ranking 39th in the U.S. The state had a median household income of $50,448, making it 22nd in the country and just below the U.S. national mean. Early in its history, Arizona's economy relied on the "five C's": copper (see "Copper mining in Arizona"), cotton, cattle, citrus, and climate (tourism). Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open-pit and underground mines, accounting for two-thirds of the nation's output.


title: Arizona

text: The state government is Arizona's largest employer, while Banner Health is the state's largest private employer, with more than 39,000 employees (2016). , the state's unemployment rate was 5.9%.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona collects personal income taxes in five brackets: 2.59%, 2.88%, 3.36%, 4.24% and 4.54%. The state transaction privilege tax is 5.6%; however, county and municipal sales taxes generally add an additional 2%.


title: Arizona

text: In 2020, Arizona voters approved Proposition 208 to create an additional income tax bracket of 8% for incomes over $250,000 (single filers) and $500,000 (joint filers). The Goldwater Institute filed a lawsuit challenging it, but it was rejected by Maricopa County Arizona Superior Court judge John Hannah Jr.


title: Arizona

text: The state rate on transient lodging (hotel/motel) is 7.27%. The state of Arizona does not levy a state tax on food for home consumption or on drugs prescribed by a licensed physician or dentist. However, some cities in Arizona do levy a tax on food for home consumption.


title: Arizona

text: All fifteen Arizona counties levy a tax. Incorporated municipalities also levy transaction privilege taxes which, with the exception of their hotel/motel tax, are generally in the range of 1-to-3%. These added assessments could push the combined sales tax rate to as high as 10.7%.


title: Arizona

text: Romaine lettuce was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $291,001,000. Head lettuce was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $236,994,000. Leaf lettuce was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $123,066,000.


title: Arizona

text: Spinach was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $113,620,000.


title: Arizona

text: Cantaloupe was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $91,907,000.


title: Arizona

text: The state is consistently the second largest grower of broccoli, consistently behind California's harvest, going from in 2012, 2017, and 2021. In 2021 that yielded , for a total harvest of . When sold for an average of , that brought $87,545,000.


title: Arizona

text: Cauliflower was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $76,908,000.


title: Arizona

text: Cabbage was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $56,088,000.


title: Arizona

text: Watermelon was harvested from , yielding an average of , for a total harvest of . Selling for , that sold for $32,311,000


title: Arizona

text: Federal crop insurance is available for ("Vitis vinifera" and other "Vitis" spp.) here. Together with California's crop it falls under special provisions of the relevant crop insurance statutes. Insect pests and diseases are covered, excluding Phylloxera ("Daktulosphaira vitifoliae") or failure to correctly apply insect control or apply disease control.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona Extension has tested some varieties (and recommends some others which their experience tells them should produce well) for the Low Desert area:


title: Arizona

text: The whitefly "Bemisia tabaci" B was introduced through the poinsettia trade in the 1980s, displacing the previous A biotype. In 2004 the Q biotype (from the Mediterranean) was first found here, also on poinsettia.


title: Arizona

text: The ("Leptinotarsa decemlineata") is either native or an early introduction here. Unusually, the population here commonly feeds on ("Solanum elaeagnifolium"), which is usually a less attractive host for this beetle. The CPB is an occasional pest of tomato.


title: Arizona

text: Main Interstate routes include I-17, and I-19 traveling north–south, I-8, I-10, and I-40, traveling east–west, and a short stretch of I-15 traveling northeast–southwest through the extreme northwestern corner of the state. In addition, the various urban areas are served by complex networks of state routes and highways, such as the Loop 101, which is part of Phoenix's vast freeway system.


title: Arizona

text: The Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas are served by public bus transit systems. Yuma and Flagstaff also have public bus systems. Greyhound Lines serves Phoenix, Tucson, Flagstaff, Yuma, and several smaller communities statewide.


title: Arizona

text: A light rail system, called Valley Metro Rail, was completed in December 2008; it connects Central Phoenix with the nearby cities of Mesa and Tempe.


title: Arizona

text: In Tucson, the Sun Link streetcar system travels through the downtown area, connecting the main University of Arizona campus with Mercado San Agustin on the western edge of downtown Tucson. Sun Link, loosely based on the Portland Streetcar, launched in July 2014.


title: Arizona

text: Amtrak "Southwest Chief" route serves the northern part of the state, stopping at Winslow, Flagstaff, Williams and Kingman. The "Texas Eagle" and "Sunset Limited" routes serve South-Central Arizona, stopping at Tucson, Maricopa, Yuma and Benson. Phoenix lost Amtrak service in 1996 with the rerouting of the "Sunset Limited", and now an Amtrak bus runs between Phoenix and the station in Maricopa. As of 2021, Amtrak has proposed to restore rail service between Phoenix and Tucson.


title: Arizona

text: The capital of Arizona is Phoenix. The original Capitol building, with its distinctive copper dome, was dedicated in 1901 (construction was completed for $136,000 in 1900) when the area was a territory. Phoenix became the official state capital with Arizona's admission to the union in 1912.


title: Arizona

text: The House of Representatives and Senate buildings were dedicated in 1960, and an Executive Office Building was dedicated in 1974 (the ninth floor of this building is where the Office of the Governor is located). The original Capitol building was converted into a museum.


title: Arizona

text: The Capitol complex is fronted and highlighted by the richly landscaped Wesley Bolin Memorial Plaza, named after Wesley Bolin, a governor who died in office in the 1970s. The site also includes many monuments and memorials, including the anchor and signal mast from the USS "Arizona" (one of the U.S. Navy ships sunk in Pearl Harbor) and a granite version of the Ten Commandments.


title: Arizona

text: The Arizona Legislature is bicameral and consists of a thirty-member Senate and a 60-member House of Representatives. Each of the thirty legislative districts has one senator and two representatives. Legislators are elected for two-year terms.


title: Arizona

text: Each Legislature covers a two-year period. The first session following the general election is known as the first regular session, and the session convening in the second year is known as the second regular session. Each regular session begins on the second Monday in January and adjourns "sine die" (terminates for the year) no later than Saturday of the week in which the 100th day from the beginning of the regular session falls. The President of the Senate and Speaker of the House, by rule, may extend the session up to seven additional days. Thereafter, the session can be extended only by a majority vote of members present of each house.


title: Arizona

text: The majority party is the Republican Party, which has held power in both houses since 1993. The Democratic Party picked up several legislative seats in recent elections, bringing both chambers one seat away from being equally divided as of 2021.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two-year terms and are limited to four consecutive terms in a chamber, though there is no limit on the total number of terms. When a lawmaker is term-limited from office, it is common for him or her to run for election in the other chamber.


title: Arizona

text: The fiscal year 2006–07 general fund budget, approved by the Arizona Legislature in June 2006, was slightly less than $10billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, it also included more than $500million in income and property tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and additional funding for the K–12 education system.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona's executive branch is headed by a governor, who is elected to a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row. Arizona is one of the few states that has no governor's mansion. During their term, the governors reside within their private residence, with executive offices housed in the executive tower at the state capitol. The governor of Arizona is Doug Ducey (R).


title: Arizona

text: Governor Jan Brewer assumed office in 2009 after Janet Napolitano had her nomination by Barack Obama for Secretary of Homeland Security confirmed by the Senate. Arizona has had four female governors, more than any other state.


title: Arizona

text: Other elected executive officials include the Secretary of State, State Treasurer, State Attorney General, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Mine Inspector, and a five-member Corporation Commission. All elected officials hold a term of four years, and are limited to two consecutive terms (except the office of the State Mine Inspector, which is limited to four terms).


title: Arizona

text: Arizona is one of five states that do not have a lieutenant governor. The elected secretary of state is first in line to succeed the governor in the event of death, disability, resignation, or removal from office. If appointed, the Secretary of State is not eligible and the next governor is selected from the next eligible official in the line of succession, including the attorney general, state treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction. Since 1977, four secretaries of state and one attorney general have succeeded to Arizona's governorship.


title: Arizona

text: The Arizona Supreme Court is the highest court in Arizona, consisting of a chief justice, a vice chief justice, and five associate justices. Justices are appointed by the governor from a list recommended by a bipartisan commission and must be sustained in office by election after the first two years following their appointment. Subsequent sustaining elections occur every six years. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in death penalty cases, but nearly all other appellate cases go through the Arizona Court of Appeals first. The court has original jurisdiction in a few other circumstances, as outlined in the state constitution. The court meets in the Arizona Supreme Court Building at the capitol complex (at the southern end of Wesley Bolin Plaza).


title: Arizona

text: The Arizona Court of Appeals, subdivided into two divisions, is the intermediate court in the state. Division One is based in Phoenix, consists of sixteen judges, and has jurisdiction in the Western and Northern regions of the state, along with the greater Phoenix area. Division Two is based in Tucson, consists of six judges, and has jurisdiction over the Southern regions of the state, including the Tucson area. Judges are selected in a method similar to the one used for state supreme court justices.


title: Arizona

text: Each county of Arizona has a superior court, the size and organization of which are varied and generally depend on the size of the particular county.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona's United States Representatives are Tom O'Halleran (D-1), Ann Kirkpatrick (D-2), Raul Grijalva (D-3), Paul Gosar (R-4), Andy Biggs (R-5), David Schweikert (R-6), Ruben Gallego (D-7), Debbie Lesko (R-8), and Greg Stanton (D-9). Arizona gained a ninth seat in the House of Representatives due to redistricting based on the 2010 United States census.


title: Arizona

text: From statehood through the late 1940s, Arizona was primarily dominated by the Democratic Party. During this time, the Democratic candidate for the presidency carried the state each election, the only exceptions being the elections of 1920, 1924 and 1928all three were national Republican landslides.


title: Arizona

text: In 1924, Congress had passed a law granting citizenship and suffrage to all Native Americans, some of whom had previously been excluded as members of tribes on reservations. Legal interpretations of Arizona's constitution prohibited Native Americans living on reservations from voting, classifying them as being under "guardianship". This interpretation was overturned as being incorrect and unconstitutional in 1948 by the Arizona Supreme Court, following a suit by World WarII Indian veterans Frank Harrison and Harry Austin, both of the Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation. The landmark case is "Harrison and Austin v. Laveen". After the men were refused the opportunity to register in Maricopa County, they filed suit against the registrar. The National Congress of American Indians, the Department of Justice, the Department of the Interior, and the American Civil Liberties Union all filed "amicus curiae" (friends of the court) briefs in the case. The State Supreme Court established the rights of Native Americans to vote in the state; at the time, they comprised about 11% of the population. That year, a similar provision was overturned in New Mexico when challenged by another Indian veteran in court. These were the only two states that had continued to prohibit Native Americans from voting.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona voted Republican in every presidential election from 1952 to 1992, with Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan winning the state by particularly large margins. During this forty-year span, it was the only state not to be carried by a Democrat at least once.


title: Arizona

text: Democrat Lyndon Johnson, in 1964, lost the state by fewer than 5,000 votes to Arizona Senator and native Barry Goldwater. (This was the most closely contested state in what was otherwise a landslide victory for Johnson that year.) Democrat Bill Clinton ended this streak in 1996, when he won Arizona by a little over two percentage points (Clinton had previously come within less than two percent of winning Arizona's electoral votes in 1992). From 2000 until 2016, the majority of the state continued to support Republican presidential candidates by solid margins. In the 2020 United States presidential election, Joe Biden again broke the streak by becoming the first Democratic presidential candidate to win Arizona since 1996.


title: Arizona

text: Since the mid 20th century, the Republican Party has also dominated Arizona politics in general. The fast-growing Phoenix and Tucson suburbs became reliably Republican areas from the 1950s onward. During this time, many "Pinto Democrats", or conservative Democrats from rural areas, became increasingly willing to support Republicans at the state and national level. While the state normally supports Republicans at the federal level, Democrats are often competitive in statewide elections. Two of the last six governors have been Democrats.


title: Arizona

text: On March 4, 2008, Senator John McCain effectively clinched the Republican nomination for 2008, becoming the first major party presidential nominee from the state since Barry Goldwater in 1964.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona politics are dominated by a longstanding rivalry between its two largest counties, Maricopa and Pimahome to Phoenix and Tucson, respectively. The two counties have almost 75 percent of the state's population and cast almost 80 percent of the state's vote. They also elect a substantial majority of the state legislature.


title: Arizona

text: Maricopa County is home to almost 60 percent of the state's population, and most of the state's elected officials live there. Before Joe Biden won Maricopa County in 2020, it had voted Republican in every presidential election since 1948. This includes the 1964 run of native son Barry Goldwater; he would not have carried his home state without his 20,000-vote margin in Maricopa County. Similarly, while McCain won Arizona by eight percentage points in 2008, aided by his 130,000-vote margin in Maricopa County


title: Arizona

text: In contrast, Pima County, home to Tucson, and most of southern Arizona have historically voted more Democratic. While Tucson's suburbs lean Republican, they hold to a somewhat more moderate brand of Republicanism than is common in the Phoenix area.


title: Arizona

text: Arizona rejected a same-sex marriage ban in a referendum as part of the 2006 elections. Arizona was the first state in the nation to do so. Same-sex marriage was not recognized in Arizona, but this amendment would have denied any legal or financial benefits to unmarried homosexual or heterosexual couples. In 2008, Arizona voters passed Proposition 102, an amendment to the state constitution to define marriage as a union of one man and one woman. It passed by a more narrow majority than similar votes in a number of other states.


title: Arizona

text: In 2010, Arizona adopted SB 1070, called the "toughest immigration law" in the United States. A fierce debate erupted between supporters and detractors of SB 1070. The United States Supreme Court struck down portions of the Arizona law, which required all immigrants to carry immigration papers at all times, in "Arizona v. United States".


title: Arizona

text: The West Virginia teachers' strike in 2018 inspired teachers in other states, including Arizona, to take similar action.


title: Arizona

text: In 2006, Arizona became the first state in the United States to reject a proposition, Prop 107, that would have banned same-sex marriage and civil unions. However, in 2008, Arizona voters approved of Prop 102, a constitutional amendment that prohibited same-sex marriage but not other unions. Prior to same-sex marriage being legal, the City of Bisbee became the first jurisdiction in Arizona to approve of civil unions. The state's Attorney General at the time, Tom Horne, threatened to sue, but rescinded the threat once Bisbee amended the ordinance; Bisbee approved of civil unions in 2013. The municipalities of Clarkdale, Cottonwood, Jerome, Sedona, and Tucson also passed civil unions.