title: Rosamund Pike

text: In 2021, Pike starred as con artist Marla Grayson in the crime thriller "I Care a Lot", directed by J Blakeson and co-starring Peter Dinklage, Eiza González and Dianne Wiest. Her performance received universal acclaim; David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" said "Pike brings crisp efficiency and dead-eyed amorality to a legal conservator", and ABC News journalist Peter Travers wrote that "Pike makes a feast of the role". At the 78th Golden Globe Awards, she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: In 2021, Pike starred in and executive produced the eight episode historical fiction podcast "Edith!". The scripted podcast dramatises a period during the Woodrow Wilson presidency when Wilson was incapacitated by a stroke and First Lady Edith Wilson took the reins of power while he recovered. Clark Gregg plays the role of President Wilson and Esther Povitsky portrays Trudy Grayson, the First Lady's best friend.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: In 2022, it was announced that Pike would star in Emerald Fennell's second feature film, which is rumored to be titled "Saltburn". She is also committed to lead the thriller "Rich Flu", with Pablo Larraín producing the film.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: She also voiced an audiobook of "The Eye of the World", the first book in the "Wheel of Time" series. In July 2022 it was announced that she would also voice audiobook versions of "The Great Hunt" and The Dragon Reborn.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: While at Oxford, Pike was in a relationship with Simon Woods which lasted two years. They later played the lovers Jane Bennet and Charles Bingley in "Pride & Prejudice". She was then engaged to the director of that production, Joe Wright, which ended in 2008.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: Since December 2009, Pike has been in a relationship with Robie Uniacke, a businessman, and they have two sons, both fluent in Mandarin. In 2015, when they visited China to promote "Gone Girl", Pike mentioned that Uniacke had given her a Chinese name (traditional Chinese: , , IPA: ), and, being admirers of Chinese culture, they requested the media use this as her Chinese name rather than the transliteration of her English name.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: In 2015, Pike signed an open letter for which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they would serve as the head of the Group of Seven (G7) and the African Union (AU), respectively, which would start to set the priorities in development funding before a main United Nations (UN) summit in September 2015, supposed to establish new development goals for the generation.


title: Rosamund Pike

text: In 2021, Pike became an investor and the creative director for the psychedelic-inspired meditation app Lumenate, which aims to guide the user into an altered state of consciousness.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Caryn Elaine Johnson (born November 13, 1955), known professionally as Whoopi Goldberg (), is an American actor, comedian, author, and television personality. A recipient of numerous accolades, she is one of 17 entertainers to win the EGOT, which includes an Emmy Award, a Grammy Award, an Academy Award ("Oscar"), and a Tony Award. In 2001, she received the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg began her career on stage in 1983 with her one-woman show, "Spook Show", which transferred to Broadway under the title "Whoopi Goldberg", running from 1984 to 1985. She won a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album for the recording of the show. Her film breakthrough came in 1985 with her role as Celie, a mistreated woman in the Deep South, in Steven Spielberg's period drama film "The Color Purple", for which she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama. For her role as an eccentric psychic in the romantic fantasy film "Ghost" (1990), she won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and a second Golden Globe Award. She starred in the comedy "Sister Act" (1992) and its sequel "" (1993), becoming the highest-paid actress at the time. She also starred in "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1986), "Clara's Heart" (1988), "Soapdish" (1991), "Ghosts of Mississippi" (1996), and "Till" (2022). She also is known for voicing roles in "The Lion King" (1994), and "Toy Story 3" (2010).


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: On stage, Goldberg has starred in the Broadway revivals of Stephen Sondheim's musical "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum" and August Wilson's play "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom". She won a Tony Award as a producer of the musical "Thoroughly Modern Millie". In 2011 she received her third Tony Award nomination for the stage adaptation of "Sister Act" (2011). On television, Goldberg portrayed Guinan in the science fiction series "" (1988-1993), and "" (2022). Since 2007, she has co-hosted and moderated the daytime talk show "The View", for which she won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host. She has hosted the Academy Awards ceremony four times.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Caryn Elaine Johnson was born in Manhattan, New York City, on November 13, 1955, the daughter of Emma Johnson (née Harris; 1931–2010), a nurse and teacher, and Robert James Johnson Jr. (1930–1993), a Baptist clergyman. She was raised in a public housing project, the Chelsea-Elliot Houses, in New York City.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg described her mother as a "stern, strong, and wise woman" who raised her as a single mother with her brother Clyde (c. 1949 – 2015). She attended a local Catholic school, St Columba's. Her more recent forebears migrated north from Faceville, Georgia; Palatka, Florida; and Virginia. She dropped out of Washington Irving High School.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: She has stated that her stage forename ("Whoopi") was taken from a whoopee cushion: "When you're performing on stage, you never really have time to go into the bathroom and close the door. So if you get a little gassy, you've got to let it go. So people used to say to me, 'You're like a whoopee cushion.' And that's where the name came from."


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: About her stage surname, she claimed in 2011, "My mother did not name me Whoopi, but Goldberg is my name—it's part of my family, part of my heritage, just like being black," and "I just know I am Jewish. I practice nothing. I don't go to temple, but I do remember the holidays." She has stated that "people would say 'Come on, are you Jewish?' And I always say 'Would you ask me that if I was white? I bet not.'" One account suggests that her mother, Emma Johnson, thought the family's original surname was "not Jewish enough" for her daughter to become a star. Researcher Henry Louis Gates Jr. found that all of Goldberg's traceable ancestors were black, that she had no known German or Jewish ancestry, and that none of her ancestors were named Goldberg. Results of a DNA test, revealed in the 2006 PBS documentary "African American Lives", traced part of her ancestry to the Papel and Bayote people of modern-day Guinea-Bissau of West Africa. The show identified her great-great-grandparents William and Elsie Washington, who had acquired property in northern Florida in 1873, and mentions they were among a very small number of black people who became landowners through homesteading in the years following the Civil War. The show also mentions that her grandparents were living in Harlem and that her grandfather was working as a Pullman porter.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: According to an anecdote told by Nichelle Nichols in "Trekkies" (1997), a young Goldberg was watching "", and on seeing Nichols's character Uhura, exclaimed, "Momma! There's a black lady on television and she ain't no maid!" This spawned Goldberg's lifelong "Star Trek" fandom. Goldberg lobbied for - and was eventually cast - in a recurring guest starring role as Guinan on "".


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In the 1970s, Goldberg moved to San Diego, California, where she became a waitress, then to Berkeley, where she worked odd jobs, including as a bank teller, a mortuary cosmetologist, and a bricklayer. She joined the avant-garde theater troupe the Blake Street Hawkeyes and gave comedy and acting classes; Courtney Love was one of her acting students. Goldberg was also in a number of theater productions. In 1978, she witnessed a midair collision of two planes in San Diego, causing her to develop a fear of flying and post-traumatic stress disorder.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg trained under acting teacher Uta Hagen at the HB Studio in New York City. She first appeared onscreen in "" (1982), an avant-garde ensemble feature by San Francisco filmmaker William Farley.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 1983 and 1984, she "first came to national prominence with her one-woman show" in which she portrayed Moms Mabley, "Moms", first performed in Berkeley, California, and then at the Victoria Theatre in San Francisco; the Oakland Museum of California preserves a poster advertising the show.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: She created "The Spook Show", a one-woman show composed of different character monologues in 1983. Director Mike Nichols "discovered" her when he saw her perform. In an interview, he recalled that he "burst into tears", and that he and Goldberg "fell into each other's arms" when they first met backstage. Goldberg considered Nichols her mentor. Nichols helped her transfer the show to Broadway; where it was retitled "Whoopi Goldberg" and ran from October 24, 1984, to March 10, 1985. It was taped during this run and broadcast by HBO as "Whoopi Goldberg: Direct from Broadway" in 1985.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg's Broadway performance caught the eye of director Steven Spielberg while she performed in The Belly Room at The Comedy Store. Spielberg gave her the lead role in his film "The Color Purple", based on the novel by Alice Walker. It was released in late 1985 and was a critical and commercial success. Film critic Roger Ebert described Goldberg's performance as "one of the most amazing debut performances in movie history". It was nominated for 11 Academy Awards, including a nomination for Goldberg as Best Actress.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Between 1985 and 1988, Goldberg was the busiest female star, making seven films. She starred in Penny Marshall's directorial debut "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1986) and began a relationship with David Claessen, a director of photography on the set; they married later that year. The film was a modest success, and during the next two years, three additional motion pictures featured Goldberg: "Burglar" (1987), "Fatal Beauty" (1987), and "The Telephone" (1988). Though they were not as successful, Goldberg garnered awards from the NAACP Image Awards. Goldberg and Claessen divorced after the poor box office performance of "The Telephone", in which she was contracted to perform. She tried unsuccessfully to sue the film's producers. "Clara's Heart" (1988) did poorly at the box office, though her own performance was critically acclaimed. As the 1980s concluded, she hosted numerous HBO specials of "Comic Relief" with fellow comedians Robin Williams and Billy Crystal.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In January 1990, Goldberg starred with Jean Stapleton in the situation comedy "Bagdad Cafe ("inspired by the 1987 film of the same name). The sitcom ran for two seasons on CBS. Simultaneously, she starred in "The Long Walk Home", portraying a woman in the US civil rights movement. She played a psychic in the film "Ghost" (1990) and became the first black woman to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in nearly 50 years, and the second black woman to win an Academy Award for acting (the first being Hattie McDaniel for "Gone with the Wind" in 1940). She also won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture. "Premiere" named her character Oda Mae Brown in its list of Top 100 best film characters.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg starred in "Soapdish" (1991) and had a recurring role on "" between 1988 and 1993 as Guinan, a character she reprised in two "Star Trek" films. She made a cameo in the Traveling Wilburys 1991 music video "Wilbury Twist". On May 29, 1992, the film "Sister Act" was released. It grossed well over US$200 million, and Goldberg was nominated for a Golden Globe Award. That year, she starred in "The Player" and "Sarafina!". She also hosted the 34th Annual Grammy Awards, receiving praise from the "Sun-Sentinel"s Deborah Wilker for bringing to life what Wilker considered "stodgy and stale" ceremonies. During the next year, Goldberg hosted a late-night talk show, "The Whoopi Goldberg Show", and starred in two more films: "Made in America" and "". With an estimated salary of $7–12 million for "" (1993), she was the highest-paid actress at the time. From 1994 to 1995, she appeared in "Corrina, Corrina", "The Lion King" (voice), "Theodore Rex", "The Little Rascals", "The Pagemaster" (voice), "Boys on the Side", and "Moonlight and Valentino", and guest-starred on "Muppets Tonight" in 1996.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 1994, Goldberg became the first black woman to host the Academy Awards ceremony starting with the 66th Oscar telecast. She hosted it again in 1996, 1999, and 2002, and has been regarded as one of the show's best hosts.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg starred in four motion pictures in 1996: "Bogus" (with Gérard Depardieu and Haley Joel Osment), "Eddie", "The Associate" (with Dianne Wiest), and "Ghosts of Mississippi" (with Alec Baldwin and James Woods). During the filming of "Eddie", she began dating co-star Frank Langella, a relationship that lasted until early 2000. In October 1997, she and ghostwriter Daniel Paisner cowrote "Book", a collection featuring Goldberg's insights and opinions.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Also in 1996, Goldberg replaced Nathan Lane as Pseudolus in the Broadway revival of Stephen Sondheim's musical comedy "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum". Greg Evans of "Variety" regarded her "thoroughly modern style" as "a welcome invitation to a new audience that could find this 1962 musical as dated as ancient Rome". "The Washington Post"s Chip Crews deemed Goldberg "a pip and a pro", and that she "ultimately [...] steers the show past its rough spots".


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: From 1998 to 2001, Goldberg took supporting roles in "How Stella Got Her Groove Back" with Angela Bassett, "Girl, Interrupted" with Winona Ryder and Angelina Jolie, "Kingdom Come", and "Rat Race" with an all-star ensemble cast. She starred in the ABC-TV versions of "Cinderella", "A Knight in Camelot", and "Call Me Claus". In 1998 she gained a new audience when she became the "Center Square" on "Hollywood Squares", hosted by Tom Bergeron. She also served as executive producer, for which she was nominated for four Emmy Awards. She left the series in 2002. In 1999, she voiced Ransome in the British animated children's show "Foxbusters" by Cosgrove Hall Films. AC Nielsen EDI ranked her as the actress appearing in the most theatrical films in the 1990s, with 29 films grossing $1.3 billion in the U.S. and Canada.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg hosted the documentary short "The Making of A Charlie Brown Christmas" (2001). In 2003, she returned to television in "Whoopi", which was canceled after one season. On her 46th birthday, she was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. She also appeared alongside Samuel L. Jackson and Angela Bassett in the HBO documentary "Unchained Memories" (2003), narrating slave narratives. During the next two years, she became a spokeswoman for Slim Fast and produced two television series: Lifetime's original drama "Strong Medicine", which ran six seasons; and "Whoopi's Littleburg", a children's television series on Nickelodeon.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg returned to the stage in 2003, starring as blues singer Ma Rainey in the Broadway revival of August Wilson's historical drama "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom" at the Royale Theatre. She was also one of the show's producers.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg was involved in controversy at a fundraiser for John Kerry at Radio City Music Hall in New York in July 2004 when she made a sexual joke about President George W. Bush by waving a bottle of wine, pointed toward her pubic area, and said, "We should keep "Bush" where he belongs, and not in the White House." As result, Slim-Fast dropped her from their ad campaign. Later that year, she revived her one-woman show at the Lyceum Theatre on Broadway in honor of its 20th anniversary; Charles Isherwood of "The New York Times" called the opening night performance an "intermittently funny but sluggish evening of comic portraiture". Goldberg made guest appearances on "Everybody Hates Chris" as elderly character Louise Clarkson.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: From August 2006 to March 2008, Goldberg hosted "Wake Up with Whoopi", a nationally syndicated morning radio talk and entertainment program. In October 2007, Goldberg announced on the air that she was going to retire from acting because she was no longer sent scripts, saying, "You know, there's no room for the very talented Whoopi. There's no room right now in the marketplace of cinema". On December 13, 2008, she guest starred on "The Naked Brothers Band", a Nickelodeon rock- mockumentary television series. Before the episode premiered, on February 18, 2008, the band performed on "The View" and the band members were interviewed by Goldberg and Sherri Shepherd. That same year, Goldberg hosted 62nd Tony Awards.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 2010, she starred in the Tyler Perry movie "For Colored Girls", alongside Janet Jackson, Phylicia Rashad, Thandie Newton, Loretta Devine, Anika Noni Rose, Kimberly Elise, Kerry Washington, and Macy Gray. The film received generally good reviews from critics and grossed over $38 million worldwide. The same year, she voiced Stretch in the Disney/Pixar animated movie "Toy Story 3". The movie received critical acclaim and grossed $1.067 billion worldwide.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg had a recurring role on the television series "Glee" during its third and fourth seasons as Carmen Tibideaux, a renowned Broadway performer and opera singer and the dean at a fictional performing arts college NYADA (New York Academy of the Dramatic Arts). In 2011, she had a cameo in "The Muppets". In 2012, Goldberg guest starred as Jane Marsh, Sue Heck's guidance counselor on "The Middle". She voiced the Magic Mirror on Disney XD's "The 7D". In 2014, she also portrayed a character in the superhero film "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" (2014). She also appeared as herself in Chris Rock's "Top Five" and starred in the romantic comedy film "Big Stone Gap".


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 2016, Goldberg executive produced a reality television series called "Strut", based on transgender models from the modeling agency Slay Model Management in Los Angeles. The series aired on Oxygen. In 2017, she voiced Ursula, the Sea Witch and Uma's mother, in the TV movie "Descendants 2". In 2018, she starred in the Tyler Perry's film "Nobody's Fool", alongside Tiffany Haddish, Omari Hardwick, Mehcad Brooks, Amber Riley and Tika Sumpter. That same year, she also starred in the comedy-drama film "Furlough", alongside Tessa Thompson, Melissa Leo and Anna Paquin.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In an appearance on "The View" on January 22, 2020, Patrick Stewart invited Goldberg to reprise her role as Guinan during the second season of "". She immediately accepted his offer. Goldberg also starred in "The Stand", a CBS All Access miniseries based on the 1978 novel of the same name by Stephen King, portraying Mother Abagail, a 108-year-old woman. In 2020, it was announced Goldberg was set to return in "Sister Act 3" with Tyler Perry producing. The film is slated to debut on Disney+.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg is also set to star in the biographical film "Till", written and directed by Chinonye Chukwu which she also produced. The film is set to debut at the 60th New York Film Festival.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has stated that her influences are Richard Pryor, George Carlin, Moms Mabley, Lenny Bruce, Joan Rivers, Eddie Murphy, Bill Cosby, Sidney Poitier, and Harry Belafonte.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: On September 4, 2007, Goldberg became the new moderator and co-host of "The View", replacing Rosie O'Donnell. Goldberg's debut as moderator drew 3.4 million viewers, 1 million fewer than O'Donnell's debut ratings. However, after 2 weeks, "The View" was averaging 3.5 million total viewers under Goldberg, a 7-percent increase from 3.3 million under O'Donnell the previous season.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has made controversial comments on the program on several occasions. One of her first appearances involved defending Michael Vick's participation in dogfighting as a result of "cultural upbringing". In 2009, she opined that Roman Polanski's rape conviction of a thirteen-year-old in 1977 was not "rape-rape". She later clarified that she had intended to distinguish between statutory rape and forcible rape. The following year, in response to alleged comments by Mel Gibson considered racist, she said: "I don't like what he did here, but I know Mel and I know he's not a racist".


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 2015, Goldberg was initially a defender of Bill Cosby from the rape allegations made against him, questioning why Cosby had never been arrested or tried for them. She later changed her stance, stating that "all of the information that's out there kinda points to 'guilt'." After learning that the statute of limitations on these allegations had expired and thus Cosby could not be tried, she also stated her support for removing the statute of limitations for rape.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: On January 31, 2022, Goldberg drew widespread criticism for stating on the show that the Holocaust was not based on race but "about man's inhumanity to man", telling her co-hosts: "This is white people doing it to white people, so y'all going to fight amongst yourselves." She apologized on Twitter later that day. She maintained that the Nazis' issue was with ethnicity and not race on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert" that same day, which drew further criticism. Goldberg issued another apology on air the following day. She was subsequently suspended from "The View" for two weeks over the comments.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg performed the role of Califia, the Queen of the Island of California, for a theater presentation called "Golden Dreams" at Disney California Adventure Park, the second gate at the Disneyland Resort, in 2000. The show, which explains the history of the Golden State (California), opened on February 8, 2001, with the rest of the park. "Golden Dreams" closed in September 2008 to make way for the planned for DCA. In 2001, Goldberg co-hosted the 50th Anniversary of "I Love Lucy".


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In July 2006, Goldberg became the main host of the Universal Studios Hollywood Studio Tour, in which she appears multiple times in video clips shown to the guests on monitors placed on the trams.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: She made a guest appearance on the situation comedy "30 Rock" during the series' fourth season, in which she played herself, counseling Tracy Jordan on winning the "EGOT", the coveted combination of Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony Awards. On July 14, 2008, Goldberg announced on "The View" that from July 29 to September 7, she would perform in the Broadway musical "Xanadu". On November 13, 2008, Goldberg's birthday, she announced live on "The View" that she would be producing, along with Stage Entertainment, the premiere of "Sister Act: The Musical" at the London Palladium.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: She gave a short message at the beginning of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2008 wishing all the participants good luck, and stressing the importance of UNICEF, the official charity of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest. Since its launch in 2008, Goldberg has been a contributor for wowOwow.com, a new website for women to talk culture, politics, and gossip.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has been a frequent guest narrator at Disney's Candlelight Processional at Walt Disney World. She made a guest appearance in Michael Jackson's short film for the song "Liberian Girl". She also appeared on the seventh season of the cooking reality series "Hell's Kitchen" as a special guest. On January 14, 2010, Goldberg made a one-night-only appearance at the Minskoff Theatre to perform in the mega-hit musical "The Lion King". That same year, she attended the Life Ball in Austria.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg made her West End debut as the Mother Superior in a musical version of "Sister Act" for a limited engagement set for August 10–31, 2010, but prematurely left the cast on August 27 to be with her family; her mother had had a severe stroke. However, she later returned to the cast for five performances. The show closed on October 30, 2010.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg is co-founder of Whoopi & Maya, a company that makes medical cannabis products for women seeking relief from menstrual cramps. Goldberg says she was inspired to go into business by "a lifetime of difficult periods and the fact that cannabis was literally the only thing that gave me relief". The company was launched in April 2016.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 2006, Goldberg appeared during the 20th anniversary of "Comic Relief". Goldberg is an advocate for human rights, moderating a panel at the Alliance of Youth Movements Summit on how social networks can be used to fight violent extremism in 2008, and also moderating a panel at the UN on human rights, children and armed conflict, terrorism, and reconciliation in 2009. On an episode of "The View" that aired on May 9, 2012, Goldberg stated she is a member of the National Rifle Association.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: On April 1, 2010, Goldberg joined Cyndi Lauper in the launch of her Give a Damn campaign to bring a wider awareness of discrimination of the LGBT community and to invite straight people to ally with the gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender community. Her high-profile support for LGBT rights and AIDS activism dates from the 1987 March on Washington, in which she participated. In May 2017, she spoke in support of transgender rights at the 28th GLAAD Media Awards.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg is on the Board of Selectors of Jefferson Awards for Public Service. She also serves on the National Council Advisory Board of the National Museum of American Illustration. She was a speaker at the 2017 Women's March in New York City and was such again at the following year's event.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: On January 24, 2021, Goldberg appeared with Tom Everett Scott as guests on the "Amairican Grabbuddies" marathon fundraising episode of "The George Lucas Talk Show," where she spoke of her time working on "Snow Buddies" and raised money for the ASPCA.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has been married three times. She was married to Alvin Martin from 1973 to 1979; to cinematographer David Claessen from 1986 to 1988; and to union organizer Lyle Trachtenberg from 1994 to 1995. She has been romantically linked to actors Frank Langella and Ted Danson. Danson controversially appeared in blackface during his 1993 Friars Club roast; Goldberg wrote some of his jokes for the event and defended Danson after a media furor.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: She has stated that she has no plans to marry again: "Some people are not meant to be married and I am not meant to. I'm sure it is wonderful for lots of people." In a 2011 interview with Piers Morgan, she explained that she never loved the men she married and commented: "You have to really be committed to them...I don't have that commitment. I'm committed to my family."


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 1973, Goldberg gave birth to a daughter, Alexandrea Martin, who also became an actress and producer. Through her daughter, Goldberg has three grandchildren and a great-granddaughter. On August 29, 2010, Goldberg's mother, Emma Johnson, died after having a stroke. She left London at the time, where she had been performing in the musical "Sister Act", but returned to perform on October 22, 2010. In 2015, Goldberg's brother Clyde died of a brain aneurysm.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 1991, Goldberg spoke out about her abortion in "". In that book, she spoke about using a coat hanger to terminate a pregnancy at age 14. She said she had had six or seven abortions by the age of 25 and that birth control pills failed to stop several of her pregnancies. After the 2022 Kansas abortion referendum, Goldberg claimed that God would support abortion rights because he gave women freedom of choice.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has stated that she was once a "functioning" drug addict. She has stated that she smoked marijuana before accepting the Best Supporting Actress award for "Ghost" in 1991.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has dyslexia. She has lived in Llewellyn Park, a neighborhood in West Orange, New Jersey, saying she moved there to be able to be outside in private. She maintains an additional summer residence on the coast of Sardinia. She has expressed a preference for defining herself by the gender-neutral term "actor" rather than "actress", saying: "An actress can only play a woman. I'm an actor–I can play anything." In March 2019, Goldberg revealed that she had been battling pneumonia and sepsis, which caused her to take a leave of absence from "The View".


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Having acted in over 150 films, Goldberg is one of the 17 people to achieve the EGOT, having won the four major American awards for professional entertainers: an Emmy (Television), a Grammy (Music), an Oscar (Film), and a Tony (Theater). She is the first black woman to have achieved all four awards.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg has received two Academy Award nominations, for "The Color Purple" and "Ghost", winning for "Ghost". She is the first African-American actor to have received Academy Award nominations for both Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress. She has received three Golden Globe nominations, winning two (Best Actress in 1986 for "The Color Purple", and Best Supporting Actress in 1991 for "Ghost"). For "Ghost", she also won a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role in 1991.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: She won a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1985 for "Whoopi Goldberg: Direct from Broadway", becoming only the second solo woman performer—not part of a duo or team—at the time to receive the award, and the first African-American woman. Goldberg is one of only three single women performers to receive that award. She won a Tony Award in 2002 as a producer of the Broadway musical "Thoroughly Modern Millie". She has received eight Daytime Emmy nominations, winning two. She has received nine Primetime Emmy nominations. In 2009, Goldberg won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show Host for her work on "The View". She shared the award with her then co-hosts Joy Behar, Sherri Shepherd, Elisabeth Hasselbeck, and Barbara Walters.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: Goldberg is the recipient of the 1985 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding One-Person Show for her solo performance on Broadway. She has won three People's Choice Awards. She has been nominated for five American Comedy Awards with two wins (Funniest Supporting Actress in 1991 for "Ghost" and Funniest Actress in 1993 for "Sister Act"). She was the three-time (and inaugural) winner of the Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Movie Actress. In 2001, she became the first African-American female to receive the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor.


title: Whoopi Goldberg

text: In 1990, Goldberg was officially named an honorary member of the Harlem Globetrotters exhibition basketball team by the members. In 1999, she received the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation Vanguard Award for her continued work in supporting the gay and lesbian community, as well as the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry. In July 2010, the Ride of Fame honored Goldberg with a double-decker tour bus in New York City for her life's achievements. In 2017, Goldberg was named a Disney Legend for her contributions to the Walt Disney Company.


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: Bill Istvan Günther Skarsgård (; born 9 August 1990) is a Swedish actor, producer, director, writer, voice actor, and model. He is best known for portraying Pennywise the Dancing Clown in the supernatural horror films "It" (2017) and "It Chapter Two" (2019), based on Stephen King's novel of the same name.


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: Skarsgård has also appeared in the comedy "Simple Simon" (2010), the dystopian thriller "" (2016), the espionage thriller "Atomic Blonde" (2017), the comedy-horror "Villains" (2019), the drama "Nine Days" (2020), the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "Eternals" (2021) and the horror film "Barbarian" (2022). He starred in the supernatural horror series "Hemlock Grove" (2013–2015) and the anthology horror series "Castle Rock" (2018–2019). He played the lead role in the Netflix series "Clark" (2022).


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: Skarsgård was born on 9 August 1990 in Vällingby, Sweden, the son of actor Stellan Skarsgård and doctor My Skarsgård. He has seven siblings: Alexander, Gustaf, Valter (all actors), as well as Sam, Eija, Ossian, and Kolbjörn. Ossian and Kolbjörn are half-brothers from Stellan Skarsgård's remarriage to Megan Everett.


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: In 2011, Skarsgård was nominated for a Guldbagge Award for his leading role as Simon in "Simple Simon". At the age of 21, he won the European Film Academy's Shooting Stars Award in 2012. Beginning in 2013, Skarsgård played the role of Roman Godfrey in the Netflix original "Hemlock Grove".


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: In April 2014, Skarsgård featured on the cover of "Hero" – a bi-annual men's fashion and culture magazine, shot by Hedi Slimane. In the issue, he is interviewed by his father.


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: Skarsgård played Matthew in the science fiction thriller "" (2016), his first major American film. He played horror villain Pennywise the Dancing Clown in the 2017 film "It" and reprised the role in the 2019 sequel.


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: Skarsgård was a series regular on 2018's "Castle Rock", as a young man with an unusual legal problem. That same year, he portrayed Zeitgeist in "Deadpool 2". In 2020, he played Mateo in episode 4 of AMC's anthology series "Soulmates". In 2021, he voiced the main antagonist Kro in "Eternals."


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: In the 2022 Netflix miniseries "Clark", Skarsgård portrayed Clark Olofsson, the notorious Swedish criminal whose involvement in the Norrmalmstorg robbery gave rise to the term Stockholm syndrome.


title: Bill Skarsgård

text: Skarsgård will play an undisclosed role in "". He is set to lead the reboot of "The Crow" directed by Rupert Sanders. He has been cast as Count Orlok in the upcoming remake of Nosferatu.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Annabelle Wallis (born 5 September 1984) is an English actress. She is known for her roles as Jane Seymour in Showtime's period drama "The Tudors" (2009–2010), Grace Burgess in the BBC drama "Peaky Blinders" (2013–2022), Mia Form in the supernatural horror film "Annabelle" (2014), Jenny Halsey in the supernatural adventure film "The Mummy" (2017), Sandra in "Silent Night" (2021) and Madison Mitchell in the horror film "Malignant" (2021).


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Wallis was born on 5 September 1984 in Oxford. Her maternal great-uncle was the Irish actor Richard Harris. Her English first cousins once removed include the actors Jared Harris, Jamie Harris, and the director Damian Harris. On her father's side, she is a descendant of English singer Marie Lloyd. Her older brother, Francis, is a director who has worked for fashion designer Michael Kors and singers Pixie Lott and Birdy.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: She was raised in the Portuguese municipality of Cascais, to where her family emigrated when she was 18 months old. As a result of attending international schools, she speaks fluent English, Portuguese, French, and Spanish.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In Portugal, Wallis appeared in several short films before she moved to London to pursue a career in film. In London, she did some advertisements and looked into drama schools before ultimately deciding to find an agent.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2005 she landed a lead role in the Bollywood film "Dil Jo Bhi Kahey..." (or "Whatever the Heart Says"). The film did not fare well at the box office. She landed small parts in "True True Lie" (2006) alongside Jaime King and "Body of Lies" (2008) in which she played Mark Strong’s girlfriend. She starred in the B-movie "Steel Trap" (2008).


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In television, her breakthrough was in season three of the Showtime drama series "The Tudors" (2009) as Jane Seymour. She replaced actress Anita Briem. In the following years, she starred in the television film "The Lost Future" (2010) alongside Sam Claflin and in the ABC series "Pan Am" (2011). The show was cancelled after one season due to a drop in viewership.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2011, she was directed by Madonna in "W.E.: Wallis & Edouard" and had a small part in "". In 2012, she appeared in Jared Leto's documentary, "Artifact", and in "Snow White and the Huntsman", but was not credited.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Wallis starred as Grace Burgess in the BBC drama "Peaky Blinders", from 2013 to 2016. Her role allowed her to be "believable in a strong, female, alpha role." The series was met with critical and public acclaim.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2014, she joined "The Conjuring Universe" with a leading role in the horror film "Annabelle", directed by John R. Leonetti and produced by James Wan. The film was a box-office success and received negative reviews. Critics praised Wallis's performance, and she was nominated at the 2015's MTV Movie & TV Awards for "Best Scared-As-S**t Performance". She returned as Mia Form in "" (2017).


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2014, she also portrayed Muriel Wright, the original Bond girl, on the mini-series "" alongside actor Dominic Cooper.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2016, she starred in the action comedy film "The Brothers Grimsby", the drama "Come and Find Me" and the psychological thriller war film "Mine".


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2017, Wallis joined the "Dark Universe" created by Universal Pictures and starred as archaeologist Jenny Halsey in "The Mummy", a reboot of "The Mummy" franchise. Wallis did almost all of her stunts herself including a Zero-G scene that almost killed her. The film received negative reviews and was a box office bomb. The same year she joined Guy Ritchie's "".


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2018, Wallis landed a lead in the American comedy "Tag" as Rebecca Crosby. Later that year, Wallis reunited with film director Alex Kurtzman for the "" episode "Calypso", where she lent her voice to an artificial intelligence called Zora. She would later reprise this role in a recurring fashion on "".


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In April 2018, she was announced to be Cartier's ambassador for jewellery and the new face of the "Panthère de Cartier" watch.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2019, Wallis joined Showtime's mini-series "The Loudest Voice". She portrays Laurie Luhn, Head of Booking at Fox News Channel and Roger Ailes's long-time "mistress". Luhn is one of Ailes's first victims to talk and denounce him, alongside Gretchen Carlson. The series received generally favourable reviews and was nominated at the Golden Globe Awards for Best Limited Series or Television Film. Wallis's performance was praised and seen as an "heartbreakingly powerful work" according to the "Chicago Sun Times".


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2020, she starred in Robin Pront's thriller "The Silencing". The film was supposed to premiere at the South by Southwest festival in March 2020 but it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and was finally released on DirecTV on 16 July 2020.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: This same year, Wallis starred as Princess Buttercup in "The Princess Bride" for Quibi to raise money for World Central Kitchen and she joined the cast of Floria Sigismondi's third film, "The Silence of Mercy". Shooting ended in March 2021.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In 2021, Wallis starred in James Wan's horror film "Malignant". Scheduled by Warner Bros to premiere in August 2020, the release was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, opening on 10 September 2021, simultaneously in theaters and on HBO Max. The film is a tribute to the giallo genre, and follows Madison Mitchell, played by Wallis, who is "paralyzed by shocking visions of grisly murders," and as her torment continues, "discovers that these waking dreams are in fact terrifying realities." It is the first R-Rated US movie to be released in China.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: This same year, Wallis appeared in the science fiction action film "Boss Level" directed by Joe Carnahan, starring Frank Grillo and Mel Gibson and starred in Agata Alexander's science fiction thriller "Warning," alongside Alice Eve and Alex Pettyfer.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In September 2021, the Christmas comedy "Silent Night", directed by Camille Griffin, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Wallis stars alongside Keira Knightley, Matthew Goode and Roman Griffin Davis.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Wallis is a feminist. In February 2018, she attended the "Letters Live" event curated by Net-à-Porter in Los Angeles, where she read a letter from suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst. The money raised was donated to Women for Women International.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Wallis spoke out against Brexit and participated in the June 2018 #DontFuckMyFuture campaign to encourage young people to vote against it.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Wallis supports Save The Children and participated to the #ChristmasJumper campaign in November 2018. In September 2019, she joined the U.n.I (You and I) project for UNICEF. She is committed to the NGO Choose Love (formerly Help Refugees), which provides humanitarian aid to refugees around the world and advocates for them. She attended the launch of the Choose Love's store in Los Angeles in December 2019.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Wallis teamed up with her friend and fashion designer Georgia Hardinge to raise funds for the charity Age UK. Along with other celebrities, she joined the movement #SaveWithStories in partnership with Save The Children and No Kid Hungry. The movement aims to provide fun and education to kids and parents stuck at home during the pandemic. The donations made to #SaveWithStories will help children and families most affected by the COVID-19 crisis around the world by providing them with food, access to early learning resources, and household goods.


title: Annabelle Wallis

text: Wallis was in an on-off relationship with British singer Chris Martin from August 2015 to August 2017. She performed vocals on the song "Up&Up", the final track on the album "A Head Full of Dreams" by Martin's band Coldplay.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago (mya), although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201.3 mya; their dominance continued throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The fossil record shows that birds are feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic epoch, and are the only dinosaur lineage known to have survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 mya. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs—birds—and the extinct non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaurs are varied from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over 10,700 living species, are among the most diverse group of vertebrates. Using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 900 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species (birds) and fossil remains. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized as dinosaurs, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold-blooded. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous. Evidence suggests that all dinosaurs were egg-laying, and that nest-building was a trait shared by many dinosaurs, both avian and non-avian.


title: Dinosaur

text: While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines. While the dinosaurs' modern-day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs (non-avian and avian) were large-bodied—the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of and heights of and were the largest land animals of all time. The misconception that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is based in part on preservation bias, as large, sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized. Many dinosaurs were quite small, some measuring about in length.


title: Dinosaur

text: The first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, with the name "dinosaur" (meaning "terrible lizard") being coined by Sir Richard Owen in 1841 to refer to these "great fossil lizards". Since then, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums worldwide, and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of popular culture. The large sizes of some dinosaurs, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured their regular appearance in best-selling books and films, such as "Jurassic Park". Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media.


title: Dinosaur

text: Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of "Triceratops" and modern birds (Neornithes), and all its descendants. It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined with respect to the MRCA of "Megalosaurus" and "Iguanodon", because these were two of the three genera cited by Richard Owen when he recognized the Dinosauria. Both definitions result in the same set of animals being defined as dinosaurs: "Dinosauria = Ornithischia + Saurischia". This definition includes major groups such as ankylosaurians (armored herbivorous quadrupeds), stegosaurians (plated herbivorous quadrupeds), ceratopsians (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores with neck frills), pachycephalosaurians (bipedal herbivores with thick skulls), ornithopods (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores including "duck-bills"), theropods (mostly bipedal carnivores and birds), and sauropodomorphs (mostly large herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks and tails).


title: Dinosaur

text: Birds are now recognized as being the sole surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs. In traditional taxonomy, birds were considered a separate class that had evolved from dinosaurs, a distinct superorder. However, a majority of contemporary paleontologists concerned with dinosaurs reject the traditional style of classification in favor of phylogenetic taxonomy; this approach requires that, for a group to be natural, all descendants of members of the group must be included in the group as well. Birds are thus considered to be dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Birds are classified as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora, which are coelurosaurs, which are theropods, which are saurischians, which are dinosaurs.


title: Dinosaur

text: Research by Matthew G. Baron, David B. Norman, and Paul M. Barrett in 2017 suggested a radical revision of dinosaurian systematics. Phylogenetic analysis by Baron "et al." recovered the Ornithischia as being closer to the Theropoda than the Sauropodomorpha, as opposed to the traditional union of theropods with sauropodomorphs. They resurrected the clade Ornithoscelida to refer to the group containing Ornithischia and Theropoda. Dinosauria itself was re-defined as the last common ancestor of "Triceratops horridus", "Passer domesticus" and "Diplodocus carnegii", and all of its descendants, to ensure that sauropods and kin remain included as dinosaurs.


title: Dinosaur

text: Using one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as archosaurs with hind limbs held erect beneath the body. Other prehistoric animals, including pterosaurs, mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and "Dimetrodon", while often popularly conceived of as dinosaurs, are not taxonomically classified as dinosaurs. Pterosaurs are distantly related to dinosaurs, being members of the clade Ornithodira. The other groups mentioned are, like dinosaurs and pterosaurs, members of Sauropsida (the reptile and bird clade), except "Dimetrodon" (which is a synapsid). None of them had the erect hind limb posture characteristic of true dinosaurs.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the Mesozoic Era, especially the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Other groups of animals were restricted in size and niches; mammals, for example, rarely exceeded the size of a domestic cat, and were generally rodent-sized carnivores of small prey. They have always been recognized as an extremely varied group of animals; over 900 non-avian dinosaur genera have been identified with certainty as of 2018, and the total number of genera preserved in the fossil record has been estimated at around 1850, nearly 75% of which remain to be discovered, and 1124 species by 2016. A 1995 study predicted that about 3,400 dinosaur genera ever existed, including many that would not have been preserved in the fossil record.


title: Dinosaur

text: In 2016, the estimated number of dinosaur species that existed in the Mesozoic was 1,543–2,468. In 2021, the number of modern-day birds (avian dinosaurs) was estimated to be at 10,806 species. Some are herbivorous, others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores. While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some prehistoric species were quadrupeds, and others, such as "Anchisaurus" and "Iguanodon", could walk just as easily on two or four legs. Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor. Although known for large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size. Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by at least the Early Jurassic epoch. Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as "Microraptor") could fly or at least glide, and others, such as spinosaurids, had semiaquatic habits.


title: Dinosaur

text: While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed-upon list of their distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton, or are clearly descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications. Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical for Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants. Such modifications, originating in the most recent common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group, are called the synapomorphies of such a group.


title: Dinosaur

text: A detailed assessment of archosaur interrelations by Sterling Nesbitt confirmed or found the following twelve unambiguous synapomorphies, some previously known:


title: Dinosaur

text: Nesbitt found a number of further potential synapomorphies and discounted a number of synapomorphies previously suggested. Some of these are also present in silesaurids, which Nesbitt recovered as a sister group to Dinosauria, including a large anterior trochanter, metatarsals II and IV of subequal length, reduced contact between ischium and pubis, the presence of a cnemial crest on the tibia and of an ascending process on the astragalus, and many others.


title: Dinosaur

text: A variety of other skeletal features are shared by dinosaurs. However, because they are either common to other groups of archosaurs or were not present in all early dinosaurs, these features are not considered to be synapomorphies. For example, as diapsids, dinosaurs ancestrally had two pairs of Infratemporal fenestrae (openings in the skull behind the eyes), and as members of the diapsid group Archosauria, had additional openings in the snout and lower jaw. Additionally, several characteristics once thought to be synapomorphies are now known to have appeared before dinosaurs, or were absent in the earliest dinosaurs and independently evolved by different dinosaur groups. These include an elongated scapula, or shoulder blade; a sacrum composed of three or more fused vertebrae (three are found in some other archosaurs, but only two are found in "Herrerasaurus"); and a perforate acetabulum, or hip socket, with a hole at the center of its inside surface (closed in "Saturnalia tupiniquim", for example). Another difficulty of determining distinctly dinosaurian features is that early dinosaurs and other archosaurs from the Late Triassic epoch are often poorly known and were similar in many ways; these animals have sometimes been misidentified in the literature.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaurs stand with their hind limbs erect in a manner similar to most modern mammals, but distinct from most other reptiles, whose limbs sprawl out to either side. This posture is due to the development of a laterally facing recess in the pelvis (usually an open socket) and a corresponding inwardly facing distinct head on the femur. Their erect posture enabled early dinosaurs to breathe easily while moving, which likely permitted stamina and activity levels that surpassed those of "sprawling" reptiles. Erect limbs probably also helped support the evolution of large size by reducing bending stresses on limbs. Some non-dinosaurian archosaurs, including rauisuchians, also had erect limbs but achieved this by a "pillar-erect" configuration of the hip joint, where instead of having a projection from the femur insert on a socket on the hip, the upper pelvic bone was rotated to form an overhanging shelf.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized. The Chinese considered them to be dragon bones and documented them as such. For example, "Huayang Guo Zhi" (), a gazetteer compiled by Chang Qu () during the Western Jin Dynasty (265–316), reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in Sichuan Province. Villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized "dragon bones" for use in traditional medicines. In Europe, dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of giants and other biblical creatures.


title: Dinosaur

text: Scholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England. Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a "Megalosaurus", was recovered from a limestone quarry at Cornwell near Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, in 1676. The fragment was sent to Robert Plot, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford and first curator of the Ashmolean Museum, who published a description in his "The Natural History of Oxford-shire" (1677). He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species. He, therefore, concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a Titan or another type of giant featured in legends. Edward Lhuyd, a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, published "Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia" (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur when he described and named a sauropod tooth, "Rutellum impicatum", that had been found in Caswell, near Witney, Oxfordshire.


title: Dinosaur

text: Between 1815 and 1824, the Rev William Buckland, the first Reader of Geology at the University of Oxford, collected more fossilized bones of "Megalosaurus" and became the first person to describe a non-avian dinosaur in a scientific journal. The second non-avian dinosaur genus to be identified, "Iguanodon", was discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell – the wife of English geologist Gideon Mantell. Gideon Mantell recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern iguanas. He published his findings in 1825.


title: Dinosaur

text: The study of these "great fossil lizards" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1841 the English paleontologist Sir Richard Owen coined the term "dinosaur", using it to refer to the "distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles" that were then being recognized in England and around the world. The term is derived . Though the taxonomic name has often been interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs' teeth, claws, and other fearsome characteristics, Owen intended it to also evoke their size and majesty. Owen recognized that the remains that had been found so far, "Iguanodon", "Megalosaurus" and "Hylaeosaurus", shared a number of distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, Owen established the Natural History Museum, London, to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.


title: Dinosaur

text: In 1858, William Parker Foulke discovered the first known American dinosaur, in marl pits in the small town of Haddonfield, New Jersey. (Although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned.) The creature was named "Hadrosaurus foulkii". It was an extremely important find: "Hadrosaurus" was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found (the first was in 1834, in Maidstone, England), and it was clearly a bipedal creature. This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of interests in dinosaurs in the United States, known as dinosaur mania.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the Bone Wars. This fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Unfortunately, many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods: for example, their diggers often used dynamite to unearth bones. Modern paleontologists would find such methods crude and unacceptable, since blasting easily destroys fossil and stratigraphic evidence. Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast: Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, while Marsh's is at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University.


title: Dinosaur

text: The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by John Ostrom's discovery and 1969 description of "Deinonychus", an active predator that may have been warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and cold-blooded. Vertebrate paleontology has become a global science. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China (the well-preserved feathered dinosaurs in China have further consolidated the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants, modern birds). The widespread application of cladistics, which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in classifying dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record.


title: Dinosaur

text: One of the best examples of soft-tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in the Pietraroja Plattenkalk in southern Italy. The discovery was reported in 1998, and described the specimen of a small, juvenile coelurosaur, "Scipionyx samniticus". The fossil includes portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe of this dinosaur.


title: Dinosaur

text: In the March 2005 issue of "Science", the paleontologist Mary Higby Schweitzer and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68-million-year-old "Tyrannosaurus rex" leg bone from the Hell Creek Formation in Montana. After recovery, the tissue was rehydrated by the science team. When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone-marrow cavity (a process called demineralization), Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as blood vessels, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. The exact nature and composition of this material, and the implications of Schweitzer's discovery, are not yet clear.


title: Dinosaur

text: In 2009, a team including Schweitzer announced that, using even more careful methodology, they had duplicated their results by finding similar soft tissue in a duck-billed dinosaur, "Brachylophosaurus canadensis", found in the Judith River Formation of Montana. This included even more detailed tissue, down to preserved bone cells that seem to have visible remnants of nuclei and what seem to be red blood cells. Among other materials found in the bone was collagen, as in the "Tyrannosaurus" bone. The type of collagen an animal has in its bones varies according to its DNA and, in both cases, this collagen was of the same type found in modern chickens and ostriches.


title: Dinosaur

text: The extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions; upon further inspection and peer review, however, neither of these reports could be confirmed. However, a functional peptide involved in the vision of a theoretical dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of related modern species such as reptiles and birds. In addition, several proteins, including hemoglobin, have putatively been detected in dinosaur fossils.


title: Dinosaur

text: In 2015, researchers reported finding structures similar to blood cells and collagen fibers, preserved in the bone fossils of six Cretaceous dinosaur specimens, which are approximately 75 million years old.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the Middle to Late Triassic epochs, roughly 20 million years after the devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species approximately 252 million years ago. Radiometric dating of the Ischigualasto Formation of Argentina where the early dinosaur genus "Eoraptor" was found date it as 231.4 million years old. "Eoraptor" is thought to resemble the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators. The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as "Lagosuchus" and "Lagerpeton" in Argentina in the Carnian epoch of the Triassic, around 233 million years ago, supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators. Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as the Anisian epoch of the Triassic, 245 million years ago, as evidenced by remains of the genus "Nyasasaurus" from that period. However, its known fossils are too fragmentary to tell if it was a dinosaur or only a close relative. Paleontologist Max C. Langer "et al." (2018) determined that "Staurikosaurus" from the Santa Maria Formation dates to 233.23 million years ago, making it older in geologic age than "Eoraptor".


title: Dinosaur

text: When dinosaurs appeared, they were not the dominant terrestrial animals. The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of archosauromorphs and therapsids, like cynodonts and rhynchosaurs. Their main competitors were the pseudosuchians, such as aetosaurs, ornithosuchids and rauisuchians, which were more successful than the dinosaurs. Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events. First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of basal archosauromorphs, including the protorosaurs, became extinct. This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 201 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, phytosaurs, and rauisuchians. Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early –mid Norian and late Norian or earliest Rhaetian stages, respectively, and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain. These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and turtles. The first few lines of early dinosaurs diversified through the Carnian and Norian stages of the Triassic, possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct. Also notably, there was a heightened rate of extinction during the Carnian pluvial event.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic followed changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores. Gymnosperm plants (particularly conifers), a potential food source, radiated in the Late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract. The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the Middle and Late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of ceratosaurians, megalosauroids, and allosauroids, and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the Morrison Formation of North America and Tendaguru Beds of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized metriacanthosaurid theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like "Mamenchisaurus". Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common, but primitive sauropodomorphs had become extinct. Conifers and pteridophytes were the most common plants. Sauropods, like earlier sauropodomorphs, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential cheek-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food. Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians.


title: Dinosaur

text: By the Early Cretaceous and the ongoing breakup of Pangaea, dinosaurs were becoming strongly differentiated by landmass. The earliest part of this time saw the spread of ankylosaurians, iguanodontians, and brachiosaurids through Europe, North America, and northern Africa. These were later supplemented or replaced in Africa by large spinosaurid and carcharodontosaurid theropods, and rebbachisaurid and titanosaurian sauropods, also found in South America. In Asia, maniraptoran coelurosaurians like dromaeosaurids, troodontids, and oviraptorosaurians became the common theropods, and ankylosaurids and early ceratopsians like "Psittacosaurus" became important herbivores. Meanwhile, Australia was home to a fauna of basal ankylosaurians, hypsilophodonts, and iguanodontians. The stegosaurians appear to have gone extinct at some point in the late Early Cretaceous or early Late Cretaceous. A major change in the Early Cretaceous, which would be amplified in the Late Cretaceous, was the evolution of flowering plants. At the same time, several groups of dinosaurian herbivores evolved more sophisticated ways to orally process food. Ceratopsians developed a method of slicing with teeth stacked on each other in batteries, and iguanodontians refined a method of grinding with dental batteries, taken to its extreme in hadrosaurids. Some sauropods also evolved tooth batteries, best exemplified by the rebbachisaurid "Nigersaurus".


title: Dinosaur

text: There were three general dinosaur faunas in the Late Cretaceous. In the northern continents of North America and Asia, the major theropods were tyrannosaurids and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods, with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and pachycephalosaurians. In the southern continents that had made up the now-splitting supercontinent Gondwana, abelisaurids were the common theropods, and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores. Finally, in Europe, dromaeosaurids, rhabdodontid iguanodontians, nodosaurid ankylosaurians, and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent. Flowering plants were greatly radiating, with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous. Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became very diverse across North America and Asia. Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or omnivores, with therizinosaurians and ornithomimosaurians becoming common.


title: Dinosaur

text: The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous, caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds. Some other diapsid groups, including crocodilians, dyrosaurs, sebecosuchians, turtles, lizards, snakes, sphenodontians, and choristoderans, also survived the event.


title: Dinosaur

text: The surviving lineages of neornithine birds, including the ancestors of modern ratites, ducks and chickens, and a variety of waterbirds, diversified rapidly at the beginning of the Paleogene period, entering ecological niches left vacant by the extinction of Mesozoic dinosaur groups such as the arboreal enantiornithines, aquatic hesperornithines, and even the larger terrestrial theropods (in the form of "Gastornis", eogruiids, bathornithids, ratites, geranoidids, mihirungs, and "terror birds"). It is often stated that mammals out-competed the neornithines for dominance of most terrestrial niches but many of these groups co-existed with rich mammalian faunas for most of the Cenozoic Era. Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals, and ratites are still fairly successful as mid-sized herbivores; eogruiids similarly lasted from the Eocene to Pliocene, only becoming extinct very recently after over 20 million years of co-existence with many mammal groups.


title: Dinosaur

text: Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side.


title: Dinosaur

text: Collectively, dinosaurs as a clade are divided into two primary branches, Saurischia and Ornithischia. Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia, while Ornithischia includes all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with "Triceratops" than with Saurischia. Anatomically, these two groups can be distinguished most noticeably by their pelvic structure. Early saurischians—"lizard-hipped", from the Greek ' () meaning "lizard" and ' () meaning "hip joint"—retained the hip structure of their ancestors, with a pubis bone directed cranially, or forward. This basic form was modified by rotating the pubis backward to varying degrees in several groups ("Herrerasaurus", therizinosauroids, dromaeosaurids, and birds). Saurischia includes the theropods (exclusively bipedal and with a wide variety of diets) and sauropodomorphs (long-necked herbivores which include advanced, quadrupedal groups).


title: Dinosaur

text: By contrast, ornithischians—"bird-hipped", from the Greek "ornitheios" (ὀρνίθειος) meaning "of a bird" and "ischion" (ἰσχίον) meaning "hip joint"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing). Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process. Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores.


title: Dinosaur

text: Despite the terms "bird hip" (Ornithischia) and "lizard hip" (Saurischia), birds are not part of Ornithischia. Birds instead belong to Saurischia, the “lizard-hipped” dinosaurs—birds evolved from earlier dinosaurs with "lizard hips".


title: Dinosaur

text: The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur groups based on their evolutionary relationships, and those of the main dinosaur groups Theropoda, Sauropodomorpha and Ornithischia, compiled by Justin Tweet. Further details and other hypotheses of classification may be found on individual articles.


title: Dinosaur

text: Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, feces, trackways, gastroliths, feathers, impressions of skin, internal organs and other soft tissues. Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including physics (especially biomechanics), chemistry, biology, and the Earth sciences (of which paleontology is a sub-discipline). Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior.


title: Dinosaur

text: Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Cretaceous. Predatory theropod dinosaurs, which occupied most terrestrial carnivore niches during the Mesozoic, most often fall into the category when sorted by estimated weight into categories based on order of magnitude, whereas recent predatory carnivoran mammals peak in the category. The mode of Mesozoic dinosaur body masses is between . This contrasts sharply with the average size of Cenozoic mammals, estimated by the National Museum of Natural History as about .


title: Dinosaur

text: The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest was an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as "Paraceratherium" (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.


title: Dinosaur

text: Scientists will probably never be certain of the largest and smallest dinosaurs to have ever existed. This is because only a tiny percentage of animals were ever fossilized and most of these remain buried in the earth. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork.


title: Dinosaur

text: The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is "Giraffatitan brancai" (previously classified as a species of "Brachiosaurus"). Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912. Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin; this mount is tall and long, and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between and  kilograms ( and  lb). The longest complete dinosaur is the long "Diplodocus", which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1907. The longest dinosaur known from good fossil material is the "Patagotitan": the skeleton mount in the American Museum of Natural History in New York is long. The Museo Municipal Carmen Funes in Plaza Huincul, Argentina, has an "Argentinosaurus" reconstructed skeleton mount that is long.


title: Dinosaur

text: There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils. Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive "Argentinosaurus", which may have weighed to  kilograms (90 to 110 short tons) and reached lengths of ; some of the longest were the long "Diplodocus hallorum" (formerly "Seismosaurus"), the long "Supersaurus", and long "Patagotitan"; and the tallest, the tall "Sauroposeidon", which could have reached a sixth-floor window. The heaviest and longest dinosaur may have been "Maraapunisaurus", known only from a now lost partial vertebral neural arch described in 1878. Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone, the animal may have been long and weighed kg ( lb). However, as no further evidence of sauropods of this size has been found, and the discoverer, Cope, had made typographic errors before, it is likely to have been an extreme overestimation.


title: Dinosaur

text: The largest carnivorous dinosaur was "Spinosaurus", reaching a length of , and weighing . Other large carnivorous theropods included "Giganotosaurus", "Carcharodontosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus". "Therizinosaurus" and "Deinocheirus" were among the tallest of the theropods. The largest ornithischian dinosaur was probably the hadrosaurid "Shantungosaurus giganteus" which measured . The largest individuals may have weighed as much as .


title: Dinosaur

text: The smallest dinosaur known is the bee hummingbird, with a length of only and mass of around . The smallest known non-avialan dinosaurs were about the size of pigeons and were those theropods most closely related to birds. For example, "Anchiornis huxleyi" is currently the smallest non-avialan dinosaur described from an adult specimen, with an estimated weight of and a total skeletal length of . The smallest herbivorous non-avialan dinosaurs included "Microceratus" and "Wannanosaurus", at about long each.


title: Dinosaur

text: Many modern birds are highly social, often found living in flocks. There is general agreement that some behaviors that are common in birds, as well as in crocodiles (closest living relatives of birds), were also common among extinct dinosaur groups. Interpretations of behavior in fossil species are generally based on the pose of skeletons and their habitat, computer simulations of their biomechanics, and comparisons with modern animals in similar ecological niches.


title: Dinosaur

text: The first potential evidence for herding or flocking as a widespread behavior common to many dinosaur groups in addition to birds was the 1878 discovery of 31 "Iguanodon", ornithischians that were then thought to have perished together in Bernissart, Belgium, after they fell into a deep, flooded sinkhole and drowned. Other mass-death sites have been discovered subsequently. Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many early dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck-billed (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the American bison or the African Springbok. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in Oxfordshire, England, although there is no evidence for specific herd structures. Congregating into herds may have evolved for defense, for migratory purposes, or to provide protection for young. There is evidence that many types of slow-growing dinosaurs, including various theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurians, ornithopods, and ceratopsians, formed aggregations of immature individuals. One example is a site in Inner Mongolia that has yielded remains of over 20 "Sinornithomimus", from one to seven years old. This assemblage is interpreted as a social group that was trapped in mud. The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as pack hunters working together to bring down large prey. However, this lifestyle is uncommon among modern birds, crocodiles, and other reptiles, and the taphonomic evidence suggesting mammal-like pack hunting in such theropods as "Deinonychus" and "Allosaurus" can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals, as is seen in many modern diapsid predators.


title: Dinosaur

text: The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the marginocephalians, theropods and lambeosaurines, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism. Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations.


title: Dinosaur

text: From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the Gobi Desert in 1971. It included a "Velociraptor" attacking a "Protoceratops", providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other. Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially healed tail of an "Edmontosaurus", a hadrosaurid dinosaur; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived. Cannibalism amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in Madagascar in 2003, involving the theropod "Majungasaurus".


title: Dinosaur

text: Comparisons between the scleral rings of dinosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of dinosaurs. Although it has been suggested that most dinosaurs were active during the day, these comparisons have shown that small predatory dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids, "Juravenator", and "Megapnosaurus" were likely nocturnal. Large and medium-sized herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs such as ceratopsians, sauropodomorphs, hadrosaurids, ornithomimosaurs may have been cathemeral, active during short intervals throughout the day, although the small ornithischian "Agilisaurus" was inferred to be diurnal.


title: Dinosaur

text: Based on fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as "Oryctodromeus", some ornithischian species seem to have led a partially fossorial (burrowing) lifestyle. Many modern birds are arboreal (tree climbing), and this was also true of many Mesozoic birds, especially the enantiornithines. While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as "Microraptor") most non-avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion. A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of biomechanics, pioneered by Robert McNeill Alexander, has provided significant insight in this area. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run, whether diplodocids could create sonic booms via whip-like tail snapping, and whether sauropods could float.


title: Dinosaur

text: Modern birds are known to communicate using visual and auditory signals, and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups, such as horns, frills, crests, sails, and feathers, suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology. Reconstruction of the plumage color of "Anchiornis", suggest the importance of color in visual communication in non-avian dinosaurs. The evolution of dinosaur vocalization is less certain. Paleontologist Phil Senter has suggested that non-avian dinosaurs relied mostly on visual displays and possibly non-vocal acoustic sounds like hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, splashing and wing beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs). He states they were unlikely to have been capable of vocalizing since their closest relatives, crocodilians and birds, use different means to vocalize, the former via the larynx and the latter through the unique syrinx, suggesting they evolved independently and their common ancestor was mute.


title: Dinosaur

text: The earliest remains of a syrinx, which has enough mineral content for fossilization, was found in a specimen of the duck-like "Vegavis iaai" dated 69 –66 million years ago, and this organ is unlikely to have existed in non-avian dinosaurs. However, in contrast to Senter, other researchers have suggested that dinosaurs could vocalize and that the syrinx-based vocal system of birds evolved from a larynx-based one, rather than the two systems evolving independently. A 2016 study suggests that some dinosaurs produced closed mouth vocalizations like cooing, hooting and booming. These occur in both reptiles and birds and involve inflating the esophagus or tracheal pouches. Such vocalizations evolved independently in extant archosaurs numerous times, following increases in body size. The crests of the Lambeosaurini and nasal chambers of ankylosaurids have been suggested to have functioned in vocal resonance, though Senter stated that the presence of resonance chambers in some dinosaurs is not necessarily evidence of vocalization as modern snakes have such chambers which intensify their hisses.


title: Dinosaur

text: All dinosaurs laid amniotic eggs. Dinosaur eggs were usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs. While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles. Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as "Troodon", exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid.


title: Dinosaur

text: When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs. This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells. A discovery of features in a "Tyrannosaurus" skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen. Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur "Allosaurus" and the ornithopod "Tenontosaurus". Because the line of dinosaurs that includes "Allosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus" diverged from the line that led to "Tenontosaurus" very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs.


title: Dinosaur

text: Another widespread trait among modern birds (but see below in regards to fossil groups and extant megapodes) is parental care for young after hatching. Jack Horner's 1978 discovery of a "Maiasaura" ("good mother lizard") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods. A specimen of the oviraptorid "Citipati osmolskae" was discovered in a chicken-like brooding position in 1993, which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm. An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph "Massospondylus" was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs. Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in northwestern Scotland.


title: Dinosaur

text: However, there is ample evidence of precociality or superprecociality among many dinosaur species, particularly theropods. For instance, non-ornithuromorph birds have been abundantly demonstrated to have had slow growth rates, megapode-like egg burying behavior and the ability to fly soon after birth. Both "Tyrannosaurus" and "Troodon" had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults. Superprecociality has been inferred for sauropods.


title: Dinosaur

text: Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts. In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's cloacal vent exterior was described for "Psittacosaurus", demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function. However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility. Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs.


title: Dinosaur

text: Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs. While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are endothermic ("warm-blooded"), a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extended. Various researchers have supported dinosaurs as being endothermic, ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), or somewhere in between. An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed mesothermy by some. Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles.


title: Dinosaur

text: After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic. This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until Robert T. Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives. In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios. This was one of the seminal results that led to the Dinosaur renaissance.


title: Dinosaur

text: One of the greatest contributions to the modern understanding of dinosaur physiology has been paleohistology, the study of microscopic tissue structure in dinosaurs. From the 1960s forward, Armand de Ricqlès suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy. Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present. This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing growth curves and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles. Other lines of evidence suggesting endothermy include the presence of feathers and other types of body coverings in many lineages (see ); more consistent ratios of the isotope oxygen-18 in bony tissue compared to ectotherms, particularly as latitude and thus air temperature varied, which suggests stable internal temperatures (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of polar dinosaurs, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates.


title: Dinosaur

text: In saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow. Such respiratory systems, which may have appeared in the earliest saurischians, would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting tidal volume and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels. The rapid airflow would also have been an effective cooling mechanism, which in conjunction with a lower metabolic rate would have prevented large sauropods from overheating. These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes. Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed gigantothermy.


title: Dinosaur

text: Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. This would have helped them to conserve water. In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from "Anchiornis".


title: Dinosaur

text: The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones. In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of "Stegosaurus" was smaller than in any living land vertebrate. This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid. Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles. Later research showed that relative brain size progressively increased during the evolution of theropods, with the highest intelligence – comparable to that of modern birds – calculated for the troodontid "Troodon".