text: Although Steven Spielberg initially negotiated to direct the film, he declined the offer. Spielberg reportedly wanted the adaptation to be an animated film, with American actor Haley Joel Osment to provide Harry Potter's voice, or a film that incorporated elements from subsequent books as well. Spielberg contended that, in his opinion, it was like "shooting ducks in a barrel. It's just a slam dunk. It's just like withdrawing a billion dollars and putting it into your personal bank accounts. There's no challenge." Rowling maintains that she had no role in choosing directors for the films and that "[a]nyone who thinks I could (or would) have 'veto-ed' him [Spielberg] needs their Quick-Quotes Quill serviced." Heyman recalled that Spielberg decided to direct "A.I. Artificial Intelligence" instead.


title: Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)

text: After Spielberg left, talks began with other directors, including Chris Columbus, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, Mike Newell (who would later direct the fourth film), Alan Parker, Wolfgang Petersen, Rob Reiner, Ivan Reitman, Tim Robbins, Brad Silberling, M. Night Shyamalan and Peter Weir. Petersen and Reiner both pulled out of the running in March 2000, and the choice was narrowed down to Silberling, Columbus, Parker and Gilliam. Rowling's first choice director was Terry Gilliam, but Warner Bros. chose Columbus, citing his work on other family films such as "Home Alone" (1990) and "Mrs. Doubtfire" (1993) as influences for their decision. Columbus had become a fan of the book series after his daughter persuaded him to read the first three books, leading him to call his agent to arrange a meeting at Warner Bros. to direct the film. When his agent told him that at least 25 other directors were eager to helm the project, Columbus requested his agent to secure his meeting to be the last one so he could give a "lasting impression" and be the studio's "freshest person in their memory". During two weeks of waiting, Columbus wrote a 130-page director's version of the screenplay to explain his vision for the film's tone. The day of his meeting with Warner executives including Alan F. Horn, Columbus delivered an "impassioned 45-minute talk" and showed them his annotated script. Weeks later, the studio notified Columbus that he had gotten the job and sent him to Scotland to meet with Rowling and Heyman. Columbus pitched his vision of the film for two hours, stating that he wanted the Muggle scenes "to be bleak and dreary" but those set in the wizarding world "to be steeped in color, mood, and detail." He took inspiration from David Lean's adaptations of "Great Expectations" (1946) and "Oliver Twist" (1948), wishing to use "that sort of darkness, that sort of edge, that quality to the cinematography," while being further inspired by the colour designs from "Oliver!" (1968) and "The Godfather" (1972).


text: Steve Kloves was selected to write the screenplay. He described adapting the book as "tough", as it did not "lend itself to adaptation as well as the next two books." Kloves often received synopses of books proposed as film adaptations from Warner Bros., which he "almost never read", but "Harry Potter" jumped out at him. He went out and bought the book, and became an instant fan of the series. When speaking to Warner Bros., he stated that the film had to be British, and had to be true to the characters. Kloves was nervous when he first met Rowling as he did not want her to think he was going to "[destroy] her baby." Rowling admitted that she "was really ready to hate this Steve Kloves," but recalled her initial meeting with him: "The first time I met him, he said to me, 'You know who my favourite character is?' And I thought, You're gonna say Ron. I know you're gonna say Ron. But he said 'Hermione.' And I just kind of melted." Rowling received a large amount of creative control, an arrangement that Columbus did not mind.


text: Warner Bros. had initially planned to release the film over 4 July 2001 weekend, making for such a short production window that several proposed directors pulled themselves out of the running. Due to time constraints, the date was put back to 16 November 2001.


text: Rowling insisted that the cast be kept British. Susie Figgis was appointed as casting director, working with both Columbus and Rowling in auditioning the lead roles of Harry, Ron and Hermione. Open casting calls were held for the main three roles, with only British children being considered. The principal auditions took place in three parts, with those auditioning having to read a page from the novel, then to improvise a scene of the students' arrival at Hogwarts, and finally to read several pages from the script in front of Columbus. Scenes from Columbus' script for the "Young Sherlock Holmes" (1985) were also used in auditions. On 11 July 2000, Figgis left the production, complaining that Columbus did not consider any of the thousands of children they had auditioned "worthy". By August 2000, Alan Rickman and Richard Harris were in final talks to play Severus Snape and Albus Dumbledore, respectively, and were confirmed later that month. On 14 August 2000, Rowling's favourites Maggie Smith and Robbie Coltrane were cast as Minerva McGonagall and Rubeus Hagrid. On 21 August 2000, Daniel Radcliffe and newcomers Rupert Grint and Emma Watson were selected to play Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, respectively. In November 2000, Julie Walters and John Cleese joined the cast as Molly Weasley and Nearly-Headless Nick, respectively.


text: Two British film industry officials requested that the film be shot in the United Kingdom, offering their assistance in securing filming locations, the use of Leavesden Film Studios, as well as changing the UK's child labour laws (adding a small number of working hours per week and making the timing of on-set classes more flexible). Warner Bros. accepted their proposal. Principal photography began on 29 September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios. Filming at the North Yorkshire's Goathland railway station took place on 2 October 2000. Canterbury Cathedral and Scotland's Inverailort Castle were both touted as possible locations for Hogwarts; Canterbury rejected Warner Bros. proposal due to concerns about the film's "pagan" theme. Alnwick Castle and Gloucester Cathedral were eventually selected as the principal locations for Hogwarts, with some scenes also being filmed at Harrow School. Other Hogwarts scenes were filmed in Durham Cathedral over a two-week period; these included shots of the corridors and some classroom scenes. Oxford University's Divinity School served as the Hogwarts Hospital Wing, and Duke Humfrey's Library, part of the Bodleian, was used as the Hogwarts Library. Filming for Privet Drive took place on Picket Post Close in Bracknell, Berkshire. Filming in the street took two days instead of the planned single day, so payments to the street's residents were correspondingly increased. For all the subsequent film's scenes set in Privet Drive, filming took place on a constructed set in Leavesden Film Studios, which proved to be cheaper than filming on location. London's Australia House was selected as the location for Gringotts Wizarding Bank, while Christ Church, Oxford was the location for the Hogwarts trophy room. London Zoo was used as the location for the scene in which Harry accidentally sets a snake on Dudley, with King's Cross Station also being used as the book specifies. Filming concluded on 23 March 2001, with final work being done in July 2001.


text: Because the American title was different, all scenes that mention the philosopher's stone by name had to be shot twice, once with the actors saying "philosopher's" and once with "sorcerer's". The children filmed for four hours and then did three hours of schoolwork. They developed a liking for fake facial injuries from the makeup staff. Radcliffe was initially meant to wear green contact lenses as his eyes are blue, and not green like Harry's, but the lenses gave Radcliffe extreme irritation. Upon consultation with Rowling, it was agreed that Harry could have blue eyes.


text: Judianna Makovsky served as the costume designer. She re-designed the Quidditch robes, having initially planned to use those shown on the cover of the American book, but deemed them "a mess." Instead, she dressed the Quidditch players in "preppie sweaters, 19th-century fencing breeches and arm guards." Production designer Stuart Craig built the sets at Leavesden Studios, including Hogwarts Great Hall, basing it on many English cathedrals. Although originally asked to use an existing old street to film the Diagon Alley scenes, Craig decided to build his own set, comprising Tudor, Georgian and Queen Anne architecture.


text: Columbus originally planned to use both animatronics and CGI animation to create the magical creatures, including Fluffy. Nick Dudman, who worked on "", was given the task of creating the needed prosthetics, with Jim Henson's Creature Shop providing creature effects. John Coppinger stated that the magical creatures that needed to be created had to be designed multiple times. The film features nearly 600 special effects shots, involving numerous companies. Industrial Light & Magic created Lord Voldemort's face on the back of Quirrell, Rhythm & Hues animated Norbert (Hagrid's baby dragon); and Sony Pictures Imageworks produced the Quidditch scenes.


text: John Williams was selected to compose the score, having previously collaborated with Chris Columbus for "Home Alone" and "". Williams composed the score at his homes in Los Angeles and Tanglewood before recording it in London in September 2001. One of the main themes is entitled "Hedwig's Theme"; Williams retained it for his finished score as "everyone seemed to like it," and it became a recurring theme throughout the series. James Horner was the first choice to compose the score but turned it down. The soundtrack album was released on 30 October 2001 in CD format.


text: Columbus repeatedly checked with Rowling to make sure he was getting minor details correct. Kloves described the film as being "really faithful" to the book. He added dialogue, of which Rowling approved. One of the lines originally included had to be removed after Rowling told him that it would directly contradict an event in the then-unreleased fifth "Harry Potter" novel "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix".


text: Several minor characters have been removed from the film version, most prominently Peeves the poltergeist. Actor Rik Mayall was cast in the role, but his scenes were ultimately cut from the film and never released. The book's first chapter, told from the viewpoint of Vernon and Petunia Dursley, is absent from the film. Harry and Draco's first encounter in Madam Malkin's robe shop and the midnight duel are not in the film. In the film, the responsibility of taking Norbert away is given to Dumbledore, while in the book, Harry and Hermione have to bring him by hand to Charlie Weasley's friends. This necessitated a change in the detention plotline: in the book, Filch catches Harry and Hermione leaving the Astronomy Tower and puts them in detention with Neville and Malfoy, while in the film, all three protagonists receive detention after Malfoy finds them in Hagrid's hut after hours. According to Kloves, this was "the one part of the book that [Rowling] felt easily could be changed". The Quidditch pitch is altered from a traditional stadium to an open field circled by spectator towers.


text: The book's timeline is not enforced in the film. In the book, Harry's eleventh birthday is in 1991. On the film set for 4 Privet Drive, Dudley's certificates from primary school bear the year 2001.


text: The first teaser poster was released on 1 December 2000. The first teaser trailer was released via satellite on 2 March 2001 and debuted in cinemas with the release of "See Spot Run". On 29 June 2001, a new trailer was released with the debut of "A.I. Artificial Intelligence". A video game based on the film was released on 15 November 2001 by Electronic Arts for several consoles. A port for the game, for the GameCube, PlayStation 2 and Xbox, was released in 2003. Mattel won the rights to produce toys based on the film, to be sold exclusively through Warner Brothers' stores. Hasbro also produced products, including confectionery products based on those from the series. Warner Bros. signed a deal worth US$150million with Coca-Cola to promote the film, although some pegged the deal at $40 million-$50 million worldwide for the movie. Lego produced a series of sets based on buildings and scenes from the film, as well as a .


text: "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" had its world premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 4 November 2001, with the cinema arranged to resemble Hogwarts School.


text: The film had previews in the United Kingdom on 1,137 screens at 491 theatres on 10 and 11 November 2001. It officially opened on 16 November 2001 on 1,168 screens at 507 theatres in the United Kingdom and Ireland; in 3,672 theatres in the United States and Canada. It was the widest release at the time in the UK and the US.


text: "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" was first released on VHS and DVD on 11 May 2002 in the UK and 28 May 2002 in the US.


text: Between May and June 2002, the film sold 10million copies, almost 60% of which were DVD sales. It would go on to make $19.1 million in rentals, surpassing "The Fast and the Furious" for having the largest DVD rentals.


text: In December 2009, a 4-disc "Ultimate Edition" was released, with seven minutes of deleted scenes added back in, the feature-length special "Creating the World of Harry Potter Part 1: The Magic Begins", and a 48-page hardcover booklet. The extended version has a running time of about 159 minutes, which had previously been shown during certain television airings. The film was re-released on DVD as part of the 8-disc "Harry Potter: The Complete 8-Film Collection" in November 2011, and on Blu-ray as part of the 31-disc "Hogwarts Collection" in April 2014.


text: In the United Kingdom and Ireland, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" grossed a record single day gross of £3.6million during the first day of previews, beating "Toy Story 2"s record. It grossed a record £3.1million for a Sunday, bringing its total to £6.7million from the previews. It broke the record for the highest-opening weekend ever, both including and excluding previews, making £16.3million with and £9.6million without previews ($13.8 million), setting a further record single day gross on the Saturday with £3.99million. It set another Sunday record with a gross of £3.6million. It had a record second weekend of £8.4 million. It remained at number one in the UK for five weeks. The film went on to make £66.1million in the UK alone, making it the country's second-highest-grossing film of all-time (after "Titanic"), until it was surpassed by "Mamma Mia!".


text: In the United States and Canada, it made $32.3million on its opening day, breaking the single-day record previously held by "" (1999). On the second day of release, the film's gross increased to $33.5million, breaking the record for biggest single day again. It made $90.3million during its first weekend, breaking the record for highest-opening weekend of all time that was previously held by "" (1997). It held the record until the following May when "Spider-Man" (2002) made $114.8million in its opening weekend. Plus, the film broke "Batman Forever"s record for having the largest opening weekend for a Warner Bros. film. It would hold this record for two years until it was surpassed by "The Matrix Reloaded" (2003). Additionally, it shattered other opening records, surpassing "Monsters, Inc." for having the biggest November opening weekend, "Planet of the Apes" for having the largest non-holiday opening weekend, the highest Friday gross and the biggest opening weekend of the year, "The Mummy Returns" for scoring the highest Saturday gross, "" (1992) for having the highest opening weekend for a Chris Columbus film and "" (2000) for having the largest number of screenings, playing at 3,672 theaters. In just five days, it became the fastest film to approach the $100million mark. The film grossed $2.3 million in its first two days in Taiwan, giving it a worldwide opening weekend total of $107 million. The film held onto the number 1 spot at the US box office for three consecutive weekends before getting overtaken by "Ocean's Eleven". The film also had the highest-grossing 5-day (Wednesday-Sunday) Thanksgiving weekend record of $82.4million, holding the title for twelve years until both "" (2013) and "Frozen" (2013) surpassed it with $110.1million and $94million respectively. By Christmas, it went on to become the highest-grossing film of the year, dethroning "Shrek".


text: Similar results were achieved across the world. A week after opening in the United States, the film added 15 additional markets and set an opening week record in Germany, grossing $18.7 million. It also set opening records in Austria, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and German-speaking Switzerland. In the following weekend, after expanding to 31 countries, the film set a record overseas weekend gross of $60.9 million, including record openings in Australia, Greece, Israel, Japan ($12.5 million), New Zealand and Spain. It set another overseas weekend record with $62.3 million from 37 countries the following weekend, including record openings in France, Italy and French-speaking Switzerland. The international opening weekend record would be held until it was given to "" (2002) a year later. During its theatrical run, the film earned $974million at the worldwide box office, $317million of that in the US and $657million elsewhere, which made it the second-highest-grossing film in history at the time, as well as the year's highest-grossing film. In addition, the film defeated "Twister" (1996) to become the highest-grossing Warner Bros. film of all time. It is the second-highest-grossing "Harry Potter" film after "Deathly Hallows – Part 2". Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 55.9million tickets in the US and Canada.


text: In August 2020, "The Philosopher's Stone" was re-released in several countries, including a 4K 3D restoration in China, where it earned $26.4million, for a global $1.017billion, making it the second film in the series to surpass the billion-dollar mark, after "Deathly Hallows – Part 2".


text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, ""Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" adapts its source material faithfully while condensing the novel's overstuffed narrative into an involving – and often downright exciting – big-screen magical caper." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


text: Roger Ebert called "Philosopher's Stone" "a classic," giving the film four out of four stars, and particularly praising the Quidditch scenes' visual effects. Praise was echoed by both "The Telegraph" and "Empire" reviewers, with Alan Morrison of the latter naming it the film's "stand-out sequence". Brian Linder of "IGN" also gave the film a positive review, but concluded that it "isn't perfect, but for me it's a nice supplement to a book series that I love". Although criticising the final half-hour, Jeanne Aufmuth of "Palo Alto Online" stated that the film would "enchant even the most cynical of moviegoers." "USA Today" reviewer Claudia Puig gave the film three out of four stars, especially praising the set design and Robbie Coltrane's portrayal of Hagrid, but criticised John Williams' score and concluded "ultimately many of the book's readers may wish for a more magical incarnation." The sets, design, cinematography, effects and principal cast were all given praise from Kirk Honeycutt of "The Hollywood Reporter", although he deemed John Williams' score "a great clanging, banging music box that simply will not shut up." Todd McCarthy of "Variety" compared the film positively with "Gone with the Wind" and put "The script is faithful, the actors are just right, the sets, costumes, makeup and effects match and sometimes exceed anything one could imagine." Jonathan Foreman of the "New York Post" recalled that the film was "remarkably faithful," to its literary counterpart as well as a "consistently entertaining if overlong adaptation."


text: Richard Corliss of "Time" magazine, considered the film a "by the numbers adaptation," criticising the pace and the "charisma-free" lead actors. CNN's Paul Tatara found that Columbus and Kloves "are so careful to avoid offending anyone by excising a passage from the book, the so-called narrative is more like a jamboree inside Rowling's head." Ed Gonzalez of "Slant Magazine" wished that the film had been directed by Tim Burton, finding the cinematography "bland and muggy," and the majority of the film a "solidly dull celebration of dribbling goo." Elvis Mitchell of "The New York Times" was highly negative about the film, saying "[the film] is like a theme park that's a few years past its prime; the rides clatter and groan with metal fatigue every time they take a curve." He also said it suffered from "a lack of imagination" and wooden characters, adding, "The Sorting Hat has more personality than anything else in the movie."


text: "Philosopher's Stone" received three Academy Award nominations: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Original Score for John Williams. The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Awards: Best British Film, Best Supporting Actor for Robbie Coltrane, Best Costume Design, Best Production Design, Best Makeup and Hair, Best Sound, and Best Visual Effects. It won a Saturn Award for Best Costume, and was nominated for eight more awards. It won other awards from the Casting Society of America and the Costume Designers Guild. It was nominated for the AFI Film Award for its special effects, and the Art Directors Guild Award for its production design. It received the Broadcast Film Critics Award for Best Family Film, and was nominated for Best Child Performance (for Daniel Radcliffe) and Best Composer. In 2005, the American Film Institute nominated the film for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: James Peter Maxwell Dornan (; born 1 May 1982) is an actor, model and musician from Northern Ireland. Formerly a character actor, he often portrays solemn, steady characters. The recipient of two Irish Film and Television Awards, he has been nominated for a BAFTA Television Award, a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award. In 2020, he was listed at number 32 on "The Irish Times" list of Ireland's greatest film actors of all time.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Initially beginning his career as a model in 2001, he appeared in campaigns for Hugo Boss, Dior Homme, and Calvin Klein. Dubbed "the Golden Torso" by "The New York Times", he was ranked one of the "25 Biggest Male Models of All Time" by "Vogue" in 2015. In addition, he performed in the folk band Sons of Jim until 2008.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: He began acting in 2006, and earned international recognition for playing Sheriff Graham Humbert in the series "Once Upon a Time" (2011–2013) and serial killer Paul Spector in the crime drama series "The Fall" (2013–2016). For the latter, he won the Irish Film and Television Award for Best Actor in Television and was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Actor. In film, he has portrayed Axel von Fersen in Sofia Coppola's "Marie Antoinette" (2006), Christian Grey in the "Fifty Shades" franchise (2015–2018), Jan Kubiš in "Anthropoid" (2016), Commandant Pat Quinlan in "The Siege of Jadotville" (2016), Paul Conroy in "A Private War" (2018), and Pa in "Belfast" (2021). For his performance in the last he received nomination for Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan was born in Holywood, County Down, Northern Ireland, and grew up in the suburbs of Belfast. His mother, Lorna died of pancreatic cancer when Dornan was 16. His father Jim Dornan, an obstetrician and gynaecologist who had also considered becoming an actor, died from complications related to COVID-19 on 15 March 2021. He has echoed his father's support throughout his career stating:"...Some people go their whole lives without being told, ‘You’ve made your parents proud’.My dad would tell me every day.”


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan has two older sisters: Liesa, who works for Disney in London, and Jessica, a fashion designer based in Falmouth, Cornwall, England. He is a first cousin, twice removed, of actress Greer Garson. His grandparents on both sides of his family were Methodist lay preachers.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: He attended and boarded at Methodist College Belfast, where he played rugby and participated in the drama department. In school, he appeared in "Christmas Pantomime" and portrayed Widow Twanky which earned him his first drama prize. He also played Baby Face in "Bugsy Malone" and the milkman in "Blood Brothers" during school productions. He was a member of Belfast's youth amateur drama group, Holywood Players and participated in Ballymoney's Drama Festival with this group on several occasions. From the age of twelve, he participated in the native production of Anton Chekhov's stage dramas.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: He attended Teesside University but dropped out and moved to London in 2002 to train as an actor, but never applied to drama school. He worked in a pub in Knightsbridge for six months until he embarked on his modelling career. Referring to those six months as a rough time, Dornan stated he went through much financial hardship and to make ends meet, he took a job at the pub.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan performed in the folk band Sons of Jim until it disbanded in 2008. He founded the band with his schoolmate David Alexander and formed their own record label Doorstep Records under which they published their songs "Fairytale" and "My Burning Sun". Sons of Jim supported Scottish singer-songwriter KT Tunstall on tour.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan was not keen to pursue modelling as a career but was persuaded by his step mother and sisters. In 2001, he took part in the Channel 4 reality show "Model Behaviour". He was eliminated but signed a modelling contract with Select Model Management. In 2003, he modelled for Abercrombie & Fitch with Malin Åkerman. He then modelled for Aquascutum, Hugo Boss, and Armani. In 2005, he became the face of Dior Homme's fragrance advertising campaign. Dornan's first appearance in Calvin Klein's advertising campaign was in 2004 with Russian model Natalia Vodianova. His later notable works for Calvin Klein include the jeans advertising campaigns with Kate Moss in 2006 and with Eva Mendes in 2010. In 2009, he was made the face of Calvin Klein's 'CK Free' fragrance and appeared solo in Calvin Klein's underwear campaign. In 2006, he was labelled "The Golden Torso" by "The New York Times". He also appeared as a judge in Calvin Klein's model hunt competition, 'Nine countries, nine men, one winner'.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan appeared in commercials for Dolce & Gabbana, Zara, Banana Republic, Dior, Calvin Klein, and Levi's Jeans with Lily Aldridge. In 2006, he was dubbed the "male Kate Moss" by "GQ" and in 2015 was ranked one of the "25 Biggest Male Models of All Time" by "Vogue". He was ranked 3rd and 15th on "GQ Magazine's" 50 best dressed British men list respectively in 2015 and 2016. In 2018, he became the new face of "Boss The Scent" for Hugo Boss alongside Dutch model Birgit Kos. During his career, he worked with renowned fashion photographers Terry Richardson, Bruce Weber, Guy Aroch, Norman Jean Roy. Dornan's modelling significance was his iconic, trademark look which was named "Dornan Furrow" by the industry and the media. Though he is considered to be an A-class model, he never participated in ramp walks because of his unconventional style of walking.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan stated that the transition into an acting career was not easy for him, as he was often stigmatized with the designation of "model turned actor", but he had always wanted to act and was steadfast in proving his acting abilities. He moved to Los Angeles with a view to building an acting career in Comedy which eventually, never happened. He had also written comic blog for Funny or Die that did not get published. His first acting role in a film was as Count Axel Fersen in the Sofia Coppola film "Marie Antoinette" (2006). He also appeared in the drama film "Shadows in the Sun" (2009), which starred three-time Academy Award nominee Jean Simmons. In 2008, he played the lead role of Ed in the Hammer Horror production "Beyond the Rave".


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan garnered recognition when he appeared in nine episodes of the ABC television series "Once Upon a Time" between 2011 and 2013, playing the role of the Huntsman/Sheriff Graham. While Graham was killed by the town's mayor Regina/the Evil Queen in the episode "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter", Dornan stated that he would return as the Huntsman from the Enchanted Forest at some point. He returned as the Huntsman for the season finale "A Land Without Magic", and later as Graham for the season two episode "Welcome to Storybrooke" in its flashback segment. About his performance, Laura Prudom of "The Huffington Post" wrote: "Irish-born Jamie Dornan did an excellent job of portraying Graham's hopelessness and confusion".


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan received critical acclaim when he starred alongside Gillian Anderson in the Northern Irish drama series "The Fall", playing Paul Spector, a serial killer terrorising Belfast. Dornan initially auditioned for the role of a police officer, but he was later called upon to audition for the lead role, for which he was eventually selected. Beginning in 2013, the show aired for three series ending in October 2016. Dornan read books about serial killers and watched interviews of Ted Bundy to get an understanding of the mindset of his character, and stalked a woman in his preparation for the role. Reviewing the first season, David Thomson of "The New Republic" complimented Dornan on his performance: "Jamie Dornan as Paul, has become the center of the drama in a performance that unpeels as slowly as a stripper- and maybe as seductively." Dornan won his first Irish Film and Television Award for Best Actor in Television and was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Actor. In 2014, Dornan was cast as Abe Goffe in "New Worlds", a historical drama series.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: On 23 October 2013, Dornan was cast as Christian Grey in the film adaptation of "Fifty Shades of Grey", replacing Charlie Hunnam. Initially announced to be released on 1 August 2014, the film was later rescheduled and released on 13 February 2015. Dornan visited a private sex dungeon as preparation for playing his sadistic character. He reprised his role in the second and third installments of the "Fifty Shades" film franchise, "Fifty Shades Darker", released in 2017, and "Fifty Shades Freed", released in 2018. Earning approximately $1.32 billion, the franchise became the seventh highest-grossing R-rated franchise. Despite being a box office blockbuster, the trilogy was poorly received by critics, with Dornan's performance being critically panned. He stated in several interviews that he was depressed to receive such reviews.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: On 27 August 2014, it was announced that Dornan would play Dr. Allan Pascal in a Miramax film titled "The 9th Life of Louis Drax", a supernatural thriller based on a book of the same name. It was released on 2 September 2016. In November 2014, Dornan was ranked third in "People Magazine's" Sexiest Man Alive rankings.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan was cast as Commandant Pat Quinlan in Netflix's historical war film "The Siege of Jadotville" in 2016. He was sent to a boot camp in South Africa with the rest of the cast to train for the film. The film got released at the Galway Film Festival 2016, receiving mixed reviews. Writing for "The Irish Times," critic Donald Clarke lauded Dornan for his suave acting. For the film, he received his third nomination for best actor in a leading role in Irish Film and Television Award. In the same year, he starred as Jan Kubiš, alongside Cillian Murphy in another war film "Anthropoid". Rupert Hawksley of "The Daily Telegraph" felt that he made a decent fist of portraying Kubis and said: "Nazi nail-biter Anthropoid shows Jamie Dornan has many more than 50 shades". For the film, he received nominations for the British Independent Film Award and Czech Lion Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In May 2017, it was reported that Dornan would co-star alongside Peter Dinklage, as a journalist Danny Tate, in the HBO television film "My Dinner with Hervé". Shooting for the film started in June 2017, and it was released on 20 October 2018. Matthew Gilbert of "The Boston Globe" said: "The Danny plot is fine - nothing special really, although Dornan is excellent and manages to bring a good sense of transformation to an underwritten character".


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In 2018, Dornan portrayed journalist Paul Conroy in the biographical drama "A Private War". Ann Hornaday, writing for "The Washington Post", described Dornan's performance as "a gallantly self-effacing performance". Kenneth Turan for "Los Angeles Times" described Dornan's performance as "excellent work from the "Fifty Shades" veteran". In the same year, he appeared as Will Scarlet in "Robin Hood" and as Nick, a doctor and memoirist, in "Untogether".


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In 2019, Dornan starred as a paramedic in the science fiction thriller film "Synchronic". It had its world premiere at the 44th Toronto International Film Festival, receiving positive reviews from critics.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan then appeared in two comedy films, "Wild Mountain Thyme" (2020) and "Barb and Star Go to Vista Del Mar" (2021). He won plaudits from critics for his musical number and comedic turn in "Barb and Star". Writing for "The Wrap", Alonso Duralde addressed his ballad as "a definite highlight" of the film and said: "While it's definitely [Annie] Mumolo and [Kristen] Wiig's show all the way, Dornan winds up being surprisingly capable at holding his own against these two dynamos". "Wild Mountain Thyme", John Patrick Shanley's film adaptation of his own play "Outside Mullingar", was poorly received and was criticised for accent inaccuracy. Nevertheless Dornan's performance received praise as Simran Hans of "The Guardian" described it as "a commendable feat of comic brilliance, not to be missed." Some critics supposed Dornan to be a miscast.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In 2021, Dornan portrayed a working class father in Kenneth Branagh's drama film "Belfast", the character being based on Branagh's father. His performance received critical acclaim. Critic Peter Travers wrote on "Good Morning America": "Dornan, free of the s&m sex trap of the "50 Shades of Grey" trilogy, builds on his virtuoso turn on "The Fall" to show an actor of ferocity and feeling as he invests Pa, often absent from home for construction work in England, with simmering emotion and quiet strength". He received nominations for the Golden Globe Award and Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actor. The film was nominated for Best Picture at the 94th Academy Awards.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: After "Belfast", he secured the lead role of an amnesiac in BBC thriller series "The Tourist". Upon its release on BBC iPlayer in January 2022, it became the most watched show of that month with highest ratings until then. He himself and critics alike found his character challenging. "The Guardian's" tv critic Lucy Mangan commended him for his "compelling performance" and found him in "fine form".


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan has lent his support towards various means and organisations.Dornan was the patron of TinyLife, a Northern Ireland charity for premature and vulnerable babies. In 2016, he appeared in a skit for Children in Need, BBC's annual charity event to help disadvantaged children in the UK. In 2017, he joined other celebrities for a charity football match, Game 4 Grenfell, to provide aid to the victims of Grenfell Tower fire in West London that year.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In 2018, Dornan became the patron of the newly established charity Northern Ireland Pancreatic Cancer (NIPanC) which was created in partnership with Pancreatic Cancer Action and the Pancreatic Cancer Research Fund. Due to busy filming schedule, he stepped down from the patronage in 2021 but considered himself a strong supporter of it. In 2019, he supported "Go Team Anna", a fundraising campaign to provide help for a child's Cancer treatment. In 2020, Dornan read a bedtime story as part of "Save with Stories" to raise funds for Save the Children's Emergency Coronavirus Appeal. In the same year, he supported the Faster 5K Friday campaign for the Care Workers Charity, which provides financial grants for care workers.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In 2021, Dornan backed an emergency campaign in Northern Ireland, "Donate for Dáithí", to find a replacement heart for a four year old child, and supported the NHS Organ Donation foundation to help such children. He appeared in Comic Relief's fundraising event "Red Nose Day" in 2022.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: In 2003, Dornan met actress Keira Knightley in an Asprey photoshoot. After being together for two years, they split up in 2005. In 2010, Dornan met English actress and singer-songwriter Amelia Warner and they became engaged in 2012, and married in 2013. They have three daughters. Dornan is an atheist. In interviews he has said that he considers himself Irish.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan's most acclaimed films, according to review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, include "A Private War" (2018), "Belfast" (2021), "My Dinner with Hervé" (2018), "Barb and Star Go to Vista Del Mar" (2021) and "Synchronic" (2019). His critically lauded television works are "The Fall" (2013–2016) and "Once Upon a Time" (2011).


title: Jamie Dornan

text: Dornan has won two Irish Film and Television Awards, a Broadcasting Press Guild Award and a People's Choice Award.


title: Jamie Dornan

text: He was nominated in the Best Actor category of the 60th BAFTA Awards for his performance in "The Fall".


title: Haiti

text: Haiti (; ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and south of The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island which it shares with the Dominican Republic. To its south-west lies the small Navassa Island, which is claimed by Haiti but is disputed as a United States territory under federal administration. Haiti is in size, the third largest country in the Caribbean by area, and has an estimated population of 11.4 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean. The capital is Port-au-Prince.


title: Haiti

text: The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people, who originated in South America. The first Europeans arrived on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who initially believed he had found India or China. Columbus subsequently founded the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on what is now the northeastern coast of Haiti. The island was claimed by Spain and named , forming part of the Spanish Empire until the early 17th century. However, competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France in 1697, which was subsequently named . French colonists established lucrative sugarcane plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves brought from Africa, which made the colony one of the richest in the world.


title: Haiti

text: In the midst of the French Revolution (1789–99), slaves, maroons, and free people of color launched the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture. After 12 years of conflict, Napoleon Bonaparte's forces were defeated by Louverture's successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (later Emperor Jacques I), who declared Haiti's sovereignty on 1 January 1804—the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country in the Americas to abolish slavery, and the only state in history established by a successful slave revolt. Apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all of Haiti's first leaders were former slaves. After a brief period in which the country was split in two, President Jean-Pierre Boyer united the country and then attempted to bring the whole of Hispaniola under Haitian control, precipitating a long series of wars that ended in the 1870s when Haiti formally recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti's first century of independence was characterized by political instability, ostracism by the international community, and the payment of a crippling debt to France. Political volatility and foreign economic influence in the country prompted the U.S. to occupy the country from 1915 to 1934. Following a series of short-lived presidencies, François 'Papa Doc' Duvalier took power in 1956, ushering in a long period of autocratic rule continued by his son, Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier, that lasted until 1986; the period was characterized by state-sanctioned violence against the opposition and civilians, corruption, and economic stagnation. After 1986, Haiti began attempting to establish a more democratic political system.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS), Association of Caribbean States, and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. Historically poor and politically unstable, Haiti has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas, as well as widespread slavery. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country has endured a coup d'état, which prompted U.N. intervention, as well as a catastrophic earthquake that killed over 250,000 people. With its deteriorating economic situation, as well as recent calls by the IMF to cut fuel subsidies, Haiti has been experiencing a socioeconomic and political crisis marked by riots and protests, widespread hunger, and increased gang activity.


title: Haiti

text: "Haiti" (also earlier "Hayti") comes from the indigenous Taíno language, in which it means "land of high mountains" and named the entire island of Hispaniola. The name was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.


title: Haiti

text: In French, the "ï" in "Haïti" has a diacritical mark (used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word "naïve"), while the "H" is silent. (In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling "Haiti" is used.) There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such as "HIGH-ti", "high-EE-ti" and "haa-EE-ti", which are still in use, but "HAY-ti" is the most widespread and best-established. In French, Haiti's nickname means the "Pearl of the Antilles" ("La Perle des Antilles") because of both its natural beauty and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France. During the 18th century, the colony was the world's leading producer of sugar and coffee.


title: Haiti

text: Another theory on the name Haiti is its origin in African tradition, in Fon language one of the most spoken by the bossales (Haitians born in Africa to differentiate from the creoles or Haitians born in Haiti (St-Domingue) in early Haiti, Ayiti-Tomè means: From nowadays this land is our land.


title: Haiti

text: In the Haitian community the country has multiple nicknames: Ayiti-Toma (as its origin in Ayiti Tomè), Ayiti-Cheri (Ayiti my Darling), Tè-Desalin (Dessalines' Land) or Lakay (Home).


title: Haiti

text: The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, has been inhabited since about 5000 BC by groups of Native Americans thought to have arrived from Central or South America. Genetic studies show that some of these groups were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. Amongst these early settlers were the Ciboney peoples, followed by the Taíno, speakers of an Arawakan language, elements of which have been preserved in Haitian Creole. The Taíno name for the entire island was "Haiti", or alternatively "Quisqeya".In Taíno society the largest unit of political organization was led by a "cacique," or chief, as the Europeans understood them. The island of Hispaniola was divided among five 'caciquedoms': the Magua in the north east, the Marien in the north west, the Jaragua in the south west, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Higüey in the south east.


title: Haiti

text: Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogâne, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of "Xaragua."


title: Haiti

text: Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named "Môle-Saint-Nicolas," and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the "Santa María" ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Taíno.


title: Haiti

text: The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases to which the native peoples lacked immunity, causing them to die in great numbers in epidemics. The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507. Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the "" system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.


title: Haiti

text: The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512–1513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to "." The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.


title: Haiti

text: As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on Île de la Tortue) and England. The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds. The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them.


title: Haiti

text: France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of "Santo Domingo", the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession.


title: Haiti

text: The French settlers were outnumbered by slaves by almost 10 to 1. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 African slaves. In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West African slaves held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism.


title: Haiti

text: The French enacted the "Code Noir" ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever. They had low birth rates, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery. The colony's environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners.


title: Haiti

text: As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including slaves of their own. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.


title: Haiti

text: The brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons. One Maroon leader, François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s, however he was later captured and executed by the French.


title: Haiti

text: Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights. Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Ogé, resulting in his capture, torture and execution. Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou "houngan" (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo – soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony.


title: Haiti

text: In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control; to build an alliance with the "gens de couleur" and slaves commissioners Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the National Convention, led by Maximilien de Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.


title: Haiti

text: The United States, which was a new republic itself, oscillated between supporting or not supporting Toussaint Louverture and the emerging country of Haiti, depending on who was President of the US. Washington, who was a slave holder and isolationist, kept the United States neutral, although private US citizens at times provided aid to French planters trying to put down the revolt. John Adams, a vocal opponent of slavery, fully supported the slave revolt by providing diplomatic recognition, financial support, munitions and warships (including the USS Constitution) beginning in 1798. This support ended in 1801 when Jefferson, another slave-holding president, took office and recalled the US Navy.


title: Haiti

text: With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue. The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture's forces and the free people of color led by André Rigaud in the War of the Knives (1799–1800). More than 25,000 surviving free people of color left the island as refugees.


title: Haiti

text: After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors under the command of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of their army had died from yellow fever. Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals. The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.


title: Haiti

text: The slaves, along with free and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generals Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Henry Christophe. The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, establishing the first nation ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers. Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, selling Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase. It has been estimated that between 24,000 and 100,000 Europeans, and between 100,000 and 350,000 Haitian ex-slaves, died in the revolution. In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.


title: Haiti

text: The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name 'Haiti' by Jean-Jacques Dessalines on 1 January 1804 in Gonaïves and he was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" as Emperor Jacques I by his troops. Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others. However, once in power, he ordered the massacre of nearly all the remaining white men, women, children; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population. Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: Polish soldiers, the majority of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.


title: Haiti

text: Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the slave states, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the Confederacy.


title: Haiti

text: The revolution led to a wave of emigration. In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled "en masse" in New Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city's African population.


title: Haiti

text: The plantation system was reestablished in Haiti, albeit for wages, however many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation's politics. The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.


title: Haiti

text: After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an "homme de couleur". Christophe established a semi-feudal corvée system, with a rigid education and economic code. Pétion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class. President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado.


title: Haiti

text: Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an "homme de couleur" and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe. After Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.


title: Haiti

text: Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.


title: Haiti

text: Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the American Colonization Society and its efforts in Liberia. Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.


title: Haiti

text: In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the French monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer Haiti. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs. By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti. The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti's economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western nations continued to refuse formal diplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862. Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of Haiti's government spending was debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.


title: Haiti

text: After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with Charles Rivière-Hérard replacing him as president. Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by Juan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844. The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy losses. Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general Philippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844.


title: Haiti

text: Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General Jean-Louis Pierrot. Pierrot's most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops. Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti's coasts. President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents, however the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.


title: Haiti

text: On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt. Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic. With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General Jean-Baptiste Riché, to stage another invasion.


title: Haiti

text: On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque. During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence. But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security. Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.


title: Haiti

text: On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing San Juan. This left only the town of Azua as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them. The way to Santo Domingo was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.


title: Haiti

text: Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie, which they plundered and set on fire. Soulouque, now self-proclaimed as Emperor Faustin I, decided to start a new campaign against them. In 1855, he again invaded the territory of the Dominican Republic. But owing to insufficient preparation, the army was soon in want of victuals and ammunition. In spite of the bravery of the soldiers, the Emperor had once more to give up the idea of a unified island under Haitian control. After this campaign, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.


title: Haiti

text: The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent. In 1858 a revolution began, led by General Fabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country. As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Refused aid by the French Legation, Faustin was taken into exile aboard a British warship on 22 January 1859, and General Geffrard succeeded him as president.


title: Haiti

text: The period following Soulouque's overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867, as was his successor, Sylvain Salnave, in 1869. Under the Presidency of Michel Domingue (1874–76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other, bringing an end to Haitian dreams of bringing the entirety of Hispaniola under their control. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of Lysius Salomon (1879–1888) and Florvil Hyppolite (1889–1896).


title: Haiti

text: Haiti's relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to force Haiti to permit the building of a naval base at Môle Saint-Nicolas, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite. In 1892 the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin, and in 1897, the Germans used gunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of President Tirésias Simon Sam (1896–1902) during the Lüders Affair.


title: Haiti

text: In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President Pierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908, as was his successor François C. Antoine Simon in 1911; President Cincinnatus Leconte (1911–12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace; Michel Oreste (1913–14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor Oreste Zamor in 1914.


title: Haiti

text: Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti's economy. The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine. In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and so enable the debt to be repaid.


title: Haiti

text: In 1915, Haiti's new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob. Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo, President Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The , under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.


title: Haiti

text: The occupation improved some of Haiti's infrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince. 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities. Port-au-Prince became the first Caribbean city to have a phone service with automatic dialling. Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country. However, many infrastructure projects were built using the corvée system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians. Sisal was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity. Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control. Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of Sténio Vincent (1930–1941). The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.


title: Haiti

text: The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians "expressed in the metaphor of a father's relationship with his children." Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the cacos under the command of Charlemagne Péralte; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr. During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250. Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.


title: Haiti

text: Recognition of the distinctive traditionalism of the Haitian people had an influence on American writers, including Eugene O'Neill, James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston and Orson Welles.


title: Haiti

text: After US forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. Few bullets were used – instead, 20,000–30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun. Congressman Hamilton Fish, ranking member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, called the Parsley Massacre "the most outrageous atrocity that has ever been perpetrated on the American continent."


title: Haiti

text: President Vincent became increasingly dictatorial, and resigned under US pressure in 1941, being replaced by Élie Lescot (1941–46). In 1941, during the Second World War, Lescot declared war on Japan (8 December), Germany (12 December), Italy (12 December), Bulgaria (24 December), Hungary (24 December) and Romania (24 December). Out of these six Axis countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941). On 27 September 1945, Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (the successor to the League of Nations, of which Haiti was also a founding member).


title: Haiti

text: In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with Dumarsais Estimé later becoming the new president (1946–50). He sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians, however as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by Paul Magloire, who replaced him as president (1950–56). Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti. The waterfront area of Port-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk from the docks to cultural attractions. Celebrities such as Truman Capote and Noël Coward visited Haiti; the era is captured in Graham Greene's 1966 novel "The Comedians".


title: Haiti

text: In 1956–57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies. In the September 1957 election Dr. François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as 'Papa Doc' and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971. He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite. Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as "Tontons Macoutes" ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents. In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself 'President for Life'; an uprising against his rule that year in Jérémie was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed. The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread. Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with Baron Samedi, one of the loa (or "lwa"), or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier's firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid.


title: Haiti

text: In 1971 Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed 'Baby Doc', who ruled until 1986. He largely continued his father's policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability. Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc's time, again became a growing industry. However as the economy continued to decline Baby Doc's grip on power began to weaken. Haiti's pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment. The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president. Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country for France in February 1986.


title: Haiti

text: In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers. Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain that it has yet to recover from.


title: Haiti

text: Following Duvalier's departure, army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council. Elections scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and "Tontons Macoutes". Fraudulent elections followed in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted. The newly elected president, Leslie Manigat, was then overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état. Another coup followed in September 1988, after the St. Jean Bosco massacre in which 13–50 people (estimates vary) attending a mass led by prominent government critic and Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide were killed. General Prosper Avril subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.


title: Haiti

text: In December 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in the Haitian general election. However his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by Raoul Cédras, in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état. Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.


title: Haiti

text: In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under Operation Uphold Democracy. This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term. As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results, some sources stating that these reforms had a negative impact on native Haitian industry. In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.


title: Haiti

text: Elections were held in 1995 which were won by René Préval, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout. Aristide subsequently formed his own party, Fanmi Lavalas, and political deadlock ensued; the November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote. The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and human rights abuses. Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.


title: Haiti

text: In 2004 an anti-Aristide revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile. The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces. Mrs. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore U.S. Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti. These charges were denied by the US government. As political violence and crime continued to grow, a United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order. However MINUSTAH proved controversial, as their at times heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians. Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following elections.


title: Haiti

text: Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004 Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves. In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid. The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.


title: Haiti

text: On 12 January 2010, at 4:53 pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years. The earthquake was reported to have left between 220,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless. The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a United Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, the Artibonite. In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial the United Nations apologized in 2016, but , they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.


title: Haiti

text: General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake. Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner. In 2011 both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014. In 2013, Haiti called for European nations to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings. Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place. An interim president, Jocelerme Privert, then took office. After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastating Hurricane Matthew, elections were eventually held in November 2016. The victor, Jovenel Moïse of the Haitian Tèt Kale Party, was subsequently sworn in as president in 2017. The 2018–2021 Haitian protests are demonstrations in cities throughout Haiti that began on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse.


title: Haiti

text: On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was assassinated in an attack on his private residence, and First Lady Martine Moïse was hospitalized following the overnight attack. Amid the political crisis, the government of Haiti installed Ariel Henry, previously nominated by President Moïse, as prime minister. In August 2021, Haiti suffered another huge earthquake, with many casualties. The earthquake has also damaged Haiti's economic conditions and led to a rise in violent crimes in the country. As of March 2022, Haiti still had no president, no parliamentary quorum, and a dysfunctional high court due to a lack of judges. In 2022, protests broke out against the government and rising fuel prices.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti forms the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. At Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the latter sharing a border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length () behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle, at .


title: Haiti

text: The northern region or Marien Region consists of the "Massif du Nord" (Northern Massif) and the "Plaine du Nord" (Northern Plain). The "Massif du Nord" is an extension of the "Cordillera Central" in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the "Plaine du Nord" lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the "Massif du Nord" and the North Atlantic Ocean.


title: Haiti

text: The central region or Artibonite Region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The "Plateau Central" (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the "Massif du Nord". It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the "Plateau Central" are the "Montagnes Noires", whose most northwestern part merges with the "Massif du Nord". Haiti's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux. This region supports the country's (also Hispaniola's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues for most of its length through central Haiti, where it then empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. Also in this valley lies Haiti's second largest lake, Lac de Péligre, formed as a result of the construction of the Péligre Dam in the mid-1950s.


title: Haiti

text: The southern region or Xaragua Region consists of the "Plaine du Cul-de-Sac" (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake, Étang Saumatre. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti also includes several offshore islands. The island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve; Haiti's largest island, Gonâve is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Cow Island) is located off the southwest coast; also part of Haiti are the Cayemites, located in the Gulf of Gonâve north of Pestel. La Navasse (Navassa Island), located west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti, is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States, who currently administer the island via the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti's climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude. Port-au-Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of to an average maximum of ; in July, from . The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Haiti's dry season occurs from November to January.


title: Haiti

text: Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of . There are two rainy seasons, April–June and October–November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are a menace, and the country is also prone to flooding and earthquakes.


title: Haiti

text: There are blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system over which Haiti lies. After the earthquake of 2010, there was no evidence of surface rupture and geologists' findings were based on seismological, geological and ground deformation data.


title: Haiti

text: The northern boundary of the fault is where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about per year in relation to the North American plate. The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in the south.


title: Haiti

text: A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst-case forecast would involve a 7.2 M earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake. A study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean Geologic Conference in March 2008, noting the large strain. The team recommended "high priority" historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years. An article published in Haiti's "Le Matin" newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port-au-Prince; and duly the magnitude 7.0 2010 Haiti earthquake happened on this fault zone on 12 January 2010.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti has no currently active volcanoes. "In the Terre-Neuve Mountains, about 12 kilometers from the Eaux Boynes, small intrusions at least as late as Oligocene and probably of Miocene age are known. No other volcanic activity of as late a date is known near any of the other warm springs."


title: Haiti

text: The soil erosion released from the upper catchments and deforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding in Haiti, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti's forests covered 60% of the country as recently as 50 years ago, but that has been halved to a current estimate of 30% tree cover, according to more recent environmental analysis. This estimate poses a stark difference from the erroneous figure of 2% which has been oft-cited in discourse concerning the country's environmental condition. Haiti had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.01/10, ranking it 137th globally out of 172 countries.


title: Haiti

text: Scientists at the Columbia University's Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability in Haiti through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti is home to four ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests, and Greater Antilles mangroves.


title: Haiti

text: Despite its small size, Haiti's mountainous terrain and resultant multiple climatic zones has resulted in a wide variety of plant life. Notable tree species include the breadfruit tree, mango tree, acacia, mahogany, coconut palm, royal palm and West Indian cedar. The forests were formerly much more extensive, but have been subject to severe deforestation.


title: Haiti

text: Most mammal species are not native, having been brought to the island since colonial times. However there are various native bat species, as well as the endemic Hispaniolan hutia and Hispaniolan solenodon. Various whale and dolphin species can also be found off Haiti's coast.


title: Haiti

text: There are over 260 species of bird, 31 of these being endemic to Hispaniola. Notable endemic species include the Hispaniolan trogon, Hispaniolan parakeet, grey-crowned tanager and the Hispaniolan Amazon. There are also several raptor species, as well as pelicans, ibis, hummingbirds and ducks.


title: Haiti

text: Reptiles are common, with species such as the rhinoceros iguana, Haitian boa, American crocodile and gecko.


title: Haiti

text: The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the president of Haiti is head of state and elected directly by popular elections held every five years. The prime minister of Haiti acts as head of government and is appointed by the president, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister who together constitute the government.


title: Haiti

text: Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti, the Senate (Sénat) and the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés). The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government "delegates" powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987.


title: Haiti

text: Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups. Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution; however, a long history of oppression by dictators such as François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier has markedly affected the nation. Since the end of the Duvalier era Haiti has been transitioning to a democratic system.


title: Haiti

text: Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.


title: Haiti

text: The departments are further divided into 42 arrondissements, 145 communes and 571 communal sections. These serve as, respectively, second- and third-level administrative divisions.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti is a member of a wide range of international and regional organizations, such as the United Nations, CARICOM, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, International Monetary Fund, Organisation of American States, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, OPANAL and the World Trade Organization.


title: Haiti

text: In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU). The AU was reported to be planning to upgrade Haiti's status from observer to associate at its June 2013 summit but the application had still not been ratified by May 2016.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti's Ministry of Defense is the main body of the armed forces. The former Haitian Armed Forces were demobilized in 1995, however efforts to reconstitute it are currently underway. The current defense force for Haiti is the Haitian National Police, which has a highly trained SWAT team, and works alongside the Haitian Coast Guard. In 2010, the Haitian National Police force numbered 7,000.


title: Haiti

text: Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index. According to a 2006 report by the Corruption Perceptions Index, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty in Haiti. The nation ranked first of all countries surveyed for levels of perceived domestic corruption. It is estimated that President "Baby Doc" Duvalier, his wife Michelle, and their agents stole US $504 million from the country's treasury between 1971 and 1986. Similarly, after the Haitian Army folded in 1995, the Haitian National Police (HNP) gained sole power of authority on the Haitian citizens. Many Haitians as well as observers of the Haitian society believe that this monopolized power could have given way to a corrupt police force.


title: Haiti

text: Similarly, some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In March 2004, at the time of Aristide's kidnapping, a BBC article wrote that the Bush administration State Department stated that Aristide had been involved in drug trafficking. The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.


title: Haiti

text: Conversely, according to the 2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates in Haiti (10.2 per 100,000) are far "below" the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than that of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly that of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region. In large part, this is due to the country's ability to fulfil a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50%, a four-year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crack down on crime. A notable bust in recent years led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by a West Point-trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries.


title: Haiti

text: In 2010, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent a team of veteran officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, strategies to improve the anti-kidnapping personnel and community outreach to build stronger relationships with the public especially among the youth. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit in the center of Delmas, a neighborhood of Port-au-Prince.


title: Haiti

text: In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent-prone neighborhoods of Cité Soleil and Grande Ravine in Port-au-Prince to the new northern industrial park at Caracol.


title: Haiti

text: Port-au-Prince penitentiary is home to half of Haiti's prisoners. The prison has a capacity of 1,200 detainees but the penitentiary was obliged to keep 4,359 detainees, a 454% occupancy level. This leads to severe consequences for the inmates.


title: Haiti

text: One cell could hold up to 60 inmates which was originally designed for only 18, therefore creating tight and uncomfortable living conditions. The inmates are forced to create makeshift hammocks from the wall and ceilings. The men are on a 22/ 23 hour lock up in the cells so the risk of diseases is very high. The inability to receive sufficient funds from the government as Haiti endures severe natural disasters which take up their attention and resources, such as the 2010 earthquake, has caused deadly cases of malnutrition, combined with the tight living conditions, increases the risk of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis which has led to 21 deaths in January 2017 alone at the Port-au-Prince penitentiary.


title: Haiti

text: Haitian law states that once arrested, one must go before a judge within 48 hours; however, this is very rare. In an interview with "Unreported World", the prison governor stated that around 529 detainees were never sentenced, there are 3,830 detainees who are in prolonged detained trial detention. Therefore, 80% are not convicted.


title: Haiti

text: Unless families are able to provide the necessary funds for inmates to appear before a judge there is a very slim chance the inmate would have a trial, on average, within 10 years. Brian Concannon, the director of the non-profit Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti, claims that without a substantial bribe to persuade judges, prosecutors and lawyers to undergo their case, there is no prospect for getting a trial for years.


title: Haiti

text: Families may send food to the penitentiary; however, most inmates depend on the meals served twice a day. However, the majority of the meals consist of ration supplies of rice, oats or cornmeal, which has led to deadly cases of malnutrition-related ailments such as beriberi and anemia. Prisoners too weak are crammed in the penitentiary infirmary.


title: Haiti

text: In confined living spaces for 22–23 hours a day, inmates are not provided with latrines and are forced to defecate into plastic bags and leave them outside their cells. These conditions were considered inhumane by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2008.