title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced returning veteran Christos Giagos on September 22, 2018, at UFC Fight Night 137. He won the fight via submission in the second round. With this win, Oliveira passed Royce Gracie for the most submission wins (11) in UFC history. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced Jim Miller in a rematch on December 15, 2018, at UFC on Fox 31. He won the fight via a rear-naked choke submission early in the first round. The win earned him a seventh "Performance of the Night" award (setting a new record), and extended the record for most submissions in UFC History with 12.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced David Teymur on February 2, 2019, at UFC Fight Night 144. He won the fight in the second round after stunning Teymur with an upward elbow and punches before applying an anaconda choke. With this win, Oliveira extended the UFC record for most submission wins to thirteen. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: As the first fight of his new, five-fight contract, a trilogy fight with Nik Lentz took place on May 18, 2019, at UFC Fight Night 152. Oliveira won the fight via TKO in the second round.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Replacing Leonardo Santos, Oliveira then faced Jared Gordon on November 16, 2019, at UFC Fight Night 164. Oliveira won the fight by knockout in the first round. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced Kevin Lee on March 14, 2020, as the main event at UFC Fight Night 170. At the weigh-ins, Lee weighed in at 158.5 lbs, 2.5 lbs over the lightweight non-title fight limit of 156 pounds. Lee was fined 20% of his purse and his bout with Oliveira was expected to proceed as scheduled at a catchweight. Oliveira won the fight via submission with a guillotine choke in the third round. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award. With this win, Oliveira also extended the UFC record for most submission wins to 14, moved to second place in terms of bonuses received with 16, and extended his finishing streak to 7, which marks the longest active finishing streak for now and ties with Donald Cerrone with most finishes in the UFC.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira was scheduled to meet Beneil Dariush on October 4, 2020 at However, Oliveira pulled out of the fight in early September for undisclosed reasons.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced Tony Ferguson on December 12, 2020, at UFC 256 in the co-main event. After locking in a tight armbar that hyperextended Ferguson's elbow in the first round, Oliveira won the fight via unanimous decision. It was his first victory by decision since his fight against Jeremy Stephens in 2014. This win earned him his eleventh "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced former three–time Bellator Lightweight Champion Michael Chandler for the vacant UFC Lightweight Championship, following previous champion Khabib Nurmagomedov's retirement, while headlining UFC 262 on May 15, 2021. Despite being dropped by Chandler in the first round, Oliveira won the fight via technical knockout early in the second round to claim the UFC Lightweight Championship. With the knockout win, he broke yet another record, recording the most finishes in UFC history. This win also earned Oliveira the "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira made his first title defense against former UFC Interim Lightweight champion Dustin Poirier on December 11, 2021, at UFC 269. After being knocked down in the first round, Oliveira won the bout by submitting Poirier by standing rear-naked choke in the first minute of the third round. The win also earned Oliveira his twelfth Performance of the Night bonus award, a new record for the company.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira was set to make his second title defense against another former UFC Interim Lightweight Champion, Justin Gaethje, on May 7, at UFC 274. At the weigh-ins, Oliveira weighed in at 155.5 pounds, half a pound over the divisional title limit. As a result, upon commencement of the fight, Oliveira was officially stripped of the championship, and only Gaethje was eligible to win the title. This was the first time in UFC history that a title was vacated due to a weight miss. After being knocked down, Oliveira dropped Gaethje with a right hand and rallied to win the fight via rear-naked choke submission in the first round, and was declared the number one contender to the UFC Lightweight Championship. The win also earned him the third place Crypto.com "Fan Bonus of the Night" award.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: The decision to strip Oliveira of the championship proved controversial in what was dubbed "scale gate", as other fighters on the UFC 274 card alleged issues with the scales. Marc Ratner, Vice President of Regulatory Affairs at the UFC, stated that the other fighters were referring to the UFC's practice scale put out the night before, not the one used by the Arizona State Athletic Commission for the official weigh-in; "Some fighters wanted to change the scale from pounds to kilograms, which you can do, and I think that may have knocked it – we don't have any proof of anything, but it may have knocked the [practice] scale out of calibration." The night before, Oliveira had stated that he was on weight using the practice scale. As a result of the allegations, UFC president Dana White stated that the UFC would hire a security guard to watch the practice scale going forward. Ariel Helwani and Dustin Poirier questioned why state athletic commissions still use balance or beam scales, which allow human error, for official weights and not more accurate digital scales. Daniel Cormier, Junior dos Santos, and Glover Teixeira criticized stripping a champion over half a pound, an amount that is acceptable for non-title fights, as excessive. In addition to citing previous UFC matches that were allowed to go ahead as championship title fights despite questionable weigh-ins, Helwani noted how state athletic commissions have no say in what happens to a championship belt and that it was entirely the UFC's decision to strip Oliveira of the title.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira faced Islam Makhachev for the vacant UFC Lightweight Championship at UFC 280 on October 22, 2022. Despite not being the champion, White stated that he "thinks" Oliveira will be receiving pay-per-view points for UFC 280. Oliveira lost this bout in the second round via arm-triangle choke after being dropped by a punch.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Charles Oliveira won his first Brazilian jiu-jitsu tournament in 2003 as a white belt, São Paulo State Championship in the Junior Division. In 2004 he won the São Paulo championship again, the Copa Nação Jiu-Jitsu in 2005 and in 2006 he won on 16 medals. By 2007 he started to steer his career to focus on MMA.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: In January 2020 he fought a grappling superfight at the MMA event SFT 20 against Lucas Barros from Demian Maia Jiu-Jitsu. Oliveira and Barros fought with a jiu-jitsu gi in a cage under IBJJF rules. Charles won by decision.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Oliveira and his wife have a daughter, Tayla (born 2017). He resides in Guarujá, living near his old neighbourhood of Vicente de Carvalho, and helps his neighbourhood with regular charities. He is a Christian. Oliveira was previously nearsighted, and wore eyeglasses all of the time. On having to remove them to fight, he said, "If I take my glasses off, I only see 50 per cent but it never hindered me in a fight", "I see three [faces]. If I hit the middle one, that's fine". In October 2022, Oliveira said his eyes are "100 percent perfect" after having had corrective eye surgery.


title: Charles Oliveira

text: Kanō Jigorō → Mitsuyo Maeda → Carlos Gracie → Hélio Gracie → Rickson Gracie → Marcelo Behring → Waldomiro Perez → Jorge Patino → Charles Oliveira


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: Richard Dove Williams Jr. (born February 14, 1942) is a former American tennis coach and the father of tennis players Venus Williams and Serena Williams.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: Williams is the oldest of five children and the only son of Julia Mae ( Metcalf) and Richard Dove Williams of Shreveport, Louisiana. His younger sisters are Pat, Barbara, Penny, and Faye. After graduating from high school he moved to Saginaw, Michigan and then to California.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: Williams took tennis lessons from a man known as "Old Whiskey" and decided his future daughters would be tennis professionals after seeing Virginia Ruzici playing on television. Williams said that he wrote up an 85-page plan and started giving lessons to Venus and Serena when they were four and a half, taking them to practice on public tennis courts. Williams later added that he felt he took them too early and age six would have been more suitable. In 1995, Williams withdrew his daughters from a tennis academy and coached them himself. Within a few years, they were winning grand slam tournaments.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: Serena won the US Open in 1999 and Venus beat Lindsay Davenport to win the 2000 Wimbledon title. After that victory, Richard shouted "Straight Outta Compton!", in reference to a song by N.W.A based in Compton, California, the same area in Los Angeles where the family once resided. He jumped over the NBC broadcasting booth, catching Chris Evert by surprise and performing a triumphant dance. Evert said that the broadcasters "thought the roof was coming down".


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: After moving to California he met Betty Johnson. They married in 1965 and had five children, three sons and two daughters: Sabrina, Richard III, Ronner, Reluss, and Reneeka, who were raised alongside Betty's other daughter, Katrina. Williams and Johnson divorced in 1973.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: In 1979, he met Oracene "Brandy" Price, who had three daughters from a previous relationship. They married in 1980 and had two daughters, Venus (born June 17, 1980) and Serena (born September 26, 1981). The family resided in Compton, California. Richard and Oracene divorced in 2002.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: Richard then met grocery store owner Lakeisha Juanita Graham, and they married in 2010. They have a son. They divorced in 2017.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: In July 2016, Williams suffered a stroke. At the time his then-wife, Lakeisha Williams, stated that his condition was stable. In 2022, Williams was reported to have had two strokes.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: A biographical film, "King Richard", starring Will Smith as Richard Williams, was released on November 19, 2021, in theaters by Warner Bros. Pictures and streaming on HBO Max. The film was directed by Reinaldo Marcus Green and written by Zach Baylin. Venus and Serena served as executive producers.


title: Richard Williams (tennis coach)

text: Smith received critical acclaim for his performance and won numerous awards, including the 2022 Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama and the Screen Actor's Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role in a Motion Picture.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect is a cognitive bias whereby people with low ability, expertise, or experience regarding a certain type of task or area of knowledge tend to overestimate their ability or knowledge. Some researchers also include in their definition the opposite effect for high performers: their tendency to underestimate their skills.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect is usually measured by comparing self-assessment with objective performance. For example, the participants in a study may be asked to complete a quiz and then estimate how well they performed. This subjective assessment is then compared with how well they actually performed. This can happen either in relative or in absolute terms, i.e., in comparison with one's peer group as the percentage of peers outperformed or in comparison with objective standards as the number of questions answered correctly. The Dunning–Kruger effect appears in both cases, but is more pronounced in relative terms; the bottom quartile of performers tend to see themselves as being part of the top two quartiles.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The initial study was published by David Dunning and Justin Kruger in 1999. It focused on logical reasoning, grammar, and social skills. Since then, various other studies have been conducted across a wide range of tasks, including skills from fields such as business, politics, medicine, driving, aviation, spatial memory, examinations in school, and literacy.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect is usually explained in terms of metacognitive abilities. This approach is based on the idea that poor performers have not yet acquired the ability to distinguish between good and bad performances. They tend to overrate themselves because they do not see the qualitative difference between their performances and the performances of others. This has also been termed the "dual-burden account", since the lack of skill is paired with the ignorance of this lack. Some researchers include the metacognitive component as part of the definition of the Dunning–Kruger effect and not just as an explanation distinct from it.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Many debates surrounding the Dunning–Kruger effect and criticisms of it focus on the metacognitive explanation without denying the empirical findings. The statistical explanation interprets these findings as statistical artifacts. Some theorists hold that the way low and high performers are distributed makes assessing their skill level more difficult for low performers, thereby explaining their erroneous self-assessments independent of their metacognitive abilities. Another account sees the lack of incentives to give accurate self-assessments as the source of error.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect has been described as relevant for various practical matters, but disagreements exist about the magnitude of its influence. Inaccurate self-assessment can lead people to make bad decisions, such as choosing a career for which they are unfit or engaging in dangerous behavior. It may also inhibit the affected from addressing their shortcomings to improve themselves. In some cases, the associated overconfidence may have positive side effects, like increasing motivation and energy.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect is defined as the tendency of people with low ability in a specific area to give overly positive assessments of this ability. This is often understood as a cognitive bias, i.e. as a systematic tendency to engage in erroneous forms of thinking and judging. Biases are systematic in the sense that they occur consistently in different situations. They are tendencies since they concern certain inclinations or dispositions that may be observed in groups of people, but are not manifested in every performance. In the case of the Dunning–Kruger effect, this applies mainly to people with low skill in a specific area trying to evaluate their competence within this area. The systematic error concerns their tendency to greatly overestimate their competence or to see themselves as more skilled than they are.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Some researchers emphasize the metacognitive component in their definition. In this view, the Dunning–Kruger effect is the thesis that those who are incompetent in a given area tend to be ignorant of their incompetence, i.e. they lack the metacognitive ability to become aware of their incompetence. This definition lends itself to a simple explanation of the effect; incompetence often includes being unable to tell the difference between competence and incompetence, which is why it is difficult for the incompetent to recognize their incompetence. This is sometimes termed the "dual-burden" account since two burdens come paired: the lack of skill and the ignorance of this lack. But most definitions focus on the tendency to overestimate one's ability and see the relation to metacognition as a possible explanation independent of one's definition. This distinction is relevant since the metacognitive explanation is controversial and various criticisms of the Dunning–Kruger effect target this explanation, but not the effect itself when defined in the narrow sense.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect is usually defined specifically for the self-assessments of people with a low level of competence. Some definitions, though, do not restrict it to the bias of people with low skill, and instead see it as pertaining to false self-evaluations on different skill levels. So it is sometimes claimed to include the reverse effect for people with high skill. On this view, the Dunning–Kruger effect also concerns the tendency of highly skilled people to underestimate their abilities relative to the abilities of others. Arguably, the source of this error is not the self-assessment of one's skills, but an overly positive assessment of the skills of others. This phenomenon has been categorized as a form of the false-consensus effect.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The most common approach to measuring the Dunning–Kruger effect is to compare self-assessment with objective performance. The self-assessment is sometimes called "subjective ability" in contrast to the "objective ability" corresponding to the actual performance. The self-assessment may be done before or after the performance. If done afterward, it is important that the participants receive no independent clues during the performance as to how well they did. So, if the activity involves answering quiz questions, no feedback is given as to whether a given answer was correct. The measurement of the subjective and the objective abilities can be in absolute or relative terms. When done in absolute terms, self-assessment and performance are measured according to absolute standards, e.g. concerning how many quiz questions were answered correctly. When done in relative terms, the results are compared with a peer group. In this case, participants are asked to assess their performances in relation to the other participants, for example in the form of estimating the percentage of peers they outperformed. The Dunning–Kruger effect is present in both cases, but tends to be significantly more pronounced when done in relative terms. So people are usually more accurate when predicting their raw score than when assessing how well they did relative to their peer group.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The main point of interest for researchers is usually the correlation between subjective and objective ability. To provide a simplified form of analysis of the measurements, objective performances are often divided into four groups, starting from the bottom quartile of low performers to the top quartile of high performers. The strongest effect is seen for the participants in the bottom quartile, who tend to see themselves as being part of the top two quartiles when measured in relative terms. Some researchers focus their analysis on the difference between the two abilities, i.e. on subjective ability minus objective ability, to highlight the negative correlation.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The Dunning–Kruger effect has been studied across a wide range of tasks. The initial study focused on logical reasoning, grammar skills, and social abilities, such as emotional intelligence and judging which jokes are funny. While many studies are conducted in laboratories, others take place in real-world settings. The latter include assessing the knowledge hunters have of firearms and safety or laboratory technicians' knowledge of medical lab procedures. More recent studies have also engaged in large-scale attempts to collect the relevant data online. Various studies focus on students—for example, to self-assess their performance just after completing an exam. In some cases, these studies gather and compare data from many different countries. Other fields of research include business, politics, medicine, driving skills, aviation, spatial memory, literacy, debating skills, and chess.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: David Dunning and Justin Kruger published the initial study in 1999 under the title "Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One's Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments". It examines the performance and self-assessment of undergraduate students of introductory courses in psychology in the fields of inductive, deductive, and abductive logical reasoning, English grammar, and personal sense of humor. Across four studies, the research indicates that the participants who scored in the bottom quartile overestimated their test performance and their abilities; despite test scores that placed them in the 12th percentile, the participants estimated they ranked in the 62nd percentile. It proposes the metacognitive explanation of the observed tendencies and points out that training in a task, such as solving a logic puzzle, increases people's ability to accurately evaluate how good they are at it. It does not yet contain the term "Dunning–Kruger effect", which was introduced later. Dunning was inspired to engage in this research after reading a newspaper report about incompetent bank robbers and set up a research program soon afterward together with Kruger, who was his graduate student at the time.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Dunning, Kruger, and various other researchers published many subsequent studies. In the 2003 paper "Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence", the relation between incorrect self-assessment of competence and the person's ignorance of a given activity's standards of performance is discussed. The 2003 study "How Chronic Self-Views Influence (and Potentially Mislead) Estimates of Performance" examines how a person's self-view causes inaccurate self-assessments of their abilities and why such misperceptions are maintained. The 2004 study "Mind-Reading and Metacognition: Narcissism, not Actual Competence, Predicts Self-estimated Ability" extends the research to test subjects' emotional sensitivity to other people and their own perceptions of them. In the 2005 paper "Self-insight: Roadblocks and Detours on the Path to Knowing Thyself", Dunning calls the Dunning–Kruger effect "the anosognosia of everyday life", referring to a neurological condition in which disabled persons either deny or seem unaware of their disability. He writes: "If you're incompetent, you can't know you're incompetent ... The skills you need to produce a right answer are exactly the skills you need to recognize what a right answer is."


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: The 2006 study "Skilled or Unskilled, but Still Unaware of It: How Perceptions of Difficulty Drive Miscalibration in Relative Comparisons" tries to show that it is not true of all activities that poor performers give more inaccurate self-assessments than strong performers. The study investigates 13 different tasks and concludes that the Dunning–Kruger effect obtains only in tasks that feel easy. Nonetheless, the 2008 study "Why the Unskilled are Unaware: Further Explorations of (Absent) Self-insight Among the Incompetent" applies the research to many additional fields and confirms that the Dunning–Kruger effect is seen in a great variety of tasks. In his 2011 article "The Dunning–Kruger Effect: On Being Ignorant of One's Own Ignorance", Dunning summarizes many of the earlier studies and reasserts the metacognitive explanation of these findings. As he writes, "[i]n short, those who are incompetent, for lack of a better term, should have little insight into their incompetence—an assertion that has come to be known as the Dunning–Kruger effect". In 2014, Dunning and Helzer wrote that the Dunning–Kruger effect "suggests that poor performers are not in a position to recognize the shortcomings in their performance" but added that self-assessment can be improved by becoming a better performer. A 2022 study found, consistent with the Dunning–Kruger effect, that people who reject the scientific consensus on issues think they know the most about them but actually know the least. The study assessed this on climate change, genetically modified organisms, vaccines, nuclear power, homeopathy, evolution, the Big Bang theory, and COVID-19.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Various explanations have been proposed to account for the Dunning–Kruger effect. The initial and most common account is based on metacognitive abilities. It rests on the assumption that part of acquiring a skill consists in learning to distinguish between good and bad performances of this skill. Since people with low skill have not yet acquired this discriminatory ability, they are unable to properly assess their performance. This leads them to believe that they are better than they are because they do not see the qualitative difference between their performances and the performances by others. So they lack the metacognitive ability to recognize their incompetence. This account has also been called the "dual-burden account" or the "double-burden of incompetence" since the burden of regular incompetence is paired with the burden of meta-cognitive incompetence. It is usually combined with the thesis that the relevant meta-cognitive abilities are acquired as one's skill level increases. But the meta-cognitive lack may also hinder some people from becoming better by hiding their flaws from them. This can then be used to explain how self-confidence is sometimes higher for unskilled people than for people with an average skill: only the latter are aware of their flaws. Some attempts have been made to measure metacognitive abilities directly to confirm this hypothesis. The findings suggest that a reduced metacognitive sensitivity exists among poor performers, but it is not clear that its extent is sufficient to explain the Dunning–Kruger effect. An indirect argument for the metacognitive account is based on the observation that training people in logical reasoning helps them make more accurate self-assessments.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Not everyone agrees with the assumptions on which the metacognitive account is based. Many criticisms of the Dunning–Kruger effect have the metacognitive account as their main focus, but agree with the empirical findings themselves. This line of argument usually proceeds by providing an alternative approach that promises a better explanation of the observed tendencies. Some explanations focus only on one specific factor, while others see a combination of various factors as the source. One such account is based on the idea that both low and high performers have in general the same metacognitive ability to assess their skill level. But given the assumption that the skill levels of many low performers are very close to each other, i.e., that "many people [are] piled up at the bottom rungs of skill level", they find themselves in a more difficult position to assess their skills in relation to their peers. So, the reason for the increased tendency to give false self-assessments is not lack of metacognitive ability, but a more challenging situation in which this ability is applied. Thus, the increased error can be explained without a dual-burden account. One criticism of this approach is directed against the assumption that this type of distribution of skill levels can always be used as an explanation. While it can be found in various fields where the Dunning–Kruger effect has been researched, it is not present in all of them. Another criticism rests on the fact that this account can explain the Dunning–Kruger effect only when the self-assessment is measured relative to one's peer group, not when measured relative to absolute standards.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Another account, sometimes given by theorists with an economic background, focuses on the fact that participants in the corresponding studies usually lack incentive to give accurate self-assessments. In such cases, intellectual laziness or a desire to look good to the experimenter may motivate participants to give overly positive self-assessments. For this reason, some studies were conducted with additional incentives to be accurate. One study, for example, gave participants a monetary reward based on how accurate their self-assessments were. These studies failed to show any significant increase in accuracy for the incentive group in contrast to the control group.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: A different approach, further removed from psychological explanations, sees the Dunning–Kruger effect as mainly a statistical artifact. It is based on the idea that the statistical effect known as regression toward the mean accounts for the empirical findings. In the case of the quality of performances, this effect rests on the idea that the quality of a given performance depends not just on the agent's skill level, but also on the good or bad luck involved on an occasion. So, even if participants with average skill give an accurate self-assessment of their skill, their performance may be unlucky on that occasion, putting them in the category of low performers who overestimated their skill. According to this approach, the randomness of luck explains the discrepancy between self-assessed ability and objective performance, especially in extreme cases.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Most researchers acknowledge that regression toward the mean is a relevant statistical effect that must be taken into account when interpreting the empirical findings. This can be achieved by various methods. But such adjustments do not eliminate the Dunning–Kruger effect, which is why the view that regression toward the mean is sufficient to explain it is usually rejected. However, it has been suggested that regression toward the mean in combination with other cognitive biases, like the better-than-average effect, can almost completely explain the empirical findings. This type of explanation is sometimes called "noise plus bias". According to the better-than-average effect, people have a general tendency to rate their abilities, attributes, and personality traits as better than average. For example, the average IQ is 100, but people on average think their IQ is 115. The better-than-average effect differs from the Dunning–Kruger effect since it does not track how this overly positive outlook relates to the skill of the people assessing themselves, while the Dunning–Kruger effect mainly focuses on how this type of misjudgment happens for poor performers. When the better-than-average effect is paired with regression toward the mean, it can explain both that unskilled people tend to greatly overestimate their competence and that the reverse effect for highly skilled people is much less pronounced. By choosing the right variables for the randomness due to luck and a positive offset to account for the better-than-average effect, it is possible to simulate experiments that show almost the same correlation between self-assessed ability. This means that the Dunning–Kruger effect may still have a role to play, if only a minor one.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Opponents of this approach have argued that this explanation can account for the Dunning–Kruger effect only when assessing one's ability relative to one's peer group, not when the self-assessment is relative to an objective standard. But even proponents of this explanation agree that this does not explain the empirical findings in full. Moreover, questions have been raised about whether the conditions under which the Dunning-Kruger effect is assessed meet the criteria for a regression to the mean explanation; in short, regression to the mean occurs under conditions of repeated assessment, which is not a feature of a Dunning-Kruger effect experiment. Another statistical-artifact-based challenge to the Dunning-Kruger effect is the demonstration that a form of the effect can emerge when the errors of the self-assessment are randomly created. But the feature of the Dunning-Kruger effect that is not present in analyses of random data is the finding that the magnitude of the errors of self-assessment is larger for those with a low score on the performance assessment than for high scorers on that assessment.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Various claims have been made about the Dunning–Kruger effect's practical significance or why it matters. They often focus on how it causes the affected people to make decisions that lead to dire consequences for them or others. This is especially relevant for decisions that have long-term effects. For example, it can lead poor performers into careers for which they are unfit. High performers underestimating their skills, though, may forego viable career opportunities matching their skills in favor of less promising ones that are below their skill level. In other cases, the wrong decisions can also have severe short-term effects, as when overconfidence leads pilots to operate a new aircraft for which they lack adequate training or to engage in flight maneuvers that exceed their proficiency. Emergency medicine is another area where the correct assessment of one's skills and the risks of treatment is of central importance. The tendencies of physicians in training to be overconfident must be considered to ensure the appropriate degree of supervision and feedback. The Dunning–Kruger effect can also have negative implications for the agent in various economic activities, in which the price of a good, such as a used car, is often lowered by the buyers' uncertainty about its quality. An overconfident agent unaware of their lack of knowledge may be willing to pay a much higher price because they are unaware of all the potential flaws and risks relevant to the price.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Another implication concerns fields in which self-assessments play an essential role in evaluating skills. They are commonly used, for example, in vocational counseling or to estimate the information literacy skills of students and professionals. The Dunning–Kruger effect indicates that such self-assessments often do not correspond to the underlying skills, thereby rendering them unreliable as a method for gathering this type of data. Independent of the field of the skill in question, the metacognitive ignorance often associated with the Dunning–Kruger effect may inhibit low performers from improving themselves. Since they are unaware of many of their flaws, they may have little motivation to address and overcome them.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: Not all accounts of the Dunning–Kruger effect focus on its negative sides. Some also concentrate on its positive side, e.g., ignorance can sometimes be bliss. In this sense, optimism can lead people to experience their situation more positively, and overconfidence may help them achieve even unrealistic goals. To distinguish the negative from the positive sides, two important phases have been suggested to be relevant for realizing a goal: preparatory planning and the execution of the plan. Overconfidence may be beneficial in the execution phase by increasing motivation and energy, but it can be detrimental in the planning phase since the agent may ignore bad odds, take unnecessary risks, or fail to prepare for contingencies. For example, being overconfident may be advantageous for a general on the day of battle because of the additional inspiration passed on to his troops, but disadvantageous in the weeks before by ignoring the need for reserve troops or protective gear.


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: In 2000, Kruger and Dunning were awarded a satiric Ig Nobel Prize in recognition of the scientific work recorded in "their modest report".


title: Dunning–Kruger effect

text: "The Dunning–Kruger Song" is part of "The Incompetence Opera", a mini-opera that premiered at the Ig Nobel Prize ceremony in 2017. The mini-opera is billed as "a musical encounter with the Peter principle and the Dunning–Kruger Effect".


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse is a 2018 American computer-animated superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Miles Morales / Spider-Man, produced by Columbia Pictures and Sony Pictures Animation in association with Marvel Entertainment. Distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing, it is the first animated film in the "Spider-Man" franchise. Directed by Bob Persichetti, Peter Ramsey, and Rodney Rothman (in Persichetti and Rothman's feature directorial debuts) from a screenplay by Phil Lord and Rothman, it stars Shameik Moore as Morales, alongside the voices of Jake Johnson, Hailee Steinfeld, Mahershala Ali, Brian Tyree Henry, Lily Tomlin, Luna Lauren Vélez, John Mulaney, Kimiko Glenn, Nicolas Cage, and Liev Schreiber. The film's story follows Miles Morales as he becomes the new Spider-Man and joins other Spider-People from various parallel universes to save his universe from Kingpin.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Plans for an animated Spider-Man film by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller were leaked in 2014 and announced in April 2015. Persichetti, Ramsey and Rothman joined over the next two years, with Moore and Schreiber cast in April 2017. Lord and Miller wanted the film to have a unique style, combining computer animation with traditional hand-drawn comic book techniques inspired by the work of Miles Morales co-creator Sara Pichelli. The film required up to 140 animators, the largest crew used by Sony Pictures Animation on a feature film. The film is dedicated to the memories of the creators of Spider-Man, Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, who both died in 2018.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" premiered at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles on December 1, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 14, in Dolby Cinema, RealD 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX formats. The film grossed $375.5 million worldwide against a $90 million budget. It received widespread acclaim from critics for its animation, characters, story, voice acting, and humor. The film won Best Animated Feature at the 91st Academy Awards—being the first non-Disney/Pixar film to win the award since "Rango" (2011), as well as the first non-Disney/Pixar film since "Happy Feet" (2006) to win when a Disney/Pixar film was also in contention—and was similarly successful at the 76th Golden Globe Awards, the 72nd British Academy Film Awards, and the 46th Annie Awards. Two sequels, "" and "", are set to be released in June 2023 and March 2024, respectively. A spin-off film is also in development.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: New York City teenager Miles Morales struggles to live up to the expectations of his father, police officer Jefferson Davis, who sees Spider-Man as a menace. Miles adjusts to prep school, and visits his uncle Aaron Davis, who takes him to an abandoned subway station to paint graffiti. Miles is bitten by a radioactive spider and gains spider-like abilities similar to Spider-Man.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Returning to the station, Miles discovers a collider built by Wilson Fisk, who hopes to access parallel universes to bring back his late wife and son, whose deaths he blames on Spider-Man. Miles watches as Spider-Man attempts to disable the collider while fighting Wilson's henchmen, Green Goblin and the Prowler. Spider-Man saves Miles, but Green Goblin shoves Spider-Man into the collider, causing an explosion that kills Goblin and severely wounds Spider-Man. Spider-Man gives Miles a USB flash drive designed to disable the collider, warning that the machine could destroy the city if reactivated. After watching in horror as Wilson kills Spider-Man, Miles flees with Prowler in pursuit, eventually getting away.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: As the city mourns Spider-Man's death, Miles tries to honor his legacy and become the new Spider-Man. While trying out his newfound abilities, he inadvertently damages the drive. At Spider-Man's grave, Miles meets Peter B. Parker, an older and worn-down version of Spider-Man from another dimension. Upon meeting him, Miles discovers his ability to emit bio-electric bursts called "venom-blasts". Peter reluctantly agrees to train Miles in exchange for help stealing data to create a new drive. They infiltrate Wilson's research facility, and Miles discovers he has the power to turn invisible. They are confronted by mad scientist Olivia Octavius, who discovers that Peter will die from cellular decay if he remains in their dimension.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Chased through the laboratory and surrounding forest by Octavius, Miles and Peter are saved by Gwen Stacy, a Spider-Woman from another dimension. They then visit Peter's aunt, May Parker, who is sheltering more Spider-people from other dimensions – Spider-Man Noir, Peni Parker, and Spider-Ham – who are also deteriorating. Miles offers to disable the collider so the others can return home, but after questioning and testing him, they tell him that he lacks experience. Distraught, Miles retreats to Aaron's home, where he discovers Aaron is the Prowler. Miles returns to May's house, where Peni has completed the new drive; he is followed by Wilson, Prowler, Octavius, Scorpion, and Tombstone. In the ensuing brawl, Miles reveals his identity to Aaron just as Aaron corners him. Unwilling to kill his own nephew, Aaron spares Miles, but is fatally shot by Wilson. Miles flees with Aaron, who tells him to keep going before dying. Jefferson arrives on the scene and Miles escapes, leading Jefferson to mistake Spider-Man as Aaron's murderer.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The heroes regroup with a distraught Miles at his dorm room. Peter restrains Miles to ensure his safety and leaves with the others, choosing to sacrifice himself by staying behind and deactivating the collider. Jefferson arrives outside Miles' door and, assuming Miles does not want to speak to him, apologizes for his mistakes and inspires Miles. Miles then manages to control his powers, escapes his restraints, and creates his own Spider-Man suit with May's help. He joins the heroes, defeating Wilson's enforcers and using the new drive to send them home. Wilson fights Miles, attracting the attention of Jefferson, who realizes that Spider-Man isn't the menace he saw him as. Jefferson encourages Miles, who subdues Wilson with his venom-blast and throws him at the kill switch, destroying the collider.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Wilson and his henchmen are arrested for their crimes and Jefferson recognizes the new Spider-Man as a hero while receiving evidence of Wilson's murders of Peter and Aaron. Miles embraces the responsibilities of his new life, while the heroes return to their lives in their own dimensions. Later, Gwen finds a way to contact Miles from her own dimension.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: In another dimension, Miguel O'Hara travels to the universe of the 1967 Spider-Man animated series and argues with its Spider-Man.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Additional voices for the film include: Lake Bell as Vanessa Fisk, Kingpin’s wife, Jorma Taccone as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin, a genetically enhanced mercenary working for Kingpin, Marvin "Krondon" Jones III as Tombstone, Kingpin’s silent and heavily armed bodyguard, Joaquín Cosío as Scorpion, a Mexican cyborg with prosthetic legs and a tail, and Post Malone (who contributed to the ) as a bystander in Brooklyn. An archival recording of Cliff Robertson from "Spider-Man 2" was used for a flashback scene involving the character Ben Parker. Spider-Man co-creator Stan Lee appears in a posthumous cameo, as a character named Stan who sells a Spider-Man costume to Morales. Lord and Miller said it was important to give Lee a bigger moment in the film rather than just a passing cameo, because he was "so integral to the spirit of this movie," and the role was "extra meaningful" following Lee's death in November 2018. Lee's character also has several brief "Easter egg" cameos throughout the film, such as when he walks over Miles and Peter B. when they are lying on the streets of New York City. A young Matt Murdock from Gwen's dimension appears in an "Easter egg" cameo during Morales' final train fight scene as an alternate universe adopted son of Kingpin.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Cameos during the film's post-credits include Oscar Isaac as Miguel O'Hara / Spider-Man 2099, an alternative version of Spider-Man from the Marvel 2099 imprint, Greta Lee as O'Hara's AI assistant Lyla (respectively credited as "Interesting Person #1" and "Interesting Person #2"), and Jorma Taccone as the Peter Parker / Spider-Man from the 1967 TV series (replacing Paul Soles, with the character being credited as "Last Dude"). Donald Glover appears on a background TV screen, which is displaying a scene from the episode "Anthropology 101" of "Community" in which Glover's character, Troy Barnes, wears Spider-Man pajamas. This scene, a reference to an unsuccessful Twitter campaign suggesting Glover be cast in the lead role of "The Amazing Spider-Man", was cited by Miles Morales' creator, Brian Michael Bendis, as influencing the design and portrayal of the character. Glover had previously voiced a version of Miles Morales in the "Ultimate Spider-Man" animated series, and played Aaron Davis in "".


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Miles Morales's best friend and roommate Ganke Lee appears. The character originally had a bigger role, but was rewritten due to "" having the similar character Ned Leeds. Pixar animator Peter Sohn was cast as Ganke before the character's dialogue was cut from the final film; the filmmakers have since said that Ganke will speak in later films.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Following the November 2014 hacking of Sony's computers, emails between then-Sony Pictures Entertainment co-chairman Amy Pascal and president Doug Belgrad were released, saying that Sony was planning to "rejuvenate" the "Spider-Man" franchise by developing an animated comedy film with Phil Lord and Christopher Miller. During her time at Sony's co-chairman, Pascal approached Lord and Miller about making an animated Spider-Man movie, to which Lord and Miller agreed with the condition that they could adapt Dan Slott's 2014 "Spider-Verse" comic book storyline and star Miles Morales as the protagonist. Sony executives were set to talk about the project further in a discussion regarding several "Spider-Man" spin-off films at a summit in January 2015. At the 2015 CinemaCon in April, Sony Pictures chairman Tom Rothman announced that the animated Spider-Man film had a July 20, 2018 release date, and would be produced by Lord and Miller, Avi Arad, Matt Tolmach, and Pascal, with Lord and Miller also writing a treatment for the film. Rothman said that it would "co-exist" with the live-action Spider-Man films; though Sony soon stated that the film would "exist independently of the projects in the live-action Spider-Man universe," as it is set in an alternate universe from those films, without the version of Spider-Man as seen in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: That December, Sony moved the film's release date to December 21, 2018. By June 2016, Lord had written a script for the film, and the studio chose Bob Persichetti to direct. Miller said the film would feel different from previous Spider-Man films, and would "stand on its own as a unique film-going experience." It was also rumored to focus on the Miles Morales version of Spider-Man, which Sony confirmed at a presentation for its upcoming animated films in January 2017. Peter Ramsey had joined the film as a co-director by that point. The next month, Alex Hirsch was named as a story contributor and Christina Steinberg replaced Tolmach as a producer; she previously collaborated with Ramsey on "Rise of the Guardians" (2012) while at DreamWorks Animation. In April 2017, the release date was pushed up one week from December 21, 2018, to December 14, 2018. Lord and Miller announced the film's full title in December and said that multiple Spider-Men would appear in the film. By then, Rodney Rothman, who had previously co-written the screenplay for Lord and Miller's "22 Jump Street" (2014), was added as a co-director.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The script is credited to Lord and Rothman from a story by Lord, making it the first film Lord had written without Miller. As six Spider-Man films had been made already, the team agreed they first needed to decide why this one needed to be made; their answer was to tell the story of Morales, who had yet to appear in a film. Brian Michael Bendis, co-creator of Miles Morales, consulted on the film adaptation. The first full cut of animatics and storyboards for the film was over two hours long, which is uncommon for animated films. The directors attributed this mostly to Lord and Miller, and their approach of adding as many elements to the film as they could at the outset, with the intention of seeing what it could "handle"; and then shaping the film from there. They said that the final runtime would be between 90 and 120 minutes, the standard length of an animated film. They added that a balance would have to be found between the expectations of an animated film that will have a large audience of children, and the requirements of the story. The directors felt the plot was similar to the live-action Spider-Man films, especially due to the large number of characters in the film. One year prior to its release, Miller and Rothman opted to rewrite the story as they had to "figure out how to reshape sequences we had already boarded and animated and fold them in with new stuff""." They also added that they had substantially rewritten the third act.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The film was originally set to feature a romance between Miles Morales and Spider-Gwen. While the idea was scrapped, Spider-Gwen was still featured prominently in the film, mostly due to the efforts of producer Christina Steinberg. By August 2018, the directors had considered what a potential post-credits scene for the film could be, given that audiences have come to expect them from Marvel films. At one point the writers wished to include a post-credits scene with cameos by all three live-action Spider-Man actors, Tobey Maguire, Andrew Garfield, and Tom Holland, but this was cancelled as Sony felt such a moment at the time would cause confusion and be too risky. Holland recalled the scene was intended to include him as a passerby at a train station who says, "Hey, kid!" to Miles.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Shameik Moore was cast as Miles Morales in April 2017, along with Liev Schreiber as the film's then-unspecified main villain. A month later, Mahershala Ali and Brian Tyree Henry joined the cast as Morales's uncle Aaron Davis and father Jefferson Davis, respectively. That December, Lord and Miller said that an adult Peter Parker / Spider-Man would appear in the film as a mentor to Morales. Maguire, who played Spider-Man in the Sam Raimi films, was initially considered to be cast as this version of Spider-Man, but the idea was dropped so as not to confuse the audience with the concept of the "Spider-Verse." Jake Johnson was ultimately cast in the role in April 2018. It was also announced that the characters Green Goblin, Kingpin, and Prowler would also appear, with their designs based on the Ultimate Marvel comic series.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: In June 2018, Sony confirmed further casting, including Schreiber playing Kingpin, Hailee Steinfeld as Spider-Gwen, Luna Lauren Vélez as Morales's mother Rio, and Lily Tomlin as Parker's Aunt May. A month later, Nicolas Cage (who was considered for the role of Green Goblin in the first "Spider-Man" film), John Mulaney and Kimiko Glenn were announced as the voices of Spider-Man Noir, Spider-Ham and Peni Parker, respectively. Chris Pine as the Peter Parker of Miles' universe and Oscar Isaac as Spider-Man 2099 were announced in November 2018. Pine was also involved in Ramsey's previous film, "Rise of the Guardians". Lord and Miller explained that the alternate Spider-Man characters were chosen based on the comics they had read, as well as research they conducted on Marvel Comics, with the intention of including actual characters from the comics who "were as diverse as possible."


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Daniel Pemberton was announced as the film's composer in July 2018. A full soundtrack album was released by Republic Records on December 14, the day of the film's release, and was curated to represent what a teen like Miles Morales would listen to. Artists on the soundtrack include Jaden Smith, Nicki Minaj, Lil Wayne, Post Malone, Ty Dolla $ign, Juice WRLD, Swae Lee, Ski Mask the Slump God, Vince Staples, Thutmose, and XXXTENTACION. A separate album containing Pemberton's score was released by Sony Classical Records on December 17. On December 20, Sony Pictures Animation announced an extended play album, "A Very Spidey Christmas", based on a throwaway joke at the beginning of the film and consisting of five Christmas songs performed by cast members Shameik Moore, Jake Johnson, and Chris Pine. The EP was released on digital platforms the next day.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Elliphant recorded the song "To the End" for the film, where it served as the introduction music for Spider-Woman. The song was released as a single in January 2019, but was not included on the film's official soundtrack album.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The film's animation was handled by Sony Pictures Imageworks, who had handled nearly all of Sony Pictures Animation's prior films, as well as visual effects for all prior "Spider-Man" films. According to Lord and Miller, they wanted the film to feel like the viewer had "walked inside a comic book," and were excited about telling the story in a way they believed the live action films could not. Persichetti concurred, feeling that animation was the best medium to honor the comics, allowing the production team to adapt 70-year-old comic art techniques for the film's visual language. It took around a year for two animators to create 10 seconds of footage that reflected the producers' vision; the animation work was created from there. During initial development, the directors worked with a single animator, Alberto Mielgo, to establish the film's look. Although Mielgo was let go by Sony before the movie had been significantly produced due to artistic differences, this number eventually grew to 60 animators during production. It became clear that they could not complete the film on time, so the crew was expanded further. The number had reached 142 animators by August 2018 and at one point to 177 animators, the largest animation crew that Sony Pictures Imageworks had ever used for a film. Animation work was completed in October 2018.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The CGI animation for the film was combined with "line work and painting and dots and all sorts of comic book techniques," to make it look like it was created by hand, which was described as "a living painting." This was achieved by artists taking rendered frames from the CGI animators and working on top of them in 2D, with the goal of making every frame of the film "look like a comic panel." Lord described this style of animation as "totally revolutionary," and explained that the design combines the in-house style of Sony Pictures Animation with the "flavor" of comic artists such as Sara Pichelli (who co-created Miles Morales) and Robbi Rodriguez. The film's tone and visual style also drew influence from Japanese anime and manga works such as Hayao Miyazaki films and "Akira" (1988).


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: To make the film feel more like a comic book, it was animated without motion blur, instead using an older technique called motion smearing, first seen in the 1942 "Looney Tunes" short "The Dover Boys". The frame rate varied between 24 images (animating on ones) and 12 images (animating on twos) per second, the latter case using the same image twice. The producers described the effect as making the animation "crunchy." Sometimes, the two frame rates would be used in the same scene, such as when Miles and Peter Parker swing through the forest; Miles was animated at 12 frames to show his inexperience while Peter was animated at 24 frame to give him smoother movement. To create depth of field, another technique was used: deliberately misaligned colors, as if the colors had been slightly misprinted as happens with ink printing in real comics. Other methods to make the film look more like a comic were halftones and Ben-Day dots to create colors, tones and gradients, crisscrossed lines to create texture and shadows, Kirby Krackle to create the illusion of energy, motion lines to show movement, and onomatopoeia, words on the image, to represent sounds and motion.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Rather than using animation principles like squash and stretch, the animators came up with substitute versions, "so that in texture and feel it felt different, but it still achieved the same goal — to either feel weight or anticipation or impact or things like that." Different comic styles were emulated throughout the film for the different characters, with Spider-Gwen's animation based on the designs in her comics, Spider-Man Noir having a black-and-white color scheme, Spider-Ham being designed as "cartoony" as possible, and Peni Parker being based on Japanese anime and manga such as "Sailor Moon". Former Disney animator Shiyoon Kim served as overall character designer, while Craig Kellman designed the exaggerated look for Spider-Ham. Justin K. Thompson served as production designer after having done so on the "Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs" films for Lord, Miller, and Sony Pictures Animation. Danny Dimian, who had worked on both the 2002 "Spider-Man" film and the first "Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs" film while at Imageworks, served as visual effects supervisor for the film. He compared the approach the company took with "Spider-Verse" to the 2000 film "Hollow Man". Animation co-director Patrick O'Keefe said that committing fully to each Spider's unique art style was like "making five movies." In-universe comic-books in the film were designed as a combination of the artwork of Steve Ditko and John Romita Jr. Chris Pine's Peter Parker's cover was designed by Keith Pollard while Erik Larsen designed the cover for Jake Johnson's Peter Parker, and Miles Morales's co-creator Sara Pichelli also contributed art for the film.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The directors all felt that the film would be one of the few that audiences actually "need" to watch in 3D, due to the immersive nature of the animated world created, and the way that the hand-drawn animation elements designed specifically for the film create a unique experience; Persichetti described the experience as a combination of the effects of an old-fashioned hand-drawn multiplane camera and a modern virtual reality environment. One scene in Aaron Davis's apartment includes an image of Donald Glover in the background, which references Glover's part in fan campaigns to see a non-white version of Spider-Man, as well as a scene from the "Community" episode "Anthropology 101" where Glover's character of Troy Barnes wakes up in Spider-Man pajamas. Glover also portrayed Aaron Davis in "" and voiced Miles in the "Ultimate Spider-Man" television series.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: A thirty-second sizzle reel from the film was shown at a Sony Pictures Animation presentation in January 2017, revealing that the film focuses on Miles Morales. Scott Mendelson at "Forbes" said the footage "looked incredible stylized and resembled a cross between an Alex Ross image and a psychedelic [comic] cover," but felt the most significant element of the presentation was the confirmation of Morales, meaning "2018 will offer another comic book superhero movie featuring a hero of color, during the same year as Marvel's "Black Panther"." A teaser trailer for the film debuted at the 2017 Comic Con Experience, and was then released online. Chris Cabin at Collider felt the trailer "looks much better than it ever needed to. The style and design that is on display ... is vibrant and immediately engaging on a visual level, showing a genuine sense of personality to the production." io9's Julie Muncy called the trailer's visual design "elegant" and "fresh," and highlighted the use of music by Vince Staples, which was also used for the "Black Panther" trailers.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The official trailer for the film was released online at the start of June 2018, and was praised by Chaim Gartenberg of "The Verge" for its "absolutely gorgeous" art style. He also highlighted the non-Peter Parker Spider-people appearing in the trailer, Miles Morales and Gwen Stacy. For Cartoon Brew, Amid Amidi praised the trailer for focusing on drama rather than action, and for seemingly targeting "a slightly hipper, more urban, and teen-oriented crowd." He felt that animated films were usually focused on pleasing "all-ages, all-audiences," which marked this film as a "radical change for United States feature animation." Dani Di Placido of "Forbes" praised the trailer for inspiring interest in the Spider-Man property after several different incarnations of the character had appeared in films. He said it achieved this by leaning into the comic storyline of the Spider-Verse and having multiple versions of the character in one film, and by its "beautifully rendered" visuals, that differentiated it from other major animated films. Placido said, "it's nice to see a movie just go nuts and embrace the weirdness of comic books and their eternally shapeshifting storylines." The trailer generated 164 thousand conversations across social media platforms within a day of its release, and in three days had been viewed 44 million times, making the film one of Sony's most viral, alongside "Sausage Party" (2016).


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Sony released a second trailer for the film in October 2018, ahead of a promotional panel at New York Comic Con where the first 35 minutes of the film were shown. Lord and Miller explained that they chose not to show clips from throughout the film because they would lack context for the audience, so instead aired an extended sequence for the presentation, even though it had some unfinished animation and music. At the time, Sony's film "Venom" was playing in theaters, featuring another extended clip from "Into the Spider-Verse" as a post-credits scene. The scene confirmed that the shared universe that "Venom" is part of is one of the universes connected within the "Spider-Verse" multiverse.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: In November 2018, Sony launched "Spider-Verse Web AR Experience", a mobile augmented reality experience created by 8th Wall and Trigger to run on Amazon Web Services. Inspired by the film, the AR experience allows users to include Spider-Man in photos they take of their environment. The film also received a $115 million promotional "boost" from various companies—one of the largest such campaigns for a Sony film—including the Ad Council, who included the film's characters in an anti-bullying campaign; McDonald's, with a unique Happy Meal TV spot created in the film's animation style, as well as a special "double height" Happy Meal box for Australian McDonald's locations, designed like a skyscraper that the characters can swing from; Synchrony Bank, as part of their "Save Like a Hero" campaign; Nike, who sold the Air Jordan shoes that Morales wears in the film; General Mills cereal; official toy lines from Hasbro; themed cruises with Genting Cruise Lines; a "comprehensive" social media-based campaign in China by Tencent QQ, a brand that can be seen in the film; and other technology partners eBay, Vodafone, Garmin, Adobe, and Wacom.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: On December 21, 2018, an unlockable costume based on the Spider-Man suit worn by the Peter Parker of Miles' universe was added to the PlayStation 4 video game "Marvel's Spider-Man" to promote the film. On December 29, Sony published the movie's screenplay online.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" was released by Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label on December 14, 2018. In April 2015, Sony had made its first official announcement that an animated Spider-Man film was in development, with a release date scheduled for July 20, 2018. It is the first animated Spider-Man feature film, and is independent of the timelines of other Spider-Man universe films. At the end of 2015, the release date was changed to December 21, 2018, and was moved up by one week two years later. Sony premiered the film at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles on December 1, 2018, and included tributes to Stan Lee and Steve Ditko.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" was released on digital download by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on February 26, 2019, with Blu-ray, Ultra HD Blu-ray, and DVD releases following on March 19. All releases were accompanied by a short film featuring Spider-Ham entitled "." An extended cut called the "Alt-Universe Cut", featuring 30 minutes of unreleased footage, including some scenes with Miles' roommate, Ganke, and a deleted cameo with Tom Cruise and James Cameron, was also featured on its home video release. "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" was also released in Blu-ray 3D format in several regions, outside of the United States and United Kingdom, on April 10, 2019.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: In the United Kingdom, it was aired on Sky Cinema Premiere in 2019. It drew viewers, making it the year's eighth most-watched film on pay TV channels.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" grossed $190.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $185.3 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $375.5 million, against a production budget of $90 million. On January 31, 2019, the film surpassed "Hotel Transylvania 2" to become Sony Pictures Animation's highest-grossing film domestically, unadjusted for inflation.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: In the United States and Canada, "Into the Spider-Verse" was released on the same weekend as "Mortal Engines" and "The Mule", and was projected to gross $30–35 million from 3,813 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $12.6 million on its first day, including $3.5 million from Thursday night previews, and went on to debut to $35.4 million, finishing first at the box office and marking the best ever December opening for an animated film. The film made $16.7 million in its second weekend, finishing fourth, behind newcomers "Aquaman", "Bumblebee" and "Mary Poppins Returns", and then $18.3 million in its third weekend, finishing fourth again. In its fifth weekend the film made $13 million, finishing in fourth for a third straight week. On March 1–3, the weekend following its Best Animated Picture win at the Academy Awards, the film was added to 1,661 theaters (for a total of 2,104) and made $2.1 million, marking a 138% increase from the week before.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" matches bold storytelling with striking animation for a purely enjoyable adventure with heart, humor, and plenty of superhero action." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 87 out of 100 based on reviews from 50 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, and those at PostTrak gave it a 90% overall positive score, an 80% "definite recommend," and a 5 star rating.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "B+" and called it "hilarious and ultimately even poignant," writing, "An eye-popping and irreverent animated experience from the marvelous comic minds who brought you "21 Jump Street"... "Into the Spider-Verse" is somehow both the nerdiest and most inviting superhero film in a long time; every single frame oozes with fan service." Oliver Jones of "The New York Observer" gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and wrote, "The greatest triumph and biggest surprise of the film is that it is an LSD freak-out on par with ""." Johnny Oleksinski of "The New York Post" gave the film a 3.5 rating out of 4, hailing it as "the best stand-alone film to feature the iconic character so far," and praising Miles' characterization as "more fleshed out than the usual Marvel heroes." Christy Lemire of "RogerEbert.com" praised the film's atmosphere and visual effects, adding that it "has a wonderfully trippy, dreamlike quality about it." Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote, "the freshest and most stimulating aspect of the film is the visual style, which unites the expected Marvel mix of 'universes' (it used to be assumed there was only one universe in creation) with animation that looks both computer-driven and hand-drawn, boasts futuristic as well as funky urban elements, moves the 'camera' a lot and brings together a melting pot of mostly amusing new characters."


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: William Bibbiani of "The Wrap" felt the film "represents some of the best superhero storytelling on the market," and that it "captures the sprawling interconnectivity of comic-book universes in a way that no other feature film has," calling it the best Spider-Man film since "Spider-Man 2". Justin Chang of the "Los Angeles Times" said that "What distinguishes "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" in the end is that it takes its mission seriously, even when it's being transparently silly." David Sims of "The Atlantic" said that the film "somehow, through sheer creative gumption, does something new in the superhero genre," particularly praising the use of comic book's "visual language" as well as the characters' dynamic, and felt that the "anarchic fingerprints" of producers Lord and Miller were "all over the movie." Katie Walsh of "Tribune News Service" said that the film is "unlike any other superhero or animated film that has come before," comparing the animation to "watching a comic book come to life," and feeling that the film "firmly exists in a post-"Deadpool" environment, where it seems the only fresh way into a century-old superhero is to skewer the tropes, make fun of the merchandising and acknowledge the cultural significance of it all in a cheeky and self-reflective manner." She added that Lord, who wrote the story and co-wrote the screenplay, was "the key to the balance of self-aware and sweet" present in the film.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Actor Tom Holland, who plays Parker in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, praised "Into the Spider-Verse" as "one of the coolest films [he has] ever seen," while Holland's MCU co-star Chris Pratt, who worked with Lord and Miller on "The Lego Movie" films, described it as an "emotionally moving, cutting edge, progressive, diverse, funny, meta, action-packed, silly, visually stunning masterpiece!" Comedian and actor Patton Oswalt, who worked with Lord and Miller on "22 Jump Street" and appeared on Marvel's "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D", called the film "brilliant," and continued, "This has been a non-stop year for me and I'm glad I'm ending it in such a cinematic high-note. Not only is it the best superhero film ever made, it's flat-out a game-changing MOVIE. Seeing it again tomorrow!" Kevin Smith reviewed the film on his podcast "Fatman Beyond", stating, "I always liked Spider-Man but this movie made me love Spider-Man on a Batman-type level," and continued, "It just goes to show you that any character in the right hands can be a transformative experience." Barry Jenkins, writer and director of the Academy Award-winning film "Moonlight" (which also starred Ali), praised the film, calling it "magnificent" and citing it as the best "Spider-Man" film, one of the best films of 2018, and the best tentpole film since "Edge of Tomorrow". Jenkins continued, saying, "I was stupefied. I mean just tremendous, tremendous work, so grounded and full of verve; visceral. Saw it on the biggest screen I could find, just a viscerally enthralling experience. I salute you." Rian Johnson, writer and director of "", described the film as "the Velvet Underground of superhero movies", believing it will be an influential film. James Gunn, writer and director of "Guardians of the Galaxy", has named "Into the Spider-Verse" his favorite superhero film. Marvel Studios president and MCU producer Kevin Feige said that he "loved it."


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: The film's success influenced other projects using a mixed 2D and CGI animation style. The animation techniques created for "Into the Spider-Verse" were notably reused for "The Mitchells vs. the Machines" (2021), another Sony Pictures Animation film that Lord and Miller co-produced, and similarly influenced the animation style for DreamWorks Animation's "The Bad Guys" and "" (both 2022). Directors Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah said "Spider-Verse" inspired them to create the hand-drawn style of visual effects for the live-action MCU series "Ms. Marvel" (2022). The film was similarly cited as an inspiration for the animation for the Marvel/Disney series "Marvel's Moon Girl and Devil Dinosaur". During a special lecture at Takarazuka University, anime director Yoshiyuki Tomino, best known for creating the famed "Gundam" anime series, expressed that it's necessary that people in the anime industry ought to surpass "Into the Spider-Verse" and other high-profile american animated features, while also commenting on the film's Best Animated Feature win at the Academy Awards as "At first glance, it looks like a live-action film, and it's very experimental in various places. For American film goers, it may be their first time watching an animated film that isn't expressly for kids. I won't appraise the film's quality, but on a technical level, I can see how much hard work the staff put into it"


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" won Best Animated Feature Film at the 76th Golden Globe Awards, and won the same award at the 24th Critics' Choice Awards and the 91st Academy Awards, among several other awards and nominations. It was the first non-Disney or Pixar film to win Best Animated Feature since "Rango" (2011), becoming the 6th non-Disney/Pixar film to win the award.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse" appeared on many critics' top ten lists. According to Metacritic it appeared in first place on 5 lists.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: In August 2018, the directors were still focused on completing the film but acknowledged that the introduction of the Spider-Verse in the film could create the potential for many different stories to be told, depending on the success of this film. By the end of November, Sony had greenlit a sequel and a spin-off from the current film still in development due to the "incredible buzz" surrounding it. Joaquim Dos Santos, Kemp Powers, and Justin K. Thompson are set to direct the sequel from a screenplay by David Callaham, Lord, and Miller, which will continue Miles Morales's story. In addition to Lord and Miller returning as producers and co-writers, the sequel will feature Takuya Yamashiro, the main character of the Japanese "Spider-Man" series, and Spider-Woman who will be voiced by Issa Rae. The film entered production by June 2020. Sony announced that the sequel would be released on April 8, 2022, but the release date was later delayed by six months to October 7, 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, then again to June 2023. In December 2021, Lord and Miller revealed that the film was being split into two parts after they had written down the story they wanted to tell for the sequel and realized that it was too much for a single film. Work on both parts took place simultaneously, with the second part, "Beyond the Spider-Verse" set to be released on March 29, 2024.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: "Spider-Women", a spin-off film focusing on three generations of female Spider-related characters, will include Spider-Gwen and feature Jessica Drew / Spider-Woman and Cindy Moon / Silk. The film has Bek Smith signed as screenwriter and Lauren Montgomery was reportedly in talks to direct.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: John Mulaney also expressed interest in a potential spin-off film starring Spider-Ham, suggesting its plot as a "Watergate-like story" along the lines of "The Post" or "All the President's Men" while focusing on his character's career as a reporter.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Following the release of "Into the Spider-Verse", the studio discussed the possibility of television series featuring the characters. Lord and Miller both expressed interest in seeing a series of shorts starring Spider-Ham, while Sony was announced to be developing animated spin-off TV series focusing on various characters.


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: By April 2019, Lord and Miller signed a five-year deal with Sony Pictures Television to create animated Marvel television series alongside Sony Pictures Animation, including a possible TV series based on "Into the Spider-Verse".


title: Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse

text: Discussing these series in August, Miller could not update where or when the series would be released but said there would be several live-action series and that they would each be "their own unique experience" while still being related to each other.


title: Tamil language

text: Tamil (; "" , ) is a Dravidian language natively spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia. Tamil is an official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the sovereign nations of Sri Lanka and Singapore, and the Indian territory of Puducherry. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, and the Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is also spoken by the Tamil diaspora found in many countries, including Malaysia, Myanmar, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and Mauritius. Tamil is also natively spoken by Sri Lankan Moors. One of 22 scheduled languages in the Constitution of India, Tamil was the first to be classified as a classical language of India.


title: Tamil language

text: Tamil is one of the longest-surviving classical languages of India. A. K. Ramanujan described it as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past". The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as "one of the great classical traditions and literatures of the world". Recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years. The earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from 300 BC until AD 300. It has the oldest extant literature among Dravidian languages. The earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and 'hero stones' date from around the 3rd century BC. About 60,000 of the approximately 100,000 inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India in India are in Tamil Nadu. Of them, most are in Tamil, with only about 5 percent in other languages. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka and on trade goods in Thailand and Egypt. The two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil.


title: Tamil language

text: In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named "Thambiran Vanakkam", thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published. The "Tamil Lexicon," published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, of which 353 were dailies.


title: Tamil language

text: "Tamil" belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family that, alongside Tamil proper, includes the languages of about 35 ethno-linguistic groups such as the Irula and Yerukula languages (see SIL Ethnologue).


title: Tamil language

text: The closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam; the two began diverging around the 9th century AD. Although many of the differences between Tamil and Malayalam demonstrate a pre-historic split of the western dialect, the process of separation into a distinct language, Malayalam, was not completed until sometime in the 13th or 14th century.


title: Tamil language

text: Tamil, like other Dravidian languages, ultimately descends from the Proto-Dravidian language, which was most likely spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the culture associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India.


title: Tamil language

text: Among Indian languages, Tamil has the most ancient non-Sanskritic Indian literature. Scholars categorise the attested history of the language into three periods: Old Tamil (600 BC–AD 700), Middle Tamil (700–1600) and Modern Tamil (1600–present). In November 2007, an excavation at Quseir-al-Qadim revealed Egyptian pottery dating back to first century BC with ancient Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. There are a number of apparent Tamil loanwords in Biblical Hebrew dating to before 500 BC, the oldest attestation of the language. John Guy states that Tamil was the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India.


title: Tamil language

text: In 2004, a number of skeletons were found buried in earthenware urns in Adichanallur. Some of these urns contained writing in Tamil Brahmi script, and some contained skeletons of Tamil origin.


title: Tamil language

text: Between 2017 and 2018, 5,820 artifacts have been found in Keezhadi. These sent to Beta Analytic in Miami, Florida for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating. One sample containing Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions was claimed to be dated to around 580 BC.


title: Tamil language

text: According to Hindu legend, Tamil or in personification form Tamil Thāi (Mother Tamil) was created by Lord Shiva. Murugan, revered as the Tamil God, along with sage Agastya, brought it to the people.


title: Tamil language

text: The earliest extant Tamil literary works and their commentaries celebrate the Pandiyan Kings for the organization of long-termed Tamil Sangams, which researched, developed and made amendments in Tamil language. Even though the name of the language which was developed by these Tamil Sangams is mentioned as Tamil, the period when the name "Tamil" came to be applied to the language is unclear, as is the precise etymology of the name. The earliest attested use of the name is found in Tholkappiyam, which is dated as early as late 2nd century BC. The Hathigumpha inscription, inscribed around a similar time period (150 BCE), by Kharavela, the Jain king of Kalinga, also refers to a "Tamira Samghatta" ("Tamil confederacy")


title: Tamil language

text: The Samavayanga Sutra dated to the 3rd century BC contains a reference to a Tamil script named 'Damili'.


title: Tamil language

text: Southworth suggests that the name comes from > "self-speak", or "our own speech". Kamil Zvelebil suggests an etymology of , with meaning "self" or "one's self", and "" having the connotation of "unfolding sound". Alternatively, he suggests a derivation of < < * < *, meaning in origin "the proper process (of speaking)". However, this is deemed unlikely by Southworth due to the contemporary use of the compound 'centamiḻ', which means refined speech in the earliest literature.


title: Tamil language

text: The Tamil Lexicon of University of Madras defines the word "Tamil" as "sweetness". S. V. Subramanian suggests the meaning "sweet sound", from "tam" — "sweet" and "il" — "sound".


title: Tamil language

text: Old Tamil is the period of the Tamil language spanning the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD. The earliest records in Old Tamil are short inscriptions from 300 BC to 700 AD. These inscriptions are written in a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil-Brahmi. The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the "Tolkāppiyam", an early work on Tamil grammar and poetics, whose oldest layers could be as old as the late 2nd century BC. Many literary works in Old Tamil have also survived. These include a corpus of 2,381 poems collectively known as Sangam literature. These poems are usually dated to between the 1st century BC and 5th century AD.


title: Tamil language

text: The evolution of Old Tamil into Middle Tamil, which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century, was characterised by a number of phonological and grammatical changes. In phonological terms, the most important shifts were the virtual disappearance of the aytam (ஃ), an old phoneme, the coalescence of the alveolar and dental nasals, and the transformation of the alveolar plosive into a rhotic. In grammar, the most important change was the emergence of the present tense. The present tense evolved out of the verb ' (), meaning "to be possible" or "to befall". In Old Tamil, this verb was used as an aspect marker to indicate that an action was micro-durative, non-sustained or non-lasting, usually in combination with a time marker such as ' (). In Middle Tamil, this usage evolved into a present tense marker – "" () – which combined the old aspect and time markers.


title: Tamil language

text: The Nannūl remains the standard normative grammar for modern literary Tamil, which therefore continues to be based on Middle Tamil of the 13th century rather than on Modern Tamil. Colloquial spoken Tamil, in contrast, shows a number of changes. The negative conjugation of verbs, for example, has fallen out of use in Modern Tamil – instead, negation is expressed either morphologically or syntactically. Modern spoken Tamil also shows a number of sound changes, in particular, a tendency to lower high vowels in initial and medial positions, and the disappearance of vowels between plosives and between a plosive and rhotic.


title: Tamil language

text: Contact with European languages affected written and spoken Tamil. Changes in written Tamil include the use of European-style punctuation and the use of consonant clusters that were not permitted in Middle Tamil. The syntax of written Tamil has also changed, with the introduction of new aspectual auxiliaries and more complex sentence structures, and with the emergence of a more rigid word order that resembles the syntactic argument structure of English. Simultaneously, a strong strain of linguistic purism emerged in the early 20th century, culminating in the Pure Tamil Movement which called for removal of all Sanskritic elements from Tamil. It received some support from Dravidian parties. This led to the replacement of a significant number of Sanskrit loanwords by Tamil equivalents, though many others remain.


title: Tamil language

text: Tamil is the primary language of the majority of the people residing in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, (in India) and in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka. The language is spoken among small minority groups in other states of India which include Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India and in certain regions of Sri Lanka such as Colombo and the hill country. Tamil or dialects of it were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration, literature and common usage until the 12th century AD. Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in southern Andhra Pradesh districts of Chittoor and Nellore until the 12th century AD. Tamil was used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as Kolar, Mysore, Mandya and Bengaluru.


title: Tamil language

text: There are currently sizeable Tamil-speaking populations descended from colonial-era migrants in Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Mauritius, South Africa, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, and Vietnam. Tamil is used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. A large community of Pakistani Tamils speakers exists in Karachi, Pakistan, which includes Tamil-speaking Hindus as well as Christians and Muslims – including some Tamil-speaking Muslim refugees from Sri Lanka. There are about 100 Tamil Hindu families in Madrasi Para colony in Karachi. They speak impeccable Tamil along with Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Many in Réunion, Guyana, Fiji, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago have Tamil origins, but only a small number speak the language. In Reunion where the Tamil language was forbidden to be learnt and used in public space by France it is now being relearnt by students and adults. Tamil is also spoken by migrants from Sri Lanka and India in Canada, the United States (especially New Jersey and New York City), the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Australia.


title: Tamil language

text: Tamil is the official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the 22 languages under schedule 8 of the constitution of India. It is one of the official languages of the union territories of Puducherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Tamil is also one of the official languages of Singapore. Tamil is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka, along with Sinhala. It was once given nominal official status in the Indian state of Haryana, purportedly as a rebuff to Punjab, though there was no attested Tamil-speaking population in the state, and was later replaced by Punjabi, in 2010. In Malaysia, 543 primary education government schools are available fully in Tamil as the medium of instruction. The establishment of Tamil-medium schools has been in process in Myanmar to provide education completely in Tamil language by the Tamils who settled there 200 years ago. Tamil language is available as a course in some local school boards and major universities in Canada and the month of January has been declared "Tamil Heritage Month" by the Parliament of Canada. Tamil enjoys a special status of protection under Article 6(b), Chapter 1 of the Constitution of South Africa and is taught as a subject in schools in KwaZulu-Natal province. Recently, it has been rolled out as a subject of study in schools in the French overseas department of Réunion.


title: Tamil language

text: In addition, with the creation in October 2004 of a legal status for classical languages by the Government of India and following a political campaign supported by several Tamil associations, Tamil became the first legally recognised Classical language of India. The recognition was announced by the contemporaneous President of India, Abdul Kalam, who was a Tamilian himself, in a joint sitting of both houses of the Indian Parliament on 6 June 2004.


title: Tamil language

text: The socio-linguistic situation of Tamil is characterised by diglossia: there are two separate registers varying by socioeconomic status, a high register and a low one. Tamil dialects are primarily differentiated from each other by the fact that they have undergone different phonological changes and sound shifts in evolving from Old Tamil. For example, the word for "here"—' in "Centamil" (the classic variety)—has evolved into ' in the Kongu dialect of Coimbatore, "inga" in the dialect of Thanjavur, and ' in some dialects of Sri Lanka. Old Tamil's ' (where ' means place) is the source of ' in the dialect of Tirunelveli, Old Tamil ' is the source of ' in the dialect of Madurai, and "" in some northern dialects. Even now, in the Coimbatore area, it is common to hear "" meaning "that place". Although Tamil dialects do not differ significantly in their vocabulary, there are a few exceptions. The dialects spoken in Sri Lanka retain many words and grammatical forms that are not in everyday use in India, and use many other words slightly differently. Tamil dialects include Central Tamil dialect, Kongu Tamil, Madras Bashai, Madurai Tamil, Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil in India; Batticaloa Tamil dialect, Jaffna Tamil dialect, Negombo Tamil dialect in Sri Lanka; and Malaysian Tamil in Malaysia. Sankethi dialect in Karnataka has been heavily influenced by Kannada.


title: Tamil language

text: The dialect of the district of Palakkad in Kerala has many Malayalam loanwords, has been influenced by Malayalam's syntax, and has a distinctive Malayalam accent. Similarly, Tamil spoken in Kanyakumari District has more unique words and phonetic style than Tamil spoken at other parts of Tamil Nadu. The words and phonetics are so different that a person from Kanyakumari district is easily identifiable by their spoken Tamil. Hebbar and Mandyam dialects, spoken by groups of Tamil Vaishnavites who migrated to Karnataka in the 11th century, retain many features of the "Vaishnava paribasai", a special form of Tamil developed in the 9th and 10th centuries that reflect Vaishnavite religious and spiritual values. Several castes have their own sociolects which most members of that caste traditionally used regardless of where they come from. It is often possible to identify a person's caste by their speech. Tamil in Sri Lanka incorporates loan words from Portuguese, Dutch, and English.


title: Tamil language

text: In addition to its dialects, Tamil exhibits different forms: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language ('), a modern literary and formal style ('), and a modern colloquial form ('). These styles shade into each other, forming a stylistic continuum. For example, it is possible to write ' with a vocabulary drawn from ', or to use forms associated with one of the other variants while speaking '.


title: Tamil language

text: In modern times, ' is generally used in formal writing and speech. For instance, it is the language of textbooks, of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate. In recent times, however, ' has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of '. Most contemporary cinema, theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio, for example, is in ', and many politicians use it to bring themselves closer to their audience. The increasing use of ' in modern times has led to the emergence of unofficial ‘standard' spoken dialects. In India, the ‘standard' ', rather than on any one dialect, but has been significantly influenced by the dialects of Thanjavur and Madurai. In Sri Lanka, the standard is based on the dialect of Jaffna.


title: Tamil language

text: After Tamil Brahmi fell out of use, Tamil was written using a script called amongst others such as Grantha and Pallava. The current Tamil script consists of 12 vowels, 18 consonants and one special character, the "āytam". The vowels and consonants combine to form 216 compound characters, giving a total of 247 characters (12 + 18 + 1 + (12 x 18)). All consonants have an inherent vowel "a", as with other Indic scripts. This inherent vowel is removed by adding a tittle called a "", to the consonantal sign. For example, is "ṉa" (with the inherent "a") and is "ṉ" (without a vowel). Many Indic scripts have a similar sign, generically called virama, but the Tamil script is somewhat different in that it nearly always uses a visible "puḷḷi" to indicate a 'dead consonant' (a consonant without a vowel). In other Indic scripts, it is generally preferred to use a ligature or a half form to write a syllable or a cluster containing a dead consonant, although writing it with a visible virama is also possible. The Tamil script does not differentiate voiced and unvoiced plosives. Instead, plosives are articulated with voice depending on their position in a word, in accordance with the rules of Tamil phonology.


title: Tamil language

text: In addition to the standard characters, six characters taken from the Grantha script, which was used in the Tamil region to write Sanskrit, are sometimes used to represent sounds not native to Tamil, that is, words adopted from Sanskrit, Prakrit, and other languages. The traditional system prescribed by classical grammars for writing loan-words, which involves respelling them in accordance with Tamil phonology, remains, but is not always consistently applied. ISO 15919 is an international standard for the transliteration of Tamil and other Indic scripts into Latin characters. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic consonants and vowels to Latin script, and thus the alphabets of various languages, including English.


title: Tamil language

text: Apart from the usual numerals, Tamil has numerals for 10, 100 and 1000. Symbols for day, month, year, debit, credit, as above, rupee, and numeral are present as well. Tamil also uses several historical fractional signs.


title: Tamil language

text: Tamil employs agglutinative grammar, where suffixes are used to mark noun class, number, and case, verb tense and other grammatical categories. Tamil's standard metalinguistic terminology and scholarly vocabulary is itself Tamil, as opposed to the Sanskrit that is standard for most Indo-Aryan languages.


title: Tamil language

text: Much of Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest known grammar book for Tamil, the "Tolkāppiyam". Modern Tamil writing is largely based on the 13th-century grammar ' which restated and clarified the rules of the "Tolkāppiyam", with some modifications. Traditional Tamil grammar consists of five parts, namely ', ', ', ', '. Of these, the last two are mostly applied in poetry.