title: T-90

text: The first 42 complete Indian tanks were delivered in 2001 and were designated T-90S (Object 188S), still equipped with the older cast turrets of the early series (this exhausted the remaining stocks of cast turrets warehoused at Nizhny Tagil) and powered by the V-84 engine making 840 hp (618 kW). In 2002, 82 vehicles were delivered, now equipped with the new welded turrets and the V-92S2 engine, generating 1,000 hp (735 kW). The initial contract stipulated the following batch of 186 tanks, now officially called Bhishma, to be completed in India from Russian-supplied kits, and then gradually replaced with domestically manufactured parts. Delays in domestic production compelled the Indian authorities to place an additional order for 127 complete vehicles from Uralvagonzavod.


title: T-90

text: In 2005 the Russian army resumed delivery of the T-90, requesting the "original" specification for the vehicle with a cast turret. But with the new order numbering a paltry 14 tanks, and the large capital investment required to set up production of new cast turrets, the Russian Ministry of Defence agreed on a new configuration very close to the Indian T-90S, which was expeditiously accepted into service without any trials as the Object 188A1 or T-90A. 2005 saw delivery of 18 new tanks – enough to equip approximately five tank platoons. These new Russian tanks were powered by the V-92S2 engine, carried a T01-K05 "Buran-M" gunner's sight (passive-active night-vision channel with an EPM-59G "Mirage-K" matrix and a maximum observation distance of 1,800 m) and were protected by the most recent Kontakt-5 reactive armor with 4S22 explosive tiles.


title: T-90

text: The years 2006–2007 saw the delivery of 31 T-90A tanks each, now fitted with entirely passive ESSA main gunner's sights supplied by Peleng in Belarus and using the 2nd-generation thermal camera Catherine-FC from Thales, and improved 4S23 ERA tiles. The joint venture established on the basis of JSC Volzhsky Optical and Mechanical Plant" (VOMZ) and Thales Optronics, produced Catherine-FC thermal imaging devices, which were further used to develop "ESSA", "PLISA" and "SOSNA-U" sighting systems produced for the Russian armoured vehicles, including T-72B3 tanks and export versions of T-90S (exported to India, Algeria and Azerbaijan). Since 2012, Russia was able to produce 3rd-generation Catherine-XP cameras based on QWIP matrix technology.


title: T-90

text: In 2012, the Russian-made commander combined sample supervisory-sighting system ""T01-K04DT/Agat-MDT"" was presented to the public at the International Forum Engineering Technologies 2012. According to Krasnogorsky Zavod plant, Agat-MDT has the ability to install (for further modernization) in the sight the newly developed domestic UPF format 640×512 by 15 microns, which makes possible in the future to extend the range of target identification at night to 3.5–4.0 km without modifications to the sight.


title: T-90

text: In 2016, the Krasnogorsk plant finished testing the "Irbis-K" night-vision sighting system for the T-80U and T-90, with first deliveries planned for 2017. Completion of the Irbis-K, the first Russian-produced mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) matrix thermal sight, addressed a disadvantage of Russian tanks relative to their Western counterparts. The Irbis-K can identify targets at ranges up to 3,240 meters during day and night.


title: T-90

text: The Russian-made thermal imaging device not only meant that Russian tanks would no longer need to be equipped with foreign parts, but it also meant that complete tank modernization was cheaper. The new tank gunner’s heat-vision sight Irbis-K and the commander’s combined sighting and observation system Agat-MDT can be supplied to T-90 upgraded version (T-90M), replacing ESSA system with Catherine-FC thermal imager from Thales.


title: T-90

text: In 2007, there were about 334 T-90 tanks of various types serving in the Russian Ground Forces' 5th Guards Tank Division, stationed in the Siberian Military District, and seven T-90 tanks assigned to the marines. Since 2008, the Russian army has received 62 tanks annually, suspending orders in 2011.


title: T-90

text: After the cancellation of the T-95 in 2010, Uralvagonzavod began the OKR Armata (Armament) design study. The study resulted in the Object 148 based on the T-95 (itself based on the Object 187). The Russian Army curtailed T-90 orders beginning in 2012 to prepare for the arrival of the new tank. In July 2021, Industry and Trade Minister Denis Manturov said the tank, designated the T-14 Armata, will enter serial production in 2022.


title: T-90

text: Deliveries of upgraded T-90M tanks started in April 2020 to the Guards Tank Army of the RF Western Military District. The T-90M ‘Proryv’ has received a principally new turret, the 2A46M-5 gun, and a more powerful engine. The Proryv is outfitted with a new multi-channel sighting system that allows employing weapons at any time of day or night and it can exchange data with other vehicles in real time. A new batch was delivered in March 2021. According to Ukrainian intelligence sources a slower manufacture of T-90s are occurring because of the effect of International sanctions since the start of the invasion of Ukraine. A new batch of T-90M tanks was delivered to Russian troops in May and August 2022, respectively.


title: T-90

text: An early variant of the export-oriented T-90S allegedly saw combat action during the 1999 Chechen invasion of Dagestan instead of being delivered to India. The tank's survivability against rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) is disputed. Gordon L. Rottman writes that T-90s were "frequently" knocked out by three or four hits from a RPG-7. He adds that Chechens found a way to compromise T-90s fitted with explosive reactive armor: they would fire an RPG-7 from close range (within 50m) to destroy the armor, and then re-attack the exposed point with two or more RPG hits, again from close range.


title: T-90

text: On the other hand, "Moscow Defense Brief" gives the example of one T-90 that remained in action despite being hit by seven RPGs. The journal concluded that with regular equipment, the upgraded T-90 seems to be the best protected Russian tank, especially with the implementation of Shtora-1 and Arena defensive systems.


title: T-90

text: In September 2020, a Russian T-90 was accidentally hit by an anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) during exercises held in Russia's Astrakhan region causing serious damage to the vehicle.


title: T-90

text: During the war in Donbas stage of the Russo-Ukrainian War in the summer of 2014, elements of the Russian 136th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade equipped with T-90A tanks conducting operations in Luhansk Oblast of Ukraine were identified in social media posts, and locations of their photographs georeferenced by open-source investigators.


title: T-90

text: Russia lost many T-90s during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. During this conflict, the T-90 faced thousands of anti-tank missiles, including modern "top attack" missiles such as the American-produced FGM-148 Javelin and the Anglo-Swedish NLAW, which have been known to be able to defeat these tanks. Russia developed a modern defense system called Arena, which is an active protection system (APS) developed for the purpose of protecting T-90 from destruction by anti-tank weapons, anti-tank guided missiles, and missiles with top attack warheads. But Arena has not appeared in the Ukraine war.


title: T-90

text: Russian forces attempted to counter these top-attack missiles by adding improvised steel grilles—sometimes referred to as "cope cages" due to skepticism from military analysts over their effectiveness—to the top of the turret. This improvised armour adds weight to the tank, increases its visual profile, and makes it more difficult for the crew to escape from the tank. Analysts have speculated that they may be potentially used as a countermeasure against RPG-7s fired from above during urban combat, loitering munitions, or against drone attacks, as a response to lessons learned from the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. The lack of uniformity of the makeshift cages made from different meshes and iron fences suggest that they are largely improvised by the tank crews, and are not standard issue.


title: T-90

text: On May 4, 2022 in Kharkiv Oblast, Ukraine, a T-90M "Proryv"-3 was destroyed in action, the first confirmed destroyed in the war. The tank, which appeared near Kharkiv on 25 April, was destroyed by soldiers of the 127th Territorial Defence Brigade. The Ministry of Defence of the United Kingdom, in its Defence Intelligence Update of 7 May, noted the tank's destruction: "T-90M tanks are currently in service amongst Russia's best-equipped units", and despite the T-90M's advanced features: "remain vulnerable if unsupported by other force elements." As of 20 December 2022, the open-source intelligence site, Oryx has visually confirmed the loss of 36 Russian T-90s (28 T-90A: 15 destroyed, 1 abandoned, 12 captured and 8 T-90M: 2 destroyed, 2 damaged, 2 abandoned, 2 captured). On September 18 in Kharkiv Oblast, Ukraine, a T-90M was captured - the first confirmed in the war. As of 4 December a second T-90M had been captured by Ukrainian army.


title: T-90

text: In early February 2016, Syrian Army forces began using T-90As in combat. A video was leaked on the internet which showed a T-90 survive a direct frontal turret hit by a TOW missile in Aleppo. The Kontakt-5 reactive armor discharged the TOW warhead before impact. Two Syrian Army operated T-90 were captured by HTS militias while ISIS fighters captured a third in November 2017. A rebel operated T-90 was recaptured by Syrian government forces while the second was reportedly destroyed in combat by a T-72. Another 5 Syrian Army operated T-90 tanks were heavily damaged and other 4 suffered hits according to recorded material.


title: T-90

text: Azerbaijan used their T-90S tanks during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. One T-90 was damaged and captured by Armenian forces. At least two were confirmed destroyed in the initial phases of the war, being the first ever proven total loss of the combat vehicle.


title: T-90

text: In 2001, India purchased 310 T-90S tanks from Russia, of which 124 were delivered complete (42 featured the early cast turrets seen on Russian tanks) and 186 were to be assembled from kits delivered in various stages of completion with an emphasis on shifting production to domestic means. The T-90 was selected because it is a direct development of the T-72 that India already manufactured, simplifying training and maintenance. India opted to acquire the T-90 to counter Pakistani deployment of the Ukrainian-made T-80 tank in 1995–97. These T-90S tanks were made by Uralvagonzavod and the engines were delivered by Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant. The Indian tanks however omit the Shtora-1 passive electronic countermeasure system which was deemed obsolete.


title: T-90

text: A follow-on contract, worth US$800 million, was signed in October 2006, for another 330 T-90S "Bhishma" MBTs that were to be manufactured in India by Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu.


title: T-90

text: The T-90S Bhishma (named after the guardian warrior in the "Mahabharata") is a vehicle tailored for Indian service, improving upon the T-90S, and developed with assistance from Russia and France. The tanks are equipped with the French Thales-built Catherine-FC thermal sights. They use Russian Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armour, in addition to the primary armor, which consists of laminated plates and ceramic layers with high-tensile properties. The new welded turrets first developed for the Indian T-90S Bhishma have more advanced armour protection than the early cast turrets.


title: T-90

text: In 2021 the Indian army was looking to upgrade its T-90 tank fleet with locally built modular Active Protection, with both soft kill and hard kill systems, to update the tanks to modern standards.


title: T-90

text: A third contract, worth $1.23 billion, was signed in December 2007 for 347 upgraded T-90Ms, most to be licence-assembled by HVF. The Army hoped to field a force of over 21 regiments of T-90 tanks and 40 regiments of modified T-72s. The Indian Army began receiving its first T-90M main battle tank in completely knocked-down form from Russia's Nizhny Tagil-based Uralvagonzavod JSC at the end of 2009.


title: T-90

text: The T-90M features the 'Kaktus K-6' bolted explosive reactive armour (ERA) package on its frontal hull and turret-top (the T-90S has 'Kontakt-5' ERA), is fitted with an enhanced environmental control system supplied by Israel's Kinetics Ltd for providing cooled air to the fighting compartment, has additional internal volume for housing the cryogenic cooling systems for new-generation thermal imagers like the THALES-built Catherine-FC thermal imager (operating in the 8–12 micrometre bandwidth). In all, India plans to have 2,080 T-90 tanks in service by 2020.


title: T-90

text: The first batch of 10 T-90Ms built under licence was inducted into the Indian army in August 2009. These vehicles were built at the Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu.


title: T-90

text: A purchase of 354 new T-90SM tanks for six tank regiments for the China border was approved in 2012, taking the total number of T-90 tanks in the Indian Army to 2011 and making India, with a total of nearly 4,500 tanks (T-90 and variants, T-72 and Arjun MBT) in active service, the world's third-largest operator of tanks.


title: T-90

text: India planned to have 21 T-90 tank regiments by 2020, with 45 combat tanks and 17 training and replacement tanks per regiment. In November 2019, India announced that Heavy Vehicles Factory would produce 464 T-90S MBTs.


title: T-90

text: In 2005, deliveries began for an initial order of 185 tanks for Algeria. These are known as the T-90SA ("A" is an acronym for Algeria).


title: T-90

text: The Cyprus House Defence Committee approved funds in January 2009 for the purchase of 41 Russian-built T-90 tanks. The money was included as part of the 2009 defence budget. Cyprus already operates the Russian-made T-80 tank. In March 2010 it was reported that Cyprus had opted for 41 additional T-80s instead of purchasing T-90s.


title: T-90

text: Anonymous Venezuelan defence sources said that president Hugo Chavez "wants to replace his army's obsolete AMX-30 main battle tanks with between 50 and 100 Russian-built T-90 main battle tanks," according to an October 2008 article by analyst Jack Sweeney. In September, 2009 a deal was announced for 92 T-72s only. Saudi Arabia was reported, in July 2008, by Russian daily "Kommersant" to be in negotiations to buy 150 T-90 tanks. Lebanese Defence Minister Elias El Murr met with Russian Defence Minister Anatoly Serdyukov in December 2008, when they discussed the possibility of a transfer of military equipment including T-90 tanks.


title: T-90

text: In February 2010, an arms deal was signed between Libya and Russia. Details of the sale were not immediately released, but a Russian diplomat stated that Libya had wanted 20 fighter planes, air defence systems, and may also be interested in purchasing "several dozen" T-90s, and modernising a further 140 T-72s. However, after Libya's crackdown on anti-government protesters in early 2011, the United Nations enacted an international arms embargo on Libya resulting in the cancellation of Russian arms deals.


title: T-90

text: In April 2013, Rosoboronexport requested for the entry of the T-90S in an upcoming tender by the Peruvian Army for main battle tanks. Peru sought to acquire between 120 and 170 tanks to replace its aging T-55 tanks. The T-90 was tested against the M1A1 Abrams from the United States, the Leopard 2A4 offered from the Spanish Army, Leopard 2A6s formerly operated by the Dutch Army, and T-64s and T-84s offered by Ukraine. By September 2013, only the T-90S, the Russian T-80, the Ukrainian T-84, and American M1A1 were still competing.


title: T-90

text: The T-90's main armament is the 2A46M 125mm smoothbore tank gun. This is a highly modified version of the Sprut anti-tank gun, and is the same gun used as the main armament on the T-80-series tanks. It can be replaced without dismantling the inner turret and can fire armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS), high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT-FS), and high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG) ammunition, and 9M119M Refleks anti-tank guided missiles. The Refleks has semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) laser beam riding guidance and a tandem shaped charge HEAT warhead. It has an effective range of 100 m to 6 km, and takes 17.5 seconds to reach maximum range. Refleks can penetrate about of steel rolled homogeneous armour (RHA) and can also engage low-flying air targets such as helicopters.


title: T-90

text: The NSV 12.7mm (12.7×108) remotely controlled anti-aircraft heavy machine gun can be operated from within the tank by the commander and has a range of 2 km and a cyclic rate of fire of 700–800 rounds per minute with 300 rounds available (the NSV was replaced by the Kord heavy machine gun in the late 1990s). The PKMT 7.62mm (7.62×54mmR) coaxial machine gun weighs about 10.5 kg while the ammunition box carries 250 rounds (7,000 rounds carried) and weighs an additional 9.5 kg.


title: T-90

text: Like other modern Russian tanks the 2A46M in the T-90 is fed by an automatic loader which removes the need for a manual loader in the tank and reduces the crew to 3 (commander, gunner, and driver). The autoloader can carry 22 ready-to-fire rounds in its carousel and can load a round in 5–8 seconds. It has been suggested that the automatic loaders on modern T-90 tanks have been modified to take advantage of newer ammunition such as the 3BM-44M APFSDS, which like the US M829A3 penetrates armour better than the previous shorter rounds. HEAT rounds that can be fired from the 2A46M includes the 3BK21B (with a depleted uranium liner), 3BK29 (with a credited penetration of 800mm RHA equivalency), and the 3BK29M (with a Triple-tandem charge warhead). Additionally the T-90 features the Ainet fuse setting system which allows the tank to detonate 3OF26 HE-FRAG rounds at a specific distance from the tank as determined by the gunners laser rangefinder, improving its performance against helicopters and infantry. Accurate firing range of the HE-Frag-FS 10 km, APFSDS 4 km.


title: T-90

text: Fire-control system of the T-90 showed the following features of combat shooting during state testing. Heavily armoured targets at ranges of up to 5 km were hit by tank T-90 on the move (up to 30 km/h) with a high probability of hit with the first shot. During state testing made 24 launches of missiles at ranges of 4–5 km and they all hit the target (all missile launches were made by inexperienced professionals). An experienced gunner at speeds of 25 km/h hit 7 real armoured targets located at ranges of 1,500–2,500 m and 54sec.


title: T-90

text: Fire-control system on the T-90 includes the PNK-4S/SR AGAT day and night sighting system mounted at the commanders station which allows for night time detection of a tank sized target at ranges between 700 and 1100 metres depending on the version of the sight. Early models of the T-90 were equipped with the TO1-KO1 BURAN sight but later models (T-90S) were upgraded to use the ESSA thermal imaging sight, which allows for accurate firing to a range of 5,000–8,000m using the CATHERINE-FC thermal camera produced by Thales Optronique. The gunner is also provided with the 1G46 day sighting system which includes a laser range finder, missile guidance channel and allows tank-sized targets to be detected and engaged at . The driver uses a TVN-5 day and night sight. In 2010, Russia started licensed production of Thales-developed Catherine FC thermal cameras for T-90M tanks, a Russian daily said. These thermal imagers are also present on T-90M "Bhishma" built in India under licence.


title: T-90

text: In 2012, the Russian-made combined sample of commander supervisory-sighting system T01-K04DT/Agat-MDT was presented to the public. According to Krasnogorsky Zavod (plant), Agat-MDT has the ability to be installed (for further modernization) in the sight of the newly developed domestic UPF format 640×512 by 15 microns, which is possible in the future to extend the range of target identification at night to 3.5–4.0 km without sight modifications. In 2016, the Krasnogorsk plant finished testing the "Irbis-K" night-vision gunner's sighting system for the T-80U and T-90, with first deliveries in 2018. Completion of the Irbis-K, the first Russian-produced mercury-cadmium-telluride (MCT) matrix thermal sight, will bridge a gap with the leading NATO countries in this area. The Irbis-K can identify targets at ranges up to 3,240 meters during day and night.


title: T-90

text: The Russian-made thermal imaging device not only meant that Russian tanks would no longer need to be equipped with foreign parts, but it also meant that complete tank modernization was cheaper. Furthermore, there will be no decrease in demand for the T-72 and the T-90 in the next few years. The new tank gunner’s heat-vision sight Irbis-K and the commander’s combined sighting and observation system Agat-MDT can be supplied to T-72, T-80 and T-90 upgraded versions (T-72B3M, T-80BVM, T-90M...), replacing the Thales Catherine-FC thermal camera.


title: T-90

text: The prime mover is the diesel engine, built in the ChTZ. Different models of the T-90 tank are powered by various motors in its initial models, like the V-84MS 618 kW (840 hp) four-stroke V-12 piston engine, uprated engines and engines made by Uralvagonzavod and are delivered by Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant. The Т-90S with engine can attain a top speed of 60 km/h on the road and up to 45 km/h on rough terrain. The T-90 tank has a typical drivetrain arrangement, with a rear placed engine and transmission. The engines are V-92 four stroke, 12 cylinder, multi-fuel diesel while the engine is V-96. The T-90 export version i.e. modified T-90S is fitted with an increased power multi-fuel diesel engine with turbochargers. The tank has an air conditioning system for work in hot places.


title: T-90

text: The T-90 has a "three-tiered" protection system. The first tier is the composite armour in the turret, consisting of basic armour shell with an insert of alternating layers of aluminum and plastics and a controlled deformation section.


title: T-90

text: The second tier is third generation Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armour (ERA) bricks which degrade the penetrating power of kinetic-energy APFSDS ammunition. These bricks give the turret a distinctive angled "clam shell" appearance. ERA bricks are also located on the turret roof to protect against attacks from above. The turret's forward armour package, in addition to the ERA and steel plating, includes Russian composite armour sandwiched between upper and lower steel plates. Composite armour offers lower weight and better protection than steel-only armour.


title: T-90

text: The third tier is a Shtora-1 (Russian: Штора-1 or "curtain" in English) countermeasures suite, produced by Elektromashina of Russia. This system includes two electro-optical/IR "dazzlers" (i.e. active infrared jammer) on the front of the turret (which gives the distinctive "Red Eyes"), four laser warning receivers, two 3D6 'smoke' grenade discharging systems and a computerised control system. The Shtora-1 warns the tank's crew when the tank has been 'painted' by a weapon-guidance laser and allows the crew to slew the turret to face the threat. The infrared jammer, the TShU1-7 EOCMDAS, jams the semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) guidance system used by some anti-tank guided missiles. The smoke grenades are automatically launched after Shtora detects that it has been painted. The smoke grenades are used to mask a tank from laser rangefinders and designators, and the optics of other weapon systems. Indian T-90S tanks are not equipped with the Shtora-1 countermeasures suite. They will be equipped with the Land Electronic Defence System LEDS-150.


title: T-90

text: In addition to the passive and active protection systems, the T-90 is also fitted with nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) protection equipment, KMT mine sweeps and an automatic fire suppression system. The EMT-7 electromagnetic-counter mine system can also be installed on the T-90. EMT-7 emits an electromagnetic pulse to disable magnetic mines and disrupt electronics before the tank reaches them. The Nakidka signature reduction suite is also available for the T-90. Nakidka is designed to reduce the probabilities of an object to be detected by infrared, thermal, radar-thermal, and radar bands.


title: T-90

text: During a reported test conducted by the Russian military in 1999 the T-90 was exposed to a variety of RPG, ATGM, and APFSDS munitions. When equipped with Kontakt-5 ERA, the T-90 could not be penetrated by any of the APFSDS or ATGM used during the trial and outperformed a T-80U which also took part. During combat operations in Dagestan, there were witness accounts of one T-90 sustaining seven hits from RPGs, and remaining in action.


title: T-90

text: T-90M and T-90MS mounts the more advanced "Relikt" ERA. Relikt defends against tandem warheads, while reducing the penetration of APFSDS rounds by over 50 percent. It can be installed instead of Kontakt-1 or Kontakt-5.


title: T-90

text: The T-90A / T-90S turret uses a stronger steel alloy, giving an approximately 10–15% increase in the protection level given from the steel elements of the armor array; as the array from many aspects is not wholly steel, the overall increase in protection is less than this margin over these areas. Protection values will decrease somewhat against Tandem HEAT or penetrators with precursor tips. These measures are not as effective against heavier, newer generations of E.R.A. such as Relikt.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.7 million adherents involved in evangelism and an annual Memorial attendance of over 21 million. Jehovah's Witnesses are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, a group of elders in Warwick, New York, United States, which establishes all doctrines based on its interpretations of the Bible. They believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and that the establishment of God's kingdom over the earth is the only solution for all problems faced by humanity.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The group emerged from the Bible Student movement founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell, who also co-founded Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 to organize and print the movement's publications. A leadership dispute after Russell's death resulted in several groups breaking away, with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its properties. Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes, including adoption of the name "Jehovah's witnesses" in 1931 to distinguish them from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell's traditions.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as "The Watchtower" and "Awake!", and for refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider the use of God's name vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures", although their literature occasionally quotes and cites other Bible translations. Adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as "The Truth" and consider themselves to be "in the Truth". They consider "human society" to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses. Congregational disciplinary actions include "disfellowshipping", their term for formal expulsion and shunning, a last resort for what they consider serious offenses. Baptized individuals who formally leave are considered "disassociated" and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The group's position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute state symbols (like national anthems and flags) has brought it into conflict with some governments. Consequently, some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The organization has received criticism regarding biblical translation, doctrines, and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled predictions about major biblical events such as Christ's Second Coming, the advent of God's kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for handling cases of child sexual abuse have been the subject of various formal inquiries.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to study the Bible. During the course of his ministry, Russell disputed many beliefs of mainstream Christianity including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour; later that year they jointly produced the book "Three Worlds," which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally, each ending with a "harvest," that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874 inaugurating the "harvest of the Gospel age", and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520-year period called "the Gentile Times", at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth. Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious journal, "Herald of the Morning". In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine "Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence", stating that its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days," and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under the reign of Christ was imminent.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: From 1879, "Watch Tower" supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings. In 1881, "Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society" was presided over by William Henry Conley, and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a non-profit business to distribute tracts and Bibles. By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs, and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims," or traveling preachers. Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry, and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named "Bethel". He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students," and more formally as the International Bible Students Association. By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement and congregations re-elected him annually as their pastor. Russell died October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner. The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade. In June 1917, he released "The Finished Mystery" as a seventh volume of Russell's "Studies in the Scriptures" series. The book, published as the posthumous work of Russell, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation, plus numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher. It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War. As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the "Espionage Act" in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919, he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters. At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching. Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford's twenty-five years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year earthly kingdom. Because of disappointment over the changes and , tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society, most of which still exist. By mid-1919, as many as one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society, and as many as three-quarters by the end of the 1920s.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name – "Jehovah's witnesses" – based on Isaiah 43:10: "'Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me.'" (King James Version, KJV) —which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938, introduced what he called a "theocratic" (literally, "God-ruled") organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: From 1932, it was taught that the "little flock" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 "anointed" who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the "great multitude," would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: "parousía"), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" were each moved to 1914.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany, and other countries.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Worldwide membership of Jehovah's Witnesses reached 113,624 in 5,323 congregations by the time of Rutherford's death in January 1942.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures", the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world. Knorr's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct, and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in late 1975 or shortly thereafter. The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were proved wrong. Watch Tower Society literature did not state dogmatically that 1975 would definitely mark the end, but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding that year.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters (and later, also by branch committees). It was announced that, starting in September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body. Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by others who are not Governing Body members. In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914 and in 2010 changed their teaching on the "generation".


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, in what the leadership calls a "theocratic organization", reflecting their belief that it is God's "visible organization" on earth. The organization is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since January 2018 has comprised eight members, all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Warwick headquarters. There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body. Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative and "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (then approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses). At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the "faithful and discreet slave" was defined as referring to the Governing Body only. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities. It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers, after they have been recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. The leadership and supporting staff lives in properties owned by the organization worldwide referred to as "Bethel" where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit. Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered by the organization along with a basic monthly stipend.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches. New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner to elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings. Witnesses do not use "elder" as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division, though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege regarding confession of sins.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Baptism is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism, and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization," though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization." Their literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to "his organization," stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The organization produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities. The Watch Tower Society has produced over 227 million copies of the "New World Translation" in whole or in part in over 185 languages. In 2010, "The Watchtower" and "Awake!" were the most widely distributed magazines in the world. Translation of Witness publications is done by over 2,000 volunteers worldwide, producing literature in 1,000 languages. Publications are also available online at the organization's official website.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Much of their funding is provided by donations, primarily from members. There is no tithing or collection. In 2001 "Newsday" listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York's forty richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950 million. The organization reported for the same year that it "spent over $70.9 million in caring for special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments."


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of first-century Christianity. Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture. The Governing Body does not issue any single, comprehensive "statement of faith", but prefers to express its doctrinal position in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society. Their publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose, and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study, the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels. The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the holy spirit to discern "deep truths", which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before it makes doctrinal decisions. The group's leadership, while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility, is said to provide "divine guidance" through its teachings described as "based on God's Word thus ... not from men, but from Jehovah."


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God. Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic. They consider the Bible to be the final authority for all their beliefs, although sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible. Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended; Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature. Adherents are told to have "complete confidence" in the leadership, to avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society's literature, and to "not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding." The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings and all Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form "Jehovah"—a vocalization of God's name based on the Tetragrammaton. They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a Trinity; consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ. They believe that the Holy Spirit is God's applied power or "active force", rather than a person.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through Christ by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son". Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity. They believe Jesus died on a single upright post rather than the traditional cross. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a "spirit body", and that he only assumed human form for a temporary period after his resurrection.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Biblical references to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles. Jesus is considered to be the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity, and appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom. His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the 'anointed' class, though the 'other sheep' are said to also benefit from the arrangement.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty. Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914, at which point the end times began. They believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order, that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They also believe that human governments are controlled by Satan, but that he does not directly control each human ruler.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the "common grave". Jehovah's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that humanity is in a sinful state, from which release is only possible by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement, for the sins of humankind.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Witnesses believe that a "little flock" of 144,000 selected humans go to heaven, but that the majority (the "other sheep") are to be resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth. They believe that baptism as a Jehovah's Witness is vital for salvation and that only they meet scriptural requirements for surviving Armageddon, but that God is the final judge. During Christ's millennial reign, most people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever; they will be taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 "spirit-anointed" Christians drawn from the earth, which they associate with Jesus' reference to a "new covenant". The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death. It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth. They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914, and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or "system of things", entered the "last days" in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably. They consider all other present-day religions to be false, identifying them with "Babylon the Great", or the "harlot", of Revelation 17, and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet-colored wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the "great tribulation". Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's "sheep" will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden. Most of those who had died before God's intervention will gradually be resurrected during the thousand year "judgment day". This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Christ will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead perfect mankind. Those who fail will be destroyed, along with Satan and his demons. The result will be a fully tested, glorified human race on earth.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in "woe" to humanity. They believe that Jesus rules invisibly, from heaven, perceived only as a series of "signs". They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word "parousia"—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Christ—as "presence". They believe Jesus' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914, and ending when he comes to bring a final judgment against humans on earth. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "second coming" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that women were designed by God to perform a complementary role. Women actively participate in the public preaching work and can serve at Bethel. Women may also profess to be members of the 144,000. However, only men are allowed to hold positions of authority. Congregational roles such as ministerial servants and elders are exclusively male positions. Women are not allowed to address the congregation directly. In rare circumstances, women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men. In these situations, women must wear a head covering if they are performing a teaching role.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they refer to as "meetings" as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The format of the meetings is established by the group's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide. Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising four distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering mid-week (two meetings) and on the weekend (two meetings). Prior to 2009, congregations met three times each week; these meetings were condensed, with the intention that members dedicate an evening for "family worship". Gatherings are opened and closed with hymns (which they call Kingdom songs) and brief prayers. Twice each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet once a year for a three-day "regional convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death" on the date of the Jewish Passover.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house, distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with any person who is not already a member, with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; Witnesses are advised to consider discontinuing Bible studies with students who show no interest in becoming members. Witnesses are taught they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching. They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and are required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report". Baptized members who fail to report a month of preaching are termed "irregular" and may be counseled by elders; those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive".


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion if the individual is not deemed repentant; homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriages are forbidden. Abortion is considered murder. Suicide is considered to be "self-murder" and a sin against God. Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden. Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered. Marrying a non-believer, or endorsing such a union, is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Divorce is discouraged, and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery, which they refer to as "a scriptural divorce". If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the prior spouse has died or is since considered to have committed sexual immorality. Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the denomination terms "absolute endangerment of spirituality" are accepted as grounds for legal separation.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders when a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct or charges of apostasy for disputing Jehovah's Witness doctrines. A judicial committee is formed to provide spiritual guidance and determine guilt; this can lead to the subject being disfellowshipped. Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline, administered to an offender deemed unrepentant. Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement; formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged. Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that "losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [the shunned individual] to come 'to his senses,' see the seriousness of his wrong, and take steps to return to Jehovah." The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior. Members who disassociate (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned. Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the congregation in which the disfellowshipping was enforced. Reproof is a lesser form of discipline given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of serious sin; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship. Marking, a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements. They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." The Witnesses' literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan. Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a "danger" to their faith, and are instructed to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality. Attending university is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative. Receiving a post-secondary education is considered "spiritually dangerous". Anthony Morris III, a member of the Governing Body, has been quoted as saying "the most intelligent and eloquent professors will be trying to reshape the thinking of your child, and their influence can be tremendous."


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office, and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues. Although they do not take part in politics, they respect the authority of the governments under which they live. They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan's control over the world. Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services, and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment. They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs. Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties. Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested the group's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures. Since 1961, the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the group. Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation". Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions, and their literature provides information about non-blood medical procedures.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of "whole blood, packed red cells, platelets, white cells or plasma". Autologous blood donation, where an individual's own blood is stored for later use, is also not considered acceptable. Members may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion. The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept. Jehovah's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, but do not form a large part of the population of any country.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: For 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses reported approximately 8.7 million "publishers"—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about 120,000 congregations. For the same year, they reported over 1.4 billion hours spent in preaching activity, and conducted Bible studies with more than 5.9 million individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children). In 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of 0.7%. Over 21.3 million people attended the annual memorial of Christ's death. According to the Watch Tower Society, more than 25,600 members have died from COVID-19.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The official published membership statistics, such as those mentioned above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry; official statistics do not include "inactive" and "disfellowshipped" individuals or others who might attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identified as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered "active" by the faith itself. The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: about 37% of people raised in the group continued to identify themselves as Jehovah's Witnesses; the next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%. The study also found that 65% of adult Jehovah's Witnesses in the US are converts.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Sociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah's Witnesses, classified the group's organizational structure as "Totalizing", characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to co-operate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members. Beckford identified the group's chief characteristics as "historicism" (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), "absolutism" (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), "activism" (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), "rationalism" (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), "authoritarianism" (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and "world indifference" (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson, in his consideration of five religious groups including Jehovah's Witnesses, noted that each of the denominations:


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah's Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having an interest in politics. It was also among the most ethnically diverse religious groups in the US.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Controversy surrounding various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Their stance regarding political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, including China, Russia, Vietnam, and many Muslim-majority countries.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Authors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religious groups by Jehovah's Witnesses. Harrison, Schnell and Whalen have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution from the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God. Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses should "never seek a controversy" nor resist arrest, but also advised members not to co-operate with police officers or courts that ordered them to stop preaching, and to prefer jail rather than pay fines.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In 1940, one year following Canada's entry into World War II, the denomination was banned under the War Measures Act. This ban continued until 1943. Hundreds of members were prosecuted for being members of an illegal organization. Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent. Jehovah's Witnesses faced discrimination in Quebec until the Quiet Revolution, including bans on distributing literature or holding meetings. Roncarelli v Duplessis was a legal case heard by the Supreme Court of Canada. The court held that in 1946 Maurice Duplessis, both Premier and Attorney General of Quebec, had overstepped his authority by ordering the manager of the Liquor Commission to revoke the liquor licence of Frank Roncarelli, a Montreal restaurant owner and Jehovah's Witness who was an outspoken critic of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec. Roncarelli provided bail for Jehovah's Witnesses arrested for distributing pamphlets attacking the Roman Catholic Church. The Supreme Court found Duplessis personally liable for $33,123.56 in damages plus Roncarelli's court costs.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany, of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Jehovah's Witnesses suffered religious persecution by the Nazis because they refused military service and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party. Of those, 2,000 were sent to Nazi concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1,200 died, including 250 who were executed.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In socialist East Germany, from the 1950s to the 1980s, Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted extensively by the State Security Service (the Stasi), who frequently used decomposition methods against them. Jehovah's Witnesses were considered to be a threat because their belief system did not conform to socialist standards, and their members sometimes had contact with the West.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In April 1951, about 9,300 Jehovah's Witnesses in the Soviet Union were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In April 2017, the Supreme Court of Russia labeled Jehovah's Witnesses an extremist organization, banned its activities in Russia and issued an order to confiscate the organization's assets.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world. The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In the United States, legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties. Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the United States are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse. Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses have received criticism from mainstream Christianity, members of the medical community, former members and commentators regarding their beliefs and practices. The movement has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals, failed predictions, mistranslation of the Bible, harsh treatment of former members and autocratic and coercive leadership. Criticism has also focused on their rejection of blood transfusions, particularly in life-threatening medical situations, and failing to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body. The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned. Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization". It also warns members to "avoid independent thinking", claiming such thinking "was introduced by Satan the Devil" and would "cause division". Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as "apostates" who are "mentally diseased".


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four", and Alan Rogerson describes the group's leadership as totalitarian. Other critics say that by disparaging individual decision-making, the group's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives. Critics also accuse the group's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses, controlling information and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity, and deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination. Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the denomination as "totalitarian". Sociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and that members "are expected to conform to rather strict standards," but adds that "enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group", and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it." Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice. However, he also states that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit", and describes the administration as autocratic.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger and MacLean Gilmour, have said that while scholarship is evident in "New World Translation", its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines. Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss, and Christian writers such as Ray C. Stedman, Walter Martin, Norman Klann, and Anthony Hoekema state that the "New World Translation" exhibits scholastic dishonesty. Most criticism of the "New World Translation" relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name "Jehovah" and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom. Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet. George D. Chryssides stated, "while prediction may be part of a biblical prophet's role, the root meaning of prophecy is that of proclaiming God's word." He went on to say that, "Jehovah's Witnesses ... are the recipients of prophecy, who regard themselves as invested with the interpretation of biblical writings." With these interpretations, Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible. Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines. Some failed predictions had been presented as "beyond doubt" or "approved by God".


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet, stating that its interpretations are not inspired or infallible, and that it has not claimed its predictions were "the words of Jehovah." Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology rather than to failed predictions. Chryssides further states, "it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do." However, sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, "Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time."


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization. The group has been criticized for its "two witness rule" for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing. In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands". A former member of the headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility". Anderson says the policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children." Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The group's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized. The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family. William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the denomination, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its "crime-free" reputation.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States, the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation. The Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing. In 2017, the Charity Commission for England and Wales began an inquiry into Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom.


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that "there was no evidence before the Royal Commission of the Jehovah’s Witness organisation having or not having reported to police any of the 1,006 alleged


title: Jehovah's Witnesses

text: perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the organisation since 1950." The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia. In 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation's redress scheme for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: 9-1-1 is an American procedural television series created by Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk, and Tim Minear for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series follows the lives of Los Angeles first responders: police officers, paramedics, firefighters, and dispatchers.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: The series stars Angela Bassett, Peter Krause, Oliver Stark, Aisha Hinds, Kenneth Choi, Rockmond Dunbar, Connie Britton, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Ryan Guzman, Corinne Massiah, Marcanthonee Jon Reis, Gavin McHugh, and John Harlan Kim. The series premiered on January 3, 2018. "9-1-1" is a joint production between Reamworks, Brad Falchuk Teley-Vision and Ryan Murphy Television in association with 20th Television. In March 2019, Fox renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on September 23, 2019. In April 2020, Fox renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on January 18, 2021. In May 2021, the series was renewed for a fifth season, which premiered on September 20, 2021. In May 2022, the series was renewed for a sixth season, which premiered on September 19, 2022.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: The series is produced by 20th Television (formerly 20th Century Fox Television), with Murphy, Falchuk, Minear, and Bradley Buecker as executive producers along with cast members Angela Bassett and Peter Krause. Minear also serves as showrunner and Buecker directed the premiere episode. On January 16, 2018, Fox renewed the series for an eighteen-episode second season. The second season premiered with a special episode on Sunday, September 23, 2018, at 8 p.m. EDT; the second episode aired in the series's regular 9 p.m. EDT time slot on Monday, September 24, 2018. On March 25, 2019, Fox renewed the series for a third season which premiered on September 23, 2019. On April 13, 2020, Fox renewed the series for a fourth season which premiered on January 18, 2021. On May 17, 2021, Fox renewed the series for a fifth season which premiered on September 20, 2021. On May 16, 2022, Fox renewed the series for a sixth season which premiered on September 19, 2022.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: In October 2017, Connie Britton, Angela Bassett, and Peter Krause joined the main cast. Later that month, it was announced that Oliver Stark, Aisha Hinds, Kenneth Choi, and Rockmond Dunbar had been cast in regular roles.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: On May 14, 2018, it was announced that Jennifer Love Hewitt would join the main cast as Maddie Buckley, Buck's sister, in season 2, replacing the role of Britton's character Abby Clark. On May 23, 2018, Fox announced that Ryan Guzman would be joining the second season of the series as new firefighter Eddie Díaz. On June 4, 2018, it was announced that Corinne Massiah and Marcanthonnee Jon Reis, who play May and Harry Grant, had been promoted, from their recurring roles in season 1, to series regulars for season 2. Gavin McHugh, who plays Eddie's son Christopher, was promoted to a series regular in season 3, after recurring in season 2. Britton returned in the finale of the third season as a special guest star, reprising her role as Abby Clark. In season 5, Dunbar departed over the COVID-19 vaccine mandate implemented by 20th Television after his requests for medical and religious exemptions were denied. In February 2022, Arielle Kebbel joined the cast in recurring role that same season.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 70%, based on 33 reviews, with an average rating of 5.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""9-1-1" occasionally veers into melodrama, but is redeemed with a top-tier cast, adrenaline-pumping action, and a dash of trashy camp that pushes the show into addictive guilty pleasure territory." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 60 out of 100 based on reviews from 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: Amy Amatangelo of "Paste" praised the disasters depicted across the series and the action sequences, applauded Angela Bassett's performance and her character's storyline, while complimenting the development of the characters across their relationships. Steve Greene of "IndieWire" called "9-1-1" a perfect hit, stating the show manages to feel realistic and emotional across its dialogues and the relationships between the characters, applauded the action sequences with the different disasters, and praised the performances of the cast. Daniel Fieinberg of "The Hollywood Reporter" found the series to be a conventional yet solid procedural drama, comparing it to the "Chicago" franchise, and applauded the performances of the cast, while calling the characters decent.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: Suzi Feay of "Financial Times" rated the first season 4 out of 5 stars, called it an intense and juddering drama series across its emergency calls, and stated "9-1-1" has the potential to become a classic of the "hero genre". Melissa Camacho of "Common Sense Media" gave season one 3 out of 5 stars, complimented the depiction of positive messages and role models, stating the series depicts how difficult, traumatic, and personally fulfilling being a first responder can be across its characters, while calling the series solid overall.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 100%, based on 7 reviews, with an average rating of 7.75/10.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: Brian Grubb of "Uproxx" stated the second season of the series manages to be more ambitious than the first one, applauding the disasters and action sequences, and praised the performances of the cast and the development of the characters.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 75%, based on 8 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: On May 12, 2019, it was announced that a spin-off, titled "", would premiere on January 19, 2020, immediately following the NFC Championship game and continue the following night, January 20, 2020. On the same day, Rob Lowe was announced to star. In September, Liv Tyler, Ronen Rubinstein, Sierra McClain, Jim Parrack, Natacha Karam, Brian Michael Smith, Julian Works, and Rafael Silva were also announced to star in the series alongside Lowe.


title: 9-1-1 (TV series)

text: Due to COVID-19 concerns, Liv Tyler did not return for the second season. Gina Torres was introduced in a regular role.


title: Uber

text: Uber Technologies, Inc. (Uber), based in San Francisco, provides mobility as a service, ride-hailing (allowing users to book a car and driver to transport them in a way similar to a taxi), food delivery (Uber Eats and Postmates), package delivery, couriers, and freight transportation. Via partnerships with other operators such as Thames Clippers (boats) and Lime (electric bicycles and motorized scooters), users are also able to book other modes of transport through the Uber platform in some locations. Uber sets fares, which vary using a dynamic pricing model based on local supply and demand at the time of the booking and are quoted to the customer in advance, and receives a commission from each booking. It had operations in approximately 72 countries and 10,500 cities as of December 31, 2021.


title: Uber

text: Uber offers many different types of ride options. UberX is the most popular and the standard service of the company. UberXL, Uber Comfort, and Uber Black are other options offered by the company. UberXL cars are usually SUV-sized vehicles that can accommodate 6 passengers. Uber's premium service is Uber Black. Uber Black drivers have to be highly rated and drive more luxurious vehicles than UberX and UberXL. Uber Comfort guarantees a newer vehicle with more leg room.


title: Uber

text: In the second quarter of 2022, Uber had 122 million monthly active users worldwide and generated an average of 21 million trips per day. In the United States, as of May 2022, Uber had a 72% market share for ride-sharing and a 27% market share for food delivery. Uber has been so prominent in the sharing economy that commoditization of service industries using computing platforms has been referred to as uberisation, and several startups have described their offerings as "Uber for X". Uber has posted hundreds of millions or billions of dollars in losses each year since 2014 except for 2018, when it exited from the markets in Russia, China, and Southeast Asia in exchange for stakes in rival businesses.


title: Uber

text: Like similar companies, Uber has been criticized for the treatment of its drivers as gig workers and independent contractors, disruption of taxicab businesses, and an increase in traffic congestion. The company has been criticized for various unethical practices—many revealed by a massive document leak in July 2022—and for ignoring local regulations. Uber is regulated in many jurisdictions and the company has been banned in several countries.


title: Uber

text: In 2009, Uber was founded as Ubercab by Garrett Camp, a computer programmer and the co-founder of StumbleUpon, and Travis Kalanick, who sold his Red Swoosh startup for $19 million in 2007.


title: Uber

text: After Camp and his friends spent $800 hiring a private driver, he wanted to find a way to reduce the cost of direct transportation. He realized that sharing the cost with people could make it affordable, and his idea morphed into Uber. Kalanick joined Camp and gives him "full credit for the idea" of Uber. The prototype was built by Camp and his friends, Oscar Salazar and Conrad Whelan, with Kalanick as the "mega advisor" to the company.


title: Uber

text: In February 2010, Ryan Graves became the first Uber employee, receiving the job by responding to a post on Twitter. Graves started out as general manager and was named CEO shortly after the launch. In December 2010, Kalanick succeeded Graves as CEO. Graves became chief operating officer (COO). By 2019, Graves owned 31.9 million shares.


title: Uber

text: Following a beta launch in May 2010, Uber's services and mobile app launched publicly in San Francisco in 2011. Originally, the application only allowed users to hail a black luxury car and the price was 1.5 times that of a taxi. In 2011, the company changed its name from UberCab to Uber after complaints from San Francisco taxicab operators.


title: Uber

text: The company's early hires included a nuclear physicist, a computational neuroscientist, and a machinery expert who worked on predicting demand for private hire car drivers. In April 2012, Uber launched a service in Chicago, whereby users were able to request a regular taxi or an Uber driver via its mobile app.


title: Uber

text: In July 2012, the company introduced UberX, a cheaper option that allowed drivers to use non-luxury vehicles, including their personal vehicles, subject to a background check, insurance, registration, and vehicle standards. By early 2013, the service was operating in 35 cities.


title: Uber

text: In August 2014, Uber launched a shared transport service in the San Francisco Bay Area. The service soon launched in other cities worldwide.


title: Uber

text: In August 2016, facing tough competition, Uber sold its operations in China to DiDi in exchange for an 18% stake in DiDi. DiDi agreed to invest $1 billion in Uber. Uber had started operations in China in 2014, under the name 优步 (Yōubù).


title: Uber

text: In December 2016, Uber acquired the AI research startup Geometric Intelligence for an undisclosed amount. This coincided with the announcement of Uber AI Labs. Geometric Intelligence's 15 person staff formed the initial core of the AI Labs team.


title: Uber

text: In August 2017, Dara Khosrowshahi, the former CEO of Expedia Group, replaced Kalanick as CEO. In July 2017, Uber received a five-star privacy rating from the Electronic Frontier Foundation, but was harshly criticised by the group in September 2017 for a controversial policy of tracking customers' locations even after a ride ended, forcing the company to reverse its policy.


title: Uber

text: In February 2018, Uber combined its operations in Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia and Kazakhstan with those of Yandex.Taxi and invested $225 million in the venture. In March 2018, Uber merged its services in Southeast Asia with those of Grab in exchange for a 27.5% ownership stake in Grab.


title: Uber

text: In June 2019, both COO Barney Harford and CMO Rebecca Messina stepped down. In July 2019, the marketing department was reduced by a third, with the layoff of 400 people amid continued losses. Engineer hires were frozen. In early September 2019, Uber laid off an additional 435 employees with 265 coming from the engineering team and another 170 from the product team.


title: Uber

text: In 2020, Uber announced plans to become an emission-free platform. Uber introduced Uber Green, promoting users to choose electric and hybrid vehicles.


title: Uber

text: In the same month, Uber sold its Indian Uber Eats operations to Zomato, in exchange for 9.99% of Zomato.


title: Uber

text: Also in January 2020, Uber tested a feature that enabled drivers at the Santa Barbara, Sacramento, and Palm Springs airports to set fares based on a multiple of Uber's rates for UberX and UberXL trips.


title: Uber

text: On May 5, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Uber announced plans to lay off 3,700 employees, around 14% of its workforce. On May 18, 2020, 3,000 more job cuts and 45 office closures were announced. Around the same time, construction finished on Uber's new headquarters on Third Street in San Francisco's Mission Bay neighborhood, consisting of several 6- and 11-story buildings connected by bridges and walkways. Like various other office complexes in San Francisco, Uber's campus includes a public plaza, which the San Francisco Chronicle's architecture critic John King called the city's "best new public space", while praising the entire ensemble for its "low-key sophistication – not what you’d expect from a firm with a rapacious image."


title: Uber

text: In June 2020, Uber announced that it would manage the on-demand high-occupancy vehicle fleet for Marin Transit, a public bus agency in Marin County, California. This partnership is Uber's first SaaS partnership.


title: Uber

text: In July 2020, Uber, in partnership with its majority-owned Cornershop, launched Uber grocery delivery service in Latin America, Canada, Miami, and Dallas.


title: Uber

text: In October 2021, Uber acquired Drizly, an alcohol delivery service, for $1.1 billion in cash and stock. On January 20, 2022, Uber acquired Australian car-sharing company Car Next Door.


title: Uber

text: In May 2022, Uber formed a partnership with IT Taxi, Italy's largest taxi dispatcher. Through the partnership, it was agreed that Uber would integrate with the dispatcher, adding 12,000 drivers to over 80 cities in the country.


title: Uber

text: On September 19, 2022, Uber announced that its fleet of vehicles in developed countries and regions such as Europe, Japan, South Korea, United States, Canada, etc. will be 100% all-electric by 2030 due to climate change. Drivers of fossil fuel vehicles at that time in those regions will be forced to switch to electric vehicles or otherwise will be forced to stop driving for the company entirely unless they later decide to switch to an EV. This is the first phase of Uber's plan to become 100% carbon-net-zero worldwide by 2040 due to climate change.


title: Uber

text: On September 15, 2022, Uber discovered a security breach of its internal network. A hacker, who identified himself as an 18-year-old, utilized social engineering to obtain an employee's credentials and gain access to the company's VPN and intranet. From there, the individual found powershell scripts which contained administrative credentials which gave them access to Uber's services such as Amazon Web Services and Google Cloud. The individual announced the hack on an internal Slack channel, where many employees thought it was a joke. In a statement on September 16, Uber indicated that there was no evidence that user data was compromised, all services were operational and law enforcement had been notified. Additionally, Uber uses services of HackerOne, a Californian bug bounty platform that employs ethical hackers to help identify bugs and protect the systems of many big companies.


title: Uber

text: Uber ATG/Advanced Technologies Group, minority-owned by SoftBank Vision Fund, Toyota, and Denso, was developing self-driving cars. In early 2015, the company hired approximately 50 people from the robotics department of Carnegie Mellon University. On September 14, 2016, it launched self-driving cars in Pittsburgh using a fleet of Ford Fusion cars and on December 14, 2016, it began testing self-driving Volvo XC90 SUVs in San Francisco. After the California Department of Motor Vehicles forced the program to cease operations a week later, the program was moved to Arizona. In March 2018, it paused testing after the death of Elaine Herzberg in Tempe, Arizona. Uber restarted testing in December 2018 after receiving local approval in Pittsburgh and Toronto. In January 2021, with Uber ATG described as a "cash-burn machine", the division was sold to Aurora Innovation for $4 billion and Uber invested $400 million into Aurora, taking a 26% ownership stake.


title: Uber

text: In 2016, Uber acquired Ottomotto, a self-driving truck company, for $625 million. Ottomotto was founded by Anthony Levandowski, previously of Waymo, who allegedly founded Ottomotto using trade secrets he downloaded while at Waymo. In February 2018, to settle a lawsuit regarding the stolen trade secrets, Uber gave Waymo $244 million in stock and agreed not to infringe on Waymo's intellectual property. Uber cancelled its self-driving truck program in July 2018.


title: Uber

text: In June 2022, Uber struck a deal with Waymo to use the latter's technology for autonomous trucks in Uber's Freight service.