title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joe Biden fathered four children from two marriages. His firstborn daughter, Naomi Christina Biden, died in 1972, in the same car accident as her mother, and his firstborn son, Joseph "Beau" R. Biden III, died in 2015 after a fight with brain cancer. The Bidens' two surviving children include one son from his first marriage, Robert Hunter Biden, and one daughter from his second, Ashley Blazer Biden.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joseph "Beau" Robinette Biden III was born on February 3, 1969, in Wilmington, Delaware. Beau suffered multiple broken bones in the car crash that took the lives of his mother and sister, but he survived after spending several months in a hospital. Beau went on to graduate from Archmere Academy, his father's high school alma mater, and the University of Pennsylvania in 1991, where he was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity. He was also a graduate of Syracuse University College of Law, as was his father. After graduating from law school, he clerked for Judge Steven McAuliffe of the United States District Court of New Hampshire. From 1995 to 2004, he worked at the United States Department of Justice in Philadelphia, first as Counsel to the Office of Policy Development and later as a federal prosecutor in the U.S. Attorney's Office.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: In his first bid at political office, Biden ran for Attorney General of Delaware in 2006. Biden's opponent was a veteran state prosecutor and Assistant U.S. Attorney, Ferris Wharton. Major issues in the campaign included the candidates' experience and proposed efforts to address sex offenders, Internet predators, senior abuse and domestic abuse. Biden won the election by approximately five percentage points.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Beau played an active role in his father's 2008 vice presidential campaign, speaking at the Democratic National Convention after Joe Biden was nominated for Vice President of the United States. He recounted the auto accident that killed his mother and sister and the subsequent parenting commitment his father made to his sons, a speech at which many delegates wept.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: On November 2, 2010, he was easily re-elected to a second term as Delaware Attorney General, beating Independent Party of Delaware candidate Doug Campbell by a large margin.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: For the final few years of his life, Biden suffered from a brain tumor. In May 2010, he was admitted to Christiana Hospital in Newark, Delaware, after complaining of a headache, numbness, and paralysis. Officials said he had suffered a "mild stroke". Later that month, Biden was transferred to Thomas Jefferson University Hospital in Philadelphia and kept for observation for several days.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: In August 2013, Biden was admitted to the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston and diagnosed with brain cancer, after experiencing what White House officials called "an episode of disorientation and weakness". A lesion was removed at that time. Biden had radiation and chemotherapy treatments and the cancer remained stable. On May 20, 2015, he was admitted to Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland, because of a recurrence of brain cancer. He died there ten days later, on May 30, 2015, at the age of 46. His funeral was held at St. Anthony of Padua Roman Catholic Church in Wilmington, Delaware, on June 6, 2015. He was buried at St. Joseph's on the Brandywine in Greenville, Delaware.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Robert Hunter Biden was born on February 4, 1970, in Wilmington, Delaware. Along with his mother and siblings, he was in the 1972 crash, sustaining injuries to his skull. Along with his older brother, he survived after receiving months of medical treatment. Like his father and brother, Hunter attended Archmere Academy in Claymont, Delaware. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History from Georgetown University in 1992. During the year after he graduated from college, he served as a Jesuit volunteer at a church in Portland, Oregon, and met Kathleen Buhle, whom he married in 1993. After attending Georgetown University Law Center for one year, he transferred to Yale Law School and graduated in 1996. He and Kathleen divorced in 2017 and, in 2019, he married Melissa Cohen.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: After law school, Hunter accepted a position at bank holding company MBNA America, a major contributor to his father's political campaigns. By 1998, Biden had risen to the rank of executive vice president.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: During the 2020 election, Hunter Biden was targeted by the Trump administration due to his connections with Ukrainian holdings company Burisma, arguing that Joe had engaged in nepotism to get him a position on the board.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Naomi Christina Biden, nicknamed "Amy", was born on November 8, 1971, in Wilmington, Delaware. She died in the same car crash as her mother Neilia on December 18, 1972, when she was just over a year old.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Ashley Blazer Biden was born on June 8, 1981, in Wilmington, Delaware. She is the only child from Joe Biden's second marriage. Biden attended Wilmington Friends School, a private school run by the Religious Society of Friends in Wilmington. When Biden was in elementary school, she discovered that the cosmetics company Bonne Bell tested its products on animals. She wrote a letter to the company asking them to change their policy on animal testing. She later got involved in dolphin conservation, inspiring her father to work with Congresswoman Barbara Boxer to write and pass the 1990 Dolphin Protection Consumer Information Act. Biden made an appearance before members of the United States Congress to lobby for the legislation. She is married to physician Howard Krein.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joe Biden has married twice and fathered four children. His seven grandchildren come from his two sons, five from Hunter and two from Beau.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Biden had a German Shepherd, Major. Major is a rescue dog who was adopted from the Delaware Humane Association by Joe and Jill Biden in 2018, but he was given to family friends after a biting incident at the White House.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: He had another German Shepherd, Champ, who was with the Bidens when Joe Biden was vice president from 2009 to 2017, but died early into Joe Biden's term as President. In December 2021, Biden announced the addition of a puppy named Commander to his family. On , the Bidens announced that they had adopted Willow, a tabby cat.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joseph Robinette "Joe" Biden Jr. was born on November 20, 1942, at St. Mary's Hospital in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Catherine Eugenia "Jean" Biden ("née" Finnegan; July 7, 1917January 8, 2010) and Joseph Robinette Biden Sr. (November 13, 1915September 2, 2002), who married in 1941. After the death of Jean Finnegan Biden on January 8, 2010, President Barack Obama traveled to Wilmington, Delaware, to attend her January 12 funeral.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joseph Sr. was initially wealthy but suffered financial setbacks around the time Joe Jr. was born, and for several years the family lived with Jean's parents. Scranton fell into economic decline during the 1950s and Joseph Sr. could not find steady work. Beginning in 1953, the family lived in an apartment in Claymont, Delaware, then moved to a house in Wilmington, Delaware. Joseph Sr. later became a successful used-car salesman, maintaining the family in a middle-class lifestyle.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joe Sr. and Catherine are buried together at St. Joseph on the Brandywine Cemetery in Greenville, Delaware. Their gravesites are near the graves of their daughter-in-law Neilia Hunter Biden, their granddaughter Naomi, and grandson Beau.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joe Biden is the oldest of four siblings in a Catholic family, followed by his younger sister Valerie Biden Owens (born 1945), and two younger brothers, James Brian "Jim" Biden (born 1949) and Francis William "Frank" Biden (born 1953). Valerie was one of the campaign managers for Joe Biden's presidential campaigns. Biden's niece Missy Owens (daughter of Valerie Biden Owens) has also worked in politics.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Joseph Sr.'s parents, Mary Elizabeth ("née" Robinette) Biden (1894–1943) and Joseph Harry Biden (1893–1941), an oil businessman from Baltimore, Maryland, were of English, French, and Irish descent.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Biden's paternal third great-grandfather, William Biden (1789–1849), was born in England and emigrated to the United States, where he settled in Maryland. According to historian Eddy Greenfield, he was born in Sussex, and was christened at St John the Baptist's Church in Westbourne, West Sussex, on 8March 1789. William was the second child and son of James Biden (born November 1767) and Ann Silverlock (born March 1766), who had married on 16 May 1785. James Biden, Biden's paternal fourth great-grandfather, was from Pagham. He was the son of Richard Biden, Biden's paternal fifth great-grandfather, and his wife Susan, beyond which the paternal family line cannot be traced.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: A possible connection may also exist to the family of a William Henry Biden, who was from Houghton, Cambridgeshire, and lived from 1791 to 1843. This William Henry was a son of John Biden (died 28 July 1796) and his wife Ann Beaumont, who had married in 1781. The seventh of eight children and the family's fifth son, William Henry and his elder brother, Christopher Biden (1789–1858), served as officers in the East India Company merchant marine, both eventually becoming captains of East Indiamen. William Henry commanded mid-sized vessels before his death at Rangoon in 1843.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Christopher Biden subsequently became an official in the Madras Civil Service (later the Indian Civil Service), and his descendants settled in India. He died at Madras in 1858. In 1981, Christopher's great-great-grandson, Leslie Dunn Biden, then living in Nagpur, wrote to Joe Biden about the possible family connection after reading about him in the "Illustrated Weekly of India". After discussing their genealogy, they promised to stay in touch but did not resume correspondence before Leslie's death in 1983. During a 2013 visit to India, Joe Biden referred to Leslie's letter, mentioning a "Biden from Mumbai" had suggested their "mutual great-great-great-great-something-or-other" named George had "worked for the East India Company back in the 1700s."


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Jean's parents were Geraldine Catherine ("née" Blewitt) Finnegan and Ambrose Joseph Finnegan from Scranton, Pennsylvania. Ambrose was born in Olyphant, Pennsylvania in 1883, and attended Santa Clara University where he was a star quarterback on their football team. After college, he worked for real estate investor Major Bowes in San Francisco until the 1906 San Francisco earthquake wiped out his boss's investments. He then returned to the Scranton area where he worked for many years as an newspaper advertising salesman and then as librarian for two Scranton newspapers. He died in 1957.


title: Family of Joe Biden

text: Jean was of Irish descent, with roots variously attributed to County Louth and County Londonderry. Irish genealogists presented Joe Biden with his Irish maternal family history on his visit there in 2016. Joe's matrilenial great-grandfather (Geraldine's father), Edward Francis Blewitt, the child of Irish emigrants from Rappagh, Ballina, County Mayo, was a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate. With all Joe Biden's maternal ancestors, and his paternal great-grandmother Mary Ann Hanafee, having purely Irish origins, this makes Joe Biden 62.5% of Irish descent.


title: Jason Blum

text: Jason Ferus Blum (; born 1969) is an American film and television producer. He is the founder and CEO of Blumhouse Productions, which produced the horror franchises "Paranormal Activity" (2007–2021), ""Insidious"" (2010–2023), and "The Purge" (2013–2021). Blum also produced "Sinister" (2012), "Oculus" (2013), "Whiplash" (2014), "The Gift" (2015), "Hush" (2016), "Split" (2016), "" (2016), "Get Out" (2017), "Happy Death Day" (2017), "Upgrade" (2018), "Halloween" (2018), "Us" (2019), "The Invisible Man" (2020), "Freaky" (2020) and "The Black Phone" (2021).


title: Jason Blum

text: Blum received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Picture for producing "Whiplash" (2014), "Get Out" (2017), and "BlacKkKlansman" (2018). He received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie for producing the drama film "The Normal Heart" (2014). He also won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series for the documentary miniseries "The Jinx" (2015).


title: Jason Blum

text: Blum was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Shirley Neilsen Blum (née Neilsen) and Irving Blum. His mother was an art professor and his father was an independent art dealer and director of the Ferus Gallery. Blum is of Jewish heritage.


title: Jason Blum

text: He graduated from Vassar College in 1991. While at Vassar, he and fellow future filmmaker, Noah Baumbach, were roommates, and Blum produced Baumbach's first film, "Kicking and Screaming" in 1995.


title: Jason Blum

text: Blum worked for Bob and Harvey Weinstein as an executive at Miramax, and later as an independent producer for Paramount Pictures. Prior to his tenure at Miramax, Blum was a producing director at Ethan Hawke's Malaparte theater company. Blum is a 1991 graduate of Vassar College. He is a member of the board of trustees of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures.


title: Jason Blum

text: He obtained financing for his first film as producer, "Kicking and Screaming" (1995), after receiving a letter from family acquaintance, entertainer Steve Martin, who endorsed the script. Blum attached the letter to copies of the script he sent around to Hollywood executives.


title: Jason Blum

text: In 2000, he founded Blumhouse Productions, which specializes in producing micro-budget movies that give directors full creative control over the projects. Bloomberg News praised Blum for making "blockbusters for pennies", including the horror film "Paranormal Activity" which cost $15,000 to make and then grossed nearly $200 million. In addition, NPR's Planet Money did a special podcast about the company's methods.


title: Jason Blum

text: Blum also produced "Insidious" (2010), "Sinister" (2012), "The Purge" (2013), and "Happy Death Day" (2017), as well as their sequels. In 2014, he served as executive producer for the television film "The Normal Heart", which went on to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie. In 2015, he won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series for HBO's "The Jinx".


title: Jason Blum

text: Blum's feature films "BlacKkKlansman", "Whiplash" and "Get Out" were all nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: Jason Blum

text: In 2018, Blum said in an interview that the reason no woman had ever directed one of his horror films was that "there are not a lot of female directors (...) and even less who are inclined to do horror." After much criticism on social media, in which lists of such directors were circulated, he apologized for what he called his "dumb comments". In 2019, Sophia Takal directed and co-wrote the studio's horror remake "Black Christmas", which opened on December 13, and was the studio's first theatrically-released film by a female director.


title: Jason Blum

text: On August 14, 2020, "Daily Front Row" listed Blum as one of a group of high-profile investors who purchased "W magazine," a troubled fashion magazine.


title: Jason Blum

text: Blum is on the Board of The Public Theater in New York, the Sundance Institute, Vassar College and the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: Fantastic Beasts is a film series directed by David Yates, and a spin-off prequel to the "Harry Potter" novel and film series. The series is distributed by Warner Bros. and consists of three fantasy films as of 2022, beginning with "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them" (2016), and following with "" (2018) and "" (2022). Following the 2001–11 "Harry Potter" film series, "Fantastic Beasts" marks the second film series in the Wizarding World shared universe media franchise.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: The series was mainly produced by David Heyman, and stars Jude Law and Eddie Redmayne as the two leading characters: Albus Dumbledore and Newt Scamander, with Colin Farrell, Johnny Depp and Mads Mikkelsen all portraying the third leading character: main antagonist Gellert Grindelwald. Ezra Miller, Katherine Waterston, Alison Sudol, Dan Fogler, Victoria Yeates, Jessica Williams, Callum Turner, and Richard Coyle also star. Rowling wrote the screenplays for each film, with Steve Kloves returning from the "Harry Potter" film series to co-write the third film: "The Secrets of Dumbledore". Production has taken place over six years, with the main story arc following Dumbledore and his agents' quest to overcome Grindelwald, his lost love, as the First Wizarding War and Second World War approach.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them" was released worldwide on 18 November 2016, followed by "" on 16 November 2018, and "" on 15 April 2022. The series has been commercially successful, having collectively grossed $1.8 billion across three films so far. However, the series has received positive to mixed critical reception, with many critics deeming it inferior to the "Harry Potter" films.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: In 2010, a film adaptation of the Derek Landy novel series "Skulduggery Pleasant" starring Johnny Depp as the title character was in development at Warner Bros.; immensely disliking the script, series author Derek Landy bought back the rights by December. In April 2021, elaborating on the original script's content while promoting "", Landy said that it had contained numerous references to the events of "Harry Potter" in the context of it being set in the same fictional universe, featuring the characters having wands instead of wield magic out-of-hand as in his books. On 12 September 2013, two years following the conclusion of the "Harry Potter" film series with "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2", Warner Bros. announced a new attempt as expanding the fictional universe of Harry Potter into a "Wizarding World", with J. K. Rowling developing a script for a prequel film, titled after a "textbook" Rowling had written in 2001 to be sold to raise money for the British charity "Comic Relief", based on the in-universe textbook of the same name from her "Harry Potter" novel series. Set seventy years before the adventures of Harry Potter and following the adventures of its fictional author Newt Scamander, the film would mark both Rowling's screenwriting debut and the first intended installment in a new series, tentatively entitled "Fantastic Beasts". According to Rowling, after Warner Bros. suggested an adaptation of either "Fantastic Beasts" or "Quidditch Through the Ages", she wrote a rough draft of the script in twelve days. She said, "It wasn't a great draft but it did show the shape of how it might look. So that is how it all started." In March 2014, it was announced that a trilogy was scheduled with the first instalment set in New York, and seeing the return of producer David Heyman, as well as writer Steve Kloves, both veterans of the "Potter" film series.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: In June 2015, Eddie Redmayne was cast in the lead role of Newt Scamander, the Wizarding World's preeminent magizoologist. Other cast members include: Katherine Waterston as Tina Goldstein, Alison Sudol as Queenie Goldstein, Dan Fogler as Jacob Kowalski, Ezra Miller as Credence Barebone, Samantha Morton as Mary Lou, Jenn Murray as Chastity Barebone, Faith Wood-Blagrove as Modesty Barebone, and Colin Farrell as Percival Graves / Gellert Grindelwald. Principal photography began on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. After two months, the production moved to St George's Hall in Liverpool, which was transformed into 1920s New York City. "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them" was released worldwide on 18 November 2016.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: The second film was announced in March 2014. In October 2016, it was revealed that Yates and Rowling would return as director, and screenwriter and co-producer, and Redmayne would be returning to play the lead role of Newt Scamander in all the series' films. In November 2016, it was confirmed that Johnny Depp will have a starring role in the sequel, reprising his cameo role as Gellert Grindelwald from the first instalment, replacing Farrell. Later that same month it was also announced that Albus Dumbledore would be appearing in future instalments, albeit with a younger actor for the prequel film series, intended to eventually supplant Redmayne's Scamander as protagonist of the series. In April 2017, it was confirmed that Jude Law had been cast as Dumbledore. with the film being short and set in New York City, Britain, and Paris. Principal photography began on 3 July 2017, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, and wrapped on 20 December 2017, with "" releasing on 16 November 2018.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: Originally scheduled to begin filming in July 2019, and released in November 2020, production of the third film was pushed back to late 2019 to allow more time polishing the script and re-plan the future of the "Fantastic Beasts" series. In 2018 on Twitter, Rowling promised that the third film would give answers to the questions left unsolved in the first two. In October 2019, Dan Fogler claimed that principal photography on the third film would begin in February 2020. In November 2019, it was announced that the script had been written by both Rowling and Steve Kloves, the latter of whom returned after being absent as a writer on the first two. On 16 March 2020, the very day that principal photography would begin, the COVID-19 pandemic prompted Warner Bros. to postpone production of its third "Fantastic Beasts" film. This made the film be postponed again, from a 12 November 2021 to a 15 July 2022 release. On 20 August 2020, filming was confirmed to start in September. On 20 September 2020, Eddie Redmayne confirmed that filming was two weeks underway with safety precautions in place to keep the cast and crew safe from COVID-19. On 25 November 2020, Warner Bros. announced that Mads Mikkelsen would replace Depp in the role of Grindelwald. On 3 February 2021, filming in the UK was shut down after a production member tested positive for COVID-19. Composer James Newton Howard confirmed later that month that production had wrapped filming. In September 2021, the film's release was pushed forward three months to 15 April 2022, alongside the announcement of the full title: "". It premiered one week early in a few European and Asian countries.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: In 1926, Newt Scamander arrives in New York City with his magically expanded briefcase which houses a number of dangerous creatures and their habitats. When some creatures escape from his briefcase, Newt must battle to correct the mistake, and the horrors of the resultant increase in violence, fear, and tension felt between magical and non-magical people (No-Maj).


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: A few months have passed since the events of "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them". Gellert Grindelwald has escaped imprisonment and has begun gathering followers to his causeelevating wizards above all non-magical beings. Dumbledore must seek help from his former student Newt to put a stop to Grindelwald.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: Several years after the events of "The Crimes of Grindelwald", the story begins in the UK, the US and China and proceeds to take place partly in Berlin, Germany and partly in Bhutan, Asia and leads up to the Wizarding World's involvement in World War II, as Newt Scamander and company returning for another adventurous journey through the wizarding world, attempting to defeat the maniacal Gellert Grindelwald despite Albus Dumbledore being unable to fight against him.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: In October 2016, Rowling announced that the "Fantastic Beasts" film series would be composed of five films, later confirming that the story of the series would consist of a sequence of events that occurred between the years of 1926 and 1945. In February 2022, producer David Heyman revealed that work on the script for "Fantastic Beasts 4" had not begun yet. In April 2022, "Variety" reported that Warner Bros. greenlighting the final two installments would be dependent on the critical and commercial performance of "The Secrets of Dumbledore". In November 2022, Variety reported that Warner Bros. Discovery had no Wizarding World films in active development and was not in "active discussions" with Rowling regarding the future of the franchise, casting the future of the "Fantastic Beasts" films into further uncertainty.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: In January 2021, it was reported that Warner Bros. were reviewing pitches for a television series, set in the Wizarding World, to debut on HBO Max. In May 2022, the reports circulated about the announced meeting between Warner Bros. Discovery CEO David Zaslav and J.K. Rowling in their discussion for future HBO Max projects set within the Wizarding World.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: "Fantastic Beasts: A Natural History" is a documentary film that was broadcast on BBC One on 27 February 2022. Presented by Stephen Fry, the documentary tells magical stories about mythical creatures and beasts from J. K. Rowling's works and their connection to real life animals.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: Fantastic Beasts of the TSA aired on "The Late Late Show with James Corden", on November 17, 2016. Featuring Eddie Redmayne reprise his "Fantastic Beasts" role as Newt Scamander, the film follows Scamander in modern times as he seeks to get his suitcase through airport security, past an overzealous Transportation Security Administration (TSA) agent (played by the show's host, James Corden).


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them" was the eighth highest-grossing film of 2016, and "" was the tenth highest-grossing film of 2018.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: The series has received mixed critical reception being deemed critically inferior to the more positively reviewed Harry Potter films.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: In 2017, "Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them" won the Academy Award for Best Costume Design, becoming the first film in the overall Wizarding World franchise to win an Academy Award.


title: Fantastic Beasts (film series)

text: Fantastic Beasts: The Wonder of Nature was open from 9–15 December 2020 and from 17 May 2021 to 3 January 2022 at the Natural History Museum. It consisted of creatures, specimens and artefacts from the museum's scientific collection displayed side by side with elements from the Wizarding World as well as digital installations. This exhibit featured 100 objects, including props from the Fantastic Beasts and Harry Potter films. There is a similar exhibition set to open at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada on 11 June 2022 through 2 January 2023.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Wish You Were Here is the ninth studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 12 September 1975 through Harvest Records and Columbia Records. Based on material Pink Floyd composed while performing in Europe, "Wish You Were Here" was recorded over numerous sessions throughout 1975 at EMI Studios (now Abbey Road Studios) in London.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The themes include alienation and criticism of the music business. The bulk of the album is taken up by "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", a nine-part tribute to founding member Syd Barrett, who was sacked seven years earlier due to his deteriorating mental health. Barrett coincidentally visited during the album's production in 1975. Like their previous record, "The Dark Side of the Moon" (1973), Pink Floyd used studio effects and synthesisers. Guest singers included Roy Harper, who provided the lead vocals on "Have a Cigar", and Venetta Fields, who added backing vocals to "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". To promote the album, the band released the double A-side single "Have a Cigar" / "Welcome to the Machine".


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: On its release, "Wish You Were Here" received mixed reviews from critics, who found its music uninspiring and inferior to the band's previous work. It has retrospectively received critical acclaim, hailed as one of the greatest albums of all time, and was cited by keyboardist Richard Wright and guitarist David Gilmour as their favourite Pink Floyd album. It reached number one in the US and UK, and Harvest's parent company, EMI, was unable to keep up with the demand. Since then, the record has sold over 20 million copies.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: During 1974, Pink Floyd sketched out three new compositions, "Raving and Drooling" (which would become "Sheep"), "You Gotta Be Crazy" (which would become "Dogs") and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". These songs were performed during a series of concerts in France and England, the band's first tour since 1973's "The Dark Side of the Moon". As Pink Floyd had never employed a publicist and kept themselves distant from the press, their relationship with the media began to sour. Mason said later that a critical "NME" review by Syd Barrett devotee Nick Kent may have had an influence in keeping the band together, as they returned to the studio in the first week of 1975.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: "Wish You Were Here" is Floyd's second album with a conceptual theme and with lyrics entirely by Roger Waters. It reflects his feeling that the camaraderie that had served the band was, by then, largely absent. The album begins with a long instrumental preamble and segues into the lyrics for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", a tribute to Syd Barrett, whose mental breakdown had forced him to leave the group seven years earlier. Barrett is fondly recalled with lines such as "Remember when you were young, you shone like the sun" and "You reached for the secret too soon, you cried for the moon".


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: "Wish You Were Here" is also a critique of the music business. "Shine On" crosses seamlessly into "Welcome to the Machine", a song that begins with an opening door (described by Waters as a symbol of musical discovery and progress betrayed by a music industry more interested in greed and success) and ends with a party, the latter epitomising "the lack of contact and real feelings between people". Similarly, "Have a Cigar" scorns record industry "fat-cats" with the lyrics repeating a stream of cliches heard by rising newcomers in the industry, and including the question "by the way, which one's Pink?" asked of the band on at least one occasion. The lyrics of the next song, "Wish You Were Here", relate both to Barrett's condition and to the dichotomy of Waters' character, with greed and ambition battling with compassion and idealism.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: "I had some criticisms of "Dark Side of the Moon"…" noted David Gilmour. "One or two of the vehicles carrying the ideas were not as strong as the ideas that they carried. I thought we should try and work harder on marrying the idea and the vehicle that carried it, so that they both had an equal magic… It's something I was personally pushing when we made "Wish You Were Here"."


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Alan Parsons, EMI staff engineer for Pink Floyd's previous studio album, "The Dark Side of the Moon", declined to continue working with them. The group had worked with engineer Brian Humphries on "More", recorded at Pye Studios, and again in 1974 when he replaced an inexperienced concert engineer. Humphries was therefore the natural choice to work on the band's new material, although, being a stranger to EMI's Abbey Road set-up, he encountered some early difficulties. On one occasion, Humphries inadvertently spoiled the backing tracks for "Shine On", a piece that Waters and drummer Nick Mason had spent many hours perfecting, with echo. The entire piece had to be re-recorded.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The sessions for "Wish You Were Here" at EMI's Studio Three (now Abbey Road Studios) lasted from January until July 1975, recording on four days each week from 2:30 pm until very late in the evening. The group found it difficult at first to devise any new material, especially as the success of "The Dark Side of the Moon" had left all four physically and emotionally drained. Keyboardist Richard Wright later described these sessions as "falling within a difficult period", and Waters recalled them as "torturous". Mason found the process of multi-track recording drawn-out and tedious, while Gilmour was more interested in improving the band's existing material. Gilmour was also becoming increasingly frustrated with Mason, whose failing marriage had brought on a general malaise and sense of apathy, both of which interfered with his drumming.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Humphries gave his point of view regarding these struggled sessions in a 2014 interview: “There were days when we didn't do anything. I don't think they knew what they wanted to do. We had a dartboard and an air rifle and we'd play these word games, sit around, get drunk, go home and return the next day. That’s all we were doing until suddenly everything started falling into place.”


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: After several weeks, Waters began to visualise another concept. The three new compositions from 1974's tour were at least a starting point for a new album, and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" seemed a reasonable choice as a centrepiece for the new work. Mostly an instrumental 20-minute-plus piece similar to "Echoes", the opening four-note guitar phrase reminded Waters of the lingering ghost of former band-member Syd Barrett. Gilmour had composed the phrase entirely by accident, but was encouraged by Waters' positive response. Waters wanted to split "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", and sandwich two new songs between its two halves. Gilmour disagreed, but was outvoted three to one. "Welcome to the Machine" and "Have a Cigar" were barely veiled attacks on the music business, their lyrics working neatly with "Shine On" to provide an apt summary of the rise and fall of Barrett; "Because I wanted to get as close as possible to what I felt ... that sort of indefinable, inevitable melancholy about the disappearance of Syd." "Raving and Drooling" and "You’ve Got To Be Crazy" had no place in the new concept, and were set aside until the following album, 1977's "Animals".


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: On 5 June 1975, on the eve of Pink Floyd's second US tour that year, Gilmour married his first wife, Ginger. That day, the band were completing the mix of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" when an overweight man with shaven head and eyebrows entered, carrying a plastic bag. Waters did not recognise him. Gilmour presumed he was an EMI staff member. Wright presumed he was a friend of Waters, but realised it was Barrett. Mason also failed to recognise him and was "horrified" when Gilmour identified him. In Mason's Pink Floyd memoir "", he recalled Barrett's conversation as "desultory and not entirely sensible". Cover artist Storm Thorgerson reflected on Barrett's presence: "Two or three people cried. He sat round and talked for a bit but he wasn't really there."


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Waters was reportedly reduced to tears by the sight of his former bandmate. When fellow visitor Andrew King asked how Barrett had gained so much weight, Barrett said he had a large refrigerator in his kitchen and had been eating lots of pork chops. He mentioned that he was ready to help with the recording, but while listening to the mix of "Shine On", showed no signs of understanding its relevance to him. Barrett joined Gilmour's wedding reception in the EMI canteen, but left without saying goodbye. Apart from Waters seeing Barrett buying sweets in Harrods a couple of years later, it was the last time any member of the band saw him alive. Barrett's appearance may have influenced the final version of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond"; a subtle refrain performed by Wright from "See Emily Play" is audible towards the end. Waters said later: "'Shine On' is not really about Sydhe's just a symbol for all the extremes of absence some people have to indulge in because it's the only way they can cope with how fucking sad it is, modern life, to withdraw completely. I found that terribly sad."


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: As with "The Dark Side of the Moon", the band used synthesizers such as the EMS VCS 3 (on "Welcome to the Machine"), but softened with Gilmour's acoustic guitar, and percussion from Mason. The beginning of "Shine On" contains remnants from a previous but incomplete studio recording by the band known as "Household Objects". Wine glasses had been filled with varying amounts of fluid, and recordings were made of a wet finger circling the edge of each glass. These recordings were multi-tracked into chords.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli and classical violinist Yehudi Menuhin were performing in another studio in the building, and were invited to record a piece for the new album. Menuhin watched as Grappelli played on the song "Wish You Were Here"; however, the band later decided his contribution was unsuitable and, until 2011, it was believed that the piece had been wiped. It turns out his playing was included on the album, but so low in the final mix that the band presumed it would be insulting to credit him. He was paid £300 for his contribution (equivalent to £ in 2022). Saxophonist Dick Parry, who had performed on "The Dark Side of the Moon", performed on "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". The opening bars of "Wish You Were Here" were recorded from Gilmour's car radio, with somebody turning the dial (the classical music heard is the finale of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony).


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Recording sessions had twice been interrupted by US tours (one in April and the other in June 1975), and the final sessions, which occurred after the band's performance at Knebworth, proved particularly troublesome for Waters. He struggled to record the vocals for "Have a Cigar", requiring several takes to perform an acceptable version. His problems stemmed in part from the stresses placed upon his voice while recording the lead vocals of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". Gilmour was asked to sing in his place, but declined, and eventually colleague and friend Roy Harper was asked to stand in. Harper was recording his own album in another of EMI's studios, and Gilmour had already performed some guitar licks for him. Waters later regretted the decision, believing he should have performed the song. The Blackberries recorded backing vocals for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond".


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The band played much of "Wish You Were Here" on 5 July 1975 at the Knebworth music festival. Roy Harper, performing at the same event, on discovering that his stage costume was missing, proceeded to destroy one of Pink Floyd's vans, injuring himself in the process. This delayed the normal setup procedure of the band's sound system. As a pair of World War II Spitfire aircraft had been booked to fly over the crowd during their entrance, the band were not able to delay their set. The result was that a power supply problem pushed Wright's keyboards completely out of tune, damaging the band's performance. At one point he left the stage, but the band were able to continue with a less sensitive keyboard, a piano and a simpler light show. Following a brief intermission, they returned to perform "The Dark Side of the Moon", but critics displeased about being denied access backstage savaged the performance.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: "Wish You Were Here" was sold in one of the more elaborate packages to accompany a Pink Floyd album. Storm Thorgerson had accompanied the band on their 1974 tour and had given serious thought to the meaning of the lyrics, eventually deciding that the songs were, in general, concerned with "unfulfilled presence", rather than Barrett's illness. This theme of absence was reflected in the ideas produced by his long hours spent brainstorming with the band. Thorgerson had noted that Roxy Music's "Country Life" was sold in an opaque green cellophane sleeve – censoring the cover image – and he copied the idea, concealing the artwork for "Wish You Were Here" in a black-coloured shrink-wrap (therefore making the album art "absent"). The concept behind "Welcome to the Machine" and "Have a Cigar" suggested the use of a handshake (an often empty gesture), and George Hardie designed a sticker containing the album's logo of two mechanical hands engaged in a handshake, to be placed on the opaque sleeve (the mechanical handshake logo would also appear on the labels of the vinyl album this time in a black and blue background).


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The album's cover images were photographed by Aubrey "Po" Powell, Thorgerson's partner at the design studio Hipgnosis, and inspired by the idea that people tend to conceal their true feelings, for fear of "getting burned", and thus two businessmen were pictured shaking hands, one man on fire. "Getting burned" was also a common phrase in the music industry, used often by artists denied royalty payments. Two stuntmen were used (Ronnie Rondell and Danny Rogers), one dressed in a fireproof suit covered by a business suit. His head was protected by a hood, underneath a wig. The photograph was taken at Warner Bros. Studios in California, known at the time as The Burbank Studios. Initially the wind was blowing in the wrong direction, and the flames were forced into Rondell's face, burning his moustache. The two stuntmen changed positions, and the image was later reversed.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The album's back cover depicts a faceless "Floyd salesman", in Thorgerson's words, "selling his soul" in the desert (shot in the Yuma Desert in California again by Powell). The absence of wrists and ankles signifies his presence as an "empty suit". The inner sleeve shows a veil concealing a nude woman in a windswept Norfolk grove, and a splash-less diver at Mono Lake – titled "Monosee" (the German translation of Mono Lake) on the liner notes – in California (again emphasising the theme of absence). The decision to shroud the cover in black plastic was not popular with the band's US record company, Columbia Records, which insisted that it be changed but was over-ruled. EMI was less concerned; the band were reportedly extremely happy with the end product, and when presented with a pre-production mockup, they accepted it with a spontaneous round of applause.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The album was released on 12 September 1975 in the UK, and on the following day in the US. It was Pink Floyd's first album with Columbia Records, an affiliate of CBS; the band and their manager Steve O'Rourke had been dissatisfied with the efforts of EMI's US label Capitol Records. The band remained with EMI's Harvest Records in Europe.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: In Britain, with 250,000 advance sales, the album debuted at number three and reached number one the following week. Demand was such that EMI informed retailers that only half of their orders would be fulfilled. With 900,000 advance orders (the largest for any Columbia release) it reached number one on the US "Billboard" chart in its second week. "Wish You Were Here" was Pink Floyd's fastest-selling album ever. The album was certified Silver and Gold (60,000 and 100,000 sales respectively) in the UK on 1 August 1975, and Gold in the US on 17 September 1975. It was certified six times platinum on 16 May 1997, and by 2004 had sold an estimated 13 million copies worldwide. "Have a Cigar" was chosen by Columbia as the first single, with "Welcome to the Machine" on the B-side in the US. The album was a commercial hit in Europe, topping Dutch, English and Spanish charts – in Spain, the album remained at number one for 20 weeks.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: On release, the album received mixed reviews. Ben Edmunds wrote in "Rolling Stone" that the band's "lackadaisical demeanor" leaves the subject of Barrett "unrealised; they give such a matter-of-fact reading of the goddamn thing that they might as well be singing about Roger Waters's brother-in-law getting a parking ticket." Edmunds concluded the band is "devoid" of the "sincere passion for their 'art that contemporary space rock acts purportedly have. "Melody Maker" reviewer wrote: "From whichever direction one approaches "Wish You Were Here", it still sounds unconvincing in its ponderous sincerity and displays a critical lack of imagination in all departments." A positive review came from Robert Christgau in "The Village Voice": "The music is not only simple and attractive, with the synthesizer used mostly for texture and the guitar breaks for comment, but it actually achieves some of the symphonic dignity (and cross-referencing) that "The Dark Side of the Moon" simulated so ponderously." Years later, he reflected further on the record: "My favorite Pink Floyd album has always been "Wish You Were Here", and you know why? It has soul, that's why – it's Roger Waters's lament for Syd, not my idea of a tragic hero but as long as he's Roger's that doesn't matter."


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: "Wish You Were Here" has since been frequently regarded as one of the greatest albums of all time, and is generally ranked as one of the greatest progressive rock albums. According to Acclaimed Music it is the 212th most celebrated album in popular music history. In 2003, it was ranked at number 209 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, ranked at number 211 in a 2012 revised list, and ranked at number 264 in a 2020 revised list. In 2015, it was chosen as the fourth-greatest progressive rock album by Rolling Stone. In 2014, British rock magazine Louder ranked it as the seventh-greatest progressive rock album of all time. In 1998, "Q" readers voted "Wish You Were Here" the 34th-greatest album of all time. In 2000, the same magazine placed it at number 43 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 2000 it was voted number 38 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums". In 2007, one of Germany's largest public radio stations, WDR 2, asked its listeners to vote for the 200 best albums of all time. "Wish You Were Here" was voted number one. In 2004, "Wish You Were Here" was ranked number 36 on Pitchfork Media's list of the Top 100 albums of the 1970s. IGN rated "Wish You Were Here" as the eighth-greatest classic rock album, and Ultimate Classic Rock placed "Wish You Were Here" second best in its list of "Worst to Best Pink Floyd Albums".


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: Despite the problems during production, the album remained Wright's favourite: "It's an album I can listen to for pleasure, and there aren't many Floyd albums that I can." Gilmour shares this view: "I for one would have to say that it is my favourite album, the "Wish You Were Here" album. The end result of all that, whatever it was, definitely has left me an album I can live with very very happily. I like it very much."


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: ""Dark Side of the Moon" and "The Wall" were the most complete albums we ever made," remarked Waters. ""Wish You Were Here" came close, without being a complete classic… For me, that album and "Animals" signalled the end of the band as it had been before."


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: "Wish You Were Here" has been remastered and re-released on several formats. In the UK and US the album was re-issued in quadraphonic using the SQ format in 1976, and in 1980 a special "Hi-Fi Today" audiophile print was released in the UK. It was released on CD in Japan in October 1982, in the US in 1983, and in the UK in 1985, and again as a remastered CD with new artwork in 1994. In the US, Columbia's CBS Mastersound label released a half-speed mastered audiophile LP in 1981, and in 1994 Sony Mastersound released a 24-carat gold-plated CD, remastered using Super Bit Mapping, with the original artwork from the LP in both longbox and jewel case forms, the latter with a cardboard slipcover. The album was included as part of the box set "Shine On", and five years later Columbia Records released an updated remastered CD, 17 seconds longer than the EMI remasters from 1994, giving a running time of 44:28.


title: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)

text: The label was a recreation of the original machine handshake logo, with a black and blue background. The album was subsequently re-released in 2000 for its 25th anniversary, on the Capitol Records label in the US. The album was re-released and remixed in 2011 in multiple editions as part of the "Why Pink Floyd...?" reissue campaign. The "Wish You Were Here – Immersion Box Set" includes the new stereo digital remaster (2011) by James Guthrie on CD, an unreleased 5.1 Surround Mix (2009) by James Guthrie on DVD and Blu-ray, a Quad Mix (which had been released only on vinyl LP and 8-track tape) on DVD, as well as the original stereo mix (1975) on DVD and Blu-ray. This campaign also featured the 2011 stereo remaster on 180g heavyweight vinyl, as well as the 2011 stereo remaster and the 5.1 surround sound mix (2009) as a hybrid Super Audio CD (SACD). In 2016, the 180g vinyl was re-released on the band's own Pink Floyd Records label (with distribution by Warner Music and Sony Music) this time remastered by James Guthrie, Joel Plante and Bernie Grundman.


title: Union territory

text: A union territory is a type of administrative division in the Republic of India. Unlike the states of India, which have their own governments, union territories are federal territories governed, in part or in whole, by the Union Government of India. There are currently eight union territories in India, namely Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep and Puducherry.


title: Union territory

text: After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, Part C and Part D states were combined into a single category of "Union territory". Due to various other reorganisations, only 6 union territories remained:


title: Union territory

text: By the early 1970s, Manipur, Tripura, and Himachal Pradesh had become full-fledged states, and Chandigarh became a union territory. Another three (Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu and Puducherry) were formed from acquired territories that formerly belonged to non-British colonial powers (Portuguese India and French India, respectively).


title: Union territory

text: In August 2019, the Parliament of India passed Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019. The act contains provisions to reconstitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories, one to be eponymously called Jammu and Kashmir, and the other Ladakh on 31 October 2019.


title: Union territory

text: In November 2019, the Government of India introduced legislation to merge the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu into a single union territory to be known as Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.


title: Union territory

text: The Parliament of India can pass a law to amend the constitution and provide a Legislature with elected Members and a Chief Minister for a union territory, as it has done for Delhi and Puducherry. In general, the President of India appoints an administrator or lieutenant governor for each UT.


title: Union territory

text: Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu and Kashmir operate differently from the other five. They were given partial statehood and Delhi was redefined as the [National Capital Territory] (NCT) and incorporated into a larger area known as the National Capital Region (NCR). Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu and Kashmir have an elected legislative assembly and an executive council of ministers with a partially state-like function.


title: Union territory

text: Due to the existence of union territories, many critics have resolved India into a semi-federal nation, as the central and state governments each have their domains and territories of legislation. Union territories of India have special rights and status due to their constitutional formation and development. The status of "union territory" may be assigned to an Indian sub-jurisdiction for reasons such as safeguarding the rights of indigenous cultures, averting political turmoil related to matters of governance, and so on. These union territories could be changed to states in the future for more efficient administrative control.


title: Union territory

text: The Constitution does not stipulate how tax revenue is to be devolved to the union territories, unlike for the states. The fund's devolution to union territories by the union government has no criteria where all the revenue goes to the union government. Some union territories are provided more funds, while others are given less, arbitrarily by the union government. As union territories are directly ruled by the union government, some union territories get more funds from the union government than entitled on per capita and backwardness basis when compared to states.


title: Union territory

text: After the introduction of GST, UT-GST is applicable in union territories which do not have a legislative assembly. UT- GST is levied at par with the applicable state GST in the rest of the country which would eliminate the previous lower taxation in the union territories.


title: Union territory

text: of the Indian constitution says that India shall be a "Union of States", which is elaborated under Parts and of the constitution. Article 1 (3) says the territory of India comprises the territories of the states, the union territories and other territories that may be acquired. The concept of union territories was not in the original version of the constitution, but was added by the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956. also defines Union territory as any union territory specified in the First Schedule and includes any other territory comprised within the territory of India but not specified in that Schedule. In the constitution wherever it refers to Territories of India, it is applicable to the whole country including union territories. Where it refers to only India, it applies to all states only but not to union territories. Thus, citizenship (part II), fundamental rights , Directive Principles of State Policy (part IV), Judiciary role, the Union Territories (part VIII), , etc. apply to union territories as it refers specifically to Territories of India. The executive power of the Union (i.e. union of states only) rests with President of India. The President of India is also the chief administrator of union territories as per . The union public service commission's role does not apply to all territories of India as it refers to India only in .


title: Union territory

text: The constitutional status of a union territory is similar to a state under the perennial president's rule per subject to specific exemptions to a few union territories with legislative assembly. Per , supreme power is accorded to the president in regulating the affairs of all the union territories except Chandigarh, NCT and Puducherry, including powers to override the laws made by Parliament and the constitution of India. Article 240 (2) allows implementing tax haven laws in these union territories to attract foreign capital and investments into India instead of depending on foreign tax haven countries.


title: Union territory

text: The difference between states as listed in the First Schedule of the constitution and union territories with legislative assembly is that states were given autonomous powers as provided in the constitution without any possible interference by the parliament whereas UTs with legislative assembly () has similar powers but parliament is empowered to modify or repeal or suspend the laws made by a union territory (ultimate authority by the parliament unlike the independent nature of the states).


title: Union territory

text: Three of the union territories have representation in the upper house of the Indian Parliament, the Rajya Sabha: Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, and Puducherry. Puducherry and NCT of Delhi are the only 2 Union Territories that are exceptional among union territories in that each has its own locally elected legislative assembly and have Chief Minister.


title: Union territory

text: Mahe district is one of the four districts of Puducherry, lying opposite Puducherry district on the Kerala coast. It is argued by many advocating the adjoining of Mahe with Lakshadweep or Kerala or making a separate union territory because of a perceived lack of development compared to the rest of Puducherry.


title: Union territory

text: Panun Kashmir was a proposed union territory in the Kashmir Valley which is advocated by the Kashmiri Pandit Network as a homeland for Kashmiri Hindus who have fled the Kashmir valley as a result of ongoing violence and hope to return. Now officially part of Jammu and Kashmir


title: Union territory

text: People of chakma region of Mizoram and adjoining states demand the conversion of Chakma autonomous district council into Separate union territory.


title: Union territory

text: The chakma people ( who are mostly Buddhist) have faced discrimination by the mizo people,who are predominantly chiristian.


title: George C. Scott

text: George Campbell Scott (October 18, 1927 – September 22, 1999) was an American actor, director, and producer who had a celebrated career on both stage and screen. With a gruff demeanor and commanding presence, Scott became known for his portrayal of stern, but complex, authority figures such as prosecutor Claude Dancer in "Anatomy of a Murder", General Buck Turgidson in Stanley Kubrick's "Dr. Strangelove", Herbert Bock in "The Hospital", Ebenezer Scrooge in "A Christmas Carol", Lt. Kinderman in "The Exorcist III", and General George S. Patton in the biopic "Patton", which won him the Academy Award for Best Actor. Described by "The Guardian" as "a battler and an actor of rare courage", his performances won him widespread recognition and numerous other accolades, including a Golden Globe, a Genie Award, and two Primetime Emmys.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott first distinguished himself as a stage actor in New York, both in Off-Broadway and Broadway productions. He earned the first of four Oscar nominations for only his second film role, in "Anatomy of a Murder", and soon achieved screen stardom through a series of lead roles in films like "The Hustler" (1961), "The List of Adrian Messenger" (1963), "Dr. Strangelove" (1964), and "" (1966). Though he won the Best Actor Oscar for playing the titular role in "Patton", he became the first actor to refuse the award, having warned the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences months in advance that he would do so on philosophical grounds if he won. Scott believed that every dramatic performance was unique and could not be compared to others.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott continued to maintain a prominent stage career even as his film stardom waned, and by the end of his career he had accrued five Tony nominations, including four for Best Actor in a Play, earning his final nomination for playing Matthew Harrison Brady in the 1996 Broadway revival of "Inherit the Wind". He directed several of his own films and plays and often collaborated with his wives Colleen Dewhurst and Trish Van Devere.


title: George C. Scott

text: George Campbell Scott was born, the younger of two siblings, on October 18, 1927, on a kitchen table in the modest Wise, Virginia, home of his parents, George Dewey Scott (1902–1988) and Helena Agnes (née Slemp; 1904–1935). His mother was the first cousin, once removed of Republican Congressman C. Bascom Slemp. His maternal grandfather was a local jurist, Judge Campbell Slemp. His mother died just before his eighth birthday, and he was raised by his father, an executive at Buick. Scott's original ambition was to be a writer like his favorite author, F. Scott Fitzgerald. While attending Redford High School in Detroit, he wrote many short stories, none of which were published. He tried on many occasions to write a novel, but never completed one to his own satisfaction.


title: George C. Scott

text: After high school, Scott enlisted in the United States Marine Corps, serving from 1945 to 1949. He was assigned to 8th and I Barracks in Washington, D.C., and his primary duty was serving as honor guard at military funerals at Arlington National Cemetery. He later said that during his duty at Arlington, "[I] pick[ed] up a solid drinking habit that stayed with me from then on."


title: George C. Scott

text: Following military service, Scott enrolled in the University of Missouri on the G.I. Bill where he majored in journalism and then became interested in drama. His first public appearance on stage was as the barrister in a university production of Terence Rattigan's "The Winslow Boy", directed by H. Donovan Rhynsburger. During rehearsals for that show, he made his first stage appearance—in a student production of Noël Coward's "Hands Across the Sea", directed by Jerry V. Tobias. He graduated from the university in 1953 with degrees in English and theater.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott first rose to prominence for his work with Joseph Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival. In 1958, he won an Obie Award for his performances in "Children of Darkness" (in which he made the first of many appearances opposite his future wife, actress Colleen Dewhurst), for "As You Like It" (1958), and for playing the title character in William Shakespeare's "Richard III" (1957–58) (a performance one critic said was the "angriest" Richard III of all time).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott's Broadway debut was in "Comes a Day" (1958) which had a short run. Scott's television debut was in a 1958 adaptation of "A Tale of Two Cities" for the "Dupont Show of the Month" directed by Robert Mulligan. He also appeared in a televised version of "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" (1958) plus episodes of "Kraft Theatre", and "Omnibus". Scott's feature film debut was in "The Hanging Tree" (1959), starring Gary Cooper and Maria Schell.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott earned his first Academy Award nomination for his performance in Otto Preminger's "Anatomy of a Murder" (1959); later that year he appeared on Broadway in "The Andersonville Trial" by Saul Levitt directed by Jose Ferrer, winning critical acclaim for his portrayal of the prosecutor. This was based on the military trial of the commandant of the infamous Civil War prison camp in Andersonville, Georgia. It ran for 179 performances from December 1959 to June 1960.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott received good reviews for "The Wall" (1960–61) which ran for 167 performances. He guest-starred on episodes of "Sunday Showcase", "Playhouse 90", "Play of the Week" (doing "Don Juan in Hell"), "Dow Hour of Great Mysteries", and a "Hallmark Hall of Fame" production of "Winterset", originally written for the stage. Scott received superb notices for his performance in "The Hustler" (1961). He returned to Broadway to direct "General Seeger" (1962) by Ira Levin but it only lasted two performances. The play "Great Day in the Morning" (1962), in which he was directed by José Quintero, also had only a brief run.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott was in much demand for guest shots on TV shows, appearing in episodes of "Ben Casey" and "Naked City". In 1962, Scott appeared as school teacher Arthur Lilly on NBC's "The Virginian", in the episode "The Brazen Bell", in which he recites Oscar Wilde's poem "The Ballad of Reading Gaol". That same year, he appeared in NBC's medical drama "The Eleventh Hour", in the episode "I Don't Belong in a White-Painted House". He appeared opposite Laurence Olivier and Julie Harris in Graham Greene's "The Power and the Glory" in a 1961 television production and also performed in "The Merchant of Venice" (1962) off-Broadway.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott's first leading role in a feature was "The List of Adrian Messenger" released in 1963. That year, Scott starred in the hour-long television drama series "East Side/West Side." He portrayed a New York City social worker, along with co-stars Cicely Tyson and Elizabeth Wilson. Scott was a major creative influence on the show, resulting in conflicts with James T. Aubrey, the head of CBS. The Emmy Award-winning program had a series of guest stars, including James Earl Jones. The portrayal of challenging urban issues made attracting advertisers difficult, not helped by the limited distribution. Not all CBS network affiliates broadcast the show, and it was canceled after one season. Scott had a success during 1963 in an off-Broadway production of "Desire Under the Elms".


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott's highest-profile early role was in the Stanley Kubrick directed "Dr. Strangelove, or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb" (1964), in which he played General "Buck" Turgidson. In later interviews with Kubrick, Scott was revealed to have initially refused to camp it up on camera. As a compromise, Kubrick had Scott go over the top in rehearsal, assuring Scott that the cameras were off, which was untrue. Somehow, Scott was unable to hear the very loud motor on the 35mm film cameras of the time. Kubrick proceeded to use this version in the final cut, which Scott supposedly resented. Scott was one of many stars in "The Yellow Rolls-Royce" (1964).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott was cast, under the direction of John Huston in Dino de Laurentiis's "", which was released by 20th Century Fox in 1966. Also in 1966, Scott appeared as Jud Barker in the NBC western "The Road West", starring Barry Sullivan, Kathryn Hays, Andrew Prine, and Glenn Corbett. He also guest starred in "Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre". He co-starred with Tony Curtis in the comedy film "Not with My Wife, You Don't!" (also 1966) and as John Proctor in a television version of "The Crucible" (1967).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott returned to Broadway in 1967 to direct "Dr. Cook's Garden" by Ira Levin but quit during tryouts. As an actor, he appeared in a revival of "The Little Foxes" (1967–68) directed by Mike Nichols, which ran for 100 performances. Scott starred in "The Flim-Flam Man" (1967) and "Petulia" (1968). He appeared in the made-for-television movie "Mirror, Mirror Off the Wall" (1969).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott portrayed George S. Patton in the film "Patton" (1970) and researched extensively for the role, studying films of the general and talking to those who knew him. Scott refused the Oscar nomination for "Patton", just as he had done for his nomination in 1962 for "The Hustler", but won the award anyway.


title: George C. Scott

text: In a letter to the Motion Picture Academy, he stated that he did not feel himself to be in competition with other actors. However, regarding this second rejection of the Academy Award, Scott famously said elsewhere, "The whole thing is a goddamn meat parade. I don't want any part of it."


title: George C. Scott

text: The Best Picture Oscar for "Patton" was given to the George C. Marshall Foundation Library at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia, the same institution that generations of Pattons attended, by producer Frank McCarthy a few weeks after the awards ceremony, and is on display there. Scott did not refuse the New York Film Critics Award; his then-wife Colleen Dewhurst said, "George thinks this is the only film award worth having".


title: George C. Scott

text: During the early 1970s, Scott appeared in the made-for-television films "Jane Eyre" (1970) as Mr. Rochester and "The Price" (1971), a version of the Arthur Miller play. For the latter role, he won an Emmy Award, which he accepted. He also directed a TV version of "The Andersonville Trial" (1970).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott then returned his focus to feature films. He appeared in "They Might Be Giants" (1971) with Joanne Woodward, and "The Last Run" (1971) for director Richard Fleischer, with his wife Colleen Dewhurst and also with Trish Van Devere, who would become his fourth and last wife. Scott had a big hit with "" (1971) based on a script by Paddy Chayefksy; and "The New Centurions" (1972) directed by Flesicher based on a book by Joseph Wambaugh.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott then appeared in a series of box office flops, beginning with "Rage" (1972), which he both directed and starred in. He then appeared in "Oklahoma Crude" (1973) directed by Stanley Kramer; "The Day of the Dolphin" (1973) directed by Mike Nichols, in which Scott appeared with Van Devere; "Bank Shot" (1974), directed by Gower Champion; and "The Savage Is Loose" (1974), which co-starred Van Devere and which Scott himself directed. Scott returned to television with "Fear on Trial" (1975); and starred in the big-budget disaster movie, "The Hindenburg" (1975) for director Robert Wise.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott had a big Broadway hit with Neil Simon's "Plaza Suite" (1968), directed by Mike Nichols. The show was composed of three separate one-act plays all using the same set, with Scott portraying a different lead character in each act; it ran for 1,097 performances. Scott directed a production of "All God's Chillun Got Wings" (1975) which starred Van Devere and only had a short run. He directed and played Willy Loman in a 1975 revival of "Death of a Salesman", for which he garnered another Tony nomination.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott received a Tony Award nomination for his performance as Astrov in a 1973 revival of "Uncle Vanya", directed by Nichols, which ran for 64 performances. Scott starred in a well-received production of Larry Gelbart's "Sly Fox" (1976; based on Ben Jonson's "Volpone"), which ran 495 performances. Scott returned to Broadway for "Tricks of the Trade" in 1980 with Van Devere, but it ran for a single performance. However, a 1984 Broadway revival of Coward's "Design for Living", which he directed, ran for 245 performances. In 1986, on Broadway, Scott did "The Boys in Autumn" in 1986. In 1993, he appeared off-Broadway successfully with "Wrong Turn at Lungfish".


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott appeared in a television production of "Beauty and the Beast" (1976), with Trish Van Devere. He later starred as an Ernest Hemingway-based artist in "Islands in the Stream" (1977) directed by Schaffner and based on Hemingway's posthumously published novel. He had a cameo in "Crossed Swords" (1977) directed by Fleischer, then had the lead in "Movie Movie" (1978) directed by Stanley Donen, costarring with Van Devere, and "Hardcore" (1979) written and directed by Paul Schrader.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott starred in "The Changeling" (1980), with Melvyn Douglas, John Colicos, Jean Marsh, and Van Devere, for which he received the Canadian Genie Award for Best Foreign Film Actor for his performance. He followed this with "The Formula" (1980) co-starring Marlon Brando, which was a flop. With one exception, it was the last time he had the lead in a major studio feature film.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott appeared alongside Timothy Hutton and rising stars Sean Penn and Tom Cruise in the coming-of-age film "Taps" (1981), and was cast as Fagin in the CBS made-for-TV adaptation of Charles Dickens' "Oliver Twist" (1982). On Broadway, he starred in and directed a successful revival of Noël Coward's "Present Laughter" which ran during 1982–83. He starred in "China Rose" (1983) on television, and in 1984, had a supporting role in "Firestarter" and portrayed Ebenezer Scrooge in a television adaptation of "A Christmas Carol". He was nominated for an Emmy Award for the role. Scott played the title role in the made-for-television-movie "" (1985).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott reprised his role as Patton in a made-for-television sequel, "The Last Days of Patton" (1986). Based on the final weeks of Patton's life after being mortally injured in a car accident, it contains flashbacks of Patton's life. At the time the sequel was aired, Scott mentioned in a TV Guide interview that he told the academy to donate his Oscar to the Patton Museum, but since the instructions were never put in writing, it was never delivered.


title: George C. Scott

text: On television, Scott did "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1986) and "Pals" (1987; with Don Ameche). He also played the lead role in the TV series "Mr. President" (1987–88), which ran for 24 turbulent episodes. He was also on the Johnny Carson Show in March 1987. Scott starred in the television film "The Ryan White Story" (1989) as Charles Vaughan, the lawyer defending Ryan White. The following year, in 1990, he voiced two villainous roles: Smoke in the television special "Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue" and Percival McLeach in the Disney film "The Rescuers Down Under".


title: George C. Scott

text: He was featured in "The Exorcist III" (1990). For TV, he starred in "Descending Angel" (also 1990) and "Finding the Way Home" (1991). On Broadway, he directed and appeared in a revival of "On Borrowed Time" (1991–92). He had a supporting role in "Curacao" (1993) and "Malice" (1993). Scott had a starring role in "Traps" (1994) but the series only ran for five episodes. He also had a semi-regular role on another short-lived series "New York News" (1995). Around this time, Scott appeared in such feature films as "The Whipping Boy" (1994), "Tyson" (1995), and "Angus" (1995).


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott received another Tony nomination for his performance as Henry Drummond in a revival of "Inherit the Wind" (1996). In the latter play, he had to miss many performances due to illness, with his role being taken over by National Actors Theatre artistic director Tony Randall. In 1996, he received an honorary Drama Desk Award for a lifetime devotion to theatre.


title: George C. Scott

text: On the small screen, he did "Country Justice" (1996), "Titanic" (1996) (as the ship's captain), and "The Searchers" (1996). Scott portrayed Juror No. 3 in the TV-movie "12 Angry Men" (1997), the role played by Lee J. Cobb in the 1957 film, for which he would win another Emmy Award.


title: George C. Scott

text: He hosted "Weapons at War" on A&E TV, but was replaced after one season by Gerald McRaney. "Weapons at War" moved to The History Channel with Scott still credited as host for the first season. Scott was replaced by Robert Conrad after his death in 1999. He had support roles in "Gloria" (1999) for Sidney Lumet and "Rocky Marciano" (1999). Scott made his last film, the TV movie "Inherit the Wind" (1999), portraying Matthew Harrison Brady (ironically opposite the role he had played on stage) with Jack Lemmon as Henry Drummond, with whom he had also worked in "12 Angry Men".


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott had a reputation for being moody and mercurial while on the set. "There is no question you get pumped up by the recognition ... Then a self-loathing sets in when you realize you're enjoying it", he was quoted as saying. One anecdote relates that one of his stage co-stars, Maureen Stapleton, told the director of Neil Simon's "Plaza Suite," "I don't know what to do – I'm scared of him." The director, Mike Nichols, replied, "My dear, everyone is scared of George C. Scott."


title: George C. Scott

text: In 1982, Scott appeared in a campaign commercial for moderate Republican U.S. Senator Lowell Weicker of Connecticut. Like Weicker, Scott was, at that time, a resident of Greenwich, Connecticut. Scott identified politically as a moderate conservative and supported the death penalty.


title: George C. Scott

text: Scott suffered a series of heart attacks in the 1980s. He died on September 22, 1999, aged 71, of a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm. He was interred in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Westwood, California, in a grave (the grave bears no name, but is marked) located to the northeast (or left, looking toward the gravestones) of the grave where Walter Matthau would be buried nearly a year later.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Totalitarianism is a form of government and a political system that prohibits all opposition parties, outlaws individual and group opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high if not complete degree of control and regulation over public and private life. It is regarded as the most extreme and complete form of authoritarianism. In totalitarian states, political power is often held by autocrats, such as dictators (totalitarian dictatorship) and absolute monarchs, who employ all-encompassing campaigns in which propaganda is broadcast by state-controlled mass media in order to control the citizenry. By 1950, the term and concept of totalitarianism entered mainstream Western political discourse. Furthermore this era also saw anti-communist and McCarthyist political movements intensify and use the concept of totalitarianism as a tool to convert pre-World War II anti-fascism into Cold War anti-communism.


title: Totalitarianism

text: As a political ideology in itself, totalitarianism is a distinctly modernist phenomenon, and it has very complex historical roots. Philosopher Karl Popper traced its roots to Plato, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's conception of the state, and the political philosophy of Karl Marx, although Popper's conception of totalitarianism has been criticized in academia, and remains highly controversial. Other philosophers and historians such as Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer trace the origin of totalitarian doctrines to the Age of Enlightenment, especially to the anthropocentrist idea that "Man has become the master of the world, a master unbound by any links to nature, society, and history." In the 20th century, the idea of absolute state power was first developed by Italian Fascists, and concurrently in Germany by a jurist and Nazi academic named Carl Schmitt during the Weimar Republic in the 1920s.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Scholars and historians have considered Vladimir Lenin, founder of the Soviet Union, to be one of the first to attempt to establish a totalitarian state. Benito Mussolini, the founder of Italian Fascism, called his regime the "Totalitarian State": "Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State." Schmitt used the term "Totalstaat" () in his influential 1927 work titled "The Concept of the Political", which described the legal basis of an all-powerful state.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Totalitarian regimes are different from other authoritarian regimes, as the latter denotes a state in which the single power holder, usually an individual dictator, a committee, a military junta, or an otherwise small group of political elites, monopolizes political power. A totalitarian regime may attempt to control virtually all aspects of social life, including the economy, the education system, arts, science, and the private lives and morals of citizens through the use of an elaborate ideology. It can also mobilize the whole population in pursuit of its goals.


title: Totalitarianism

text: According to Yale professor Juan José Linz there are three main types of political regimes today: democracies, totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes (with hybrid regimes).


title: Totalitarianism

text: Totalitarian regimes are often characterized by extreme political repression and human rights violations to a greater extent than those of authoritarian regimes, an absolute lack of democratic ideals, widespread personality cultism around the person or the group which is in power, absolute control over the economy, large-scale censorship and mass surveillance systems, limited or non-existent freedom of movement (notably the freedom to leave the country), and the widespread usage of state terrorism. Other aspects of a totalitarian regime include the extensive use of violent prison camps, repressive secret police, practices of religious persecution or racism, the imposition of either theocratic rule or state atheism, the common use of death penalties and show trials, fraudulent elections (if elections are held), the possible possession of weapons of mass destruction, a potential for state-sponsored mass murders and genocides, and the possibility of engaging in a war or imperialism against other countries. Historian Robert Conquest describes a totalitarian state as a state which recognizes no limit on its authority in any sphere of public or private life and extends that authority to whatever length it considers feasible.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Totalitarianism is contrasted with authoritarianism. According to Radu Cinpoes, an authoritarian state is "only concerned with political power, and as long as it is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty." Cinpoes writes that authoritarianism "does not attempt to change the world and human nature." In contrast, Richard Pipes stated that the officially proclaimed ideology "penetrating into the deepest reaches of societal structure, and the totalitarian government seeks to completely control the thoughts and actions of its citizens." Carl Joachim Friedrich wrote that "[a] totalist ideology, a party reinforced by a secret police, and monopolistic control of industrial mass society are the three features of totalitarian regimes that distinguish them from other autocracies."


title: Totalitarianism

text: The academic field of Sovietology after World War II and during the Cold War was dominated by the "totalitarian model" of the Soviet Union, stressing the absolute nature of Joseph Stalin's power. The "totalitarian model" was first outlined in the 1950s by Carl Joachim Friedrich, who posited that the Soviet Union and other Communist states were "totalitarian" systems, with the personality cult and almost unlimited powers of the "great leader" such as Stalin. The "revisionist school" beginning in the 1960s focused on relatively autonomous institutions which might influence policy at the higher level. Matt Lenoe described the "revisionist school" as representing those who "insisted that the old image of the Soviet Union as a totalitarian state bent on world domination was oversimplified or just plain wrong. They tended to be interested in social history and to argue that the Communist Party leadership had had to adjust to social forces." These of "revisionist school" such as J. Arch Getty and Lynne Viola challenged the "totalitarian model" approach to Communist history, which was considered to be outdated by the 1980s and for the post-Stalinist era in particular, and were most active in the former Communist states' archives, especially the State Archive of the Russian Federation related to the Soviet Union.


title: Totalitarianism

text: According to John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, the historiography is characterized by a split between "traditionalists" and "revisionists." "Traditionalists" characterize themselves as objective reporters of an alleged totalitarian nature of communism and Communist states. They are criticized by their opponents as being anti-communist, even fascist, in their eagerness on continuing to focus on the issues of the Cold War. Alternative characterizations for traditionalists include "anti-communist", "conservative", "Draperite" (after Theodore Draper), "orthodox", and "right-wing." Norman Markowitz, a prominent "revisionist", referred to them as "reactionaries", "right-wing romantics", and "triumphalist" who belong to the "HUAC school of CPUSA scholarship." "Revisionists", characterized by Haynes and Klehr as historical revisionists, are more numerous and dominate academic institutions and learned journals. A suggested alternative formulation is "new historians of American communism", but that has not caught on because these historians describe themselves as unbiased and scholarly, contrasting their work to the work of anti-communist "traditionalists", whom they term biased and unscholarly.


title: Totalitarianism

text: According to William Zimmerman in 1980, "the Soviet Union has changed substantially. Our knowledge of the Soviet Union has changed as well. We all know that the traditional paradigm no longer satisfies, despite several efforts, primarily in the early 1960s (the directed society, totalitarianism without terror, the mobilization system) to articulate an acceptable variant. We have come to realize that models which were, in effect, offshoots of totalitarian models do not provide good approximations of post-Stalinist reality." According to Michael Scott Christofferson in 2019, "Arendt's reading of the post-Stalin USSR can be seen as an attempt to distance her work from 'the Cold War misuse of the concept.'"


title: Totalitarianism

text: Historian John Connelly wrote that "totalitarianism" is a useful word but that the old 1950s theory about it is defunct among scholars. Connelly wrote: "The word is as functional now as it was 50 years ago. It means the kind of regime that existed in Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, the Soviet satellites, Communist China, and maybe Fascist Italy, where the word originated. ... Who are we to tell Václav Havel or Adam Michnik that they were fooling themselves when they perceived their rulers as totalitarian? Or for that matter any of the millions of former subjects of Soviet-type rule who use the local equivalents of the Czech "totalita" to describe the systems they lived under before 1989? It is a useful word and everyone knows what it means as a general referent. Problems arise when people confuse the useful descriptive term with the old 'theory' from the 1950s."


title: Totalitarianism

text: The notion that totalitarianism is total political power which is exercised by the state was formulated in 1923 by Giovanni Amendola, who described Italian Fascism as a system which was fundamentally different from conventional dictatorships. The term was later assigned a positive meaning in the writings of Giovanni Gentile, Italy's most prominent philosopher and leading theorist of fascism. He used the term "totalitario" to refer to the structure and goals of the new state which was to provide the "total representation of the nation and total guidance of national goals." He described totalitarianism as a society in which the ideology of the state had influence, if not power, over most of its citizens. According to Benito Mussolini, this system politicizes everything spiritual and human: "Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."


title: Totalitarianism

text: One of the first people to use the term "totalitarianism" in the English language was the Austrian writer Franz Borkenau in his 1938 book "The Communist International", in which he commented that it united the Soviet and German dictatorships more than it divided them. The label "totalitarian" was twice affixed to Nazi Germany during Winston Churchill's speech of 5 October 1938, before the House of Commons in opposition to the Munich Agreement, by which France and Great Britain consented to Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland. Churchill was then a backbencher MP representing the Epping constituency. In a radio address two weeks later, Churchill again employed the term, this time applying the concept to "a Communist or a Nazi tyranny."


title: Totalitarianism

text: José María Gil-Robles y Quiñones, the leader of the historic Spanish reactionary party called the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA), declared his intention to "give Spain a true unity, a new spirit, a totalitarian polity" and went on to say: "Democracy is not an end but a means to the conquest of the new state. When the time comes, either parliament submits or we will eliminate it." General Francisco Franco was determined not to have competing right-wing parties in Spain and CEDA was dissolved in April 1937. Later, Gil-Robles went into exile.


title: Totalitarianism

text: George Orwell made frequent use of the word "totalitarian" and its cognates in multiple essays published in 1940, 1941 and 1942. In his essay "Why I Write", Orwell wrote: "The Spanish war and other events in 1936–37 turned the scale and thereafter I knew where I stood. Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it." He feared that future totalitarian regimes could exploit technological advances in surveillance and mass media in order to establish a permanent and worldwide dictatorship which would be incapable of ever being overthrown, writing: "If you want a vision of the future, imagine a boot stamping on a human face—forever."


title: Totalitarianism

text: During a 1945 lecture series entitled "The Soviet Impact on the Western World" and published as a book in 1946, the British historian E. H. Carr wrote: "The trend away from individualism and towards totalitarianism is everywhere unmistakable" and that Marxism–Leninism was by far the most successful type of totalitarianism as proved by Soviet industrial growth and the Red Army's role in defeating Germany. According to Carr, only the "blind and incurable" could ignore the trend towards totalitarianism.


title: Totalitarianism

text: In "The Open Society and Its Enemies" (1945) and "The Poverty of Historicism" (1961), Karl Popper articulated an influential critique of totalitarianism. In both works, Popper contrasted the "open society" of liberal democracy with totalitarianism and posited that the latter is grounded in the belief that history moves toward an immutable future in accordance with knowable laws.


title: Totalitarianism

text: In "The Origins of Totalitarianism", Hannah Arendt posited that Nazi and Communist regimes were new forms of government and not merely updated versions of the old tyrannies. According to Arendt, the source of the mass appeal of totalitarian regimes is their ideology which provides a comforting and single answer to the mysteries of the past, present and future. For Nazism, all history is the history of race struggle and for Marxism–Leninism all history is the history of class struggle. Once that premise is accepted, all actions of the state can be justified by appeal to nature or the law of history, justifying their establishment of authoritarian state apparatus.


title: Totalitarianism

text: In addition to Arendt, many scholars from a variety of academic backgrounds and ideological positions have closely examined totalitarianism. Among the most noted commentators on totalitarianism are Raymond Aron, Lawrence Aronsen, Franz Borkenau, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Zbigniew Brzezinski, Robert Conquest, Carl Joachim Friedrich, Eckhard Jesse, Leopold Labedz, Walter Laqueur, Claude Lefort, Juan Linz, Richard Löwenthal, Karl Popper, Richard Pipes, Leonard Schapiro and Adam Ulam. Each one of these described totalitarianism in slightly different ways, but they all agreed that totalitarianism seeks to mobilize entire populations in support of an official party ideology and is intolerant of activities that are not directed towards the goals of the party, entailing repression or state control of the business, labour unions, non-profit organizations, religious organizations and minor political parties. At the same time, many scholars from a variety of academic backgrounds and ideological positions criticized the theorists of totalitarianism. Among the most noted were Louis Althusser, Benjamin Barber, Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Jean-Paul Sartre. They thought that totalitarianism was connected to Western ideologies and associated with evaluation rather than analysis. The concept became prominent in the Western world's anti-communist political discourse during the Cold War era as a tool to convert pre-war anti-fascism into postwar anti-communism.


title: Totalitarianism

text: In 1956, the political scientists Carl Joachim Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski were primarily responsible for expanding the usage of the term in university social science and professional research, reformulating it as a paradigm for the Soviet Union as well as fascist regimes. Friedrich and Brzezinski wrote that a totalitarian system has the following six mutually supportive and defining characteristics:


title: Totalitarianism

text: In the book titled "Democracy and Totalitarianism" (1968), French analyst Raymond Aron outlined five criteria for a regime to be considered as totalitarian:


title: Totalitarianism

text: According to this view, totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union had initial origins in the chaos that followed in the wake of World War I and allowed totalitarian movements to seize control of the government while the sophistication of modern weapons and communications enabled them to effectively establish what Friedrich and Brzezinski called a "totalitarian dictatorship." Some social scientists have criticized Friedrich and Brzezinski's totalitarian approach, commenting that the Soviet system, both as a political and as a social entity, was in fact better understood in terms of interest groups, competing elites, or even in class terms, using the concept of the "nomenklatura" as a vehicle for a new ruling class (new class). These critics posit that there is evidence of the widespread dispersion of power, at least in the implementation of policy, among sectoral and regional authorities. For some followers of this pluralist approach, this was evidence of the ability of the regime to adapt to include new demands; however, proponents of the totalitarian model stated that the failure of the system to survive showed not only its inability to adapt but the mere formality of supposed popular participation.


title: Totalitarianism

text: German historian Karl Dietrich Bracher, whose work is primarily concerned with Nazi Germany, posited that the "totalitarian typology" as developed by Friedrich and Brzezinski is an excessively inflexible model and failed to consider the "revolutionary dynamic" that for Bracher is at the heart of totalitarianism. Bracher posited that the essence of totalitarianism is the total claim to control and remake all aspects of society combined with an all-embracing ideology, the value on authoritarian leadership and the pretence of the common identity of state and society which distinguished the totalitarian "closed" understanding of politics from the "open" democratic understanding. Unlike the Friedrich and Brzezinski definition, Bracher said that totalitarian regimes did not require a single leader and could function with a collective leadership which led the American historian Walter Laqueur to posit that Bracher's definition seemed to fit reality better than the Friedrich–Brzezinski definition. Bracher's typologies came under attack from Werner Conze and other historians, who felt that Bracher "lost sight of the historical material" and used "universal, ahistorical concepts."


title: Totalitarianism

text: In his 1951 book "The True Believer", Eric Hoffer posited that mass movements such as fascism, Nazism and Stalinism had a common trait in picturing Western democracies and their values as decadent, with people "too soft, too pleasure-loving and too selfish" to sacrifice for a higher cause, which for them implies an inner moral and biological decay. Hoffer added that those movements offered the prospect of a glorious future to frustrated people, enabling them to find a refuge from the lack of personal accomplishments in their individual existence. The individual is then assimilated into a compact collective body and "fact-proof screens from reality" are established. This stance may be connected to a religious fear for Communists. Paul Hanebrink has posited that many European Christians started to fear Communist regimes after the rise of Hitler, commenting: "For many European Christians, Catholic and Protestant alike, the new postwar 'culture war' crystallized as a struggle against communism. Across interwar Europe, Christians demonized the Communist regime in Russia as the apotheosis of secular materialism and a militarized threat to Christian social and moral order." For Hanebrink, Christians saw Communist regimes as a threat to their moral order and hoped to lead European nations back to their Christian roots by creating an anti-totalitarian census, which defined Europe in the early Cold War.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Laure Neumayer posited that "despite the disputes over its heuristic value and its normative assumptions, the concept of totalitarianism made a vigorous return to the political and academic fields at the end of the Cold War." In the 1990s, François Furet made a comparative analysis and used the term "totalitarian twins" to link Nazism and Stalinism. Eric Hobsbawm criticized Furet for his temptation to stress the existence of a common ground between two systems with different ideological roots.