title: Rhythm and blues

text: In a 1988 interview with Palmer, Bartholomew (who had the first R&B studio band), revealed how he initially superimposed tresillo over swing rhythm:


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Bartholomew referred to the Cuban son by the misnomer "rumba", a common practice of that time. Fats Domino's "Blue Monday", produced by Bartholomew, is another example of this now classic use of tresillo in R&B. Bartholomew's 1949 tresillo-based "Oh Cubanas" is an attempt to blend African American and Afro-Cuban music. The word "mambo", larger than any of the other text, is placed prominently on the record label. In his composition "Misery", New Orleans pianist Professor Longhair plays a habanera-like figure in his left hand. The deft use of triplets is a characteristic of Longhair's style.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Gerhard Kubik notes that with the exception of New Orleans, early blues lacked complex polyrhythms, and there was a "very specific absence of asymmetric time-line patterns (key patterns) in virtually all early-twentieth-century African American music... only in some New Orleans genres does a hint of simple time line patterns occasionally appear in the form of transient so-called 'stomp' patterns or stop-time chorus. These do not function in the same way as African timelines." In the late 1940s, this changed somewhat when the two-celled time line structure was brought into the blues. New Orleans musicians such as Bartholomew and Longhair incorporated Cuban instruments, as well as the clave pattern and related two-celled figures in songs such as "Carnival Day", (Bartholomew 1949) and "Mardi Gras In New Orleans" (Longhair 1949). While some of these early experiments were awkward fusions, the Afro-Cuban elements were eventually integrated fully into the New Orleans sound.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Robert Palmer reports that, in the 1940s, Professor Longhair listened to and played with musicians from the islands and "fell under the spell of Perez Prado's mambo records." He was especially enamored with Afro-Cuban music. Michael Campbell states: "Professor Longhair's influence was... far-reaching. In several of his early recordings, Professor Longhair blended Afro-Cuban rhythms with rhythm and blues. The most explicit is 'Longhair's Blues Rhumba,' where he overlays a straightforward blues with a clave rhythm." Longhair's particular style was known locally as "rumba-boogie". In his "Mardi Gras in New Orleans", the pianist employs the 2–3 clave onbeat/offbeat motif in a rumba boogie "guajeo".


title: Rhythm and blues

text: The syncopated, but straight subdivision feel of Cuban music (as opposed to swung subdivisions) took root in New Orleans R&B during this time. Alexander Stewart states that the popular feel was passed along from "New Orleans—through James Brown's music, to the popular music of the 1970s," adding: "The singular style of rhythm & blues that emerged from New Orleans in the years after World War II played an important role in the development of funk. In a related development, the underlying rhythms of American popular music underwent a basic, yet the generally unacknowledged transition from triplet or shuffle feel to even or straight eighth notes. Concerning the various funk motifs, Stewart states that this model "...is different from a time line (such as clave and tresillo) in that it is not an exact pattern, but more of a loose organizing principle."


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Johnny Otis released the R&B mambo "Mambo Boogie" in January 1951, featuring congas, maracas, claves, and mambo saxophone guajeos in a blues progression. Ike Turner recorded "Cubano Jump" (1954) an electric guitar instrumental, which is built around several 2–3 clave figures, adopted from the mambo. The Hawketts, in "Mardi Gras Mambo" (1955) (featuring the vocals of a young Art Neville), make a clear reference to Perez Prado in their use of his trademark "Unhh!" in the break after the introduction.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Ned Sublette states: "The electric blues cats were very well aware of Latin music, and there was definitely such a thing as "rhumba blues"; you can hear Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf playing it." He also cites Otis Rush, Ike Turner and Ray Charles, as R&B artists who employed this feel.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: The use of clave in R&B coincided with the growing dominance of the backbeat, and the rising popularity of Cuban music in the U.S. In a sense, clave can be distilled down to tresillo (three-side) answered by the backbeat (two-side).


title: Rhythm and blues

text: The "Bo Diddley beat" (1955) is perhaps the first true fusion of 3–2 clave and R&B/rock 'n' roll. Bo Diddley has given different accounts of the riff's origins. Sublette asserts: "In the context of the time, and especially those maracas [heard on the record], 'Bo Diddley' has to be understood as a Latin-tinged record. A rejected cut recorded at the same session was titled only 'Rhumba' on the track sheets." Johnny Otis's "Willie and the Hand Jive" (1958) is another example of this successful blend of 3–2 claves and R&B. Otis used the Cuban instruments claves and maracas on the song.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Afro-Cuban music was the conduit by which African American music was "re-Africanized", through the adoption of two-celled figures like clave and Afro-Cuban instruments like the conga drum, bongos, maracas and claves. According to John Storm Roberts, R&B became the vehicle for the return of Cuban elements into mass popular music. Ahmet Ertegun, producer for Atlantic Records, is reported to have said that "Afro-Cuban rhythms added color and excitement to the basic drive of R&B." As Ned Sublette points out though: "By the 1960s, with Cuba the object of a United States embargo that still remains in effect today, the island nation had been forgotten as a source of music. By the time people began to talk about rock and roll as having a history, Cuban music had vanished from North American consciousness."


title: Rhythm and blues

text: At first, only African Americans were buying R&B discs. According to Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records, sales were localized in African-American markets; there were no white sales or white radio play. During the early 1950s, more white teenagers started to become aware of R&B and began purchasing the music. For example, 40% of 1952 sales at Dolphin's of Hollywood record shop, located in an African-American area of Los Angeles, were to whites. Eventually, white teens across the country turned their musical taste toward rhythm and blues.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Johnny Otis, who had signed with the Newark, New Jersey-based Savoy Records, produced many R&B hits in 1951, including "Double Crossing Blues", "Mistrustin' Blues" and "Cupid's Boogie", all of which hit number one that year. Otis scored ten top ten hits that year. Other hits include "Gee Baby", "Mambo Boogie" and "All Nite Long". The Clovers, a quintet consisting of a vocal quartet with accompanying guitarist, sang a distinctive-sounding combination of blues and gospel, had the number five hit of the year with "Don't You Know I Love You" on Atlantic. Also in July 1951, Cleveland, Ohio DJ Alan Freed started a late-night radio show called "The Moondog Rock Roll House Party" on WJW (850 AM). Freed's show was sponsored by Fred Mintz, whose R&B record store had a primarily African American clientele. Freed began referring to the rhythm and blues music he played as "rock and roll".


title: Rhythm and blues

text: In 1951, Little Richard Penniman began recording for RCA Records in the jump blues style of late 1940s stars Roy Brown and Billy Wright. However, it was not until he recorded a demo in 1954 that caught the attention of Specialty Records that the world would start to hear his new uptempo funky rhythm and blues that would catapult him to fame in 1955 and help define the sound of rock 'n' roll. A rapid succession of rhythm and blues hits followed, beginning with "Tutti Frutti" and "Long Tall Sally", which would influence performers such as James Brown, Elvis Presley, and Otis Redding.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Ruth Brown, performing on the Atlantic label, placed hits in the top five every year from 1951 through 1954: "Teardrops from My Eyes", "Five, Ten, Fifteen Hours", "(Mama) He Treats Your Daughter Mean" and "What a Dream". Faye Adams's "Shake a Hand" made it to number two in 1952. In 1953, the R&B record-buying public made Willie Mae Thornton's original recording of Leiber and Stoller's "Hound Dog" the year's number three hit. Ruth Brown was very prominent among female R&B stars; her popularity most likely came from "her deeply rooted vocal delivery in African American tradition"


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Fats Domino made the top 30 of the pop charts in 1952 and 1953, then the top 10 with "Ain't That a Shame". Ray Charles came to national prominence in 1955 with "I Got a Woman". Big Bill Broonzy said of Charles's music: "He's mixing the blues with the spirituals... I know that's wrong."


title: Rhythm and blues

text: In 1954 the Chords' "Sh-Boom" became the first hit to cross over from the R&B chart to hit the top 10 early in the year. Late in the year, and into 1955, "Hearts of Stone" by the Charms made the top 20.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: At Chess Records in the spring of 1955, Bo Diddley's debut record "Bo Diddley"/"I'm a Man" climbed to number two on the R&B charts and popularized Bo Diddley's own original rhythm and blues clave-based vamp that would become a mainstay in rock and roll.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: At the urging of Leonard Chess at Chess Records, Chuck Berry reworked a country fiddle tune with a long history, entitled "Ida Red". The resulting "Maybellene" was not only a number three hit on the R&B charts in 1955, but also reached into the top 30 on the pop charts. Alan Freed, who had moved to the much larger market of New York City in 1954, helped the record become popular with white teenagers. Freed had been given part of the writing credit by Chess in return for his promotional activities, a common practice at the time.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: R&B was also a strong influence on rock and roll according to many sources, including an article in the Wall Street Journal in 1985 titled, "Rock! It's Still Rhythm and Blues". In fact, the author stated that the "two terms were used interchangeably" until about 1957. The other sources quoted in the article said that rock and roll combined R&B with pop and country music.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Fats Domino was not convinced that there was any new genre. In 1957, he said, "What they call rock 'n' roll now is rhythm and blues. I’ve been playing it for 15 years in New Orleans". According to "Rolling Stone", "this is a valid statement ... all Fifties rockers, black and white, country born and city bred, were fundamentally influenced by R&B, the black popular music of the late Forties and early Fifties".


title: Rhythm and blues

text: In 1956, an R&B "Top Stars of '56" tour took place, with headliners Al Hibbler, Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers, and Carl Perkins, whose "Blue Suede Shoes" was very popular with R&B music buyers. Some of the performers completing the bill were Chuck Berry, Cathy Carr, Shirley & Lee, Della Reese, Sam "T-Bird" Jensen, the Cleftones, and the Spaniels with Illinois Jacquet's Big Rockin' Rhythm Band. Cities visited by the tour included Columbia, South Carolina; Annapolis, Maryland; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Syracuse, Rochester and Buffalo, New York; and other cities. In Columbia, the concert ended with a near riot as Perkins began his first song as the closing act. Perkins is quoted as saying, "It was dangerous. Lot of kids got hurt". In Annapolis, 50,000 to 70,000 people tried to attend a sold-out performance with 8,000 seats. Roads were clogged for seven hours.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Filmmakers took advantage of the popularity of "rhythm and blues" musicians as "rock n roll" musicians beginning in 1956. Little Richard, Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, Big Joe Turner, the Treniers, the Platters, and the Flamingos all made it onto the big screen.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Two Elvis Presley records made the R&B top five in 1957: "Jailhouse Rock"/"Treat Me Nice" at number one, and "All Shook Up" at number five, an unprecedented acceptance of a non-African American artist into a music category known for being created by blacks. Nat King Cole, also a jazz pianist who had two hits on the pop charts in the early 1950s ("Mona Lisa" at number two in 1950 and "Too Young" at number one in 1951), had a record in the top five in the R&B charts in 1958, "Looking Back"/"Do I Like It".


title: Rhythm and blues

text: In 1959, two black-owned record labels, one of which would become hugely successful, made their debut: Sam Cooke's Sar and Berry Gordy's Motown Records. Brook Benton was at the top of the R&B charts in 1959 and 1960 with one number one and two number two hits. Benton had a certain warmth in his voice that attracted a wide variety of listeners, and his ballads led to comparisons with performers such as


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Nat King Cole, Frank Sinatra and Tony Bennett. Lloyd Price, who in 1952 had a number one hit with "Lawdy Miss Clawdy", regained predominance with a version of "Stagger Lee" at number one and "Personality" at number five in 1959.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: The white bandleader of the Bill Black Combo, Bill Black, who had helped start Elvis Presley's career and was Elvis's bassist in the 1950s, was popular with black listeners. Ninety percent of his record sales were from black people, and his "Smokie, Part 2" (1959) rose to the number one position on black music charts. He was once told that "a lot of those stations still think you're a black group because the sound feels funky and black." Hi Records did not feature pictures of the Combo on early records.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Sam Cooke's number five hit "Chain Gang" is indicative of R&B in 1960, as is pop rocker Chubby Checker's number five hit "The Twist". By the early 1960s, the music industry category previously known as rhythm and blues was being called soul music, and similar music by white artists was labeled blue-eyed soul. Motown Records had its first million-selling single in 1960 with the Miracles' "Shop Around", and in 1961, Stax Records had its first hit with Carla Thomas's "Gee Whiz (Look at His Eyes)". Stax's next major hit, The Mar-Keys' instrumental "Last Night" (also released in 1961), introduced the rawer Memphis soul sound for which Stax became known. In Jamaica, R&B influenced the development of ska. In 1969, black culture and rhythm and blues reached another great achievement when the Grammys added the Rhythm and Blues category, giving academic recognition to the category.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: By the 1970s, the term "rhythm and blues" was being used as a blanket term for soul, funk, and disco.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, hip-hop started to capture the imagination of America's youth. R&B started to become homogenized, with a group of high-profile producers responsible for most R&B hits. It was hard for R&B artists of the era to sell their music or even have their music heard because of the rise of hip-hop, but some adopted a "hip-hop" image, were marketed as such, and often featured rappers on their songs. In 1990, "Billboard" reintroduced R&B to categorize all of Black popular music other than hip-hop. Newer artists such as Usher, R. Kelly, Janet Jackson, TLC, Aaliyah, Destiny's Child, Tevin Campbell and Mary J. Blige enjoyed success. L.A. Reid, the CEO of LaFace Records, was responsible for some of R&B's greatest successes in the 1990s in the form of Usher, TLC and Toni Braxton. Later, Reid successfully marketed Boyz II Men. In 2004, 80% of the songs that topped the R&B charts were also at the top of the Hot 100. That period was the all-time peak for R&B and hip hop on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and on Top 40 Radio. From about 2005 to 2013, R&B sales declined. However, since 2010, hip-hop has started to take cues from the R&B sound, choosing to adopt a softer, smoother sound that incorporates traditional R&B with rappers such as Drake, who has opened an entire new door for the genre. This sound has gained in popularity and created great controversy for both hip-hop and R&B as to how to identify it.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: According to the Jewish writer, music publishing executive, and songwriter Arnold Shaw, during the 1940s in the US, there was generally little opportunity for Jews in the WASP-controlled realm of mass communications, but the music business was "wide open for Jews as it was for blacks." Jews played a key role in developing and popularizing African American music, including rhythm and blues, and the independent record business was dominated by young Jewish men who promoted the sounds of black music.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: British rhythm and blues and blues rock developed in the early 1960s, largely as a response to the recordings of American artists, often brought over by African American servicemen stationed in Britain or seamen visiting ports such as London, Liverpool, Newcastle and Belfast. Many bands, particularly in the developing London club scene, tried to emulate black rhythm and blues performers, resulting in a "rawer" or "grittier" sound than the more popular "beat groups". During the 1960s, Geno Washington, the Foundations, and the Equals gained pop hits. Many British black musicians helped form the British R&B scene. These included Geno Washington, an American singer stationed in England with the Air Force. He was invited to join what became Geno Washington & the Ram Jam Band by guitarist Pete Gage in 1965 and enjoyed top 40 hit singles and two top 10 albums before the band split up in 1969. Another American GI, Jimmy James, born in Jamaica, moved to London after two local number one hits in 1960 with The Vagabonds, who built a strong reputation as a live act. They released a live album and their studio debut, "The New Religion," in 1966 and achieved moderate success with a few singles before the original Vagabonds broke up in 1970. White blues rock musician Alexis Korner formed new jazz rock band CCS in 1970. Interest in the blues would influence major British rock musicians, including Eric Clapton, Mick Taylor, Peter Green, and John Mayall, the groups Free and Cream adopted an interest in a wider range of rhythm and blues styles.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: The Rolling Stones became the second most popular UK band (after The Beatles) and led the "British Invasion" of the US pop charts. The Rolling Stones covered Bobby Womack & the Valentinos' song It's All Over Now", giving them their first UK number one in 1964. Under the influence of blues and R&B, bands such as the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, and the Animals, and more jazz-influenced bands like the Graham Bond Organisation and Zoot Money, had blue-eyed soul albums. White R&B musicians popular in the UK included Steve Winwood, Frankie Miller, Scott Walker & the Walker Brothers, the Animals from Newcastle, the Spencer Davis Group, and Van Morrison & Them from Belfast. None of these bands exclusively played rhythm and blues, but it remained at the core of their early albums.


title: Rhythm and blues

text: Champion Jack Dupree was a New Orleans blues and boogie woogie pianist who toured Europe and settled there from 1960, living in Switzerland and Denmark, then in Halifax, England in the 1970s and 1980s, before finally settling in Germany. From the '70s to '80s, Carl Douglas, Hot Chocolate, Delegation, Junior, Central Line, Princess, Jacki Graham, David Grant, the Loose Ends, the Pasadenas and Soul II Soul gained hits on pop or R&B chart. The music of the British mod subculture grew out of rhythm and blues and later soul performed by artists who were not available to the small London clubs where the scene originated. In the late '60s, The Who performed American R&B songs such as the Motown hit "Heat Wave", a song which reflected the young mod lifestyle. Many of these bands enjoyed national success in the UK, but found it difficult to break into the American music market. The British White R&B bands produced music which was very different in tone from that of African-American artists.


title: Shawarma

text: Shawarma (; ) is a popular Middle Eastern dish that originated in the Ottoman Empire, consisting of meat cut into thin slices, stacked in a cone-like shape, and roasted on a slowly-turning vertical rotisserie or spit. Traditionally made with lamb or mutton, it may also be made with chicken, turkey, beef, or veal. Thin slices are shaved off the cooked surface as it continuously rotates. Shawarma is a popular street food in the greater Middle East, including Egypt, Iraq, and the Levant.


title: Shawarma

text: "Shawarma" is an Arabic rendering of Turkish term "çevirme" (, "turning"), referring to the turning rotisserie.


title: Shawarma

text: Although the roasting of meat on horizontal spits has an ancient history, the shawarma technique—grilling a vertical stack of meat slices and cutting it off as it cooks—first appeared in the 19th-century Ottoman Empire, in what is now Turkey, in the form of doner kebab. Both the Greek gyros and shawarma are derived from this. Shawarma, in turn, led to the development during the early 20th century of the contemporary Mexican dish tacos al pastor when it was brought there by Lebanese immigrants.


title: Shawarma

text: Shawarma is prepared from thin cuts of seasoned and marinated lamb, mutton, veal, beef, chicken, or turkey. The slices are stacked on a skewer about high. Pieces of fat may be added to the stack to provide extra juiciness and flavor. A motorized spit slowly turns the stack of meat in front of an electric or gas-fired heating element, continuously roasting the outer layer. Shavings are cut off the rotating stack for serving, customarily with a long flat knife.


title: Shawarma

text: Spices may include cumin, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric and paprika, and in some areas "baharat". Shawarma is commonly served as a sandwich or wrap, in a flatbread such as pita or laffa. In the Middle East, chicken shawarma is typically served with garlic sauce, fries, and pickles. The garlic sauce that is served with the sandwich depends on the meat. "Toum" or "Toumie" sauce is made from garlic, vegetable oil, lemon, and egg white or starch, and is usually served with chicken shawarma. "Tarator" sauce is made from garlic, tahini sauce, lemon, and water, and is served with beef shawarma.


title: Shawarma

text: In Israel, most shawarma is made with dark-meat turkey and is commonly served with tahina sauce because yogurt sauce with meat would violate the Jewish dietary prohibition on eating milk and meat together. It is often garnished with diced tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, pickled vegetables, hummus, tahina sauce, sumac, or "amba" mango sauce. Some restaurants offer additional toppings like grilled peppers, eggplant, or french fries.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: Gael García Bernal (; born 30 November 1978) is a Mexican actor and producer. He is best known for his performances in the films "Bad Education", "The Motorcycle Diaries", "Amores perros", "Y tu mamá también", "Babel", "Coco", and "Old", as Jack Russell / Werewolf by Night in the Marvel Cinematic Universe television special "Werewolf by Night", and for his role as Rodrigo de Souza in the Amazon Studios streaming television series "Mozart in the Jungle". He and Diego Luna founded Canana Films in Mexico City. García Bernal was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his portrayal of a young Che Guevara in "The Motorcycle Diaries" in 2005, and in 2016 won his first Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy for "Mozart in the Jungle". In 2016, "Time" magazine named him in the annual "Time" 100 most influential people list. In 2020, "The New York Times" ranked him No. 25 in its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal was born in Guadalajara, Mexico, the son of Patricia Bernal, an actress and former model, and José Ángel García, an actor and director. His stepfather is Sergio Yazbek, whom his mother married when García Bernal was young. He started acting at just one year old and spent most of his teen years starring in telenovelas. García Bernal and frequent collaborator Diego Luna were friends from childhood in Mexico City.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: When he was fourteen, García Bernal taught indigenous people in Mexico to read, often working with the Huichol people. At the age of fifteen, he took part in peaceful demonstrations in support of the Zapatista uprising of 1994.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: He began studying philosophy at UNAM, Mexico's national university but, during a prolonged student strike, he decided to take a sabbatical to travel around Europe. He then moved to London, and became the first Mexican accepted to study at the Central School of Speech and Drama. Bernal also attended the European Graduate School.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: After García Bernal's success in soap operas, Mexican director Alejandro González Iñárritu offered García Bernal a part in his feature directorial debut, "Amores perros" (2000). The film won rave reviews, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: His next role was Alfonso Cuarón's "Y tu mamá también" (2001), which was a crossover success into American markets and gained him notice on the international stage, becoming the second-highest grossing Spanish language film in the United States. The next year, García Bernal went on to portray Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara in the 2002 TV miniseries "Fidel" and the morally troubled Father Amaro in the Mexican box-office record-breaker "El crimen del Padre Amaro" (2002). García Bernal again portrayed Che Guevara in "The Motorcycle Diaries" (2004), an adaptation of a journal the 23-year-old Guevara wrote about his travels across South America. The film broke the box office record set 3 years prior by "Y tu mamá también" garnered Bernal a BAFTA nomination in 2005 for Best Performance by an Actor.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: He also did some theatre work, during this time, including a 2005 production of "Bodas de Sangre", by Federico García Lorca, in the Almeida Theatre in London.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal has worked for acclaimed directors including González Iñárritu, Pedro Almodóvar, Walter Salles, Alfonso Cuarón, Michel Gondry, and Iciar Bollaín, among others. He has taken on roles in English-language films, including the Gondry-directed "The Science of Sleep" and "The King", for which he earned rave reviews.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal directed his first feature film, "Déficit" which was released in 2007. He was cast in the 2008 film "Blindness", an adaptation of the 1995 novel of the same name by José Saramago, winner of the Nobel Prize, about a society suffering an epidemic of blindness. As in the novel, the characters have only descriptions, no names or histories; while director Fernando Meirelles said some actors were intimidated by the concept of playing such characters, With Gael,' he said, 'I never think about the past. I just think what my character wants. García Bernal again paired with Diego Luna in "Rudo y Cursi" directed by Carlos Cuarón.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal and Diego Luna own Canana Films. The company recently joined with Golden Phoenix Productions to produce a number of television documentaries about the unsolved murders of more than 300 women in the border city of Ciudad Juarez.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In May 2010, García Bernal did a cameo appearance as himself playing Cristiano Ronaldo in "Ronaldo: The Movie" for the Nike advertisement, Write the Future.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In 2010, he co-directed with Marc Siver four short films in collaboration with Amnesty International. The tetralogy, called "Los Invisibles", is about migrants from Central America in Mexico, their journey and risks, their hopes, and what they can contribute to Mexico, the US and the world. He directed the movies, did the interviews and also narrates the four short movies. He starred in "Even the Rain" (2010), Spain's official entry for the 2011 Academy Awards.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal narrated "Human Planet" for Hispanic audiences, which premiered on Discovery en Español on 25 April 2011 and aired on Discovery Channel in Latin America on 12 May. For the third time García Bernal appeared with Diego Luna in the American Spanish-language comedy film "Casa de mi padre", opposite Will Ferrell, where he played a feared drug lord. García Bernal's next projects included a film adaptation of José Agustín's "Ciudades Desiertas" and the Jon Stewart directorial biopic "Rosewater", in which he portrayed Maziar Bahari to widespread critical acclaim. He was set to star in the 20th Century Fox reboot Zorro film called "Zorro Reborn". The script is by Glen Gers, Lee Shipman, and Brian McGeevy.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In April 2014, he was announced as a member of the main competition jury at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In June 2014, he began production as the star of the dramatic comedy "Zoom", directed by Pedro Morelli.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In 2014, he was cast in the lead role of Rodrigo de Souza in the Amazon Studios comedy-drama television series "Mozart in the Jungle". His performance in the show was met with rave reviews, earning him a Golden Globe Award in 2016.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In 2016, he starred in two movies that were submitted for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, "Desierto" (Mexico) and "Neruda" (Chile).


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In 2017, he was announced as a member of the U.S. Dramatic Jury at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival. That same year, he provided the voice of Héctor, an undead trickster and one of the main protagonists of the Pixar animated film "Coco".


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal founded The Ambulante Documentary Film Festival, which works to bring documentary films to places where they are rarely shown, and helped to create the Amnesty International Short Documentary Series Los Invisibles. For this work, he was awarded the Washington Office on Latin America's Human Rights Award in 2011.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In October 2019, García Bernal and Diego Luna announced they were joining the Creative Advisory Board for TV and Film development company EXILE Content along with Adam Grant.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: In 2021, García Bernal starred in the M. Night Shyamalan thriller "Old". In November 2021, Bernal was cast in the Disney+ special "Werewolf by Night" by Marvel Studios, based on the comics character of the same name.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: García Bernal and Argentine actress Dolores Fonzi met on the set of "Vidas privadas" in 2001. On 8 January 2009 their son was born in Madrid, Spain. Their daughter was born on 4 April 2011 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He divides his time between Buenos Aires and Mexico City.


title: Gael García Bernal

text: He has been in a relationship with Mexican journalist Fernanda Aragonés since 2019. They welcomed a child on 30 September 2021.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Tyler Lee Hoechlin (; born September 11, 1987) is an American actor. Initially earning recognition for starring as Michael Sullivan Jr. in the 2002 film "Road to Perdition", Hoechlin went on to star as Martin Brewer on "7th Heaven" between 2003 and 2007. In television, he is also known for portraying Derek Hale on "Teen Wolf" and Superman in the Arrowverse series "Supergirl" and "Superman & Lois".


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin was born in Corona, California, on September 11, 1987, to Lori and Don Hoechlin. He has described his family's ethnic background as "Native American, German, Irish, and some others". Hoechlin has two brothers and an older sister. He graduated from Santiago High School in 2006.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin began playing baseball at the age of seven. He played throughout high school, playing in the Area Code Games in both 2004 and 2005. He earned a scholarship to Arizona State University, where he played infield and the team made it to the College World Series in Omaha, Nebraska. In 2008, after a year at Arizona State, he transferred to the University of California, Irvine. He played infield as a second baseman for the UC Irvine Anteaters. During this time, he also played in collegiate summer leagues.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin aimed for a career in baseball, prioritizing it over his acting commitments. This led him to turning down auditions and meetings (including with director Francis Ford Coppola) and declining the role of Emmett Cullen in the "Twilight" films. During Hoechlin's junior year in college, he pulled his hamstring, limiting his ability to play and practice. As a result, he participated in more acting auditions, and eventually, on the advice of his coach, made the decision to pursue acting full-time.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin appeared in commercials as a baby. This led him to successfully audition at an acting school and obtain an agent. His first role, at the age of 11, was in "Happy Haunting", a "Disney Sing-Along Songs" video. At the age of 13, Hoechlin was selected from 2,000 auditionees to play Michael Sullivan Jr. in "Road to Perdition" alongside Tom Hanks. Hoechlin was nominated for multiple awards for the role, and won both the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor and the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor. That performance led to him getting the role of Martin Brewer in the television show "7th Heaven" in 2003. Initially booked for a two-episode arc, he became a recurring character for the rest of the season.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin was nominated for a 2004 Teen Choice Award for Breakout Male Star for the role, and remained a regular character for the following four years, amassing further nominations for a Teen Choice Award and a Young Artist Award. The show worked around Hoechlin's baseball schedule, filming on days he did not have practice or a game, throughout high school and his first year of college.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: After "7th Heaven" ended in 2007, he had small roles in other television series, including "", "My Boys", and "Castle". He also returned to film work, starring in David DeCoteau's "Grizzly Rage" in 2007 and appearing in "Solstice" the following year. He also appeared alongside Owen Wilson and Christina Applegate in the 2011 movie "Hall Pass".


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin played werewolf Derek Hale in the television series "Teen Wolf". He was a regular on the show for the first four seasons, and returned as a guest star for the sixth and final season in 2017. During the early seasons of the show, filmed in Atlanta, Georgia, Hoechlin lived with co-stars Tyler Posey and Dylan O'Brien. BuddyTV ranked him third on its list of "TV's 100 Sexiest Men of 2011". Throughout "Teen Wolf"'s run, the cast won the Best Ensemble award at the 2013 Young Hollywood Awards and Hoechlin won the 2014 Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Male Scene Stealer.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: After leaving "Teen Wolf" to pursue other work and film roles, Hoechlin was cast in Richard Linklater's baseball comedy "Everybody Wants Some!!". To achieve a sense of camaraderie among the cast, they spent three weeks living together at Linklater's ranch while fine-tuning the script. Hoechlin was able to draw upon his baseball experience for the film, in which he played team captain McReynolds. The film was released in 2016 to critical acclaim. That same year, Hoechlin appeared in a second baseball film, "Undrafted", which, in contrast to "Everybody Wants Some!!", was poorly received by critics. He also appeared in military thriller film "Stratton", released in 2017.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin was cast as Superman on the CW show "Supergirl" in 2016. As producer Greg Berlanti's first choice for the role, he did not have to audition. Describing the casting as "surreal", Hoechlin said he hoped to successfully embody the optimism of the character and maintain the idea of Superman as a symbol of hope. He appeared in four episodes of the show's second season, and was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Guest Performance on a Television Series for his work in the role. His portrayal of Superman was well received by fans and critics and described as "fun" and a "breath of fresh air".


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: In 2018, Hoechlin returned to "Supergirl" as part of the annual Arrowverse crossover episodes, titled "Elseworlds". He also appeared in the corresponding crossover episodes of both "Arrow" and "The Flash", which all aired in December 2018. Hoechlin returned to the Arrowverse for the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" episodes.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: In October 2019, it was confirmed that "Superman & Lois", a spin-off series starring Hoechlin and Elizabeth Tulloch, was in development at the CW who picked it up straight-to-series in January 2020. The series premiered on February 23, 2021, and was renewed for a third season in March 2022.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: He was cast in "Fifty Shades Darker" as Boyce Fox, an author, in early 2016. Hoechlin did not appear in the finished film, but did feature in the sequel "Fifty Shades Freed", which was released in 2018. The same year, he appeared in "The Domestics", a post-apocalytic thriller alongside Kate Bosworth and Lance Reddick, which was released on June 28.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: Hoechlin starred in George Gallo's "Bigger", in which he played Joe Weider. The biopic reunited Hoechlin with "Teen Wolf" co-star Colton Haynes, and told the story of the Weider brothers founding the International Federation of Bodybuilders. "Bigger" premiered on September 13, 2018, in Las Vegas, in conjunction with the Mr. Olympia competition, and was released to cinemas in October.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: The following month, teen drama "Then Came You" premiered at the Woodstock Film Festival. Initially titled "Departures" when Hoechlin was cast in February 2017, the film also starred Asa Butterfield, Maisie Williams, and Nina Dobrev, and was released theatrically in February 2019.


title: Tyler Hoechlin

text: In July 2019, Hoechlin appeared as Ian Yerxa in sci-fi drama series "Another Life". Two months later, Hoechlin starred in "Can You Keep a Secret?" as Jack Harper, alongside Alexandra Daddario. The film is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Sophie Kinsella and began filming in October 2018.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula S. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow, crystalline solid at room temperature.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element by mass in the universe and the fifth most on Earth. Though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur on Earth usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ancient India, ancient Greece, China, and ancient Egypt. Historically and in literature sulfur is also called brimstone, which means "burning stone". Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and petroleum. The greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, and other chemical processes. Sulfur is used in matches, insecticides, and fungicides. Many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur is an essential element for all life, but almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides. Amino acids (two proteinogenic: cysteine and methionine, and many other non-coded: cystine, taurine, etc.) and two vitamins (biotin and thiamine) are organosulfur compounds crucial for life. Many cofactors also contain sulfur, including glutathione, and iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the (among others) protein keratin, found in outer skin, hair, and feathers. Sulfur is one of the core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all living organisms.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur forms several polyatomic molecules. The best-known allotrope is octasulfur, cyclo-S. The point group of cyclo-S is D and its dipole moment is 0 D. Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless, but impure samples have an odor similar to that of matches. It melts at , boils at and sublimes more or less between and . At , below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur changes from α-octasulfur to the β-polymorph. The structure of the S ring is virtually unchanged by this phase change, which affects the intermolecular interactions. Between its melting and boiling temperatures, octasulfur changes its allotrope again, turning from β-octasulfur to γ-sulfur, again accompanied by a lower density but increased viscosity due to the formation of polymers. At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs. Molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above . The density of sulfur is about 2 g/cm, depending on the allotrope; all of the stable allotropes are excellent electrical insulators.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide and, to a lesser extent, in other nonpolar organic solvents, such as benzene and toluene.


title: Sulfur

text: Under normal conditions, sulfur hydrolyzes very slowly to mainly form hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid:


title: Sulfur

text: The reaction involves adsorption of protons onto clusters, followed by disproportionation into the reaction products.


title: Sulfur

text: The second, fourth and sixth ionization energies of sulfur are 2252 kJ/mol, 4556 kJ/mol and 8495.8 kJ/mol,respectively. A composition of products of sulfur's reactions with oxidants (and its oxidation state) depends on that whether releasing out of a reaction energy overcomes these thresholds. Applying catalysts and / or supply of outer energy may vary sulfur's oxidation state and a composition of reaction products. While reaction between sulfur and oxygen at normal conditions gives sulfur dioxide (oxidation state +4), formation of sulfur trioxide (oxidation state +6) requires temperature 400 – 600 °C and presence of a catalyst.


title: Sulfur

text: In reactions with elements electronegativity of which less than sulfur's, it comes as an oxidant, and forms sulfides with oxidation state –2.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur reacts with nearly all other elements with the exception of the noble gases, even with the notoriously unreactive metal iridium (yielding iridium disulfide). Some of those reactions need elevated temperatures.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur has 23 known isotopes, four of which are stable: S (), S (), S (), and S (). Other than S, with a half-life of 87 days and formed in cosmic ray spallation of Ar, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur have half-lives less than 3 hours.


title: Sulfur

text: When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the δS values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The δC and δS of coexisting carbonate minerals and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation.


title: Sulfur

text: In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore minerals and evaporites contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the S of ecosystem components. Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found to have characteristic S values from lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate.


title: Sulfur

text: S is created inside massive stars, at a depth where the temperature exceeds 2.5×10 K, by the fusion of one nucleus of silicon plus one nucleus of helium. As this nuclear reaction is part of the alpha process that produces elements in abundance, sulfur is the 10th most common element in the universe.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur, usually as sulfide, is present in many types of meteorites. Ordinary chondrites contain on average 2.1% sulfur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as 6.6%. It is normally present as troilite (FeS), but there are exceptions, with carbonaceous chondrites containing free sulfur, sulfates and other sulfur compounds. The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io are attributed to various forms of molten, solid, and gaseous sulfur.


title: Sulfur

text: It is the fifth most common element by mass in the Earth. Elemental sulfur can be found near hot springs and volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific Ring of Fire; such volcanic deposits are currently mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan. These deposits are polycrystalline, with the largest documented single crystal measuring 22×16×11 cm. Historically, Sicily was a major source of sulfur in the Industrial Revolution. Lakes of molten sulfur up to ~200 m in diameter have been found on the sea floor, associated with submarine volcanoes, at depths where the boiling point of water is higher than the melting point of sulfur.


title: Sulfur

text: Native sulfur is synthesised by anaerobic bacteria acting on sulfate minerals such as gypsum in salt domes. Significant deposits in salt domes occur along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and in evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia. Native sulfur may be produced by geological processes alone. Fossil-based sulfur deposits from salt domes were once the basis for commercial production in the United States, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine. Currently, commercial production is still carried out in the Osiek mine in Poland. Such sources are now of secondary commercial importance, and most are no longer worked.


title: Sulfur

text: Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulfide), cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and stibnite (antimony sulfide); and the sulfate minerals, such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), alunite (potassium aluminium sulfate), and barite (barium sulfate). On Earth, just as upon Jupiter's moon Io, elemental sulfur occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, including emissions from hydrothermal vents.


title: Sulfur

text: Common oxidation states of sulfur range from −2 to +6. Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except the noble gases.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur forms over 30 solid allotropes, more than any other element. Besides S, several other rings are known. Removing one atom from the crown gives S, which is more of a deep yellow than the S. HPLC analysis of "elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of mainly S, but with S and small amounts of S. Larger rings have been prepared, including S and S.


title: Sulfur

text: Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur is produced by rapid cooling of molten sulfur—for example, by pouring it into cold water. X-ray crystallography studies show that the amorphous form may have a helical structure with eight atoms per turn. The long coiled polymeric molecules make the brownish substance elastic, and in bulk this form has the feel of crude rubber. This form is metastable at room temperature and gradually reverts to crystalline molecular allotrope, which is no longer elastic. This process happens within a matter of hours to days, but can be rapidly catalyzed.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur polycations, S, S and S are produced when sulfur is reacted with oxidising agents in a strongly acidic solution. The colored solutions produced by dissolving sulfur in oleum were first reported as early as 1804 by C.F. Bucholz, but the cause of the color and the structure of the polycations involved was only determined in the late 1960s. S is deep blue, S is yellow and S is red.


title: Sulfur

text: Reduction of sulfur gives various polysulfides with the formula S, many of which have been obtained crystalline form. Illustrative is the production of sodium tetrasulfide:


title: Sulfur

text: Some of these dianions dissociate to give radical anions, such as S gives the blue color of the rock lapis lazuli.


title: Sulfur

text: This reaction highlights a distinctive property of sulfur: its ability to catenate (bind to itself by formation of chains). Protonation of these polysulfide anions produces the polysulfanes, HS where x= 2, 3, and 4. Ultimately, reduction of sulfur produces sulfide salts:


title: Sulfur

text: Treatment of sulfur with hydrogen gives hydrogen sulfide. When dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide is mildly acidic:


title: Sulfur

text: Hydrogen sulfide gas and the hydrosulfide anion are extremely toxic to mammals, due to their inhibition of the oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin and certain cytochromes in a manner analogous to cyanide and azide (see below, under "precautions").


title: Sulfur

text: Many other sulfur oxides are observed including the sulfur-rich oxides include sulfur monoxide, disulfur monoxide, disulfur dioxides, and higher oxides containing peroxo groups.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur reacts with fluorine to give the highly reactive sulfur tetrafluoride and the highly inert Sulfur hexafluoride. Whereas fluorine gives S(IV) and S(VI) compounds, chlorine gives S(II) and S(I) derivatives. Thus, sulfur dichloride, disulfur dichloride, and higher chlorosulfanes arise from the chlorination of sulfur. Sulfuryl chloride and chlorosulfuric acid are derivatives of sulfuric acid; thionyl chloride (SOCl) is a common reagent in organic synthesis.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur reacts with many metals. Electropositive metals give polysulfide salts. Copper, zinc, silver are attacked by sulfur, see tarnishing. Although many metal sulfides are known, most are prepared by high temperature reactions of the elements.


title: Sulfur

text: Compounds with carbon–sulfur multiple bonds are uncommon, an exception being carbon disulfide, a volatile colorless liquid that is structurally similar to carbon dioxide. It is used as a reagent to make the polymer rayon and many organosulfur compounds. Unlike carbon monoxide, carbon monosulfide is stable only as an extremely dilute gas, found between solar systems.


title: Sulfur

text: Organosulfur compounds are responsible for some of the unpleasant odors of decaying organic matter. They are widely known as the odorant in domestic natural gas, garlic odor, and skunk spray. Not all organic sulfur compounds smell unpleasant at all concentrations: the sulfur-containing monoterpenoid (grapefruit mercaptan) in small concentrations is the characteristic scent of grapefruit, but has a generic thiol odor at larger concentrations. Sulfur mustard, a potent vesicant, was used in World War I as a disabling agent.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur–sulfur bonds are a structural component used to stiffen rubber, similar to the disulfide bridges that rigidify proteins (see biological below). In the most common type of industrial "curing" or hardening and strengthening of natural rubber, elemental sulfur is heated with the rubber to the point that chemical reactions form disulfide bridges between isoprene units of the polymer. This process, patented in 1843, made rubber a major industrial product, especially in automobile tires. Because of the heat and sulfur, the process was named vulcanization, after the Roman god of the forge and volcanism.


title: Sulfur

text: Being abundantly available in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times and is referred to in the Torah (Genesis). English translations of the Christian Bible commonly referred to burning sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the term "fire-and-brimstone" sermons, in which listeners are reminded of the fate of eternal damnation that await the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of the Bible that Hell is implied to "smell of sulfur" (likely due to its association with volcanic activity). According to the Ebers Papyrus, a sulfur ointment was used in ancient Egypt to treat granular eyelids. Sulfur was used for fumigation in preclassical Greece; this is mentioned in the "Odyssey". Pliny the Elder discusses sulfur in book 35 of his "Natural History", saying that its best-known source is the island of Melos. He mentions its use for fumigation, medicine, and bleaching cloth.


title: Sulfur

text: A natural form of sulfur known as () was known in China since the 6th century BC and found in Hanzhong. By the 3rd century, the Chinese had discovered that sulfur could be extracted from pyrite. Chinese Daoists were interested in sulfur's flammability and its reactivity with certain metals, yet its earliest practical uses were found in traditional Chinese medicine. A Song dynasty military treatise of 1044 AD described various formulas for Chinese black powder, which is a mixture of potassium nitrate (), charcoal, and sulfur. It remains an ingredient of black gunpowder.


title: Sulfur

text: Indian alchemists, practitioners of the "science of chemicals" (), wrote extensively about the use of sulfur in alchemical operations with mercury, from the eighth century AD onwards. In the tradition, sulfur is called "the smelly" (, ).


title: Sulfur

text: Early European alchemists gave sulfur a unique alchemical symbol, a triangle atop a cross (🜍). (This is sometimes confused with the astronomical crossed-spear symbol ⚴ for 2 Pallas.) The variation known as brimstone has a symbol combining a two-barred cross atop a lemniscate (🜏). In traditional skin treatment, elemental sulfur was used (mainly in creams) to alleviate such conditions as scabies, ringworm, psoriasis, eczema, and acne. The mechanism of action is unknown—though elemental sulfur does oxidize slowly to sulfurous acid, which is (through the action of sulfite) a mild reducing and antibacterial agent.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur appears in a column of fixed (non-acidic) alkali in a chemical table of 1718. Antoine Lavoisier used sulfur in combustion experiments, writing of some of these in 1777.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur deposits in Sicily were the dominant source for more than a century. By the late 18th century, about 2,000 tonnes per year of sulfur were imported into Marseille, France, for the production of sulfuric acid for use in the Leblanc process. In industrializing Britain, with the repeal of tariffs on salt in 1824, demand for sulfur from Sicily surged upward. The increasing British control and exploitation of the mining, refining, and transportation of the sulfur, coupled with the failure of this lucrative export to transform Sicily's backward and impoverished economy, led to the Sulfur Crisis of 1840, when King Ferdinand II gave a monopoly of the sulfur industry to a French firm, violating an earlier 1816 trade agreement with Britain. A peaceful solution was eventually negotiated by France.


title: Sulfur

text: In 1867, elemental sulfur was discovered in underground deposits in Louisiana and Texas. The highly successful Frasch process was developed to extract this resource.


title: Sulfur

text: In the late 18th century, furniture makers used molten sulfur to produce decorative inlays. Molten sulfur is sometimes still used for setting steel bolts into drilled concrete holes where high shock resistance is desired for floor-mounted equipment attachment points. Pure powdered sulfur was used as a medicinal tonic and laxative.


title: Sulfur

text: With the advent of the contact process, the majority of sulfur today is used to make sulfuric acid for a wide range of uses, particularly fertilizer.


title: Sulfur

text: In recent times, the main source of sulfur has become petroleum and natural gas. This is due to the requirement to remove sulfur from fuels in order to prevent acid rain, and has resulted in a surplus of sulfur.


title: Sulfur

text: "Sulfur" is derived from the Latin word ', which was Hellenized to ' in the erroneous belief that the Latin word came from Greek. This spelling was later reinterpreted as representing an /f/ sound and resulted in the spelling "", which appears in Latin toward the end of the Classical period. The true Ancient Greek word for sulfur, , "theîon" (from earlier , "théeion"), is the source of the international chemical prefix "thio-". The Modern Standard Greek word for sulfur is θείο, "theío".


title: Sulfur

text: In 12th-century Anglo-French, it was '. In the 14th century, the erroneously Hellenized Latin ' was restored in Middle English "". By the 15th century, both full Latin spelling variants "sulfur" and "sulphur" became common in English. The parallel "f~ph" spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as "sulphur". On the other hand, "sulfur" was the form chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both.


title: Sulfur

text: The IUPAC adopted the spelling "sulfur" in 1990 or 1971, depending on the source cited, as did the Nomenclature Committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1992, restoring the spelling "sulfur" to Britain. Oxford Dictionaries note that "in chemistry and other technical uses ... the "-f-" spelling is now the standard form for this and related words in British as well as US contexts, and is increasingly used in general contexts as well."


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur may be found by itself and historically was usually obtained in this form; pyrite has also been a source of sulfur. In volcanic regions in Sicily, in ancient times, it was found on the surface of the Earth, and the "Sicilian process" was used: sulfur deposits were piled and stacked in brick kilns built on sloping hillsides, with airspaces between them. Then, some sulfur was pulverized, spread over the stacked ore and ignited, causing the free sulfur to melt down the hills. Eventually the surface-borne deposits played out, and miners excavated veins that ultimately dotted the Sicilian landscape with labyrinthine mines. Mining was unmechanized and labor-intensive, with pickmen freeing the ore from the rock, and mine-boys or "carusi" carrying baskets of ore to the surface, often through a mile or more of tunnels. Once the ore was at the surface, it was reduced and extracted in smelting ovens. The conditions in Sicilian sulfur mines were horrific, prompting Booker T. Washington to write "I am not prepared just now to say to what extent I believe in a physical hell in the next world, but a sulphur mine in Sicily is about the nearest thing to hell that I expect to see in this life."


title: Sulfur

text: Elemental sulfur was extracted from salt domes (in which it sometimes occurs in nearly pure form) until the late 20th century. Sulfur is now produced as a side product of other industrial processes such as in oil refining, in which sulfur is undesired. As a mineral, native sulfur under salt domes is thought to be a fossil mineral resource, produced by the action of anaerobic bacteria on sulfate deposits. It was removed from such salt-dome mines mainly by the Frasch process. In this method, superheated water was pumped into a native sulfur deposit to melt the sulfur, and then compressed air returned the 99.5% pure melted product to the surface. Throughout the 20th century this procedure produced elemental sulfur that required no further purification. Due to a limited number of such sulfur deposits and the high cost of working them, this process for mining sulfur has not been employed in a major way anywhere in the world since 2002.


title: Sulfur

text: Today, sulfur is produced from petroleum, natural gas, and related fossil resources, from which it is obtained mainly as hydrogen sulfide. Organosulfur compounds, undesirable impurities in petroleum, may be upgraded by subjecting them to hydrodesulfurization, which cleaves the C–S bonds:


title: Sulfur

text: The resulting hydrogen sulfide from this process, and also as it occurs in natural gas, is converted into elemental sulfur by the Claus process. This process entails oxidation of some hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide and then the comproportionation of the two:


title: Sulfur

text: Owing to the high sulfur content of the Athabasca Oil Sands, stockpiles of elemental sulfur from this process now exist throughout Alberta, Canada. Another way of storing sulfur is as a binder for concrete, the resulting product having many desirable properties (see sulfur concrete).


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur is still mined from surface deposits in poorer nations with volcanoes, such as Indonesia, and worker conditions have not improved much since Booker T. Washington's days.


title: Sulfur

text: The world production of sulfur in 2011 amounted to 69 million tonnes (Mt), with more than 15 countries contributing more than 1 Mt each. Countries producing more than 5 Mt are China (9.6), the United States (8.8), Canada (7.1) and Russia (7.1). Production has been slowly increasing from 1900 to 2010; the price was unstable in the 1980s and around 2010.


title: Sulfur

text: Elemental sulfur is used mainly as a precursor to other chemicals. Approximately 85% (1989) is converted to sulfuric acid (HSO):


title: Sulfur

text: In 2010, the United States produced more sulfuric acid than any other inorganic industrial chemical. The principal use for the acid is the extraction of phosphate ores for the production of fertilizer manufacturing. Other applications of sulfuric acid include oil refining, wastewater processing, and mineral extraction.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur reacts directly with methane to give carbon disulfide, which is used to manufacture cellophane and rayon. One of the uses of elemental sulfur is in vulcanization of rubber, where polysulfide chains crosslink organic polymers. Large quantities of sulfites are used to bleach paper and to preserve dried fruit. Many surfactants and detergents (e.g. sodium lauryl sulfate) are sulfate derivatives. Calcium sulfate, gypsum, (CaSO·2HO) is mined on the scale of 100 million tonnes each year for use in Portland cement and fertilizers.


title: Sulfur

text: When silver-based photography was widespread, sodium and ammonium thiosulfate were widely used as "fixing agents". Sulfur is a component of gunpowder ("black powder").


title: Sulfur

text: Amino acids synthesized by living organisms such as methionine and cysteine contain organosulfur groups (thioester and thiol respectively). The antioxidant glutathione protecting many living organisms against free radicals and oxidative stress also contains organic sulfur. Some crops such as onion and garlic also produce different organosulfur compounds such as syn-propanethial-S-oxide responsible of lacrymal irritation (onions), or diallyl disulfide and allicin (garlic). Sulfates, commonly found in soils and groundwaters are often a sufficient natural source of sulfur for plants and bacteria. Atmospheric deposition of sulfur dioxide (SO) is also a common artificial source (coal combustion) of sulfur for the soils. Under normal circumstances, in most agricultural soils, sulfur is not a limiting nutrient for plants and microorganisms (see the Liebig's law of the minimum#Liebig's barrel). However, in some circumstance, soils can be depleted in sulfate, e.g. if this later is leached by meteoric water (rain) or if the requirements in sulfur for some types of crops are high. This explains that sulfur is increasingly recognized and used as a component of fertilizers. The most important form of sulfur for fertilizer is the calcium sulfate, commonly found in nature as the mineral gypsum (CaSO·2HO). Elemental sulfur is hydrophobic (not soluble in water) and cannot be used directly by plants. Elemental sulfur (ES) is sometimes mixed with bentonite to amend depleted soils for crops with high requirement in organo-sulfur. Over time, oxidation abiotic processes with atmospheric oxygen and soil bacteria can oxidize and convert elemental sulfur to soluble derivatives, which can then be used by microorganisms and plants. Sulfur improves the efficiency of other essential plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. Biologically produced sulfur particles are naturally hydrophilic due to a biopolymer coating and are easier to disperse over the land in a spray of diluted slurry, resulting in a faster uptake by plants.


title: Sulfur

text: The plants requirement for sulfur equals or exceeds the requirement for phosphorus. It is an essential nutrient for plant growth, root nodule formation of legumes, and immunity and defense systems. Sulfur deficiency has become widespread in many countries in Europe. Because atmospheric inputs of sulfur continue to decrease, the deficit in the sulfur input/output is likely to increase unless sulfur fertilizers are used. Atmospheric inputs of sulfur decrease because of actions taken to limit acid rains.


title: Sulfur

text: Elemental sulfur is one of the oldest fungicides and pesticides. "Dusting sulfur", elemental sulfur in powdered form, is a common fungicide for grapes, strawberry, many vegetables and several other crops. It has a good efficacy against a wide range of powdery mildew diseases as well as black spot. In organic production, sulfur is the most important fungicide. It is the only fungicide used in organically farmed apple production against the main disease apple scab under colder conditions. Biosulfur (biologically produced elemental sulfur with hydrophilic characteristics) can also be used for these applications.


title: Sulfur

text: Standard-formulation dusting sulfur is applied to crops with a sulfur duster or from a dusting plane. Wettable sulfur is the commercial name for dusting sulfur formulated with additional ingredients to make it water miscible. It has similar applications and is used as a fungicide against mildew and other mold-related problems with plants and soil.


title: Sulfur

text: Elemental sulfur powder is used as an "organic" (i.e., "green") insecticide (actually an acaricide) against ticks and mites. A common method of application is dusting the clothing or limbs with sulfur powder.


title: Sulfur

text: A diluted solution of lime sulfur (made by combining calcium hydroxide with elemental sulfur in water) is used as a dip for pets to destroy ringworm (fungus), mange, and other dermatoses and parasites.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur candles of almost pure sulfur were burned to fumigate structures and wine barrels, but are now considered too toxic for residences.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur (specifically octasulfur, S) is used in pharmaceutical skin preparations for the treatment of acne and other conditions. It acts as a keratolytic agent and also kills bacteria, fungi, scabies mites, and other parasites. Precipitated sulfur and colloidal sulfur are used, in form of lotions, creams, powders, soaps, and bath additives, for the treatment of acne vulgaris, acne rosacea, and seborrhoeic dermatitis.


title: Sulfur

text: Many drugs contain sulfur. Early examples include antibacterial sulfonamides, known as "sulfa drugs". A more recent example is mucolytic acetylcysteine. Sulfur is a part of many bacterial defense molecules. Most β-lactam antibiotics, including the penicillins, cephalosporins and monobactams contain sulfur.


title: Sulfur

text: Due to their high energy density and the availability of sulfur, there is ongoing research in creating rechargeable lithium-sulfur batteries. Until now, carbonate electrolytes have caused failures in such batteries after a single cycle. In February 2022, researchers at Drexel University have not only created a prototypical battery that lasted 4000 recharge cycles, but also found the first monoclinic gamma sulfur that remained stable below 95 degrees Celsius.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur is an essential component of all living cells. It is the eighth most abundant element in the human body by weight, about equal in abundance to potassium, and slightly greater than sodium and chlorine. A human body contains about 140 grams of sulfur. The main dietary source of sulfur for humans is sulfur-containing amino-acids, which can be found in plant and animal proteins.


title: Sulfur

text: In the 1880s, while studying Beggiatoa (a bacterium living in a sulfur rich environment), Sergei Winogradsky found that it oxidized hydrogen sulfide (HS) as an energy source, forming intracellular sulfur droplets. Winogradsky referred to this form of metabolism as inorgoxidation (oxidation of inorganic compounds). Another contributor, who continued to study it was Selman Waksman. Primitive bacteria that live around deep ocean volcanic vents oxidize hydrogen sulfide for their nutrition, as discovered by Robert Ballard.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur oxidizers can use as energy sources reduced sulfur compounds, including hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, sulfite, thiosulfate, and various polythionates (e.g., tetrathionate). They depend on enzymes such as sulfur oxygenase and sulfite oxidase to oxidize sulfur to sulfate. Some lithotrophs can even use the energy contained in sulfur compounds to produce sugars, a process known as chemosynthesis. Some bacteria and archaea use hydrogen sulfide in place of water as the electron donor in chemosynthesis, a process similar to photosynthesis that produces sugars and uses oxygen as the electron acceptor. Sulfur-based chemosynthesis may be simplifiedly compared with photosynthesis:


title: Sulfur

text: There are bacteria combining these two ways of nutrition: green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria. Also sulfur-oxidizing bacteria can go into symbiosis with larger organisms, enabling the later to use hydrogen sulfide as food to be oxidized. Example: the giant tube worm.


title: Sulfur

text: There are sulfate-reducing bacteria, that, by contrast, "breathe sulfate" instead of oxygen. They use organic compounds or molecular hydrogen as the energy source. They use sulfur as the electron acceptor, and reduce various oxidized sulfur compounds back into sulfide, often into hydrogen sulfide. They can grow on other partially oxidized sulfur compounds (e.g. thiosulfates, thionates, polysulfides, sulfites).


title: Sulfur

text: There are studies pointing that many deposits of native sulfur in places that were the bottom of the ancient oceans have biological origin. These studies indicate that this native sulfur have been obtained through biological activity, but what is responsible for that (sulfur-oxidizing bacteria or sulfate-reducing bacteria) is still unknown for sure.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur is absorbed by plants roots from soil as sulfate and transported as a phosphate ester. Sulfate is reduced to sulfide via sulfite before it is incorporated into cysteine and other organosulfur compounds.


title: Sulfur

text: While the plants' role in transferring sulfur to animals by food chains is more or less understood, the role of sulfur bacteria is just getting investigated.


title: Sulfur

text: In all forms of life, most of the sulfur is contained in two proteinogenic amino acids (cysteine and methionine), thus the element is present in all proteins that contain these amino acids, as well as in respective peptides. Some of the sulfur is comprised in certain metabolites — many of which are cofactors, — and sulfated polysaccharides of connective tissue (chondroitin sulfates, heparin).


title: Sulfur

text: Proteins, to execute their biological function, need to have specific space geometry. Formation of this geometry is performed in a process called protein folding, and is provided by intra- and inter-molecular bonds. The process has several stages. While at premier stages a polypeptide chain folds due to hydrogen bonds, at later stages folding is provided (apart from hydrogen bonds) by covalent bonds between two sulfur atoms of two cysteine residues (so called disulfide bridges) at different places of a chain (tertriary protein structure) as well as between two cysteine residues in two separated protein subunits (quaternary protein structure). Both structures easily may be seen in insulin. As the bond energy of a covalent disulfide bridge is higher than the energy of a coordinate bond or hydrophylic either hydrophobic interaction, the higher disulfide bridges content leads the higher energy needed for protein denaturation. In general disulfide bonds are necessary in proteins functioning outside cellular space, and they do not change proteins' conformation (geometry), but serve as its stabilizers. Within cytoplasm cysteine residues of proteins are saved in reduced state (i.e. in -SH form) by thioredoxins.


title: Sulfur

text: This property manifests in following examples. Lysozyme is stable enough to be applied as a drug. Feathers and hair have relative strength, and consisting in them keratin is considered indigestible by most organisms. However, there are fungi and bacteria containing keratinase, and are able to destruct keratin.


title: Sulfur

text: Many important cellular enzymes use prosthetic groups ending with -SH moieties to handle reactions involving acyl-containing biochemicals: two common examples from basic metabolism are coenzyme A and alpha-lipoic acid. Cysteine-related metabolites homocysteine and taurine are other sulfur-containing amino acids that are similar in structure, but not coded by DNA, and are not part of the primary structure of proteins, take part in various locations of mammalian physiology. Two of the 13 classical vitamins, biotin, and thiamine, contain sulfur, and serve as cofactors to several enzymes.


title: Sulfur

text: In intracellular chemistry, sulfur operates as a carrier of reducing hydrogen and its electrons for cellular repair of oxidation. Reduced glutathione, a sulfur-containing tripeptide, is a reducing agent through its sulfhydryl (-SH) moiety derived from cysteine.


title: Sulfur

text: Methanogenesis, the route to most of the world's methane, is a multistep biochemical transformation of carbon dioxide. This conversion requires several organosulfur cofactors. These include coenzyme M, CHSCHCHSO, the immediate precursor to methane.


title: Sulfur

text: Metalloproteins — in which the active site is a transition metal ion (or metal-sulfide cluster) often coordinated by sulfur atoms of cysteine residues — are essential components of enzymes involved in electron transfer processes. Examples include plastocyanin (Cu) and nitrous oxide reductase (Cu–S). The function of these enzymes is dependent on the fact that the transition metal ion can undergo redox reactions. Other examples include many zinc proteins, as well as iron–sulfur clusters. Most pervasive are the ferrodoxins, which serve as electron shuttles in cells. In bacteria, the important nitrogenase enzymes contains an Fe–Mo–S cluster and is a catalyst that performs the important function of nitrogen fixation, converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia that can be used by microorganisms and plants to make proteins, DNA, RNA, alkaloids, and the other organic nitrogen compounds necessary for life.


title: Sulfur

text: In humans methionine is an essential amino acid, cysteine is conditionally essential and may be synthesized from non-essential serine (sulfur donator would be methionine in this case).


title: Sulfur

text: Dietary deficiency rarely happens in common conditions. Artificial methionine deficiency is attempted to apply in cancer treatment, but the method is still potentially dangerous.


title: Sulfur

text: There is a rare fatal genetic disease connected with sulfite oxidase impairment an enzyme metabolizing sulfur-containing amino acids.


title: Sulfur

text: Elemental sulfur is non-toxic when one touches it, however it is not harmless. Inhaling sulfur dust, or its contacting to eyes and/or skin may cause irritation. Ingesting sulfur is not safe too. There are reports of cases where people deliberately consumed sulfur (as a folk remedy) that led to life-threatening metabolic acidosis.


title: Sulfur

text: Most of the soluble sulfate salts, such as Epsom salts, are non-toxic. Soluble sulfate salts are poorly absorbed and laxative. When injected parenterally, they are freely filtered by the kidneys and eliminated with very little toxicity in multi-gram amounts. Aluminium sulfate is used in the purification of drinking water, wastewater treatment plants and papermaking.


title: Sulfur

text: When sulfur burns in air, it produces sulfur dioxide. In water, this gas produces sulfurous acid and sulfites; sulfites are antioxidants that inhibit growth of aerobic bacteria and a useful food additive in small amounts. At high concentrations these acids harm the lungs, eyes, or other tissues. In organisms without lungs such as insects or plants, sulfite in high concentration prevents respiration.


title: Sulfur

text: Sulfur trioxide (made by catalysis from sulfur dioxide) and sulfuric acid are similarly highly acidic and corrosive in the presence of water. Sulfuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent that can strip available water molecules and water components from sugar and organic tissue.


title: Sulfur

text: The burning of coal and/or petroleum by industry and power plants generates sulfur dioxide (SO) that reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid (HSO) and sulfurous acid (HSO). These acids are components of acid rain, lowering the pH of soil and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the environment and chemical weathering of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require that fuel producers extract sulfur from fossil fuels to prevent acid rain formation. This extracted and refined sulfur represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal-fired power plants, flue gases are sometimes purified. More modern power plants that use synthesis gas extract the sulfur before they burn the gas.


title: Sulfur

text: Hydrogen sulfide is about one-half as toxic as hydrogen cyanide, and intoxicates by the same mechanism (inhibition of the respiratory enzyme cytochrome oxidase), though hydrogen sulfide is less likely to cause sudden poisonings from small inhaled amounts (near its permissible exposure limit — PEL — of 20 ppm) because of its disagreeable odor. However, its presence in ambient air at concentration over 100-150 ppm quickly deadens the sense of smell, and a victim may breathe increasing quantities without noticing until severe symptoms cause death. Dissolved sulfide and hydrosulfide salts are toxic by the same mechanism.


title: WeTransfer

text: WeTransfer is an internet-based computer file transfer service company that was founded in 2009, based in Amsterdam, Netherlands.


title: WeTransfer

text: WeTransfer was founded in 2009 by Rinke Visser, Bas Beerens and Ronald Hans (Nalden) in Amsterdam, Netherlands. It was created to enable the sharing of large files (up to 2GB) for free.


title: WeTransfer

text: In 2012, WeTransfer implemented a re-design and introduced a 'Plus' service with support for much larger file transfers (up to 5GB) and storage (50GB) as well as send filed to a maximum of 100 recipients for a price.


title: WeTransfer

text: In 2014, WeTransfer launched "creative-class.tv", an ongoing video series. The company initiated its first bursaries that year through a collaborative partnership with Central Saint Martins. These bursaries supported two students from around the globe in their full-time studies.


title: WeTransfer

text: In 2015, WeTransfer raised a US$25 million Series A funding round from Highland Capital Partners Europe. They also added venture capitalist Troy Carter to its board.


title: WeTransfer

text: In 2016, WeTransfer announced the acquisition of digital design studio Present Plus, established in 2010 by Damian Bradfield and WeTransfer co-founder Nalden. In September, WeTransfer opened its first office in the United States at Venice Beach, Los Angeles.


title: WeTransfer

text: In early 2017, Gordon Willoughby became the company's Chief Executive Officer, taking over from Bas Beerens who became Executive Chairman.


title: WeTransfer

text: In January 2018, WeTransfer launched content arm "WePresent". In August, WeTransfer acquired app developer FiftyThree, whose portfolio included sketching app "Paper" and collaborative presentation app "Paste". In October, WeTransfer relaunched its mobile app with the name "Collect by WeTransfer".


title: WeTransfer

text: In June 2019, WeTransfer experienced a security incident in which files were "sent to the wrong people." In August, the company closed a €35 million secondary funding round led by HPE Growth.


title: WeTransfer

text: In May 2020, India banned the WeTransfer app, citing security reasons. In June, the company became a certified B Corporation.


title: WeTransfer

text: In February 2021, WeTransfer achieved carbon-neutral certification having pledged the previous year to reduce emissions by 30% by 2025. In March, the 2020 short film "The Long Goodbye" by Aneil Karia and Riz Ahmed commissioned by WeTransfer through WePresent won the 2022 Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. In April, the WeTransfer Foundation, ""Supporting Act"," focused on helping emerging creative talent was launched and the company pledged to donate 1% of revenues from 2022 onwards. In October, WeTransfer announced sales in 2020 of €65m.


title: WeTransfer

text: In January 2022, WeTransfer planned for an IPO but ended up cancelling the offering shortly before listing.


title: WeTransfer

text: Bas Beerens founded the file-sharing platform WeTransfer with Nalden (Ronald Hans) and Rinke Visser in 2009. Beerens also runs the design consultancy OY Communications (initially OY Transfer) from which WeTransfer was developed. In 2012, he founded WeMarket, a global B2B marketplace for buyers and suppliers in any industry.


title: WeTransfer

text: Damian Bradfield, co-founder, joined the company in 2010. Bradfield is currently WeTransfer's Chief Creative Officer.


title: WeTransfer

text: Chief Executive Gordon Willoughby joined WeTransfer in January 2017. He announced his departure from the company in May 2022 and was replaced by former Chief Technology Officer Alexandar Vassilev.


title: WeTransfer

text: WeTransfer is based on Amazon's infrastructure and technology. It uses Amazon S3 for storage and for sending files.


title: WeTransfer

text: WeTransfer offers a free service where users can send up to two gigabytes of data and a paid option called WeTransfer Pro where users can send up to 200 gigabytes of data as well as have some additional customization options.


title: WeTransfer

text: WeTransfer displays full-screen advertisements while transferring instead of banner ads. The company donates 30% of the advertising inventory to creatives and charitable causes.


title: Folk music

text: Folk music is a music genre that includes traditional folk music and the contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers, music that is played on traditional instruments, music about cultural or national identity, music that changes between generations (folk process), music associated with a people's folklore, or music performed by custom over a long period of time. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. The term originated in the 19th century, but folk music extends beyond that.


title: Folk music

text: Starting in the mid-20th century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals. This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, and others. While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in U.S. English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music.


title: Folk music

text: The terms "folk music", "folk song", and "folk dance" are comparatively recent expressions. They are extensions of the term "folklore", which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe "the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes". The term further derives from the German expression "volk", in the sense of "the people as a whole" as applied to popular and national music by Johann Gottfried Herder and the German Romantics over half a century earlier. Though it is understood that folk music is the music of the people, observers find a more precise definition to be elusive. Some do not even agree that the term folk music should be used. Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of "old songs, with no known composers," another is that of music that has been submitted to an evolutionary "process of oral transmission... the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character."


title: Folk music

text: Such definitions depend upon "(cultural) processes rather than abstract musical types...", upon ""continuity" and "oral transmission"...seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in 'primitive' societies and in parts of 'popular cultures'". One widely used definition is simply "Folk music is what the people sing."


title: Folk music

text: For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, there was a sense of the music of the country as distinct from that of the town. Folk music was already, "...seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived)," particularly in "a community uninfluenced by art music" and by commercial and printed song. Lloyd rejected this in favor of a simple distinction of economic class yet for him, true folk music was, in Charles Seeger's words, "associated with a lower class" in culturally and socially stratified societies. In these terms, folk music may be seen as part of a "schema comprising four musical types: 'primitive' or 'tribal'; 'elite' or 'art'; 'folk'; and 'popular'."


title: Folk music

text: Music in this genre is also often called "traditional music." Although the term is usually only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre. For example, the Grammy Award previously used the terms "traditional music" and "traditional folk" for folk music that is not contemporary folk music. Folk music may include most indigenous music.


title: Folk music

text: In folk music, a "tune" is a short instrumental piece, a melody, often with repeating sections, and usually played a number of times. A collection of tunes with structural similarities is known as a tune-family. "America's Musical Landscape" says "the most common form for tunes in folk music is AABB, also known as binary form."


title: Folk music

text: Throughout most of human prehistory and history, listening to recorded music was not possible. Music was made by common people during both their work and leisure, as well as during religious activities. The work of economic production was often manual and communal. Manual labor often included singing by the workers, which served several practical purposes. It reduced the boredom of repetitive tasks, it kept the rhythm during synchronized pushes and pulls, and it set the pace of many activities such as planting, weeding, reaping, threshing, weaving, and milling. In leisure time, singing and playing musical instruments were common forms of entertainment and history-telling—even more common than today when electrically enabled technologies and widespread literacy make other forms of entertainment and information-sharing competitive.


title: Folk music

text: Some believe that folk music originated as art music that was changed and probably debased by oral transmission while reflecting the character of the society that produced it. In many societies, especially preliterate ones, the cultural transmission of folk music requires learning by ear, although notation has evolved in some cultures. Different cultures may have different notions concerning a division between "folk" music on the one hand and of "art" and "court" music on the other. In the proliferation of popular music genres, some traditional folk music became also referred to as "World music" or "Roots music".


title: Folk music

text: The English term "folklore", to describe traditional folk music and dance, entered the vocabulary of many continental European nations, each of which had its folk-song collectors and revivalists. The distinction between "authentic" folk and national and popular song in general has always been loose, particularly in America and Germany – for example, popular songwriters such as Stephen Foster could be termed "folk" in America. The International Folk Music Council definition allows that the term can also apply to music that, "...has originated with an individual composer and has subsequently been absorbed into the unwritten, living tradition of a community. But the term does not cover a song, dance, or tune that has been taken over ready-made and remains unchanged."


title: Folk music

text: The post–World War II folk revival in America and in Britain started a new genre, Contemporary Folk Music, and brought an additional meaning to the term "folk music": newly composed songs, fixed in form and by known authors, which imitated some form of traditional music. The popularity of "contemporary folk" recordings caused the appearance of the category "Folk" in the Grammy Awards of 1959; in 1970 the term was dropped in favor of "Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording (including Traditional Blues)", while 1987 brought a distinction between "Best Traditional Folk Recording" and "Best Contemporary Folk Recording". After that, they had a "Traditional music" category that subsequently evolved into others. The term "folk", by the start of the 21st century, could cover singer-songwriters, such as Donovan from Scotland and American Bob Dylan, who emerged in the 1960s and much more. This completed a process to where "folk music" no longer meant only traditional folk music.


title: Folk music

text: Traditional folk music often includes sung words, although folk instrumental music occurs commonly in dance music traditions. Narrative verse looms large in the traditional folk music of many cultures. This encompasses such forms as traditional epic poetry, much of which was meant originally for oral performance, sometimes accompanied by instruments. Many epic poems of various cultures were pieced together from shorter pieces of traditional narrative verse, which explains their episodic structure, repetitive elements, and their frequent "in medias res" plot developments. Other forms of traditional narrative verse relate the outcomes of battles or lament tragedies or natural disasters.


title: Folk music

text: Sometimes, as in the triumphant "Song of Deborah" found in the Biblical "Book of Judges", these songs celebrate victory. Laments for lost battles and wars, and the lives lost in them, are equally prominent in many traditions; these laments keep alive the cause for which the battle was fought. The narratives of traditional songs often also remember folk heroes such as John Henry or Robin Hood. Some traditional song narratives recall supernatural events or mysterious deaths.


title: Folk music

text: Hymns and other forms of religious music are often of traditional and unknown origin. Western musical notation was originally created to preserve the lines of Gregorian chant, which before its invention was taught as an oral tradition in monastic communities. Traditional songs such as "Green grow the rushes, O" present religious lore in a mnemonic form, as do Western Christmas carols and similar traditional songs.


title: Folk music

text: Work songs frequently feature call and response structures and are designed to enable the laborers who sing them to coordinate their efforts in accordance with the rhythms of the songs. They are frequently, but not invariably, composed. In the American armed forces, a lively oral tradition preserves jody calls ("Duckworth chants") which are sung while soldiers are on the march. Professional sailors made similar use of a large body of sea shanties. Love poetry, often of a tragic or regretful nature, prominently figures in many folk traditions. Nursery rhymes and nonsense verse used to amuse or quiet children also are frequent subjects of traditional songs.


title: Folk music

text: Music transmitted by word of mouth through a community, in time, develops many variants, since this transmission cannot produce word-for-word and note-for-note accuracy. In addition, folk singers may choose to modify the songs they hear.


title: Folk music

text: For example, the words of "I'm a Man You Don't Meet Every Day" (Roud 975) were written down in a broadside in the 18th century, and seem to have an Irish origin. In 1958 the song was recorded in Canada (My Name is Pat and I'm Proud of That). Scottish traveler Jeannie Robertson from Aberdeen, made the next recorded version in 1961. She has changed it to make reference to "Jock Stewart", one of her relatives, and there are no Irish references. In 1976 Scottish artist Archie Fisher deliberately altered the song to remove the reference to a dog being shot. In 1985 The Pogues took it full circle by restoring the Irish references.


title: Folk music

text: Because variants proliferate naturally, there is genereally no "authoritative" version of song. Researchers in traditional songs have encountered countless versions of the Barbara Allen ballad throughout the English-speaking world, and these versions often differ greatly from each other. The original is not known; many versions can lay an equal claim to authenticity.


title: Folk music

text: Influential folklorist Cecil Sharp felt that these competing variants of a traditional song would undergo a process of improvement akin to biological natural selection: only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time. Thus, over time we would expect each traditional song to become more aesthetically appealing, due to incremental community improvement.


title: Folk music

text: Literary interest in the popular ballad form dates back at least to Thomas Percy and William Wordsworth. English Elizabethan and Stuart composers had often evolved their music from folk themes, the classical suite was based upon stylised folk-dances, and Joseph Haydn's use of folk melodies is noted. But the emergence of the term "folk" coincided with an "outburst of national feeling all over Europe" that was particularly strong at the edges of Europe, where national identity was most asserted. Nationalist composers emerged in Central Europe, Russia, Scandinavia, Spain and Britain: the music of Dvořák, Smetana, Grieg, Rimsky-Korsakov, Brahms, Liszt, de Falla, Wagner, Sibelius, Vaughan Williams, Bartók, and many others drew upon folk melodies.


title: Folk music

text: While the loss of traditional folk music in the face of the rise of popular music is a worldwide phenomenon, it is not one occurring at a uniform rate throughout the world. The process is most advanced "where industrialization and commercialisation of culture are most advanced" but also occurs more gradually even in settings of lower technological advancement. However, the loss of traditional music is slowed in nations or regions where traditional folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity.


title: Folk music

text: Much of what is known about folk music prior to the development of audio recording technology in the 19th century comes from fieldwork and writings of scholars, collectors and proponents.


title: Folk music

text: Starting in the 19th century, academics and amateur scholars, taking note of the musical traditions being lost, initiated various efforts to preserve the music of the people. One such effort was the collection by Francis James Child in the late 19th century of the texts of over three hundred ballads in the English and Scots traditions (called the Child Ballads), some of which predated the 16th century.


title: Folk music

text: Contemporaneously with Child, the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould and later Cecil Sharp worked to preserve a great body of English rural traditional song, music and dance, under the aegis of what became and remains the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS). Sharp campaigned with some success to have English traditional songs (in his own heavily edited and expurgated versions) to be taught to school children in hopes of reviving and prolonging the popularity of those songs. Throughout the 1960s and early to mid-1970s, American scholar Bertrand Harris Bronson published an exhaustive four-volume collection of the then-known variations of both the texts and tunes associated with what came to be known as the Child Canon. He also advanced some significant theories concerning the workings of oral-aural tradition.


title: Folk music

text: Similar activity was also under way in other countries. One of the most extensive was perhaps the work done in Riga by Krisjanis Barons, who between the years 1894 and 1915 published six volumes that included the texts of 217,996 Latvian folk songs, the "Latvju dainas". In Norway the work of collectors such as Ludvig Mathias Lindeman was extensively used by Edvard Grieg in his "Lyric Pieces" for piano and in other works, which became immensely popular.