title: Ford F-Series

text: The Eluminator crate motor has an output of and of torque, with a total weight of . At the time of release, Ford Performance announced they also were planning to develop battery systems, controllers, and traction inverters to make a complete drop-in EV drivetrain replacement available commercially for interested parties. The F-100 Eluminator is fitted with two traction motors, one each for the front and rear axles, with a combined output of and of torque. As tested by "Motor Trend", the truck is , heavier than the Mach-E donor and it retains its 1978-era aerodynamic drag, so performance is accordingly lower, with the F-100 Eluminator recording a time of 3.9 seconds (compared to 3.6 s for the Mach-E) and a time of 13.0 seconds at a trap speed of (12.6 s at for the Mach-E). The same 88 kW-hr battery from the Mach-E has a reduced estimated range of in the F-100 Eluminator, less than the Mach-E due in part to the increased aerodynamic drag of the F-100. Ford Performance engineer Brian Novak said that since the engineering drawings were finished, a second example could be built for "McLaren money, not Bugatti money", which "Motor Trend" estimated to be .


title: Ford F-Series

text: For most of its production, the F-Series was sold in a medium-duty conventional truck configuration alongside the traditional pickup trucks. Beginning in 1948 with the 1 ton F-5 (later F-500), the medium-duty trucks ranged up to the F-8 (F-800). Prior to the 1957 introduction of the Ford C-Series tilt-cab, the medium-duty range was offered as both a conventional and in a COE (cabover) configuration.


title: Ford F-Series

text: Following the introduction of the fifth-generation F-Series in 1967, the medium-duty trucks were designed separately from the pickup truck range. Although remaining part of the F-Series range, the medium-duty trucks shared only the cab and interior with the F-Series pickup trucks. Since 1967, the cab design has changed only in 1980 and in 2000. Redesigned on an all-new chassis, the 2016 F-Series medium-duty trucks retain an updated version of the 2000–2015 F-650/F750 cab.


title: Ford F-Series

text: The medium-duty F-Series served as the donor platform for the B-Series cowled bus chassis produced from 1948 to 1998. Produced primarily for school bus bodies, the B-Series was discontinued as part of the sale of the Ford heavy-truck line to Freightliner in 1996.


title: Ford F-Series

text: Above its medium-duty truck ranges, the Ford F-Series was used as a heavy-truck chassis during its early production. In 1951, Ford debuted its "Big Job" line, denoting the F-8 conventional. In 1958, the "Super Duty" and "Extra Heavy Duty" replaced the Big Job trucks, marking the debut of the Super Duty V8 engine line. In 1963, the N-Series became the first short-hood conventional built by Ford, replacing the F-900 Super Duty/Extra Heavy Duty. Although based on an all-new chassis and separate bodywork, the cab was sourced from the F-Series.


title: Ford F-Series

text: In 1970, Ford introduced the L-Series "Louisville" line of conventional trucks, moving all heavy truck development away from the F-Series. The L-Series/Aeromax would remain in production through 1998, as Ford exited the North American heavy-truck segment. Outside North America, Ford builds the Ford Cargo, and Ford F-MAX.


title: Ford F-Series

text: From 1948 until 1960, the F-Series was produced in a panel van configuration; in contrast to General Motors, Ford never offered a passenger "carryall" variant (competing against the Chevrolet/GMC Suburban or the International Travelall). For 1961, the panel van was discontinued, largely replaced by the Econoline compact van.


title: Ford F-Series

text: From 1968 to the present day, the Econoline/Club Wagon/E-Series vans have shared a degree of mechanical commonality with the F-Series pickup trucks (during the 1970s, some body components were shared). While no longer produced for retail sale, the E-Series still shares its engines and transmission with the Ford Super Duty trucks.


title: Ford F-Series

text: As of 2018, outside of the United States, Canada, and Mexico, the Ford F-150 is officially sold in most Caribbean countries (except Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Kitts and Nevis and Cuba), Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, the Middle East (including Afghanistan), Iceland, China, Cambodia, the Philippines, Angola, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, the French Overseas Collectivities of French Polynesia and New Caledonia, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Madagascar, the Dutch territories of Aruba, Curaçao, Saint Maarten and the British overseas territory of the Cayman Islands. The SVT Raptor is sold in the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Middle East (including Afghanistan), China, Ecuador, Chile and Peru. Both are available in LHD only.


title: Ford F-Series

text: In Mexico, the F-150 (XLT and higher trim levels) is called the "Ford Lobo" (Ford Wolf) while the F-150 SVT Raptor is called the "Ford Lobo Raptor". The F-150 XL remains as F-150 XL.


title: Ford F-Series

text: There is a strong grey market presence of Ford F-Series trucks around the world, most notably in Europe, China, South Korea, and usually driven by wealthy car enthusiasts, as the higher end trim models are the most sought-after versions. In Australia they are popular with those wanting to tow heavier trailers and caravans.


title: Ford F-Series

text: In Bolivia, Ford F-series truck are imported from the United States. F-150 single, super cab and crew cab are available with short and long bed. F-series Heavy Duty like F-250, F-350 are available in Super Cab and Crew cab with long bed, but the F-450 is available only in a chassis version. The F-150 Raptor is available, too


title: Ford F-Series

text: In the United Kingdom, most imported Ford F-Series trucks are the F-150 model in LHD, and usually the higher-end four door versions.


title: Ford F-Series

text: The addition of the 3.0l V6 turbo diesel engine could potentially make the Ford F-150 go global and in both LHD and RHD from the factory.


title: Ford F-Series

text: The F-Series represents Ford in the NASCAR Gander Outdoors Truck Series. Greg Biffle won the 2000 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series Championship, being the only Ford driver to do so. Ford also won the Manufacturers' Championship in 1999 and 2000.


title: Ford F-Series

text: In 2008, Ford announced its entrance into the Baja 1000 class-eight race for moderately modified, full-size pickups. The driver of record was Steve Oligos, supported by co-drivers Randy Merritt, Greg Foutz, and Bud Brutsman. The vehicle was built with collaboration between the Ford Special Vehicle Team (SVT), Ford Racing, and Foutz Motorsports, Inc. The Ford F-150 SVT Raptor R completed the 2008 41st Tecate SCORE Baja 1000 race in 25.28:10, and ranked third in its class. Tavo Vildosola and Gus Vildosola won the event in 2010.


title: Ford F-Series

text: In the Best in the Desert race series, an F-150 SVT Raptor R completed the "Terrible's 250" race, placing second overall in the class 8000.


title: Ford F-Series

text: In January 2010, a single Raptor SVT (No. 439), driven by Chilean driver Javier Campillay, competed in the Argentina-Chile Dakar Rally. However, the pickup was unable to finish due to a catch-up crash with another car in the middle of the road during stage seven. In January 2011, two Raptors started in the Argentina-Chile Dakar Rally in Buenos Aires, with Campillay driving the more reliable Raptor (No. 375), and American female driver Sue Mead driving a T2 Raptor (No. 374). Mead crossed the finish line in Buenos Aires and won the "super production" class, the first North American class win in Dakar history. Campillay was unable to finish the 12th stage after losing time due to mechanical failure during the 11th stage, which led to his disqualification for failing to reach the race camp by the designated deadline.


title: Ford F-Series

text: Ford F-150s are commonly used as police trucks. They are primarily used to patrol off-road areas such as mountains, forests, flooded areas, shorelines, and beaches, where a standard police car has difficulty maneuvering. In addition, they are often used for transporting SWAT teams, and can even have facilities to securely detain and transport a small number of suspects. Other common police uses include equipping the truck with cages for animal control or using them to transport mounted units or police boats.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikhs ( or ; , ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism (Sikhi), a monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term "Sikh" has its origin in the word ' (), meaning 'disciple' or 'student'.


title: Sikhs

text: Male Sikhs generally have "Singh" ('lion'/'tiger') as their last name, though not all Singhs are necessarily Sikhs; likewise, female Sikhs have "Kaur" ('princess') as their last name. These unique last names were given by the Gurus to allow Sikhs to stand out and also as an act of defiance to India's caste system, which the Gurus were always against. Sikhs strongly believe in the idea of "Sarbat Da Bhala" - "Welfare of all" and are often seen on the frontline to provide humanitarian aid across the world.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikhs who have undergone the "Amrit Sanchar" ('baptism by Khanda'), an initiation ceremony, are from the day of their initiation known as Khalsa, and they must at all times have on their bodies five Ks:


title: Sikhs

text: The Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent has been the historic homeland of the Sikhs, having even been ruled by the Sikhs for significant parts of the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, Canada has the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1%) in the world, while Punjab state in India has the largest Sikh proportion (58%) amongst all administrative divisions in the world. Many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, recognize Sikhs as a designated religion on their censuses, and, as of 2020, Sikhs are considered as a separate ethnic group in the United States.


title: Sikhs

text: Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in a Hindu family to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta in the village of Talwandi, present-day Nankana Sahib, near Lahore. Throughout his life, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin in 1606, with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev. Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699, when the Guru initiated five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the "Panj Piare" ("beloved five"), to form a collective body of initiated Sikhs, known as the "Khalsa" ("pure").


title: Sikhs

text: The early followers of Guru Nanak were Khatris, but later a large number of Jats joined the faith. Khatris and Brahmins opposed "the demand that the Sikhs set aside the distinctive customs of their castes and families, including the older rituals."


title: Sikhs

text: During the rule of the Mughal Empire in India, two Sikh gurus were martyred. (Guru Arjan was martyred on suspicion of helping in betrayal of Mughal Emperor Jahangir and Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for opposing their persecution of Kashmiri pandits.) As the Sikh faith grew, the Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule. Guru Gobind Singh Ji was assassinated in 1708 by two pathans.


title: Sikhs

text: After defeating the Afghans and Mughals, sovereign states called Misls were formed under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The Confederacy of these states was unified and transformed into the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. This era was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism, including Christians, Muslims, and Hindus in positions of power. Its secular administration implemented military, economic, and governmental reforms. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North-West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass.


title: Sikhs

text: After the annexation of the Sikh kingdom by the British, the British Army began recruiting significant numbers of Sikhs and Punjabis. During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British, resulting in heavy recruitment from Punjab to the British Indian Army for the next 90 years of the British Raj in colonial India. The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army. The British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India, including Punjab, such as the formation of the First and Second Singh Sabha in 1873 and 1879 respectively. The Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice.


title: Sikhs

text: The later years of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of "Sikh Gurdwara Bill" in 1925, which placed all the historical Sikh shrines in India under the control of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee.


title: Sikhs

text: At the time of the Indian independence movement, the Sikh ruler of the Kapurthala State fought to oppose the partition of India and advocated for a united, secular country. Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, condemned the Lahore Resolution and the movement to create Pakistan, viewing it as inviting possible persecution. The Sikhs therefore strongly fought against the partition of India. The months leading up to the 1947 partition of India were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab to the east (modern India), mirroring a simultaneous religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab to the west (modern Pakistan).


title: Sikhs

text: Following partition, the Government of India had begun to redraw states corresponding to demographic and linguistic boundaries. However, this was not effective in the northern part of the country, as the government reconsidered redrawing states in the north. While states across the country were extensively redrawn on linguistic lines at the behest of linguistic groups, the only languages not considered for statehood were Punjabi, Sindhi and Urdu. Leading to the launch of the Punjabi Suba movement and the presentation for a Punjabi Suba as a policy in April 1948 by Master Tara Singh. Also, on 26 January 1950 Sikh representatives refused to sign the Indian constitution. As Sikhs were recognized as Hindus and Sikhs were not provided with scheduled castes concessions given to Hindu scheduled castes.


title: Sikhs

text: The Punjab Suba experienced heavy government crackdown with the Congress Government arresting as many as 21,000 people. Attempted negotiations with Congress-led the agitation to be adjourned twice, though Jawaharlal Nehru continued to reject the demand. On 4 July 1955, government police forces, led by DIG Ashwini Kumar, would forced entry into the Golden Temple premises and heavy-handedly arrested protestors and took them into custody, along with the head granthis of the Akal Takht and Golden Temple, volunteer protestors, and even cooks of the temple's langar. The Guru Ram Das Serai and Shiromani Akali Dal offices were also raided, and batons used and tear gas and shells were fired to disperse the protestors gathered on the periphery of the temple, damaging the periphery and Sarovar, or pool, of the temple. The government stopped volunteers on the way to the Golden Temple, and troops were ordered to flag-march through the bazaars and streets surrounding the site. Over 200 protestors were killed, thousands arrested, and thousands, including women and children, were injured.


title: Sikhs

text: The Congress government agreed to the Punjab Suba in 1966 after protests and recommendation of the States Reorganisation Commission. The state of East Punjab was later split into the states of Himachal Pradesh, the new state Haryana and current day Punjab. However, there was a growing alienation between Punjabi Sikh and Hindu populations. The latter of which reported Hindi rather than Punjabi as their primary language. The result was that Punjabi-speaking areas were left out of the new state and given to Haryana and Himachal Pradesh resulting in the state of Punjab to be roughly 35,000 square miles smaller than the Punjabi-speaking areas based on pre-1947 census figures. Moreover, the 1966 reorganization left Sikhs highly dissatisfied, with the capital Chandigarh being made into a shared a union territory and the capital of Punjab and Haryana.


title: Sikhs

text: In the late 1960s, the Green Revolution in India was first introduced in Punjab as part of a development program issued by international donor agencies and the Government of India. While, Green Revolution in Punjab had several positive impacts, the introduction of the mechanised agricultural techniques led to uneven distribution of wealth. The industrial development was not done at the same pace as agricultural development, the Indian government had been reluctant to set up heavy industries in Punjab due to its status as a high-risk border state with Pakistan. The rapid increase in the higher education opportunities without an adequate rise in the jobs resulted in the increase in the unemployment of educated youth.


title: Sikhs

text: In 1973 as a result, of unaddressed grievances and increasing inequality the Akali Dal put forward the Anandpur Sahib Resolution. The resolution included both religious and political issues. It asked for recognising Sikhism as a religion, it also demanded the devolution of power from the Central to state governments. The Anandpur Resolution was rejected by the government as a secessionist document. Thousands of people joined the movement, feeling that it represented a real solution to demands such as a larger share of water for irrigation and the return of Chandigarh to Punjab.


title: Sikhs

text: After unsuccessful negotiations the Dharam Yuddh Morcha ("righteous campaign") was launched on 4 August 1982, by the Akali Dal in partnership with Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, with its stated aim being the fulfillment of a set of devolutionary objectives based on the Anandpur Sahib Resolution. Indian police responded to protestors with high-handed police methods creating state repression affecting a very large segment of Punjab's population. Police brutality resulted in retaliatory violence from a section of the Sikh population, widening the scope of the conflict by the use of violence of the state on its own people. A "state of chaos and repressive police methods" combined to create "a mood of overwhelming anger and resentment in the Sikh masses against the authorities". Leading to Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale gaining prominence and demands of independence gain currency, even amongst moderates and Sikh intellectuals. In, 1982 and early 1983 extrajudicial killings by the police of orthodox Sikh youth in rural areas in Punjab provoked reprisals. Over 190 Sikhs had been killed in the first 19 months of the protest movement.


title: Sikhs

text: In May 1984, a "Grain Roko morcha" was planned and to be initiated on 3June with protestors practising civil disobedience by refusing to pay land revenue, water or electricity bills, and blocking the flow of grain out of Punjab. Indian Prime minister Indira Gandhi launched Operation Blue Star on 1June prior to the Grain Roko morcha in order to remove Bhindranwale from the Golden Temple. This subsequently lead to Gandhi's assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Her assassination was followed by riots against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. These events triggered an Insurgency in Punjab which would consume Punjab until the early 1990s.


title: Sikhs

text: During the day of Vaisakhi in 1999, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the anniversary. Likewise, on 9 April 1999, Indian president K. R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa as well.


title: Sikhs

text: According to Article I of Chapter 1 of the Sikh "Rehat Maryada" ('code of conduct'), the definition of Sikh is:


title: Sikhs

text: v. the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh.


title: Sikhs

text: The Sikh Rahit Maryada (Code of Conduct) clearly states that baptized Amritdhari Khalsa Sikhs must recite or listen to the recitation of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, the 10 Sawayyas, Sodar Rehraas, and Sohila. Every Sikh is also supposed take the Hukam (divine order) from the Guru Granth Sahib after awakening in the ambrosial hours of the morning (three hours before the dawn) before eating.


title: Sikhs

text: In his 52 Hukams, Guru Gobind Singh orders his followers to arise during Amritvela (early morning) and to recite the late evening prayer "Sohila" and the verse "Pavan guru pani pita..." before sleeping.


title: Sikhs

text: The five Ks ("panj kakaar") are five articles of faith which all baptized ("Amritdhari") Sikhs are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on Waheguru, and never bowing to tyranny.


title: Sikhs

text: The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments, including the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori, and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged by Guru Hargobind. The rebab was played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were introduced to Sikh devotional music by Guru Arjan. The "taus" (Persian for "peacock") was designed by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds. The dilruba was designed by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabad in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as raags. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.


title: Sikhs

text: When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a "Ranjit nagara" ("victory drum") to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the Singhs were on their way.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikhs number about 25-30 million worldwide, of whom 22–28 million live in India, which thus represents around 90% of the total Sikh population. About 76% of all Indian Sikhs live in the northern Indian State of Punjab, forming a majority of about 58 per cent of the state's population, roughly around 16 million. Karnail Singh Panjoli, member of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, says that there are several communities within the term Nanakpanthis too. Apart from Sindhi Hindus, "There are groups like Sikhligarh, Vanjaarey, Nirmaley, Lubaney, Johri, Satnamiye, Udaasiyas, Punjabi Hindus, etc. who call themselves Nanakpanthis despite being Hindus. Substantial communities of Sikhs live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana, where they number around 1.2 million and form 4.91% of the population, Rajasthan (872k, or 1.27% of the population), Uttar Pradesh (643k, 0.32%), Delhi (570k, 3.4%), Uttarakhand (236k, 2.34%), Jammu and Kashmir (234k, 1.87%), Chandigarh (138k, 13.11%) and Himachal Pradesh (86k, 1.16%).


title: Sikhs

text: Canada is home to the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1 percent of the total population) in the world. A substantial community of Sikhs exist in the western province of British Columbia, numbering nearly 300,000 persons and forming approximately 5.9 percent of the total population. This represents the third-largest Sikh proportion amongst all global administrative divisions, behind only Punjab and Chandigarh in India. Furthermore, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Yukon hold the distinction of being three of the only four administrative divisions in the world with Sikhism as the second most followed religion among the population.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab, which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many also to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia, Singapore and Thailand.


title: Sikhs

text: After the Partition of India in 1947, many Sikhs from what would become the Punjab of Pakistan migrated to India as well as to Afghanistan due to fear of persecution. Afghanistan was home to hundreds of thousands of Sikhs and Hindus as of the 1970s, but due to the wars in Afghanistan in the 2010s, the vast majority of Afghan Sikhs had migrated to India, Pakistan or the west.


title: Sikhs

text: Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK becoming "virtually impossible since the late 1970s," migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools, and horticulture.


title: Sikhs

text: Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7% per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths, and conversions. Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001) and it have further declined to just 8.4 per cent in 2011 census report. Sikhs in the world have the lowest fertility rate of 1.6 children per women as per (2019–20) estimation research. The Sikh population has the lowest gender balance in India, with only 903 women per 1,000 men according to the 2011 Indian census. The estimated world's Sikh population was over 30 million in 2020, and it will reach 42 million by 2050. It is expected to increase up to 62 million by 2100, given that the anticipated growth rate of 1.7% per year and adding at least 400,000 followers annually.


title: Sikhs

text: Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. Caste may still be practiced by some Sikhs, despite Guru Nanak's calls for treating everyone equally in Sri Granth Sahib.


title: Sikhs

text: Along with Guru Nanak, other Sikh gurus had also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system, however, they all belonged to the same caste, the Khatris. Most Sikhs belong to the Jat (Jatt), traditionally agrarian in occupation. Despite being very small in numbers, the Khatri and Arora (Moneylenders) castes also wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. Other common Sikh castes include Ahluwalias (brewers), "Kambojs" or "Kambos" (rural caste), "Ramgarhias" (artisans), Brahman (Priestly class), Rajputs (kshatriyas), "Sainis" (agrarian), "Rai" Sikh (rural caste), "Labanas" (merchants), "Kumhars", "Mazhabi" and the Ramdasia/"Ravidasias"(Chamar).


title: Sikhs

text: Some Sikhs, especially those belonging to the landowning dominant castes, have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits were allowed entry into the village gurdwaras, in some gurdwaras, they were not be permitted to cook or serve "langar" (communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilize resources, the Sikh Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurdwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy. In 1953, Sikh leader and activist Master Tara Singh succeeded in persuading the Indian government to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.


title: Sikhs

text: Other castes (over 1,000 members) include the Arain, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba (cotton farmers), Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kumhar, Lohar, Mahtam, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Ramgharia, Sansi, Sudh, Tarkhan and Kashyap


title: Sikhs

text: The 3HO(Healthy, Happy, Holy) organization or Sikh Dharma International claims to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. They are mainly centered around Española, New Mexico, and Los Angeles, California, United States of America.


title: Sikhs

text: As Sikhs wear turbans and keep beards, Sikh men in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim, Arabic, and/or Afghan since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9/11 attacks, Sikh-American gas station owner Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered in Arizona by a man who took Sodhi to be a member of al-Qaeda, marking the first recorded hate-crime in America motivated by 9/11. CNN would go on to suggest an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the US and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.


title: Sikhs

text: In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations exist. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium.


title: Sikhs

text: The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in the UK, and UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82%) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest religious group in the UK (after the Jewish community), with a median total household wealth of .


title: Sikhs

text: In May 2019, the UK government exempted "Kirpan" from the list of banned knives. The U.K. government passed an amendment by which Sikhs in the country would be allowed to carry kirpans and use them during religious and cultural functions. The bill was amended to ensure that it would not impact the right of the British Sikh community to possess and supply kirpans, or religious swords. Similarly, the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials in 2010.


title: Sikhs

text: Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 per cent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 per cent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. According to the Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat and Kamboj or Kamboh, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial." However, Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science (i.e. the green revolution) on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.


title: Sikhs

text: Manmohan Singh is an Indian economist, academic, and politician who served as the 13th Prime Minister of India from 2004 to 2014. The first and only Sikh and non-Hindu in office, Singh was also the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term.


title: Sikhs

text: Notable Sikhs in science include nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill, fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany; and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.


title: Sikhs

text: In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based JASPAL were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. Apollo Tyres is headed by Onkar Singh Kanwar. In Singapore, Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into assets totalling almost and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. Mastercard CEO was a Sikh named Ajaypal Singh Banga.


title: Sikhs

text: In sports, Sikhs include England cricketer Monty Panesar; former 400-metre runner Milkha Singh; his son, professional golfer Jeev Milkha Singh; Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh; former Indian hockey team captains Sandeep Singh, Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr.; former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi; Harbhajan Singh, India's most successful off spin cricket bowler; Yuvraj Singh, World Cup winning allrounder; Maninder Singh, World Cup winning off spinner; and Navjot Singh Sidhu, former Indian cricketer-turned-politician.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikhs in Bollywood, in the arts in general, include poet and lyricist Rajkavi Inderjeet Singh Tulsi; Gulzar; Jagjit Singh; Dharmendra; Sunny Deol; writer Khushwant Singh; actresses Neetu Singh, Simran Judge, Poonam Dhillon, Mahi Gill, Esha Deol, Parminder Nagra, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral; and directors Gurinder Chadha and Parminder Gill.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikhs in Punjabi Music industry include Sidhu Moosewala, Diljit Dosanjh, Babu Singh Maan, Surjit Bindrakhia, Ammy Virk, Karan Aujla, Jazzy B, Miss Pooja.


title: Sikhs

text: According to a 1994 estimate, Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus comprised 10 to 15% of all ranks in the Indian Army. The Indian government does not release religious or ethnic origins of a military personnel, but a 1991 report by Tim McGirk estimated that 20% of Indian Army officers were Sikhs. Together with the Gurkhas recruited from Nepal, the Maratha Light Infantry from Maharashtra and the Jat Regiment, the Sikhs are one of the few communities to have exclusive regiments in the Indian Army. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, 5 COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, 5 Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras, and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 per cent of the force). Until 1945, fourteen Victoria Crosses (VC) were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record. In 2002, the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.


title: Sikhs

text: During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq, receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.


title: Sikhs

text: The Khalistan movement is a Sikh separatist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called Khalistān ("The Land of the Khalsa") in the Punjab region of South Asia to serve as a homeland for Sikhs. The territorial definition of the proposed country Khalistan consists of both the Punjab, India, along with Punjab, Pakistan, and includes parts of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Rajasthan.


title: Sikhs

text: Khalistan movement began as an expatriate venture. In 1971, the first explicit call for Khalistan was made in an advertisement published in the "New York Times" by an expat (Jagjit Singh Chohan). By proclaiming the formation of Khalistan, he was able to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora. On 12 April 1980, he declared the formation of the "National Council of Khalistan", at Anandpur Sahib. He declared himself as the President of the council, and named Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General. In May 1980, Chohan traveled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan. A similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu in Amritsar, where he began releasing stamps and currency of Khalistan. The inaction of the authorities in Amritsar and elsewhere was decried as a political stunt by the Congress(I) party of Indira Gandhi by the Akali Dal, headed by the Sikh leader Harchand Singh Longowal.


title: Sikhs

text: The movement flourished in the Indian state of Punjab following Operation Blue Star. As proponents were able to generate funding from a grieving diaspora. In June 1985, Air India Flight 182 was bombed by Babbar Khalsa, a pro-Khalistani terrorist organization. In January 1986, the Golden Temple was occupied by militants belonging to All India Sikh Students Federation and Damdami Taksal. On 26 January 1986, a gathering known as the Sarbat Khalsa (a de facto parliament) passed a resolution ("gurmattā") favouring the creation of Khalistan. Subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of Khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of India. Indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s, but Sikh political groups such as the Khalsa Raj Party and SAD (A) continued to pursue an independent Khalistan through non-violent means. Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa (International) are also active outside India, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora.


title: Sikhs

text: In the 1990s, the insurgency abated, and the movement failed to reach its objective due to multiple reasons including a heavy police crackdown on separatists, divisions among the Sikhs and loss of support from the Sikh population. However, various pro-Khalistan groups, both political and militant, remain committed to the separatist movement. There are claims of funding from Sikhs outside India to attract young people into militant groups.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). Punjab has been called India's melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak's creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality". The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an ethnic minority" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".


title: Sikhs

text: During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.


title: Sikhs

text: The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places), and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters, and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.


title: Sikhs

text: Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts—except for the relics of the Gurus—have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.


title: Sikhs

text: Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon that can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra, and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins) is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in Punjab.


title: Sikhs

text: Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").


title: Sikhs

text: Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813, the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.


title: Sikhs

text: The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.


title: Sikhs

text: From 2007 to present renowned Sikh painter Kanwar Singh has been creating exceptional paintings exclusively devoted to the Sikh religion and history for over ten years. His work is continually exhibited world-wide in prominent heritage sites such as the Virasat-e-Khalsa museum at Anandpur Sahib. A travelling art exhibition has been launched called, Journey of the Mind commencing its UK tour in the city of Birmingham before moving onto Bristol, Nottingham, Glasgow and London throughout 2022 and 2023.


title: Sikhs

text: There is an old Sikh shrine called 'Prachin Guru Nanak Math', which lies at a small hill, just next to Bishnumati bridge at Balaju. Guru Nanak is said to have visited Nepal during his third Udasi while returning from Mount Kailash in Tibet. Nanak is said to have stayed at Balaju and Thapathali in Kathmandu. The Nanal Math shrine at Balaju is managed by the Guru-Ji and the Udasin Akardha, a sect developed by Guru Nanak's son, Sri Chandra.


title: Tiramisu

text: Tiramisu ( , from , "pick me up" or "cheer me up") is a coffee-flavoured Italian dessert. It is made of ladyfingers (savoiardi) dipped in coffee, layered with a whipped mixture of eggs, sugar, and mascarpone cheese, flavoured with cocoa. The recipe has been adapted into many varieties of cakes and other desserts. Its origins are often disputed among Italian regions Veneto and Friuli Venezia Giulia.


title: Tiramisu

text: The recipe for tiramisu is not found in cookbooks before the 1960s. It is also not mentioned in encyclopedias and dictionaries of the 1970s, making its first appearance in print in Italian in 1980, and in English in 1982. It is mentioned in a 1983 cookbook devoted to cooking of the Veneto, and a Canadian tourist guide published in 1971. This suggests that it is a recent invention.


title: Tiramisu

text: Obituaries for the restaurateur Ado Campeol (1928–2021) reported that it was invented at his restaurant Le Beccherie in Treviso on 24 December 1969 by his wife Alba di Pillo (1929–2021) and the pastry chef Roberto Linguanotto. The dish was added to its menu in 1972. Accounts by Carminantonio Iannaccone claim the tiramisu sold at Le Beccherie was made by him in his bakery, created on 24 December 1969.


title: Tiramisu

text: It has been claimed that tiramisu has aphrodisiac effects and was concocted by a 19th-century Treviso brothel madam, as the Accademia Del Tiramisù explains, to "solve the problems they may have had with their conjugal duties on their return to their wives".


title: Tiramisu

text: There is evidence of a "Tiremesù" semi-frozen dessert served by the Vetturino restaurant in Pieris, in the Friuli Venezia Giulia, since 1938. This may be the name's origin, while the recipe for Tiramisu may have originated as a variation of another layered dessert, "Zuppa Inglese". Others claim it was created towards the end of the 17th century in Siena in honour of Grand Duke Cosimo III.


title: Tiramisu

text: On 29 July 2017, Tiramisu was entered by the Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies on the list of traditional Friulian and Giulian agri-food products in the Friuli Venezia Giulia region. In 2013, Luca Zaia, governor of Veneto sought European Union Protected Status certification for the dessert, based on the ingredients used in 1970, so substitute ingredients, such as strawberries, could not be used in a dish called tiramisu.


title: Tiramisu

text: Traditional tiramisu contains a short list of ingredients: ladyfingers (savoiardi), egg yolks, sugar, coffee, mascarpone cheese, and cocoa powder. A common variant involves soaking the savoiardi in alcohol, such as Marsala wine, amaretto or a coffee-based liqueur, but this is not mentioned in the original recipe.


title: Tiramisu

text: The original shape of the cake is round, although the shape of the biscuits also allows the use of a rectangular or square pan. However, it is often assembled in round glasses, which show the various layers, or pyramid. Modern versions can have the addition of whipped cream or whipped egg, or both, combined with mascarpone cream. This makes the dish lighter, thick and foamy. Among the most common alcoholic changes includes the addition of Marsala wine. The cake is usually eaten cold.


title: Tiramisu

text: Another variation involves the preparation of the cream with eggs heated to sterilize it, but not so much that the eggs scramble.


title: Tiramisu

text: Over time, replacing some of the ingredients, mainly coffee, there arose numerous variants such as tiramisu with chocolate, amaretto, berry, lemon, strawberry, pineapple, yogurt, banana, raspberry, and coconut. These, however, are not considered true Tiramisu as these variations only share the layered characteristic of Tiramisu; these examples more closely resemble variations of trifle.


title: Tiramisu

text: Numerous variations of Tiramisu exist. Some cooks use other cakes or sweet, yeasted breads, such as "panettone", in place of ladyfingers (savoiardi). Bakers living in different Italian regions often debate the use and structural qualities of utilising other types of cookies, such as pavesini for instance, in the recipe. Other cheese mixtures are used as well, some containing raw eggs, and others containing no eggs at all. Marsala wine can be added to the recipe, but other liquors are frequently substituted for it in both the coffee and the cheese mixture, including dark rum, Madeira, port, brandy, Malibu, or Irish cream and especially coffee-flavoured liqueurs such as Tia Maria and Kahlúa. Amaretto liqueurs, such as Disaronno, are also often used to enhance the taste of tiramisu.


title: Tiramisu

text: Tiramisu is similar to other desserts, in particular with the Charlotte, in some versions composed of a Bavarian cream surrounded by a crown of ladyfingers and covered by a sweet cream; the Turin cake ("dolce Torino"), consisting of ladyfingers soaked in rosolio and alchermes with a spread made of butter, egg yolks, sugar, milk, and dark chocolate; and the "Bavarese Lombarda", which is a similar composition of ladyfingers and egg yolks (albeit cooked ones). In "Bavarese", butter and rosolio (or alchermes) are also used, but not mascarpone cream or coffee.


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora Bora (French: "Bora-Bora"; Tahitian: "Pora Pora") is an island group in the Leeward Islands. The Leeward Islands comprise the western part of the Society Islands of French Polynesia, which is an overseas collectivity of the French Republic in the Pacific Ocean. Bora Bora has a total land area of . The main island, located about northwest of Papeete, is surrounded by a lagoon and a barrier reef. In the center of the island are the remnants of an extinct volcano, rising to two peaks, Mount Pahia and Mount Otemanu; the highest point is at . Bora Bora is part of the Commune of Bora-Bora, which also includes the atoll of Tūpai. The languages spoken in Bora Bora are Tahitian and French. However, due to the high tourism population, many natives of Bora Bora have learned to speak English.


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora Bora is a major international tourist destination, famous for its seaside (and even offshore) luxury resorts. The major settlement, Vaitape, is on the western side of the main island, opposite the main channel leading into the lagoon. Produce of the island is mostly limited to what can be obtained from the sea and from the plentiful coconut trees, which were historically of economic importance for the production of copra.


title: Bora Bora

text: In ancient times the island was called , meaning "created by the gods" in the local Tahitian language. This was often abbreviated meaning simply "first born". The Tahitian, along and the English, French and Dutch languages each use a unique set of phonemes, so the spelling and pronunciation of the name changes as it passes from one language to another. Since Tahitian does not distinguish between the sounds [] and [], the sound represented by lies between the two, and represents a sound not present in English similar in sound to [] and []. So could also be heard by English, French or Dutch speakers as or . When explorer Jacob Roggeveen first landed on the island, he and his crew adopted the name , which has stood ever since.


title: Bora Bora

text: The island was inhabited by Polynesian settlers around the 3rd century. The first European sighting was made by Jakob Roggeveen in 1722.


title: Bora Bora

text: James Cook sighted the island on 29 July 1769, with the help of a Tahitian navigator, Tupaia. The London Missionary Society arrived in 1820 and founded a Protestant church in 1890. Bora Bora was an independent kingdom until 1888, when the French annexed the island as a colony and forced its last queen, Teriimaevarua III, to abdicate.


title: Bora Bora

text: During World War II, the United States chose Bora Bora as a South Pacific military supply base, and constructed an oil depot, an airstrip, a seaplane base, and defensive fortifications. The base, known as "Operation Bobcat", comprised nine ships, of equipment, and nearly 7,000 soldiers.


title: Bora Bora

text: At least eight 7-inch guns were operated by some members of the 13th Coast Artillery Regiment (later renamed the 276th Coast Artillery Battalion). The guns were set up at strategic points around the island to protect it against potential military attack. All eight of these guns remain in the area to this day.


title: Bora Bora

text: However, the island saw no combat. The American presence on Bora Bora went uncontested for the entire course of the war. The base was officially closed on 2 June 1946. The World War II airstrip was never enlarged to accommodate large aircraft, but it was nonetheless French Polynesia's only international airport until 1960, when Faa'a International Airport opened next to Papeete, Tahiti.


title: Bora Bora

text: It is located in the so-called Society Islands, which are part of French Polynesia, and is located northwest of Tahiti, about northwest of Papeete, Tahiti. It also has around it several motus, which are small elongated islets that usually have some width and vegetation. One of the most beautiful and photographed motus in Polynesia is the Tapu motu, especially before a hurricane carried away part of the tongues of sand at its ends.


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora Bora is among the smaller of the islands of the Society archipelago: the main island measures only from north to south and east to west; the total area of Bora Bora, including islets, is less than . Bora Bora has an area of on the mountainous central island, which is an extinct volcano, itself surrounded by a lagoon separated from the sea by a reef. The highest point is Mount Otemanu, [Wysi.gif].


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora-Bora is formed by an extinct volcano, surrounded by a lagoon and a fringing reef. Its summit is Mount Otemanu located in the center of the atoll; another summit, Mount Pahia, on the main island, is high.


title: Bora Bora

text: The main island has three open bays overlooking the lagoon: Faanui Bay, Tuuraapuo Bay or Povai Bay to the west, and Hitiaa Bay to the northwest. Tuuraapuo Bay separates the main island from two islets of volcanic nature: Toopua and Toopua-iti.


title: Bora Bora

text: Necklace-shaped coral reefs surround the central island and protect it from the open sea as if it were a dike. It is a barrier reef with only one opening to the ocean: the Teavanui Passage, located west of the main island, which allows most large cargo ships and cruise ships to enter the lagoon.


title: Bora Bora

text: They must, however, stay in a channel because outside the channel, much of the lagoon water is shallow. The barrier reef is very wide in some sections, where it exceeds two kilometers in width to the southwest of the island. To the east and north of the island, the reef supports a series of islets made up of coral ruins and sand (the motu). Precisely, on one of them that is located to the north, the Motu Mute, is where the U.S. Army built an important air base during the Second World War, which has now become the airport of Bora-Bora.


title: Bora Bora

text: The lagoon, very abundant in fish, is remarkable for its breadth and beauty. Its color varies with depth: dark indigo when it is deep (Teavanui Passage, Poofai and Faanui bays), all pastel shades of blue and green elsewhere. Corals, when they are very close to the surface, along with the fauna that colonizes them, come to wear a wide variety of colors: egg yolk, red, blue or purple.


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora-Bora is part of a group of volcanic islands linked to the activity of a hazardous area. It is an extinct volcano, which was active in the Upper Pliocene (between 3.45 and 3.10 million years ago), and then underwent at least partial depression and strong erosion under a hot and humid tropical climate.


title: Bora Bora

text: The bay of Tuuraapuo was the main crater of the volcano, whose collapsed southwestern edge, only subsists still in the islets or "motu" Toopua and Toopua-iti, which culminate respectively at and , altitude. The volcanic rocks are of basaltic type (essentially from alkaline basalts and some hawaiites, as well as some gabbro intrusions, especially on the islet Toopua). They come mostly from voids, explosive episodes being very rare.


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora Bora has a tropical monsoon climate. Temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the year, with hot days and warm nights. The dry season lasts from June to October, but there is some precipitation even during those months.


title: Bora Bora

text: During the dry season, the average humidity level remains between 45 and 60%, but sometimes this level rises spontaneously to 80%, especially at night, when the ground heat remains high and exceeds a certain threshold. These "dry season" storms will occur in the afternoon.


title: Bora Bora

text: The island's economy is driven almost entirely by tourism. Several resorts have been built on the surrounding the lagoon. ( is a Tahitian word meaning “small islands.”) Hotel Bora Bora opened in 1961, and nine years later the first over-water bungalows on stilts over the lagoon were built. Today, over-water bungalows are a standard feature of most Bora Bora resorts. The bungalows range from relatively inexpensive basic accommodations to very luxurious expensive ones.


title: Bora Bora

text: Most of the tourist destinations are sea-oriented; however, there are also tourist attractions on land, such as World War II cannons. Air Tahiti operates five or six flights daily between Tahiti and the Bora Bora Airport on Motu Mute (as well as occasional flights to and from other islands). There is no public transport on the island, so rental cars and bicycles are the recommended means of transport. In addition, there are small, two-seater buggies for hire in Vaitape, and motorboats can be rented to explore the lagoon. Vaitape is a large city on the west side of the island and is home to a large part of the island’s population. The city has also become a popular spot for tourism.


title: Bora Bora

text: Snorkeling and scuba diving in and around Bora Bora’s lagoon are popular activities. Many species of sharks and rays inhabit the surrounding waters. A few dive operators on the island offer manta-ray dives and shark-feeding dives. (The species of shark living in the island's lagoon are not considered dangerous to people.)


title: Bora Bora

text: In addition to the existing islands of Bora Bora, the artificial island of Motu Marfo has been added in the northeastern corner of the lagoon at one of the many resorts.


title: Bora Bora

text: The main attraction of Bora Bora is the lagoon with its still intact underwater world. By glass bottom boat, diving and snorkeling, you can explore the reef with thousands of colorful coral fish. In the deep lagoon there are barracudas and sharks that you can feed during guided diving excursions. An attraction for divers is the "Stingray Strait", an area of the lagoon where several species of stingrays are found in large schools, including numerous manta rays and leopard rays.


title: Bora Bora

text: Parts of the interior of the island can be explored on jeep safaris. However, the natural beauty of the island is best explored on foot. Several hikes can be done from Vaitape, but it is advisable to rely on a guide to keep your bearings. The hike to the top of Mount Pahia, from where, according to legend, the war god Oro descended on a rainbow, leads through orchards, forests, orchid fields and fern-covered crevices. You can also climb Mount Otemanu, which offers a beautiful panoramic view of the atoll. Below the summit is a large grotto where numerous frigate birds nest.


title: Bora Bora

text: Another attraction are the remains of what were more than 40 marae (ceremonial platforms). The best preserved are Marae Fare Opu, in Faanui Bay, and Marae Aehau-tai or Temaruteaoa, at the eastern end of Vairau Bay. Another large Aboriginal ceremonial site is Marae Marotitini, in the north of the main island, right on the beach. The stone platform of the complex was originally long and was restored in 1968 by Japanese archaeologist Yosihiko Sinoto. Two stone box tombs of the royal family were found in the area of the complex.


title: Bora Bora

text: Most beaches (and also the numerous hotels) are located in the two large bays between Pointe Paopao and Pointe Matira, in the southwest of the island, as well as in the Motus opposite. About five kilometers south of Vaitape, directly on the main road, is Bloody Mary's, a bar and restaurant with its own yacht jetty, frequented by many guests. The two wooden plaques at the entrance list 230 names, including Marlon Brando, Jane Fonda and Diana Ross.


title: Bora Bora

text: In the relatively densely populated and intensively used lowland regions for a Polynesian atoll, hardly any remnants of the original vegetation remain. In contrast, the flora of the high, steep mountains, which are difficult to access, remains largely unspoiled.


title: Bora Bora

text: The back beach areas are fringed with low-lying, heavily vegetated Cordia subcordata and Hibiscus tiliaceus. A cultivated form, Hibiscus tiliaceus var. sterilis, with a straight trunk and a nice rounded crown, is often planted as roadside vegetation.


title: Bora Bora

text: Up to the foot of the steep mountainous region there is mainly cultivated land with plantations of coconut palms, breadfruit trees, Tahitian chestnuts (Inocarpus), cassava (Manihot), tropical fruits, as well as orchid plantations for the decoration of tourist hotels. Abandoned areas have been conquered by overgrown guavas and the fern Dicranopteris linearis.


title: Bora Bora

text: The crevices and ridges of the island's mountains are covered with still little disturbed remnants of the island's original vegetation. These include groves of metrosider trees, stands of Wikstroemia coriacea, a species of the daphne family endemic to Polynesia, and a few species of Glochidion. The humid and shady crevices are densely populated with ferns.


title: Bora Bora

text: Historically, Bora Bora’s virgin forest habitats, on the slopes of Mount Otemanu, had a very diverse assortment of snail and slug species (gastropods) compared to other islands. Several species of endemic or native species existed in great numbers until relatively recently. However, after "Lissachatina", "Euglandina" and various flatworms were introduced to the island, they had wiped out the populations of the endemic partulid species "Partula lutea" the late 1990s), "Samoana attenuata" (a species once native to Bora Bora but later not found in surveys of the island), and "Mautodontha boraborensis" (a critically endangered species as of 1996 but most likely extinct, as it was last seen in the 1880s). The above listed native and endemic species were mostly restricted to virgin forest, and the only species that remain common (perhaps even extant) are several subulinids and tornatellinids among others, including "Orobophana pacifica ("a helicinid")."


title: Bora Bora

text: Many species of sharks and rays inhabit the strip of water surrounding the island. There are dive operators that offer dives to observe the fish and watch the sharks feed. In addition to the existing islets in Bora Bora, there is a new artificial area in the northeast corner of the lagoon on the St. Regis Resort property.


title: Bora Bora

text: Christianity is the dominant religion since the arrival of Christian missionaries in the 19th century when it replaced the old traditional beliefs that Europeans considered idolatry. Vaitape was founded by British missionary John Muggridge Orsmond (1788-1856) of the London Missionary Society, He came to Bora Bora from Tahiti in 1824 and built first a church and then a wharf, roads and houses, as well as a missionary school made of coral rock. This settlement, called "Beulah", became what is now Vaitape.


title: Bora Bora

text: With the establishment of the French protectorate, the presence of the Catholic Church was reinforced and today it administers a church in the capital of the island (Vaitape) called Saint-Pierre-Célestin Church ("Église de Saint-Pierre-Célestin"). It depends on the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Papeete with its seat in Tahiti.


title: Bora Bora

text: Numerous pre-Christian relics of the native Polynesians of Bora Bora are still preserved today: remains of 13 ceremonial platforms (marae) - there used to be more than forty - and many petroglyphs, which, however, are mostly hidden in inaccessible bushes. The best preserved ceremonial site is the Marae Fare Opu in Faʻanui Bay, located directly on the beach. Today, the road runs through the area, so the overview of the site, which is quite large, has been lost. The site consisted of a rectangular, level area bounded by boulders and a stone platform. The rectangular platform is bounded by limestone slabs over 1 m high and filled with earth. Two of the slabs on the north side have stone carvings with turtle motifs.


title: Bora Bora

text: French as in the rest of France is the only official language and this along with Tahitian are the main languages spoken by its inhabitants in a common way. In addition the people in contact with tourists generally have some basic knowledge of English. Most visitors to Bora Bora are Americans, Australians, Japanese or Europeans.


title: Bora Bora

text: The atoll has been part of France since the 19th century. Its island capital is Vaitape. Tupai Atoll, nearby and uninhabited, is an administrative dependency of Bora Bora. Bora Bora is also a municipality, consisting of the island of Bora Bora and the atoll of Tupai. The mayor of Bora Bora has been Gaston Tong Sang since 9 July 1989.


title: Bora Bora

text: Bora Bora is politically part of French Polynesia. The island is a French overseas territory and is not part of the European Union. It is administered by a subdivision ("Subdivision administrative des Îles sous le Vent") of the High Commissariat of the Republic in French Polynesia ("Haut-commissariat de la République en Polynésie française") based in Papeete. Bora Bora is one of the seven municipalities of the Leeward Islands Administrative Subdivision, and in turn is subdivided into the three submunicipalities (Communes associées) of Nunue, Faʻanui (plus Tupai Atoll, further north) and Anau. The currency is the CFP franc, which is pegged to the euro.


title: Bora Bora

text: Rental cars and bicycles are the recommended system of transportation. There are also helicopter tours, and off-road vehicle or catamaran rentals in Vaitape.


title: Bora Bora

text: On the main island, a public bus ("Le Truck") travels around the island in about an hour along the ring road. Stops are not necessary; the bus stops wherever passengers want. However, the preferred means of transport for tourists are bicycle and moped or motorcycle and the shuttle service offered by some hotels. Small electric cars can be rented in Vaitape. There is a private helicopter stationed on the island, which is used for tourist flights.


title: Bora Bora

text: In terms of sports, Bora Bora is, along with neighboring Huahine, Raiatea and Tahaa, one of the four islands among which the Hawaiki Nui Va'a, an international competition of Polynesian canoes (va'a), is held.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The 2018–19 UEFA Champions League was the 64th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 27th season since it was renamed from the European Champion Clubs' Cup to the UEFA Champions League. For the first time, the video assistant referee (VAR) system was used in the competition from the round of 16 onward.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The final was played at the Wanda Metropolitano in Madrid, Spain, between Tottenham Hotspur and Liverpool, in the second all-English final after Manchester United beat Chelsea in 2008. Liverpool won the match 2–0 to claim their sixth European Cup – becoming the third ever team to do so, behind Real Madrid in 1966, and Milan in 2003. The win gave Liverpool automatic qualification for the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League group stage and the right to play in the 2019 UEFA Super Cup and the 2019 FIFA Club World Cup, the latter two of which they won. As Chelsea and Arsenal also reached the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final, this was the first season to have multiple finals of major European club competitions featuring teams from a single nation.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: Real Madrid, who had won four of the last five titles, including each of the last three, were eliminated by Ajax in the round of 16. Although Ajax was eliminated in the semi-finals, they had played more matches than any other team in the tournament due to entering in the second qualifying round.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: On 9 December 2016, UEFA confirmed the reforming plan for the UEFA Champions League for the 2018–2021 cycle, which was announced on 26 August 2016. As per the new regulations, the previous season's UEFA Europa League winners will qualify automatically for the UEFA Champions League group stage (previously they would qualify for the play-off round, but would be promoted to the group stage only if the Champions League title holder berth was vacated, although this promotion to the group stage had been made in all three seasons since it was established from 2015–16). Meanwhile, the top four teams from the leagues of the four top-ranked national associations in the UEFA country coefficients list will qualify automatically for the group stage as well. Only six teams will qualify for the group stage via the qualification rounds, down from ten in the previous season.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: This was also the first year to feature a preliminary round, in which the representatives of the four bottom-ranked national associations in the UEFA country coefficients contested single-legged semi-finals and a final to determine the final team to enter the first qualifying round.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: 79 teams from 54 of the 55 UEFA member associations participated in the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League (the exception being Liechtenstein, which did not organise a domestic league). The association ranking based on the UEFA country coefficients was used to determine the number of participating teams for each association:


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: For the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League, the associations were allocated places according to their 2017 UEFA country coefficients, which took into account their performance in European competitions from 2012–13 to 2016–17.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: Apart from the allocation based on the country coefficients, associations could have additional teams participating in the Champions League, as noted below:


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: In the default access list, the Champions League title holders qualified for the group stage. However, since Real Madrid already qualified for the group stage via their domestic league (as third place of the 2017–18 La Liga), the following changes to the access list were made:


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: In addition, the Europa League title holders qualified for the group stage. However, since Atlético Madrid, the Europa League champions, already qualified for the group stage via their domestic league (as second place of the 2017–18 La Liga), the following changes to the access list were made:


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: League positions of the previous season shown in parentheses (TH: Champions League title holders; EL: Europa League title holders).


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The schedule of the competition was as follows (all draws were held at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland, unless stated otherwise).


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: From this season, there were staggered kick-off times in the group stage at 18:55 CET and 21:00 CET. Kick-off times starting from the knock-out phase were 21:00 CET.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: In the qualifying and play-off rounds, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2018 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into two-legged home-and-away ties.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: In the preliminary round, teams were divided into seeded and unseeded teams based on their 2018 UEFA club coefficients, and then drawn into one-legged semi-final and final ties. The draw for the preliminary round was held on 12 June 2018. The semi-final round was played on 26 June, and the final round was played on 29 June 2018, both at the Victoria Stadium in Gibraltar. The losers of both semi-final and final rounds entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League second qualifying round.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: Drita's win on 26 June 2018 was the first time that a team representing Kosovo had won a game in any UEFA competition.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The draw for the first qualifying round was held on 19 June 2018. The first legs were played on 10 and 11 July, and the second legs were played on 17 and 18 July 2018. The losers entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League second qualifying round, except one team were drawn to receive a bye to the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League third qualifying round.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The second qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for league non-champions). The draw for the second qualifying round was held on 19 June 2018. The first legs were played on 24 and 25 July, and the second legs were played on 31 July and 1 August 2018. The losers from both Champions Path and League Path entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League third qualifying round.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The third qualifying round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for league non-champions). The draw for the third qualifying round was held on 23 July 2018. The first legs were played on 7 and 8 August, and the second legs were played on 14 August 2018. The losers from Champions Path entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League play-off round, while the losers from League Path entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League group stage.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The play-off round was split into two separate sections: Champions Path (for league champions) and League Path (for league non-champions). The draw for the play-off round was held on 6 August 2018. The first legs were played on 21 and 22 August, and the second legs were played on 28 and 29 August. The losers from both Champions Path and League Path entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League group stage.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The draw for the group stage was held on 30 August 2018 at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, with the restriction that teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other. For the draw, the teams were seeded into four pots based on the following principles (introduced starting this season):


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: In each group, teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format. The group winners and runners-up advanced to the round of 16, while the third-placed teams entered the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League round of 32. The matchdays were 18–19 September, 2–3 October, 23–24 October, 6–7 November, 27–28 November, and 11–12 December 2018.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The youth teams of the clubs that qualified for the group stage also participated in the 2018–19 UEFA Youth League on the same matchdays, where they competed in the UEFA Champions League Path (the youth domestic champions of the top 32 associations competed in a separate Domestic Champions Path until the play-offs).


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: A total of fifteen national associations were represented in the group stage. 1899 Hoffenheim, Red Star Belgrade (1991 European champions) and Young Boys made their debut appearances in the group stage (although Red Star Belgrade had appeared in the European Cup group stage).


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: In the knockout phase, teams played against each other over two legs on a home-and-away basis, except for the one-match final.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The draw for the round of 16 was held on 17 December 2018. The first legs were played on 12, 13, 19 and 20 February, and the second legs were played on 5, 6, 12 and 13 March 2019.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 15 March 2019. The first legs were played on 9 and 10 April, and the second legs were played on 16 and 17 April 2019.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The draw for the semi-finals was held on 15 March 2019 (after the quarter-final draw). The first legs were played on 30 April and 1 May, and the second legs were played on 7 and 8 May 2019.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: Liverpool's improbable 4–0 comeback win against Barcelona in a return leg fixture at Anfield, having lost the first leg to the Spanish side 3–0 at the Camp Nou, is considered one of the greatest Champions League comebacks of all time.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: The final was played on 1 June 2019 at the Wanda Metropolitano in Madrid. The "home" team (for administrative purposes) was determined by an additional draw held after the quarter-final and semi-final draws.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: On 2 June 2019, the UEFA technical study group selected the following 20 players as the squad of the tournament.


title: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League

text: Votes were cast for players of the season by coaches of the 32 teams in the group stage, together with 55 journalists selected by the European Sports Media (ESM) group, representing each of UEFA's member associations. The coaches were not allowed to vote for players from their own teams. Jury members selected their top three players, with the first receiving five points, the second three and the third one. The shortlist of the top three players was announced on 8 August 2019. The award winners were announced and presented during the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League group stage draw in Monaco on 29 August 2019.


title: Diphtheria

text: Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium "Corynebacterium diphtheriae". Most infections are asymptomatic or have a mild clinical course, but in some outbreaks more than 10% of those diagnosed with the disease may die. Signs and symptoms may vary from mild to severe and usually start two to five days after exposure. Symptoms often come on fairly gradually, beginning with a sore throat and fever. In severe cases, a grey or white patch develops in the throat. This can block the airway and create a barking cough as in croup. The neck may swell in part due to enlarged lymph nodes. A form of diphtheria which involves the skin, eyes or genitals also exists. Complications may include myocarditis, inflammation of nerves, kidney problems, and bleeding problems due to low levels of platelets. Myocarditis may result in an abnormal heart rate and inflammation of the nerves may result in paralysis.


title: Diphtheria

text: Diphtheria is usually spread between people by direct contact or through the air. It may also be spread by contaminated objects. Some people carry the bacterium without having symptoms, but can still spread the disease to others. The three main types of "C. diphtheriae" cause different severities of disease. The symptoms are due to a toxin produced by the bacterium. Diagnosis can often be made based on the appearance of the throat with confirmation by microbiological culture. Previous infection may not protect against infection.


title: Diphtheria

text: A diphtheria vaccine is effective for prevention and available in a number of formulations. Three or four doses, given along with tetanus vaccine and pertussis vaccine, are recommended during childhood. Further doses of diphtheria–tetanus vaccine are recommended every ten years. Protection can be verified by measuring the antitoxin level in the blood. Diphtheria can be prevented in those exposed as well as treated with the antibiotics erythromycin or benzylpenicillin. A tracheotomy is sometimes needed to open the airway in severe cases.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 2015, 4,500 cases were officially reported worldwide, down from nearly 100,000 in 1980. About a million cases a year are believed to have occurred before the 1980s. Diphtheria currently occurs most often in sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Indonesia. In 2015, it resulted in 2,100 deaths, down from 8,000 deaths in 1990. In areas where it is still common, children are most affected. It is rare in the developed world due to widespread vaccination but can re-emerge if vaccination rates decrease. In the United States, 57 cases were reported between 1980 and 2004. Death occurs in 5% to 10% of those diagnosed. The disease was first described in the 5th century BC by Hippocrates. The bacterium was identified in 1882 by Edwin Klebs.


title: Diphtheria

text: The symptoms of diphtheria usually begin two to seven days after infection. They include fever of 38 °C (100.4 °F) or above; chills; fatigue; bluish skin coloration (cyanosis); sore throat; hoarseness; cough; headache; difficulty swallowing; painful swallowing; difficulty breathing; rapid breathing; foul-smelling and bloodstained nasal discharge; and lymphadenopathy. Within two to three days, diphtheria may destroy healthy tissues in the respiratory system. The dead tissue forms a thick, gray coating that can build up in the throat or nose. This thick gray coating is called a "pseudomembrane". It can cover tissues in the nose, tonsils, voice box, and throat, making it very hard to breathe and swallow. Symptoms can also include cardiac arrhythmias, myocarditis, and cranial and peripheral nerve palsies.


title: Diphtheria

text: Laryngeal diphtheria can lead to a characteristic swollen neck and throat, or "bull neck". The swollen throat is often accompanied by a serious respiratory condition, characterized by a brassy or "barking" cough, stridor, hoarseness, and difficulty breathing; and historically referred to variously as "diphtheritic croup", "true croup", or sometimes simply as "croup". Diphtheritic croup is extremely rare in countries where diphtheria vaccination is customary. As a result, the term "croup" nowadays most often refers to an unrelated viral illness that produces similar but milder respiratory symptoms.


title: Diphtheria

text: Human-to-human transmission of diphtheria typically occurs through the air when an infected individual coughs or sneezes. Breathing in particles released from the infected individual leads to infection. Contact with any lesions on the skin can also lead to transmission of diphtheria, but this is uncommon. Indirect infections can occur, as well. If an infected individual touches a surface or object, the bacteria can be left behind and remain viable. Also, some evidence indicates diphtheria has the potential to be zoonotic, but this has yet to be confirmed. "Corynebacterium ulcerans" has been found in some animals, which would suggest zoonotic potential.


title: Diphtheria

text: Diphtheria toxin (DT) is produced only by "C. diphtheriae" infected with a certain type of bacteriophage. Toxinogenicity is determined by phage conversion (also called lysogenic conversion); i.e, the ability of the bacterium to make DT changes as a consequence of infection by a particular phage. DT is encoded by the "tox" gene. Strains of corynephage are either "tox" (e.g., corynephage β) or "tox" (e.g., corynephage γ). The "tox" gene becomes integrated into the bacterial genome. The chromosome of C. diphtheriae has two different but functionally equivalent bacterial attachment sites (attB) for integration of β prophage into the chromosome.


title: Diphtheria

text: Diphtheria toxin precursor is a protein of molecular weight 60 kDa. Certain proteases, such as trypsin, selectively cleave DT to generate two peptide chains, amino-terminal fragment A (DT-A) and carboxyl-terminal fragment B (DT-B), which are held together by a disulfide bond. DT-B is a recognition subunit that gains entry of DT into the host cell by binding to the EGF-like domain of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor on the cell surface. This signals the cell to internalize the toxin within an endosome via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Inside the endosome, DT is split by a trypsin-like protease into DT-A and DT-B. The acidity of the endosome causes DT-B to create pores in the endosome membrane, thereby catalysing the release of DT-A into the cytoplasm.


title: Diphtheria

text: Fragment A inhibits the synthesis of new proteins in the affected cell by catalyzing ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor EF-2—a protein that is essential to the translation step of protein synthesis. This ADP-ribosylation involves the transfer of an ADP-ribose from NAD+ to a diphthamide (a modified histidine) residue within the EF-2 protein. Since EF-2 is needed for the moving of tRNA from the A-site to the P-site of the ribosome during protein translation, ADP-ribosylation of EF-2 prevents protein synthesis.


title: Diphtheria

text: ADP-ribosylation of EF-2 is reversed by giving high doses of nicotinamide (a form of vitamin B), since this is one of the reaction's end products, and high amounts drive the reaction in the opposite direction.


title: Diphtheria

text: The current clinical case definition of diphtheria used by the United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is based on both laboratory and clinical criteria.


title: Diphtheria

text: Empirical treatment should generally be started in a patient in whom suspicion of diphtheria is high.


title: Diphtheria

text: Vaccination against diphtheria is commonly done in infants and delivered as a combination vaccine, such as a DPT vaccine (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus). Pentavalent vaccines, which vaccinate against diphtheria and four other childhood diseases simultaneously, are frequently used in disease prevention programs in developing countries by organizations such as UNICEF.


title: Diphtheria

text: The disease may remain manageable, but in more severe cases, lymph nodes in the neck may swell, and breathing and swallowing are more difficult. People in this stage should seek immediate medical attention, as obstruction in the throat may require intubation or a tracheotomy. Abnormal cardiac rhythms can occur early in the course of the illness or weeks later and can lead to heart failure. Diphtheria can also cause paralysis in the eye, neck, throat, or respiratory muscles. Patients with severe cases are put in a hospital intensive care unit and given diphtheria antitoxin (consisting of antibodies isolated from the serum of horses that have been challenged with diphtheria toxin). Since antitoxin does not neutralize toxin that is already bound to tissues, delaying its administration increases risk of death. Therefore, the decision to administer diphtheria antitoxin is based on clinical diagnosis, and should not await laboratory confirmation.


title: Diphtheria

text: Antibiotics have not been demonstrated to affect healing of local infection in diphtheria patients treated with antitoxin. Antibiotics are used in patients or carriers to eradicate "C. diphtheriae" and prevent its transmission to others. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends either:


title: Diphtheria

text: In cases that progress beyond a throat infection, diphtheria toxin spreads through the blood and can lead to potentially life-threatening complications that affect other organs, such as the heart and kidneys. Damage to the heart caused by the toxin affects the heart's ability to pump blood or the kidneys' ability to clear wastes. It can also cause nerve damage, eventually leading to paralysis. About 40% to 50% of those left untreated can die.


title: Diphtheria

text: Diphtheria is fatal in between 5% and 10% of cases. In children under five years and adults over 40 years, the fatality rate may be as much as 20%. In 2013, it resulted in 3,300 deaths, down from 8,000 deaths in 1990. Better standards of living, mass immunization, improved diagnosis, prompt treatment, and more effective health care have led to a decrease in cases worldwide.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1613, Spain experienced an epidemic of diphtheria. The year is known as "El Año de los Garrotillos" (The Year of Strangulations) in the history of Spain.


title: Diphtheria

text: Before 1826, diphtheria was known by different names across the world. In England, it was known as Boulogne sore throat, as it spread from France. In 1826, Pierre Bretonneau gave the disease the name "diphthérite" (from Greek διφθέρα, "diphthera" 'leather') describing the appearance of pseudomembrane in the throat.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1878, Queen Victoria's daughter Princess Alice and her family became infected with diphtheria, causing two deaths, Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Alice herself.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1883, Edwin Klebs identified the bacterium causing diphtheria and named it Klebs–Loeffler bacterium. The club shape of this bacterium helped Edwin to differentiate it from other bacteria. Over the period of time, it was called "Microsporon diphtheriticum", "Bacillus diphtheriae", and "Mycobacterium diphtheriae". Current nomenclature is "Corynebacterium diphtheriae".


title: Diphtheria

text: Friedrich Loeffler was the first person to cultivate "C. diphtheriae" in 1884. He used Koch's postulates to prove association between "C. diphtheriae" and diphtheria. He also showed that the bacillus produces an exotoxin.


title: Diphtheria

text: Joseph P. O'Dwyer introduced the O'Dwyer tube for laryngeal intubation in patients with an obstructed larynx in 1885. It soon replaced tracheostomy as the emergency diphtheric intubation method.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1888, Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin showed that a substance produced by "C. diphtheriae" caused symptoms of diphtheria in animals.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1890, Shibasaburo Kitasato and Emil von Behring immunized guinea pigs with heat-treated diphtheria toxin. They also immunized goats and horses in the same way and showed that an "antitoxin" made from serum of immunized animals could cure the disease in non-immunized animals. Behring used this antitoxin (now known to consist of antibodies that neutralize the toxin produced by "C. diphtheriae") for human trials in 1891, but they were unsuccessful. Successful treatment of human patients with horse-derived antitoxin began in 1894, after production and quantification of antitoxin had been optimized. Von Behring won the first Nobel Prize in medicine in 1901 for his work on diphtheria.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1895, H. K. Mulford Company of Philadelphia started production and testing of diphtheria antitoxin in the United States. Park and Biggs described the method for producing serum from horses for use in diphtheria treatment.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1897, Paul Ehrlich developed a standardized unit of measure for diphtheria antitoxin. This was the first ever standardization of a biological product, and played an important role in future developmental work on sera and vaccines.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1901, 10 of 11 inoculated St. Louis children died from contaminated diphtheria antitoxin. The horse from which the antitoxin was derived died of tetanus. This incident, coupled with a tetanus outbreak in Camden, New Jersey, played an important part in initiating federal regulation of biologic products.


title: Diphtheria

text: On 7 January 1904, Ruth Cleveland died of diphtheria at the age of 12 years in Princeton, New Jersey. Ruth was the eldest daughter of former President Grover Cleveland and the former first lady Frances Folsom.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1905, Franklin Royer, from Philadelphia's Municipal Hospital, published a paper urging timely treatment for diphtheria and adequate doses of antitoxin. In 1906, Clemens Pirquet and Béla Schick described serum sickness in children receiving large quantities of horse-derived antitoxin.


title: Diphtheria

text: Between 1910 and 1911, Béla Schick developed the Schick test to detect pre-existing immunity to diphtheria in an exposed person. Only those who had not been exposed to diphtheria were vaccinated. A massive, five-year campaign was coordinated by Dr. Schick. As a part of the campaign, 85 million pieces of literature were distributed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company with an appeal to parents to "Save your child from diphtheria." A vaccine was developed in the next decade, and deaths began declining significantly in 1924.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1919, in Dallas, Texas, 10 children were killed and 60 others made seriously ill by toxic antitoxin which had passed the tests of the New York State Health Department. Mulford Company of Philadelphia (manufacturers) paid damages in every case.


title: Diphtheria

text: In the 1920s, each year an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 diphtheria cases and 13,000 to 15,000 deaths occurred in the United States. Children represented a large majority of these cases and fatalities. One of the most infamous outbreaks of diphtheria occurred in 1925, in Nome, Alaska; the "Great Race of Mercy" to deliver diphtheria antitoxin is now celebrated by the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1926, Alexander Thomas Glenny increased the effectiveness of diphtheria toxoid (a modified version of the toxin used for vaccination) by treating it with aluminum salts. Vaccination with toxoid was not widely used until the early 1930s. In 1939, Dr. Nora Wattie Principal Medical Officer (Maternity and Child Welfare) introduced immunisation clinics across Glasgow, and promoted mother and child health education, resulting in virtual eradication of the infection in the city.


title: Diphtheria

text: Widespread vaccination pushed cases in the United States down from 4.4 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1932 to 2.0 in 1937. In Nazi Germany, where authorities preferred treatment and isolation over vaccination (until about 1939–41), cases rose over the same period from 6.1 to 9.6 per 100,000 inhabitants.


title: Diphtheria

text: Between June 1942 and February 1943, 714 cases of diphtheria were recorded at Sham Shui Po Barracks resulting in 112 deaths because the Imperial Japanese Army did not release supplies of anti-diphtheria serum.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1943, diphtheria outbreaks accompanied war and disruption in Europe. The 1 million cases in Europe resulted in 50,000 deaths.


title: Diphtheria

text: In Kyoto during 1948, 68 of 606 children died after diphtheria immunization due to improper manufacture of aluminum phosphate toxoid.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 1974, the World Health Organization included DPT vaccine in their Expanded Programme on Immunization for developing countries.


title: Diphtheria

text: After the breakup of the former Soviet Union in 1991, vaccination rates in its constituent countries fell so low that an explosion of diphtheria cases occurred. In 1991, 2,000 cases of diphtheria occurred in the USSR. Between 1991 and 1998 as many as 200,000 cases in the Commonwealth of Independent States were reported, with 5,000 deaths. In 1994, the Russian Federation had 39,703 diphtheria cases. By contrast, in 1990, only 1,211 cases were reported.


title: Diphtheria

text: In early May 2010, a case of diphtheria was diagnosed in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the devastating 2010 Haiti earthquake. The 15-year-old male patient died while workers searched for antitoxin.


title: Diphtheria

text: In early June 2015, a case of diphtheria was diagnosed at Vall d'Hebron University Hospital in Barcelona, Spain. The 6-year-old child who died of the illness had not been previously vaccinated due to parental opposition to vaccination. It was the first case of diphtheria in the country since 1986 as reported by ""El Mundo"" or from 1998, as reported by WHO.


title: Diphtheria

text: In June 2016, a 3-year-old, 5-year-old, and 7-year-old girl died of diphtheria in Kedah, Malacca, and Sabah, Malaysia.


title: Diphtheria

text: In 2017, outbreaks occurred in a Rohingya refugee camp in Bangladesh, and in children unvaccinated due to the Yemeni Civil War.


title: Diphtheria

text: In November and December 2017, an outbreak of diphtheria occurred in Indonesia with more than 600 cases found and 38 fatalities.


title: Diphtheria

text: In November 2019, two cases of diphtheria occurred in the Lothian area of Scotland. Additionally, in November 2019 an unvaccinated 8-year-old boy died of diphtheria in Athens, Greece.


title: Diphtheria

text: In October 2022 there was an outbreak of diphtheria at the former Manston airfield, a former MoD site in Kent, England, which had been converted to an asylum seeker processing centre. The capacity of the processing centre was 1,000 people, though about 3,000 were living at the site with some accommodated in tents. The Home Office, the government department responsible for asylum seekers, refused to confirm the number of cases.


title: Sheryl Sandberg

text: Sheryl Kara Sandberg (born August 28, 1969) is an American business executive, billionaire, and philanthropist. Sandberg served as chief operating officer (COO) of Meta Platforms, a position from which she stepped down in August 2022. She is also the founder of LeanIn.Org. In 2008, she was made COO at Facebook, becoming the company's second-highest ranking official. In June 2012, she was elected to Facebook's board of directors, becoming the first woman to serve on its board. As head of the company's advertising business, Sandberg was credited for making the company profitable. Prior to joining Facebook as its COO, Sandberg was vice president of global online sales and operations at Google and was involved in its philanthropic arm Google.org. Before that, Sandberg served as chief of staff for United States Secretary of the Treasury Lawrence Summers.


title: Sheryl Sandberg

text: In 2012, she was named in the "Time" 100, an annual list of the most influential people in the world. On Forbes Magazine's 2021 billionaires list, Sandberg is reported to have a net worth of US$1.7 billion, due to her stock holdings in Facebook and in other companies. In 2022, she announced she would be stepping down as Meta COO in the fall but that she would remain on its board.


title: Sheryl Sandberg

text: Sandberg was born in 1969 in Washington, D.C., to a Jewish family, the daughter of Adele (née Einhorn) and Joel Sandberg, and the oldest of three children. Her father is an ophthalmologist, and her mother was a college teacher of French language.


title: Sheryl Sandberg

text: Her family moved to North Miami Beach, Florida, when she was two years old. She attended North Miami Beach High School, from which she graduated in 1987 ranked ninth in her class. She was sophomore class president, became a member of the National Honor Society, and was on the senior class executive board. Sandberg taught aerobics in the 1980s while in high school.