title: Totalitarianism

text: In "Did Somebody Say Totalitarianism?: Five Interventions in the (Mis)Use of a Notion", Žižek wrote that "[t]he liberating effect" of General Augusto Pinochet's arrest "was exceptional", as "the fear of Pinochet dissipated, the spell was broken, the taboo subjects of torture and disappearances became the daily grist of the news media; the people no longer just whispered, but openly spoke about prosecuting him in Chile itself." Saladdin Ahmed cited Hannah Arendt as stating that "the Soviet Union can no longer be called totalitarian in the strict sense of the term after Stalin's death", writing that "this was the case in General August Pinochet's Chile, yet it would be absurd to exempt it from the class of totalitarian regimes for that reason alone." Saladdin posited that while Chile under Pinochet had no "official ideology", there was one man who ruled Chile from "behind the scenes", "none other than Milton Friedman, the godfather of neoliberalism and the most influential teacher of the Chicago Boys, was Pinochet's adviser." In this sense, Saladdin criticized the totalitarian concept because it was only being applied to "opposing ideologies" and it was not being applied to liberalism.


title: Totalitarianism

text: In the early 2010s, Richard Shorten, Vladimir Tismăneanu, and Aviezer Tucker posited that totalitarian ideologies can take different forms in different political systems but all of them focus on utopianism, scientism, or political violence. They posit that Nazism and Stalinism both emphasized the role of specialization in modern societies and they also saw polymathy as a thing of the past, and they also stated that their claims were supported by statistics and science, which led them to impose strict ethical regulations on culture, use psychological violence, and persecute entire groups. Their arguments have been criticized by other scholars due to their partiality and anachronism. Juan Francisco Fuentes treats totalitarianism as an "invented tradition" and he believes that the notion of "modern despotism" is a "reverse anachronism"; for Fuentes, "the anachronistic use of totalitarian/totalitarianism involves the will to reshape the past in the image and likeness of the present."


title: Totalitarianism

text: Other studies try to link modern technological changes to totalitarianism. According to Shoshana Zuboff, the economic pressures of modern surveillance capitalism are driving the intensification of connection and monitoring online with spaces of social life becoming open to saturation by corporate actors, directed at the making of profit and/or the regulation of action. Toby Ord believed that Orwell's fears of totalitarianism constituted a notable early precursor to modern notions of anthropogenic existential risk, the concept that a future catastrophe could permanently destroy the potential of Earth-originating intelligent life due in part to technological changes, creating a permanent technological dystopia. Ord said that Orwell's writings show that his concern was genuine rather than just a throwaway part of the fictional plot of "Nineteen Eighty-Four". In 1949, Orwell wrote that "[a] ruling class which could guard against (four previously enumerated sources of risk) would remain in power permanently." That same year, Bertrand Russell wrote that "modern techniques have made possible a new intensity of governmental control, and this possibility has been exploited very fully in totalitarian states."


title: Totalitarianism

text: In the late 2010s, "The Economist" has described China's developed Social Credit System under Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping's administration, to screen and rank its citizens based on their personal behavior, as "totalitarian". Opponents of China's ranking system say that it is intrusive and it is just another tool which a one-party state can use to control the population. "The New York Times" compared Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping's cult of personality and his ideology Xi Jinping Thought to that of Mao Zedong during the Cold War. Supporters say that it will transform China into a more civilized and law-abiding society. Shoshana Zuboff considers it instrumentarian rather than totalitarian. Other emerging technologies that could empower future totalitarian regimes include brain-reading, contact tracing and various applications of artificial intelligence. Philosopher Nick Bostrom said that there is a possible trade-off, namely that some existential risks might be mitigated by the establishment of a powerful and permanent world government, and in turn the establishment of such a government could enhance the existential risks which are associated with the rule of a permanent dictatorship.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Most modern Western historians of the Soviet Union now consider the concept of totalitarianism to be an oversimplification that does not accurately reflect the reality of life in the Soviet Union. The idea was first challenged by a generation of historians who came to prominence in the 1970s, and whose perspectives came to be known as the "revisionist school". Some of whose more prominent members were Sheila Fitzpatrick, J. Arch Getty, Jerry F. Hough, William McCagg, and Robert W. Thurston. Although their individual interpretations differ, the revisionists say that the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin was in many ways institutionally weak, and that terror reflected the weaknesses rather than the strengths of the Soviet state. They argue that Soviet citizens were not totally devoid of agency or resources and atomised by ideology as the totalitarian perspective implies. Rather, they successfully developed practices that helped them to navigate everyday life at a time of considerable danger and multiple shortages. For example, Arch Getty claims that "the Soviet political system was chaotic, that institutions often escaped the control of the centre, and that Stalin’s leadership consisted to a considerable extent in responding, on an ad hoc basis, to political crises as they arose.". In addition, scholars such as Fitzpatrick have stressed that the regime relied on the popular support for legitimation as much as it did on terror. By purging society of groups deemed 'anti-Soviet', new job opportunities opened up for an entire cohort of young, working class citizens, who saw dramatic, upward social mobility that they could scarcely have dreamed of before the revolution. These "beneficiaries" of the violence became fiercely loyal to Stalin and the Soviet regime. To them, it appeared the promise of the revolution had been fulfilled. They became willing to defend and support Stalin not in spite of terror, but because of it.


title: Totalitarianism

text: In the case of East Germany, Eli Rubin posited that East Germany was not a totalitarian state but rather a society shaped by the confluence of unique economic and political circumstances interacting with the concerns of ordinary citizens.


title: Totalitarianism

text: Writing in 1987, Walter Laqueur posited that the revisionists in the field of Soviet history were guilty of confusing popularity with morality and of making highly embarrassing and not very convincing arguments against the concept of the Soviet Union as a totalitarian state. Laqueur stated that the revisionists' arguments with regard to Soviet history were highly similar to the arguments made by Ernst Nolte regarding German history. For Laqueur, concepts such as modernization were inadequate tools for explaining Soviet history while totalitarianism was not. Laqueur's argument has been criticized by modern "revisionist school" historians such as Paul Buhle, who said that Laqueur wrongly equates Cold War revisionism with the German revisionism; the latter reflected a "revanchist, military-minded conservative nationalism." Moreover, Michael Parenti and James Petras have suggested that the totalitarianism concept has been politically employed and used for anti-communist purposes. Parenti has also analysed how "left anti-communism" attacked the Soviet Union during the Cold War. For Petras, the CIA funded the Congress for Cultural Freedom in order to attack "Stalinist anti-totalitarianism." Into the 21st century, Enzo Traverso has attacked the creators of the concept of totalitarianism as having invented it to designate the enemies of the West.


title: Totalitarianism

text: According to some scholars, calling Joseph Stalin "totalitarian" instead of "authoritarian" has been asserted to be a high-sounding but specious excuse for Western self-interest, just as surely as the counterclaim that allegedly debunking the totalitarian concept may be a high-sounding but specious excuse for Russian self-interest. For Domenico Losurdo, totalitarianism is a polysemic concept with origins in Christian theology and applying it to the political sphere requires an operation of abstract schematism which makes use of isolated elements of historical reality to place fascist regimes and the Soviet Union in the dock together, serving the anti-communism of Cold War-era intellectuals rather than reflecting intellectual research. Other scholars, among them F. William Engdahl, Sheldon Wolin, and Slavoj Žižek, have linked totalitarianism to capitalism and liberalism, and used concepts such as inverted totalitarianism, totalitarian capitalism, and totalitarian democracy.


title: Android 12

text: Android 12 is the twelfth major release and 19th version of Android, the mobile operating system developed by the Open Handset Alliance led by Google. The first beta was released on May 18, 2021. Android 12 was released publicly on October 4, 2021, through Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and was released to supported Google Pixel devices on October 19, 2021.


title: Android 12

text: Android 12 is the most popular Android version on smartphones at 30.03%. The first phones to have Android 12 were the Google Pixel 6 and the Pixel 6 Pro.


title: Android 12

text: Android 12 (internally codenamed Snow Cone) was announced in an Android blog posted on February 18, 2021. A developer preview was released immediately, with two additional ones planned the following two months. After that, four monthly beta releases were planned, beginning in May, the last one of them reaching platform stability in August, with general availability coming shortly after that.


title: Android 12

text: The second developer preview was released on March 17, 2021, followed by a third preview on April 21, 2021. The first beta build was then released on May 18, 2021. It was followed by beta 2 on June 9, 2021, which got a bugfix update to 2.1 on June 23. Then beta 3 was released on July 14, 2021, getting a bugfix update to beta 3.1 on July 26. Beta 4 was released on August 11, 2021. A fifth beta, not planned in the original roadmap, was released on September 8, 2021. Android 12 stable got released on the Android Open Source Project on October 4, getting its public over-the-air rollout on October 19, coinciding with the launch event for the Pixel 6.


title: Android 12

text: In October 2021, Google announced Android 12L, an interim release of Android 12 including improvements specific for foldable phones, tablets, desktop-sized screens and Chromebooks, and modifications to the user interface to tailor it to larger screens. It was planned to launch in early 2022. Developer Preview 1 of Android 12L was released in October 2021, followed by Beta 1 in December 2021, Beta 2 in January 2022, and Beta 3 in February 2022. The stable version of Android 12L was released for devices with large screens on March 7, 2022, and was released as "Android 12.1" for Pixel smartphones on the same date, besides the Pixel 6 & Pixel 6 Pro.


title: Android 12

text: Android 12 introduces a major refresh to the operating system's Material Design language branded as "Material You", which features larger buttons, an increased amount of animation, and a new style for home screen widgets. A feature, internally codenamed "monet", allows the operating system to automatically generate a color theme for system menus and supported apps using the colors of the user's wallpaper.


title: Android 12

text: The smart home and Wallet areas added to the power menu on Android 11 have been relocated to the notification shade, while Google Assistant is now activated by holding the power button. Android 12 features native support for taking scrolling screenshots.


title: Android 12

text: The screen magnifier feature now allows partial magnification via a floating window, and can also be configured to follow text inputs.


title: Android 12

text: Performance improvements have been made to system services such as the window and package managers. The Android Runtime has been added to Project Mainline, allowing it to be serviced via Play Store.


title: Android 12

text: Android 12 adds support for spatial audio, and MPEG-H 3D Audio, and supports transcoding of HEVC video for backwards compatibility with apps which do not support it. A new API known as HapticGenerator allows the OS to generate haptic feedback from audio on compatible devices.


title: Android 12

text: A "rich content insertion" API eases the ability to transfer formatted text and media between apps, such as via the clipboard. Third party app stores now have the ability to update apps without constantly asking the user for permission.


title: Android 12

text: OS-level machine learning functions are sandboxed within the "Android Private Compute Core", which is expressly prohibited from accessing networks.


title: Android 12

text: Apps requesting location data can now be restricted to having access only to "approximate" location data rather than "precise". Controls to prevent apps from using the camera and microphone system-wide have been added to the quick settings toggles. An indicator will also be displayed on-screen if they are active.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: Cyrano is a 2021 musical romantic drama film directed by Joe Wright and with a screenplay by Erica Schmidt, based on Schmidt's 2018 stage musical of the same name, itself based on the 1897 Edmond Rostand play "Cyrano de Bergerac". The film stars Peter Dinklage, Haley Bennett, Kelvin Harrison Jr., and Ben Mendelsohn.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: "Cyrano" had its world premiere at the 48th Telluride Film Festival on 2 September 2021, had a one-week theatrical run in Los Angeles on 17 December 2021, and was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on 25 February 2022. This is MGM's last picture released before the acquisition of the studio by Amazon. The film was a box office disappointment, grossing $6.4 million on a $30 million budget. However, it received generally positive reviews, with critics praising Dinklage's and Bennett's performances and the soundtrack. It was nominated for several awards, including a Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy (Dinklage) at the 79th Golden Globe Awards, four nominations at the 75th British Academy Film Awards and a Best Costume Design nod at the 94th Academy Awards.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: Beautiful but penniless orphan Roxanne goes to the theater with the foppish Duke De Guiche, who is in love with her and determined to marry her. Roxanne states her desire to marry for love and while taking her seat, she and newly recruited soldier Christian de Neuvillette see each other and are instantly infatuated with one another. As the play begins, Roxanne's childhood friend, the dwarven Cyrano de Bergerac, objects to the lead actor and chases him off the stage with rhyming insults, then duels a man who calls him a freak for his condition.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: Roxanne meets privately with Cyrano, who she fails to realize is desperately in love with her. She tells him she has fallen in love with Christian at first sight and asks him to arrange a meeting. Though heartbroken, Cyrano meets Christian and discovers he is inarticulate and incapable of expressing his feelings. Not wanting to disappoint Roxanne, he writes countless letters expressing his own deep feelings of love for her, which Christian delivers as his own writing.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: When Christian and Roxanne finally meet in person, he is unable to match the power of Cyrano's words, which caused her to fall in love with Christian, and he inadvertently insults her. Roxanne declares she needs more than simple platitudes and storms off. Later, Cyrano helps Christian make amends by hiding in the shadows and whispering what to say to Roxanne. She forgives him as a letter from De Guiche arrives with a priest, declaring that he is coming to either marry her or have his way with her. Roxanne and Christian hastily marry and De Guiche, infuriated, arranges for Christian and Cyrano's unit to be sent to the front.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: While at war, Cyrano sends Roxanne a letter from Christian every day and risks his own life to keep Christian alive for Roxanne. De Guiche eventually sends their unit on a suicide mission, and Cyrano reveals he has already written a final letter to Roxanne. Christian sees the letter is stained with tears and realizes Cyrano loves Roxanne, and that the man Roxanne really loves is Cyrano. He asks Cyrano to tell Roxanne everything. He then runs out to meet the enemy's guns and is killed.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: Three years later, Cyrano is impoverished and in ill health from war wounds that never fully healed. Roxanne remains his close friend. Sensing he is about to die, Cyrano meets with Roxanne and asks for Christian's final letter. He recites it from memory, revealing that all of Christian's letters were from him, and Roxanne declares her love for Cyrano before he dies peacefully.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: It was announced in August 2020 that Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer had acquired the rights to the film, which was written by Erica Schmidt, based on her stage musical "Cyrano". The film was produced by Working Title Films, and Joe Wright was set to direct. Peter Dinklage and Haley Bennett will reprise their roles from the stage musical, with Ben Mendelsohn and Brian Tyree Henry also cast. Kelvin Harrison Jr. joined the cast in September 2020. Bashir Salahuddin later joined the cast to replace Henry. Music for the film was written by members of the National, who also wrote the music and lyrics for the stage musical.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: Principal photography began in Sicily (Noto, Syracuse, Scicli) in October 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. All of the vocal performances for the musical numbers were recorded live on set.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: The film's opening number, "Someone To Say," was released as a single on October 8, 2021, followed by "Somebody Desperate" on December 3, 2021. The latter song was written exclusively for the film and plays during the end credits. The soundtrack was released on Decca Records on December 10, 2021.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 2, 2021. By the end of its festival run, it screened at the Hamptons, Mill Valley, Rome, and Savannah.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: The film was widely theatrically released in the United States and the United Kingdom on February 25, 2022. The film was originally scheduled for a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 25, 2021, but the release date was then moved to December 31. In November 2021, the film's release plans were changed by United Artists Releasing in an effort to better position itself for Academy Awards qualification and contention: it had an exclusive one-week theatrical run in Los Angeles on December 17, prior to a planned limited theatrical release on January 21, 2022, before expanding in subsequent weeks. The release date in the US was shifted to a limited release on January 28, before opening wide on February 11. It was shifted again to a solely wide release on February 25, without a limited release, on the same date as its release in the UK. The UK release was originally scheduled for release on January 14, but was postponed by Universal Pictures as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic response.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: The film was released on streaming on March 9, 2022, and on Blu-ray and DVD on April 19, 2022, by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: It is also the last MGM title to be released before the studio was acquired by Amazon on March 17, 2022.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: "Cyrano" grossed $3.9million in the United States and Canada, and $2.5million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $6.4million.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Cyrano" was released alongside "Studio 666", and was projected to gross $2–5 million from 797 theaters in its opening weekend. The film earned $1.4 million in its opening weekend, finishing ninth at the box office. It made $678,783 in its second weekend, finishing eighth. The film dropped out of the box office top ten in its third weekend, finishing eleventh with $398,932.


title: Cyrano (film)

text: Outside the U.S. and Canada, the film earned $1.04 million from 10 international markets in its opening weekend.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the accuracy with which the values for certain pairs of physical quantities of a particle, such as position, "x", and momentum, "p", can be predicted from initial conditions.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Such variable pairs are known as complementary variables or canonically conjugate variables; and, depending on interpretation, the uncertainty principle limits to what extent such conjugate properties maintain their approximate meaning, as the mathematical framework of quantum physics does not support the notion of simultaneously well-defined conjugate properties expressed by a single value. The uncertainty principle implies that it is in general not possible to predict the value of a quantity with arbitrary certainty, even if all initial conditions are specified.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Introduced first in 1927 by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg, the uncertainty principle states that the more precisely the position of some particle is determined, the less precisely its momentum can be predicted from initial conditions, and vice versa. In the published 1927 paper, Heisenberg originally concluded that the uncertainty principle was formula_1pformula_2q ~ h using the full Planck constant. The formal inequality relating the standard deviation of position "σ" and the standard deviation of momentum "σ" was derived by Earle Hesse Kennard later that year and by Hermann Weyl in 1928:


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Historically, the uncertainty principle has been confused with a related effect in physics, called the observer effect, which notes that measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the system, that is, without changing something in a system. Heisenberg utilized such an observer effect at the quantum level (see below) as a physical "explanation" of quantum uncertainty. It has since become clearer, however, that the uncertainty principle is inherent in the properties of all wave-like systems, and that it arises in quantum mechanics simply due to the matter wave nature of all quantum objects. Thus, "the uncertainty principle actually states a fundamental property of quantum systems and is not a statement about the observational success of current technology". Indeed the uncertainty principle has its roots in how we apply calculus to write the basic equations of mechanics. It must be emphasized that "measurement" does not mean only a process in which a physicist-observer takes part, but rather any interaction between classical and quantum objects regardless of any observer.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Since the uncertainty principle is such a basic result in quantum mechanics, typical experiments in quantum mechanics routinely observe aspects of it. Certain experiments, however, may deliberately test a particular form of the uncertainty principle as part of their main research program. These include, for example, tests of number–phase uncertainty relations in superconducting or quantum optics systems. Applications dependent on the uncertainty principle for their operation include extremely low-noise technology such as that required in gravitational wave interferometers.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: It is vital to illustrate how the principle applies to relatively intelligible physical situations since it is indiscernible on the macroscopic scales that humans experience. Two alternative frameworks for quantum physics offer different explanations for the uncertainty principle. The wave mechanics picture of the uncertainty principle is more visually intuitive, but the more abstract matrix mechanics picture formulates it in a way that generalizes more easily.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Mathematically, in wave mechanics, the uncertainty relation between position and momentum arises because the expressions of the wavefunction in the two corresponding orthonormal bases in Hilbert space are Fourier transforms of one another (i.e., position and momentum are conjugate variables). A nonzero function and its Fourier transform cannot both be sharply localized at the same time. A similar tradeoff between the variances of Fourier conjugates arises in all systems underlain by Fourier analysis, for example in sound waves: A pure tone is a sharp spike at a single frequency, while its Fourier transform gives the shape of the sound wave in the time domain, which is a completely delocalized sine wave. In quantum mechanics, the two key points are that the position of the particle takes the form of a matter wave, and momentum is its Fourier conjugate, assured by the de Broglie relation , where is the wavenumber.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In matrix mechanics, the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, any pair of non-commuting self-adjoint operators representing observables are subject to similar uncertainty limits. An eigenstate of an observable represents the state of the wavefunction for a certain measurement value (the eigenvalue). For example, if a measurement of an observable is performed, then the system is in a particular eigenstate of that observable. However, the particular eigenstate of the observable need not be an eigenstate of another observable : If so, then it does not have a unique associated measurement for it, as the system is not in an eigenstate of that observable.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: According to the de Broglie hypothesis, every object in the universe is a wave, i.e., a situation which gives rise to this phenomenon. The position of the particle is described by a wave function formula_3. The time-independent wave function of a single-moded plane wave of wavenumber "k" or momentum "p" is


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Born rule states that this should be interpreted as a probability density amplitude function in the sense that the probability of finding the particle between "a" and "b" is


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In the case of the single-moded plane wave, formula_6 is a uniform distribution. In other words, the particle position is extremely uncertain in the sense that it could be essentially anywhere along the wave packet.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where "A" represents the relative contribution of the mode "p" to the overall total. The figures to the right show how with the addition of many plane waves, the wave packet can become more localized. We may take this a step further to the continuum limit, where the wave function is an integral over all possible modes


title: Uncertainty principle

text: with formula_9 representing the amplitude of these modes and is called the wave function in momentum space. In mathematical terms, we say that formula_9 is the "Fourier transform" of formula_11 and that "x" and "p" are conjugate variables. Adding together all of these plane waves comes at a cost, namely the momentum has become less precise, having become a mixture of waves of many different momenta.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: One way to quantify the precision of the position and momentum is the standard deviation "σ". Since formula_6 is a probability density function for position, we calculate its standard deviation.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The precision of the position is improved, i.e. reduced "σ", by using many plane waves, thereby weakening the precision of the momentum, i.e. increased "σ". Another way of stating this is that "σ" and "σ" have an inverse relationship or are at least bounded from below. This is the uncertainty principle, the exact limit of which is the Kennard bound. Click the "show" button below to see a semi-formal derivation of the Kennard inequality using wave mechanics.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi \hbar}} \int_{-\infty}^\infty p \cdot \varphi(p) \cdot e^{ipx/\hbar} \, dp \\


title: Uncertainty principle

text: &= \frac{1}{2 \pi \hbar} \int_{-\infty}^\infty \left[ p \cdot \int_{-\infty}^\infty \psi(\chi) e^{-ip\chi/\hbar} \, d\chi \right] \cdot e^{ipx/\hbar} \, dp \\


title: Uncertainty principle

text: &= \frac{i}{2 \pi} \int_{-\infty}^\infty \left[ \cancel{ \left. \psi(\chi) e^{-ip\chi/\hbar} \right|_{-\infty}^\infty } - \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{d\psi(\chi)}{d\chi} e^{-ip\chi/\hbar} \, d\chi \right] \cdot e^{ipx/\hbar} \, dp \\


title: Uncertainty principle

text: &= \frac{-i}{2 \pi} \int_{-\infty}^\infty \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{d\psi(\chi)}{d\chi} e^{-ip\chi/\hbar} \, d\chi \, e^{ipx/\hbar} \, dp \\


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where the canceled term vanishes because the wave function vanishes at infinity. Often the term formula_13 is called the momentum operator in position space. Applying Parseval's theorem, we see that the variance for momentum can be written as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Note that the only "physics" involved in this proof was that formula_11 and formula_9 are wave functions for position and momentum, which are Fourier transforms of each other. A similar result would hold for "any" pair of conjugate variables.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In matrix mechanics, observables such as position and momentum are represented by self-adjoint operators. When considering pairs of observables, an important quantity is the "commutator". For a pair of operators and formula_25, one defines their commutator as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The physical meaning of the non-commutativity can be understood by considering the effect of the commutator on position and momentum eigenstates. Let formula_28 be a right eigenstate of position with a constant eigenvalue . By definition, this means that formula_29 Applying the commutator to formula_28 yields


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Suppose, for the sake of proof by contradiction, that formula_28 is also a right eigenstate of momentum, with constant eigenvalue . If this were true, then one could write


title: Uncertainty principle

text: When a state is measured, it is projected onto an eigenstate in the basis of the relevant observable. For example, if a particle's position is measured, then the state amounts to a position eigenstate. This means that the state is "not" a momentum eigenstate, however, but rather it can be represented as a sum of multiple momentum basis eigenstates. In other words, the momentum must be less precise. This precision may be quantified by the standard deviations,


title: Uncertainty principle

text: As in the wave mechanics interpretation above, one sees a tradeoff between the respective precisions of the two, quantified by the uncertainty principle.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In quantum metrology, and especially interferometry, the Heisenberg limit is the optimal rate at which the accuracy of a measurement can scale with the energy used in the measurement. Typically, this is the measurement of a phase (applied to one arm of a beam-splitter) and the energy is given by the number of photons used in an interferometer. Although some claim to have broken the Heisenberg limit, this reflects disagreement on the definition of the scaling resource. Suitably defined, the Heisenberg limit is a consequence of the basic principles of quantum mechanics and cannot be beaten, although the weak Heisenberg limit can be beaten.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where the brackets formula_39 indicate an expectation value. For a pair of operators formula_40 and formula_25, we may define their "commutator" as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Robertson uncertainty relation immediately follows from a slightly stronger inequality, the "Schrödinger uncertainty relation",


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Robertson–Schrödinger uncertainty relation may be generalized in a straightforward way to describe mixed states.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Robertson–Schrödinger uncertainty relation can be trivial if the state of the system is chosen to be eigenstate of one of the observable. The stronger uncertainty relations proved by Maccone and Pati give non-trivial bounds on the sum of the variances for two incompatible observables. (Earlier works on uncertainty relations formulated as the sum of variances include, e.g., Ref. due to Huang.) For two non-commuting observables formula_46 and formula_47 the first stronger uncertainty relation is given by


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where formula_49, formula_50, formula_51 is a normalized vector that is orthogonal to the state of the system formula_52 and one should choose the sign of formula_53 to make this real quantity a positive number.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The form of formula_55 implies that the right-hand side of the new uncertainty relation is nonzero unless formula_58 is an eigenstate of formula_59. One may note that formula_52 can be an eigenstate of formula_61 without being an eigenstate of either formula_62 or formula_63. However, when formula_56 is an eigenstate of one of the two observables the Heisenberg–Schrödinger uncertainty relation becomes trivial. But the lower bound in the new relation is nonzero unless formula_56 is an eigenstate of both.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Robertson–Schrödinger uncertainty can be improved noting that it must hold for all components formula_66 in any decomposition of the density matrix given as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The above relation very often has a bound larger than that of the original Robertson–Schrödinger uncertainty relation. Thus, we need to calculate the bound of the Robertson–Schrödinger uncertainty for the mixed components of the quantum state rather than for the quantum state, and compute an average of their square roots. The following expression is stronger than the Robertson–Schrödinger uncertainty relation


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where formula_76 denotes the quantum Fisher information and the density matrix is decomposed to pure states as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The derivation takes advantage of the fact that the quantum Fisher information is the convex roof of the variance times four.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: which is stronger than the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, since for the quantum Fisher information we have


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In the phase space formulation of quantum mechanics, the Robertson–Schrödinger relation follows from a positivity condition on a real star-square function. Given a Wigner function formula_80 with star product ★ and a function "f", the following is generally true:


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Since this positivity condition is true for "all" "a", "b", and "c", it follows that all the eigenvalues of the matrix are non-negative.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Since the Robertson and Schrödinger relations are for general operators, the relations can be applied to any two observables to obtain specific uncertainty relations. A few of the most common relations found in the literature are given below.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Suppose we consider a quantum particle on a ring, where the wave function depends on an angular variable formula_97, which we may take to lie in the interval formula_98. Define "position" and "momentum" operators formula_40 and formula_25 by


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where we impose periodic boundary conditions on formula_25. The definition of formula_40 depends on our choice to have formula_97 range from 0 to formula_106. These operators satisfy the usual commutation relations for position and momentum operators, formula_107.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Now let formula_108 be any of the eigenstates of formula_25, which are given by formula_110. These states are normalizable, unlike the eigenstates of the momentum operator on the line. Also the operator formula_40 is bounded, since formula_97 ranges over a bounded interval. Thus, in the state formula_108, the uncertainty of formula_47 is zero and the uncertainty of formula_46 is finite, so that


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Although this result appears to violate the Robertson uncertainty principle, the paradox is resolved when we note that formula_108 is not in the domain of the operator formula_118, since multiplication by formula_97 disrupts the periodic boundary conditions imposed on formula_25. Thus, the derivation of the Robertson relation, which requires formula_121 and formula_122 to be defined, does not apply. (These also furnish an example of operators satisfying the canonical commutation relations but not the Weyl relations.)


title: Uncertainty principle

text: For the usual position and momentum operators formula_123 and formula_124 on the real line, no such counterexamples can occur. As long as formula_125 and formula_126 are defined in the state formula_108, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle holds, even if formula_108 fails to be in the domain of formula_129 or of formula_130.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Consider a one-dimensional quantum harmonic oscillator. It is possible to express the position and momentum operators in terms of the creation and annihilation operators:


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In particular, the above Kennard bound is saturated for the ground state , for which the probability density is just the normal distribution.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In a quantum harmonic oscillator of characteristic angular frequency ω, place a state that is offset from the bottom of the potential by some displacement "x" as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where Ω describes the width of the initial state but need not be the same as ω. Through integration over the , we can solve for the -dependent solution. After many cancelations, the probability densities reduce to


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where we have used the notation formula_141 to denote a normal distribution of mean μ and variance σ. Copying the variances above and applying trigonometric identities, we can write the product of the standard deviations as


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The mathematician G. H. Hardy formulated the following uncertainty principle: it is not possible for and to both be "very rapidly decreasing". Specifically, if in formula_147 is such that


title: Uncertainty principle

text: This result was stated in Beurling's complete works without proof and proved in Hörmander (the case formula_155) and Bonami, Demange, and Jaming for the general case. Note that Hörmander–Beurling's version implies the case in Hardy's Theorem while the version by Bonami–Demange–Jaming covers the full strength of Hardy's Theorem. A different proof of Beurling's theorem based on Liouville's theorem appeared in ref.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: A full description of the case as well as the following extension to Schwartz class distributions appears in ref.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle at Niels Bohr's institute in Copenhagen, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In 1925, following pioneering work with Hendrik Kramers, Heisenberg developed matrix mechanics, which replaced the ad hoc old quantum theory with modern quantum mechanics. The central premise was that the classical concept of motion does not fit at the quantum level, as electrons in an atom do not travel on sharply defined orbits. Rather, their motion is smeared out in a strange way: the Fourier transform of its time dependence only involves those frequencies that could be observed in the quantum jumps of their radiation.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Heisenberg's paper did not admit any unobservable quantities like the exact position of the electron in an orbit at any time; he only allowed the theorist to talk about the Fourier components of the motion. Since the Fourier components were not defined at the classical frequencies, they could not be used to construct an exact trajectory, so that the formalism could not answer certain overly precise questions about where the electron was or how fast it was going.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: According to one account: "Heisenberg's paper marked a radical departure from previous attempts to solve atomic problems by making use of observable quantities only. 'My entire meagre efforts go toward killing off and suitably replacing the concept of the orbital paths that one cannot observe,' he wrote in a letter dated 9 July 1925."


title: Uncertainty principle

text: It was actually Einstein who first raised the problem to Heisenberg in 1926 upon their first real discussion.  Einstein had invited Heisenberg to his home for a discussion of matrix mechanics upon its introduction.  As Heisenberg describes the discussion: "On the way home, he questioned me about my background, my studies with Sommerfeld.  But on arrival he at once began with a central question about the philosophical foundation of the new quantum mechanics.  He pointed out to me that in my mathematical description the notion of 'electron path' did not occur at all, but that in a cloud-chamber the track of the electron can of course be observed directly.  It seemed to him absurd to claim that there was indeed an electron path in the cloud-chamber, but none in the interior of the atom." In this situation, of course, we [Heisenberg and Bohr] had many discussions, difficult discussions, because we all felt that the mathematical scheme of quantum or wave mechanics was already final.  It could not be changed, and we would have to do all our calculations from this scheme.  On the other hand, nobody knew how to represent in this scheme such a simple case as the path of an electron through a cloud chamber."


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In March 1926, working in Bohr's institute, Heisenberg realized that the non-commutativity implies the uncertainty principle. This implication provided a clear physical interpretation for the non-commutativity, and it laid the foundation for what became known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg showed that the commutation relation implies an uncertainty, or in Bohr's language a complementarity. Any two variables that do not commute cannot be measured simultaneously—the more precisely one is known, the less precisely the other can be known. Heisenberg wrote:It can be expressed in its simplest form as follows: One can never know with perfect accuracy both of those two important factors which determine the movement of one of the smallest particles—its position and its velocity. It is impossible to determine accurately "both" the position and the direction and speed of a particle "at the same instant".


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In his celebrated 1927 paper, "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik" ("On the Perceptual Content of Quantum Theoretical Kinematics and Mechanics"), Heisenberg established this expression as the minimum amount of unavoidable momentum disturbance caused by any position measurement, but he did not give a precise definition for the uncertainties Δx and Δp. Instead, he gave some plausible estimates in each case separately. In his Chicago lecture he refined his principle:


title: Uncertainty principle

text: where , and , are the standard deviations of position and momentum. Heisenberg only proved relation () for the special case of Gaussian states.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Throughout the main body of his original 1927 paper, written in German, Heisenberg used the word "Ungenauigkeit" ("indeterminacy"),


title: Uncertainty principle

text: to describe the basic theoretical principle. Only in the endnote did he switch to the word "Unsicherheit" ("uncertainty"). When the English-language version of Heisenberg's textbook, "The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory", was published in 1930, however, the translation "uncertainty" was used, and it became the more commonly used term in the English language thereafter.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The principle is quite counter-intuitive, so the early students of quantum theory had to be reassured that naive measurements to violate it were bound always to be unworkable. One way in which Heisenberg originally illustrated the intrinsic impossibility of violating the uncertainty principle is by utilizing the observer effect of an imaginary microscope as a measuring device.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: He imagines an experimenter trying to measure the position and momentum of an electron by shooting a photon at it.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The combination of these trade-offs implies that no matter what photon wavelength and aperture size are used, the product of the uncertainty in measured position and measured momentum is greater than or equal to a lower limit, which is (up to a small numerical factor) equal to Planck's constant. Heisenberg did not care to formulate the uncertainty principle as an exact limit, and preferred to use it instead, as a heuristic quantitative statement, correct up to small numerical factors, which makes the radically new noncommutativity of quantum mechanics inevitable.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics and Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle were, in fact, seen as twin targets by detractors who believed in an underlying determinism and realism. According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, there is no fundamental reality that the quantum state describes, just a prescription for calculating experimental results. There is no way to say what the state of a system fundamentally is, only what the result of observations might be.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Albert Einstein believed that randomness is a reflection of our ignorance of some fundamental property of reality, while Niels Bohr believed that the probability distributions are fundamental and irreducible, and depend on which measurements we choose to perform. Einstein and Bohr debated the uncertainty principle for many years.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Wolfgang Pauli called Einstein's fundamental objection to the uncertainty principle "the ideal of the detached observer" (phrase translated from the German):


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Bohr's response was that the wall is quantum mechanical as well, and that to measure the recoil to accuracy , the momentum of the wall must be known to this accuracy before the particle passes through. This introduces an uncertainty in the position of the wall and therefore the position of the slit equal to , and if the wall's momentum is known precisely enough to measure the recoil, the slit's position is uncertain enough to disallow a position measurement.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Bohr was present when Einstein proposed the thought experiment which has become known as Einstein's box. Einstein argued that "Heisenberg's uncertainty equation implied that the uncertainty in time was related to the uncertainty in energy, the product of the two being related to Planck's constant." Consider, he said, an ideal box, lined with mirrors so that it can contain light indefinitely. The box could be weighed before a clockwork mechanism opened an ideal shutter at a chosen instant to allow one single photon to escape. "We now know, explained Einstein, precisely the time at which the photon left the box." "Now, weigh the box again. The change of mass tells the energy of the emitted light. In this manner, said Einstein, one could measure the energy emitted and the time it was released with any desired precision, in contradiction to the uncertainty principle."


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Bohr spent a sleepless night considering this argument, and eventually realized that it was flawed. He pointed out that if the box were to be weighed, say by a spring and a pointer on a scale, "since the box must move vertically with a change in its weight, there will be uncertainty in its vertical velocity and therefore an uncertainty in its height above the table. ... Furthermore, the uncertainty about the elevation above the Earth's surface will result in an uncertainty in the rate of the clock," because of Einstein's own theory of gravity's effect on time.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: "Through this chain of uncertainties, Bohr showed that Einstein's light box experiment could not simultaneously measure exactly both the energy of the photon and the time of its escape."


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Bohr was compelled to modify his understanding of the uncertainty principle after another thought experiment by Einstein. In 1935, Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen published an analysis of widely separated entangled particles (EPR paradox). Measuring one particle, Einstein realized, would alter the probability distribution of the other, yet here the other particle could not possibly be disturbed. This example led Bohr to revise his understanding of the principle, concluding that the uncertainty was not caused by a direct interaction.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: But Einstein came to much more far-reaching conclusions from the same thought experiment. He believed the "natural basic assumption" that a complete description of reality would have to predict the results of experiments from "locally changing deterministic quantities" and therefore would have to include more information than the maximum possible allowed by the uncertainty principle.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In 1964, John Stewart Bell showed that this assumption can be falsified, since it would imply a certain inequality between the probabilities of different experiments. Experimental results confirm the predictions of quantum mechanics, ruling out Einstein's basic assumption that led him to the suggestion of his "hidden variables". These hidden variables may be "hidden" because of an illusion that occurs during observations of objects that are too large or too small. This illusion can be likened to rotating fan blades that seem to pop in and out of existence at different locations and sometimes seem to be in the same place at the same time when observed. This same illusion manifests itself in the observation of subatomic particles. Both the fan blades and the subatomic particles are moving so fast that the illusion is seen by the observer. Therefore, it is possible that there would be predictability of the subatomic particles behavior and characteristics to a recording device capable of very high speed tracking...Ironically this fact is one of the best pieces of evidence supporting Karl Popper's philosophy of invalidation of a theory by falsification-experiments. That is to say, here Einstein's "basic assumption" became falsified by experiments based on Bell's inequalities. For the objections of Karl Popper to the Heisenberg inequality itself, see below.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: While it is possible to assume that quantum mechanical predictions are due to nonlocal, hidden variables, and in fact David Bohm invented such a formulation, this resolution is not satisfactory to the vast majority of physicists. The question of whether a random outcome is predetermined by a nonlocal theory can be philosophical, and it can be potentially intractable. If the hidden variables were not constrained, they could just be a list of random digits that are used to produce the measurement outcomes. To make it sensible, the assumption of nonlocal hidden variables is sometimes augmented by a second assumption—that the size of the observable universe puts a limit on the computations that these variables can do. A nonlocal theory of this sort predicts that a quantum computer would encounter fundamental obstacles when attempting to factor numbers of approximately 10,000 digits or more; a potentially achievable task in quantum mechanics.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Karl Popper approached the problem of indeterminacy as a logician and metaphysical realist. He disagreed with the application of the uncertainty relations to individual particles rather than to ensembles of identically prepared particles, referring to them as "statistical scatter relations". In this statistical interpretation, a "particular" measurement may be made to arbitrary precision without invalidating the quantum theory. This directly contrasts with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, which is non-deterministic but lacks local hidden variables.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In 1934, Popper published "Zur Kritik der Ungenauigkeitsrelationen" ("Critique of the Uncertainty Relations") in "Naturwissenschaften", and in the same year "Logik der Forschung" (translated and updated by the author as "The Logic of Scientific Discovery" in 1959), outlining his arguments for the statistical interpretation. In 1982, he further developed his theory in "Quantum theory and the schism in Physics", writing:


title: Uncertainty principle

text: [Heisenberg's] formulae are, beyond all doubt, derivable "statistical formulae" of the quantum theory. But they have been "habitually misinterpreted" by those quantum theorists who said that these formulae can be interpreted as determining some upper limit to the "precision of our measurements". [original emphasis]


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Popper proposed an experiment to falsify the uncertainty relations, although he later withdrew his initial version after discussions with Weizsäcker, Heisenberg, and Einstein; this experiment may have influenced the formulation of the EPR experiment.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The many-worlds interpretation originally outlined by Hugh Everett III in 1957 is partly meant to reconcile the differences between Einstein's and Bohr's views by replacing Bohr's wave function collapse with an ensemble of deterministic and independent universes whose "distribution" is governed by wave functions and the Schrödinger equation. Thus, uncertainty in the many-worlds interpretation follows from each observer within any universe having no knowledge of what goes on in the other universes.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Some scientists including Arthur Compton and Martin Heisenberg have suggested that the uncertainty principle, or at least the general probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, could be evidence for the two-stage model of free will. One critique, however, is that apart from the basic role of quantum mechanics as a foundation for chemistry, nontrivial biological mechanisms requiring quantum mechanics are unlikely, due to the rapid decoherence time of quantum systems at room temperature. Proponents of this theory commonly say that this decoherence is overcome by both screening and decoherence-free subspaces found in biological cells.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: There is reason to believe that violating the uncertainty principle also strongly implies the violation of the second law of thermodynamics. See Gibbs paradox.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Monk is an American mystery comedy-drama television series created by Andy Breckman and starring Tony Shalhoub as Adrian Monk. It originally ran from 2002 to 2009 and is primarily a police procedural series, but also exhibits comic and dramatic tones in its exploration of the main characters' personal lives. The series was produced by Mandeville Films and Touchstone Television in association with Universal Network Television.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: The series debuted on July 12, 2002, on USA Network. It continued for eight seasons, with the final season concluding on December 4, 2009. The series held the record for the most-watched scripted drama episode in cable television history from 2009 through 2012 (broken by "The Walking Dead") with "Mr. Monk and the End – Part II", its series finale, with 9.4 million viewers, 3.2 million of them in the 18–49 demographic.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: The series was critically acclaimed, winning eight Emmy Awards, one Golden Globe Award, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Adrian Monk, a San Francisco Police Department detective, has a nervous breakdown after his wife, Trudy, is killed by a car bomb, possibly because of her work as a journalist. He loses his job and refuses to leave his house for several years. With the help of his nurse/assistant, Sharona Fleming, he finally is able to leave his house and begins work as a private detective and a consultant for the police, although his obsessive–compulsive disorder, which has worsened since Trudy's death, poses challenges for him and frustration for those around him. Monk also continues to investigate Trudy's death.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Monk's numerous compulsive habits and phobias compound his situation, such as his fear of germs. Monk is afraid of 312 things, including milk, ladybugs, harmonicas, heights, asymmetry, enclosed spaces, foods touching on his plate, messes, and risk. (He has a breakthrough from claustrophobia later in the series.) The OCD and phobias cause problems for Monk and anyone around him as he investigates cases. These same personal struggles, particularly the OCD, are what aid him in solving cases: his sharp memory, specific mindset, and attention to detail.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Captain Leland Stottlemeyer and Lieutenant Randy Disher call on Monk when they have troubles with investigations. Stottlemeyer is often irritated by Monk's behavior, but respects his friend and former colleague's amazing insight and observational abilities, as does Disher. Ever since childhood, Monk's obsessive attention to detail has allowed him to spot tiny discrepancies, find patterns, and make connections that others miss. These insights work both consciously and unconsciously, so often Monk observes something "wrong" but is unable to pinpoint what it is until someone says or does something that triggers his understanding.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: In the middle of season three, Sharona decides to remarry her ex-husband and moves back to New Jersey, prompting Monk to hire Natalie Teeger as his new assistant. Natalie is a widow and mother of 11-year-old daughter Julie. Monk discovers Natalie when she is involved in a homicide case, in "Mr. Monk and the Red Herring". Natalie is able to understand and bond with Monk better than most people, largely due to sharing his grief over the loss of a spouse.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Monk has a brother Ambrose and a half-brother, Jack Jr., whom Monk first learns about when his father tells him in season five. He meets Jack Jr. in the episode "Mr. Monk's Other Brother" during season seven.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: According to an interview with executive producer David Hoberman, ABC first conceived the series as a police show with an Inspector Clouseau-like character with OCD. Hoberman said ABC wanted Michael Richards, who had starred as a private investigator in "The Michael Richards Show" two years earlier, for the show, but Richards turned it down. Hoberman brought in Andy Breckman as creator, and Breckman, inspired by Sherlock Holmes, introduced Dr. Kroger as a Doctor Watson-like character and an Inspector Lestrade-like character who eventually became Captain Stottlemeyer.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Although ABC originated the show, the network handed it off to the USA Network. USA is now owned by NBC (NBC Universal). "Monk" was the first ABC Studios-produced show aired on USA Network instead of ABC. Although ABC initially refused "Monk", they did air repeats of the show on ABC between June–November 2002, and then again between March–May 2004. On January 12, 2006, USA Network announced that "Monk" had been picked up through at least season six as one of the "highest-rated series in cable history." An in-joke reference to this contract renewal was also inserted into the episode "Mr. Monk and the Big Reward", which aired around this time.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Season five premiered Friday, July 7, 2006, at 9:00 pm Eastern time. This marked the first time change for the program, which aired at 10:00 pm during its first four seasons. The change allowed the show to work as a lead-in to a new USA Network series, "Psych", another offbeat detective program. "Monk" followed a consistent format of airing half of its 16 episodes in midyear and the second half early the following year, with the exception of the first season, which broadcast entirely from July through October 2002, and the final season, which broadcast entirely between August and December 2009.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Previously aired episodes of "Monk" began airing on NBC Universal sibling network NBC April 6, 2008. NBC eyed the show because its block with "Psych" could be plugged into NBC's schedule intact. The shows were being used to increase the scripted programming on the network as production of its own scripted programming ramped back up following the writers' strike. Ratings for the broadcast debut were well below NBC averages for the time period. The show came in third behind "Big Brother 9" on CBS and "Oprah's Big Give" on ABC.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Although set in the San Francisco Bay Area, "Monk" is for the most part shot elsewhere except for occasional exteriors featuring city landmarks. The pilot episode was shot in Vancouver, British Columbia, with some location shooting in San Francisco, and the subsequent season-one episodes were shot in the Toronto, Ontario area. Most of the episodes from seasons two through six were filmed in the Los Angeles area. These include the sets for Monk's apartment, the police station and Stottlemeyer's office, Dr. Kroger's office, and Natalie's house. In season two, episode eight, a building for the "Toronto Star" can also be seen in a cut scene.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: In the later part of season four, some on-location filming was done in San Francisco. Many portions of the episode "Mr. Monk and the Big Reward" were noticeably shot on location, including a climactic chase scene where Monk and Natalie are chased by three bounty hunters. Other filming was done in Chinatown, which is shown in the opening of "Mr. Monk Gets Jury Duty", as Stottlemeyer and Disher chase wanted fugitive Miguel Escobar (Carlos Gomez) up Jackson Street. In "Mr. Monk and the Astronaut", some on-location filming was done at Edwards Air Force Base.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: During the first season of "Monk", the series used a jazzy instrumental introduction to the show by songwriter Jeff Beal, performed by guitarist Grant Geissman. The theme won the 2003 Emmy Award for Best Main Title Music.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: NYC actor Colter Rule was hired by USA Network to do all radio and TV promotions for the series from its inception, lending an ironic, understated tone that contributed to the show's early popularity. The original tag was "Monk! America's Favorite Defective Detective!" When season two began, the series received a new theme song, titled "It's a Jungle Out There", by Randy Newman. Reaction to the new theme was mixed. A review of season two in the "New York Daily News" included a wish that producers would revert to the original theme. Shalhoub expressed his support for the new theme in "USA Today", saying its "dark and mournful sound,… [its] tongue-in-cheek, darkly humorous side… completely fits the tone of the show." Newman was awarded the 2004 Emmy Award for Best Main Title Music for "It's a Jungle Out There".


title: Monk (TV series)

text: The show made references to the theme music controversy in the episode "Mr. Monk and the TV Star", where obsessed fan Marci Maven and Sharona both express distaste for the new theme music to a "" parody called "Crime Lab: SF". In the epilogue of the story, Marci implores Monk to promise her that he will never change the theme music if he ever gets his own show. When Monk agrees to the promise, the original music is heard as the scene fades to credits, and it plays through the credits.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: The original theme is heard in the season-three episode "Mr. Monk and the Game Show". It is heard in several other episodes as the show enters the credits and then leads into the new theme's instrumental version. In the season-five episode "Mr. Monk and the Leper", while looking around a victim's apartment, Randy doodles out the old theme song on the piano, much to Stottlemeyer's exasperation. The music is also heard in the season-seven episode "Mr. Monk and the Bully".


title: Monk (TV series)

text: In the season-six episode "Mr. Monk and the Rapper", Snoop Dogg guest-starred as Murderuss, a rapper who is being wrongly accused of car-bombing a rival rapper. For the episode, Snoop Dogg performed a hip-hop cover of "It's a Jungle Out There" that substitutes for Randy Newman's version in the opening credits, and at the end before transitioning into the regular credit music. The June 16, 2008, reairing of the pilot episode featured a new credit sequence with the Newman theme. The season-eight episode "Happy Birthday, Mr. Monk" features a slower version of the original theme with a muted trumpet playing the melody.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Randy Newman also wrote a new song for the final episode entitled "When I'm Gone". The song was released on iTunes on December 1, 2009, and won the 2010 Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: For a few episodes where Trudy is featured, a somber but pleasant ending theme was used. The ending theme is last used in "Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra".


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Most episodes feature a sequence in which Monk reveals how the crime was committed, almost always prefaced with the words "Here's what happened" and shown in black and white. Sometimes the conventions of these segments are defied for humorous effect, e.g. by having them take place early in the episode or being delivered by someone other than Monk.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Over the years, the show was syndicated on ION Television, being the first network to pick it up along with Psych. Other networks include WE tv, Sundance, Cozi TV and Hallmark Movies and Mysteries.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: The series was given many awards and nominations, including winning eight Emmy Awards, one Golden Globe Award, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: A Turkish adaptation titled "" began airing on "Kanal D" in March 2013, the same name used when they first aired the original "Monk" in the 2000s.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: USA Network premiered a 10-episode online series entitled "Little Monk" on August 21, 2009. It includes Adrian and Ambrose Monk during their middle-school years, bringing a back story to Monk's detective skills and phobias.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: On February 17, 2012, Andy Breckman announced that a script had been completed for a television movie titled "Mr. Monk For Mayor". Breckman stated that the film should begin production by June–August 2012 in California for a release date in December 2012. Breckman also stated that he hoped a sequel would be produced, as well. The idea was rejected for budgetary reasons.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: On May 11, 2020, "Peacock", for their "At-Home Variety Show" released a 7-minute scripted short of "Monk", titled "Mr. Monk Shelters in Place", following Monk during the COVID-19 pandemic, showing how he fares during this time. Tony Shalhoub reprises the titular role, as well as original main cast members: Jason Gray-Stanford, Ted Levine, and Traylor Howard in their respective characters.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: A "behind-the-scenes" audio podcast entitled "Lunch at Monk" is available for download through the USA website. In the podcast, cast and crew members of the show are interviewed over lunch and dinner.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Since 2006, during the airing of season four, Lee Goldberg, a writer for the series, has produced a series of novels based on the original television series. All of the novels are narrated by Natalie Teeger, Monk's second assistant. For the most part, the novels remain faithful to the television series, with slight discontinuity. On December 31, 2012, the last novel to be written by Lee Goldberg was released. After Goldberg left the series, Hy Conrad wrote four more books, ending with "Mr. Monk and the New Lieutenant".


title: Monk (TV series)

text: Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released all eight seasons of "Monk" on DVD in Region 1. On October 5, 2010, Universal released "Monk – The Complete Series: Limited edition boxset" on DVD in Region 1, a 32-disc set featuring all eight seasons of the series, as well as special features and a collectible 32-page booklet.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: "Monk" episodes are also available on iTunes. All seasons are also available in HD format. The Region 2 and Region 4 DVDs of seasons one-three are in the 4:3 aspect ratio.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: In Australia, Seasons 1-5 were re-released in slimmer packaging in 2010. In 2017, all eight seasons were re-issued and distributed by Shock Entertainment (previous releases were Universal). Seasons 1-3 are now in 16:9 format, and all seasons are Region 4 NTSC (previous releases were PAL Regions 2, 4 and 5). Complaints from some buyers were that there are no subtitles or episode list and episodes appearing out of order.


title: Monk (TV series)

text: All 125 episodes (seasons 1–8) of the series are available on various streaming services including Peacock, Amazon Prime, and YouTube TV.


title: Quavo

text: Quavious Keyate Marshall (born April 2, 1991), known professionally as Quavo (), is an American rapper, singer, and actor. He is best known as the co-founder and former frontman of hip hop group Migos. Quavo is the uncle of late fellow Migos member Takeoff, and cousin of Offset. He is also a partial owner of the FCF Glacier Boyz.


title: Quavo

text: Outside of Migos, Quavo has been featured on several U.S. top 10 hits, including Post Malone's "Congratulations", which was later certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); as well as DJ Khaled's "No Brainer" and "I'm the One", the latter of which peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2018, he released his debut solo album "Quavo Huncho", which peaked at number 2 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Quavo

text: Quavious Keyate Marshall was born on April 2, 1991, in Athens, Georgia. The three members of Migos grew up together in Gwinnett County, a mostly suburban area 30–40 minutes northeast of Atlanta.


title: Quavo

text: Quavo attended Berkmar High School and was the starting quarterback of its football team during the 2009 season, his senior year. Berkmar went 1–9 in the 2009 season, and Quavo went 19-of-25 for 201 yards and three touchdowns for the first win of the season. Quavo previously held the record by completing 28 passes in a game back in 2009. Despite finishing the football season for his senior year, Quavo dropped out of Berkmar months before graduation.


title: Quavo

text: Migos was formed in 2008 by Quavo and fellow rappers Takeoff and Offset. The three members are directly related and were raised together by Quavo's mother. Quavo was Takeoff's uncle, and Offset is Quavo's cousin. The group was originally known as Polo Club and is from Lawrenceville, Georgia. They changed their name to "Migos" after deciding Polo Club was too generic. The group released their first full-length project, a mixtape titled "Juug Season", on August 25, 2011. They followed with the mixtape "No Label", on June 1, 2012.


title: Quavo

text: Migos rose to prominence in 2013 after the release of their single "Versace". The song was remixed by Canadian rapper Drake, peaking at number 99 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and number 31 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Quavo had his first lead single as a solo artist with the song "Champions" featuring several other artists. The song peaked at number 71 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Quavo

text: After the success of Migos' second studio album "Culture", which reached number one on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, Quavo was subsequently featured on several popular songs outside of Migos, including "Congratulations", "I'm the One", "Portland" and "No Brainer". In an interview with "GQ", Houston-based rapper Travis Scott, with whom Quavo previously worked on the Young Thug collaboration "Pick Up the Phone", revealed he had a collaborative album with Quavo in the works.


title: Quavo

text: In April 2017, Quavo was featured on "The Fate of the Furious: The Album" on the song "Go Off" with Lil Uzi Vert and Travis Scott. The song was eventually certified Gold by the RIAA. Quavo also released "Ice Tray" with Lil Yachty on December 14, 2017. The song peaked at number 74 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Quavo

text: On December 21, 2017, Quavo announced that he would release "Huncho Jack, Jack Huncho" with Travis Scott on December 22, 2017 without any prior promotion. The album debuted at number 3 on the "Billboard" 200 and had seven tracks chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Quavo

text: On January 26, 2018, Migos released "Culture II". Following this, Quavo announced an upcoming solo project titled


title: Quavo

text: "Quavo Huncho" to be released on October. It was supported by three singles, "Workin Me", "Lamb Talk" and "Bubble Gum", with "Workin Me" peaking at 52 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Quavo's highest charting single as a solo artist. The album was released on October 12, 2018 through Capitol Records, Motown, and Quality Control Music and features guest appearances from 21 Savage, Drake, Saweetie, Madonna, Cardi B, Lil Baby, Travis Scott, Normani, Davido, and Kid Cudi.


title: Quavo

text: On May 18, 2019, Quavo performed "Future" alongside Madonna at the grand final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2019.


title: Quavo

text: On February 7, 2020, Quavo was featured on the song "Intentions" from Justin Bieber's fifth studio album "Changes". The song peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100. In the following year, Migos released their fourth album, "Culture III".


title: Quavo

text: In October 2022, a possible disbandment of Migos became the subject of speculation based on reports that Quavo's ex-girlfriend Saweetie had slept with Offset. Following this, Quavo and Takeoff formed a super duo, Unc & Phew and went on to release a collaborative album titled "Only Built for Infinity Links" on October 7, 2022 without Offset's input. During an interview with the "Big Facts" podcast, Quavo stated that he would like to see his and Takeoff's career "as a duo".


title: Quavo

text: On November 1, 2022, less than a month after the release of the duo's first album, Takeoff was shot and killed while with Quavo and others at the 810 Billiards & Bowling in Houston, Texas.


title: Quavo

text: Quavo along with the members of Migos made his TV debut after an appearance on an episode of Donald Glover's series "Atlanta". The episode aired on September 13, 2016, under the title "Go For Broke". He also made a cameo appearance on the "Dreamers" episode of fox's musical drama television series "Star" in 2018.


title: Quavo

text: In 2019, he guest-starred in the fifth-season finale of ABC's "Black-ish" and HBO's Ballers. In the following year, he along with Billie Eilish, Big Sean, DJ Khaled and Usher appeared on the finale episode of "", a YouTube docu-series about Canadian singer Justin Bieber. He also made a guest appearance on the sophomore season of ".


title: Quavo

text: Quavo will appear in the upcoming thriller film "Savage Salvation" directed by Randall Emmett as Coyote; it is set for release on December 2, 2022.


title: Quavo

text: Quavo received the MVP Award during the 2018 NBA All-Star Celebrity Game after a 19-point performance and victory. In 2019, Quavo played on the "Away" roster during the NBA All-Star Celebrity Game at the Bojangles' Coliseum in Charlotte, North Carolina, and again during the 2020 All-Star Celebrity Game in Chicago.


title: Quavo

text: Quavo is one of four partial owners of the FCF Glacier Boyz, a team in the Fan Controlled Football League.


title: Quavo

text: On April 18, 2015, authorities stopped a Migos concert at Georgia Southern University and arrested all three members of the group, as well as several members of their entourage. Quavo was charged with possession of an unspecified Schedule II narcotic, possession of marijuana, possession of a firearm in a school safety zone, and possession of a firearm during the commission of a crime. He was released from jail on bond, and later pleaded no contest to misdemeanor marijuana charges and received a 12-month sentence, which was suspended based on payment of fines.


title: Quavo

text: Quavo began dating Saweetie in September 2018. On March 19, 2021, Saweetie confirmed via social media that she and Quavo are no longer in a relationship. She also mentioned on social media that Quavo had been unfaithful, writing "Presents don't band aid scars and the love isn't real when the intimacy is given to other women." In late March 2021, video footage surfaced showing the pair in a physical altercation that allegedly happened in 2020.


title: Quavo

text: In May 2020, Quavo announced on his Instagram account that he had graduated from high school after dropping out 11 years earlier.


title: Quavo

text: In December 2021, Quavo was sued for his alleged involvement in the assault of a limo driver earlier in July 2021.


title: Quavo

text: Quavo was one of the main eyewitnesses for Takeoff's murder in the early morning hours of November 1, 2022. He, Takeoff, and about 39 other people gathered outside of the bowling alley at 810 Billiards and Bowling located in Houston, Texas after a private party ended there at around 1:00 CDT, according to Houston's KHOU-11 TV. Quavo was not injured during the shooting, although he reportedly fainted afterward and had to be carried to a vehicle. Two other people, 24-year-old Joshua "Wash" Washington (a business associate of Quavo) and a 23-year-old woman, suffered non-life-threatening injuries during the shooting.


title: World Chess Championship

text: The World Chess Championship is played to determine the world champion in chess. The current world champion is Magnus Carlsen of Norway, who has held the title since 2013.


title: World Chess Championship

text: The first event recognized as a world championship was the 1886 match between the two leading players in the world, Wilhelm Steinitz and Johannes Zukertort. Steinitz won, becoming the first world champion. From 1886 to 1946, the champion set the terms, requiring any challenger to raise a sizable stake and defeat the champion in a match in order to become the new world champion. Following the death of reigning world champion Alexander Alekhine in 1946, FIDE (the International Chess Federation) took over administration of the World Championship, beginning with the 1948 World Championship tournament. From 1948 to 1993, FIDE organized a set of tournaments to choose a new challenger every three years. In 1993, reigning champion Garry Kasparov broke away from FIDE, which led to a rival claimant to the title of World Champion for the next thirteen years. The titles were unified at the World Chess Championship 2006, and all subsequent matches have once again been administered by FIDE.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Since 2014, the championship has settled on a two-year cycle, although the 2020 match was postponed to 2021 because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the next match will be held in 2023. Magnus Carlsen has been world champion since he defeated Viswanathan Anand in 2013. He successfully defended the title in 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2021. In 2022, he announced that he would not defend his title a fifth time, and so the 2023 championship will be played between the top two finishers of the qualifying 2022 Candidates Tournament instead: Ian Nepomniachtchi of Russia and Ding Liren of China.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Though the world championship is open to all players, there are separate championships for women, under-20s and lower age groups, and seniors; as well as one for computers. There are also chess world championships in rapid, blitz, correspondence, problem solving, and Fischer Random Chess.


title: World Chess Championship

text: A series of players regarded as the strongest (or at least the most famous) in the world extends back hundreds of years, and these players are sometimes considered the world champions of their time. They include Ruy López de Segura around 1560, Paolo Boi and Leonardo da Cutri around 1575, Alessandro Salvio around 1600, and Gioachino Greco around 1623. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, French players dominated, with Legall de Kermeur (1730–1755), François-André Danican Philidor (1755–1795), Alexandre Deschapelles (around 1800–1821) and Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais (1821–1840) all widely regarded as the strongest players of their time.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Something resembling a world championship match was the La Bourdonnais – McDonnell chess matches in 1834, in which La Bourdonnais played a series of six matches – and 85 games – against the Irishman Alexander McDonnell, with La Bourdonnais winning a majority of the games.


title: World Chess Championship

text: The idea of a chess world champion goes back at least to 1840, when a columnist in "Fraser's Magazine" wrote, "Will Gaul continue the dynasty by placing a fourth Frenchman on the throne of the world? the three last chess chiefs having been successively Philidor, Deschapelles, and De La Bourdonnais."


title: World Chess Championship

text: After La Bourdonnais' death in December 1840, Englishman Howard Staunton's match victory over another Frenchman, Pierre Charles Fournier de Saint-Amant, in 1843 is considered to have established Staunton as the world's strongest player. The earliest recorded use of the term "World Champion" was in 1845, when Staunton was described as "the Chess Champion of England, or ... the Champion of the World".


title: World Chess Championship

text: An important milestone was the London 1851 chess tournament, which was the first international chess tournament, organized by Staunton. It was played as a series of matches, and was won convincingly by the German Adolf Anderssen, including a 4–1 semi-final win over Staunton, establishing Anderssen as the world's leading player. However, there is no evidence that he was widely acclaimed at the time as the world champion, and there is no mention afterwards in the tournament book by Staunton, although in 1893, Henry Bird retrospectively awarded the title of first world chess champion to Anderssen for his victory.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Anderssen was himself decisively defeated in an 1858 match against the American Paul Morphy (7–2, 2 draws). In 1858–59 Morphy played matches against several leading players, crushing them all, and he was widely hailed as the world champion. But when Morphy returned to America in 1859, he abruptly retired from chess, though many considered him the world champion until his death in 1884. His sudden withdrawal from chess at his peak led to his being known as "the pride and sorrow of chess".


title: World Chess Championship

text: After Morphy's retirement from chess, Anderssen was again regarded as the world's strongest active player, a reputation he reinforced by winning the strong London 1862 chess tournament.


title: World Chess Championship

text: In 1866, Wilhelm Steinitz narrowly defeated Anderssen in a match (8–6, 0 draws). Steinitz confirmed his standing as the world's leading player by winning a match against Johannes Zukertort in 1872 (7–1, 4 draws), winning the Vienna 1873 chess tournament, and winning a match over Joseph Henry Blackburne by a crushing 7–0 (0 draws) in 1876.


title: World Chess Championship

text: However, apart from the Blackburne match, Steinitz played no competitive chess between the Vienna tournaments of 1873 and 1882. During that time, Zukertort emerged as the world's leading active player, winning the Paris 1878 chess tournament. Zukertort then won the London 1883 chess tournament by a convincing 3-point margin, ahead of nearly every leading player in the world, with Steinitz finishing second. This tournament established Steinitz and Zukertort as the best two players in the world, and led to a match between these two, the World Chess Championship 1886, won by Steinitz.


title: World Chess Championship

text: There is some debate over whether to date Steinitz's reign as world champion from his win over Anderssen in 1866, or from his win over Zukertort in 1886. The 1886 match was clearly agreed to be for the world championship, but there is no indication that Steinitz was regarded as the defending champion. There is also no known evidence of Steinitz being called the world champion after defeating Anderssen in 1866. It has been suggested that Steinitz could not make such a claim while Morphy was alive (Morphy died in 1884). There are a number of references to Steinitz as world champion in the 1870s, the earliest being after the first Zukertort match in 1872. Later, in 1879, it was argued that Zukertort was world champion, since Morphy and Steinitz were not active. However, later in his career, at least from 1887, Steinitz dated his reign from this 1866 match, and early sources such as the New York Times in 1894, and Emanuel Lasker in 1908, and Reuben Fine in 1952 all do the same.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Many modern commentators divide Steinitz's reign into an "unofficial" one from 1866 to 1886, and an "official" one after 1886. By this reckoning, the first World Championship match was in 1886, and Steinitz was the first official World Chess Champion.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Following the Steinitz–Zukertort match, a tradition continued of the world championship being decided by a match between the reigning champion, and a challenger: if a player thought he was strong enough, he (or his friends) would find financial backing for a match purse and challenge the reigning world champion. If he won, he would become the new champion.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Steinitz successfully defended his world title against Mikhail Chigorin in 1889, Isidor Gunsberg in 1891, and Chigorin again in 1892.


title: World Chess Championship

text: In 1887, the American Chess Congress started work on drawing up regulations for the future conduct of world championship contests. Steinitz supported this endeavor, as he thought he was becoming too old to remain world champion. The proposal evolved through many forms (as Steinitz pointed out, such a project had never been undertaken before), and resulted in the 1889 tournament in New York to select a challenger for Steinitz, rather like the more recent Candidates Tournaments. The tournament was duly played, but the outcome was not quite as planned: Chigorin and Max Weiss tied for first place; their play-off resulted in four draws; and neither wanted to play a match against Steinitz – Chigorin had just lost to him, and Weiss wanted to get back to his work for the Rothschild Bank. The third prizewinner, Isidor Gunsberg, was prepared to play Steinitz for the title in New York, so this match was played in 1890–1891 and was won by Steinitz. The experiment was not repeated, and Steinitz's later matches were private arrangements between the players.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Two young strong players emerged in late 1880s and early 1890s: Siegbert Tarrasch and Emanuel Lasker. Tarrasch had the better tournament results at the time, but it was Lasker who was able to raise the money to challenge Steinitz. Lasker won the 1894 match and succeeded Steinitz as world champion.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Lasker held the title from 1894 to 1921, the longest reign (27 years) of any champion. He won a return match against Steinitz in 1897, and then did not defend his title for ten years, before playing four title defences in four years. He comfortably defeated Frank Marshall in 1907 and Siegbert Tarrasch in 1908. In 1910, he almost lost his title in a short tied match against Carl Schlechter, although the exact conditions of this match are a mystery. He then defeated Dawid Janowski in the most one-sided title match in history later in 1910.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Lasker's negotiations for title matches from 1911 onwards were extremely controversial. In 1911 he received a challenge for a world title match against José Raúl Capablanca and, in addition to making severe financial demands, proposed some novel conditions: the match should be considered drawn if neither player finished with a two-game lead; and it should have a maximum of 30 games, but finish if either player won six games and had a two-game lead (previous matches had been won by the first to win a certain number of games, usually 10; in theory, such a match might go on for ever). Capablanca objected to the two-game lead clause; Lasker took offence at the terms in which Capablanca criticized the two-game lead condition and broke off negotiations.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Further controversy arose when, in 1912, Lasker's terms for a proposed match with Akiba Rubinstein included a clause that, if Lasker should resign the title after a date had been set for the match, Rubinstein should become world champion. When he resumed negotiations with Capablanca after World War I, Lasker insisted on a similar clause that if Lasker should resign the title after a date had been set for the match, Capablanca should become world champion. On 27 June 1920 Lasker abdicated in favor of Capablanca because of public criticism of the terms of the match, naming Capablanca as his successor. Some commentators questioned Lasker's right to name his successor; Amos Burn raised the same objection but welcomed Lasker's resignation of the title. Capablanca argued that, if the champion abdicated, the title must go to the challenger, as any other arrangement would be unfair to the challenger. Lasker later agreed to play a match against Capablanca in 1921, announcing that, if he won, he would resign the title so that younger masters could compete for it. Capablanca won their 1921 match by four wins, ten draws and no losses.


title: World Chess Championship

text: After the breakdown of his first attempt to negotiate a title match against Lasker (1911), Capablanca drafted rules for the conduct of future challenges, which were agreed to by the other top players at the 1914 Saint Petersburg tournament, including Lasker, and approved at the Mannheim Congress later that year. The main points were: the champion must be prepared to defend his title once a year; the match should be won by the first player to win six or eight games (the champion had the right to choose); and the stake should be at least £1,000 (about £ in current terms).


title: World Chess Championship

text: Following the controversies surrounding his 1921 match against Lasker, in 1922 world champion Capablanca proposed the "London Rules": the first player to win six games would win the match; playing sessions would be limited to 5 hours; the time limit would be 40 moves in 2½ hours; the champion must defend his title within one year of receiving a challenge from a recognized master; the champion would decide the date of the match; the champion was not obliged to accept a challenge for a purse of less than US$10,000 (about $ in current terms); 20% of the purse was to be paid to the title holder, and the remainder being divided, 60% going to the winner of the match, and 40% to the loser; the highest purse bid must be accepted. Alekhine, Bogoljubov, Maróczy, Réti, Rubinstein, Tartakower and Vidmar promptly signed them.


title: World Chess Championship

text: The only match played under those rules was Capablanca vs Alekhine in 1927, although there has been speculation that the actual contract might have included a "two-game lead" clause. Alekhine, Rubinstein and Nimzowitsch had all challenged Capablanca in the early 1920s but only Alekhine could raise the US$10,000 Capablanca demanded and only in 1927. Capablanca was shockingly upset by the new challenger. Before the match, almost nobody gave Alekhine a chance against the dominant Cuban, but Alekhine overcame Capablanca's natural skill with his unmatched drive and extensive preparation (especially deep opening analysis, which became a hallmark of most future grandmasters). The aggressive Alekhine was helped by his tactical skill, which complicated the game.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Immediately after winning, Alekhine announced that he was willing to grant Capablanca a return match provided Capablanca met the requirements of the "London Rules". Negotiations dragged on for several years, often breaking down when agreement seemed in sight. Alekhine easily won two title matches against Efim Bogoljubov in 1929 and 1934.


title: World Chess Championship

text: In 1935, Alekhine was unexpectedly defeated by the Dutch Max Euwe, an amateur player who worked as a mathematics teacher. Alekhine convincingly won a rematch in 1937. World War II temporarily prevented any further world title matches, and Alekhine remained world champion until his death in 1946.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Before 1948 world championship matches were financed by arrangements similar to those Emanuel Lasker described for his 1894 match with Wilhelm Steinitz: either the challenger or both players, with the assistance of financial backers, would contribute to a purse; about half would be distributed to the winner's backers, and the winner would receive the larger share of the remainder (the loser's backers got nothing). The players had to meet their own travel, accommodation, food and other expenses out of their shares of the purse. This system evolved out of the wagering of small stakes on club games in the early 19th century.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Up to and including the 1894 Steinitz–Lasker match, both players, with their backers, generally contributed equally to the purse, following the custom of important matches in the 19th century before there was a generally recognized world champion. For example: the stakes were £100 a side in both the second Staunton vs Saint-Amant match (Paris, 1843) and the Anderssen vs Steinitz match (London, 1866); Steinitz and Zukertort played their 1886 match for £400 a side. Lasker introduced the practice of demanding that the challenger should provide the whole of the purse, and his successors followed his example up to World War II. This requirement made arranging world championship matches more difficult, for example: Marshall challenged Lasker in 1904 but could not raise the money until 1907; in 1911 Lasker and Rubinstein agreed in principle to a world championship match, but this was never played as Rubinstein could not raise the money. In the early 1920s, Alekhine, Rubinstein and Nimzowitsch all challenged Capablanca, but only Alekhine was able to raise the US$10,000 that Capablanca demanded, and not until 1927.


title: World Chess Championship

text: Attempts to form an international chess federation were made at the time of the 1914 St. Petersburg, 1914 Mannheim and 1920 Gothenburg Tournaments. On 20 July 1924 the participants at the Paris tournament founded FIDE as a kind of players' union.


title: World Chess Championship

text: FIDE's congresses in 1925 and 1926 expressed a desire to become involved in managing the world championship. FIDE was largely happy with the "London Rules", but claimed that the requirement for a purse of $10,000 was impracticable and called upon Capablanca to come to an agreement with the leading masters to revise the Rules. In 1926 FIDE decided in principle to create a title of "Champion of FIDE" and, in 1928, adopted the forthcoming 1928 Bogoljubow–Euwe match (won by Bogoljubow) as being for the "FIDE championship". Alekhine agreed to place future matches for the world title under the auspices of FIDE, except that he would only play Capablanca under the same conditions that governed their match in 1927. Although FIDE wished to set up a match between Alekhine and Bogoljubow, it made little progress and the title "Champion of FIDE" quietly vanished after Alekhine won the 1929 world championship match that he and Bogoljubow themselves arranged.