title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: To be able to demonstrate compliance with the GDPR, the data controller must implement measures that meet the principles of data protection by design and by default. Article 25 requires data protection measures to be designed into the development of business processes for products and services. Such measures include pseudonymising personal data, by the controller, as soon as possible (Recital 78). It is the responsibility and the liability of the data controller to implement effective measures and be able to demonstrate the compliance of processing activities even if the processing is carried out by a data processor on behalf of the controller (Recital 74).


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: When data is collected, data subjects must be clearly informed about the extent of data collection, the legal basis for the processing of personal data, how long data is retained, if data is being transferred to a third-party and/or outside the EU, and any automated decision-making that is made on a solely algorithmic basis. Data subjects must be informed of their privacy rights under the GDPR, including their right to revoke consent to data processing at any time, their right to view their personal data and access an overview of how it is being processed, their right to obtain a portable copy of the stored data, their right to erasure of their data under certain circumstances, their right to contest any automated decision-making that was made on a solely algorithmic basis, and their right to file complaints with a Data Protection Authority. As such, the data subject must also be provided with contact details for the data controller and their designated data protection officer, where applicable.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Data protection impact assessments (Article 35) have to be conducted when specific risks occur to the rights and freedoms of data subjects. Risk assessment and mitigation is required and prior approval of the data protection authorities is required for high risks.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Article 25 requires data protection to be designed into the development of business processes for products and services. Privacy settings must therefore be set at a high level by default, and technical and procedural measures should be taken by the controller to make sure that the processing, throughout the whole processing lifecycle, complies with the regulation. Controllers should also implement mechanisms to ensure that personal data is not processed unless necessary for each specific purpose.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: A report by the European Union Agency for Network and Information Security elaborates on what needs to be done to achieve privacy and data protection by default. It specifies that encryption and decryption operations must be carried out locally, not by remote service, because both keys and data must remain in the power of the data owner if any privacy is to be achieved. The report specifies that outsourced data storage on remote clouds is practical and relatively safe if only the data owner, not the cloud service, holds the decryption keys.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: According to the GDPR, pseudonymisation is a required process for stored data that transforms personal data in such a way that the resulting data cannot be attributed to a specific data subject without the use of additional information (as an alternative to the other option of complete data anonymisation). An example is encryption, which renders the original data unintelligible in a process that cannot be reversed without access to the correct decryption key. The GDPR requires for the additional information (such as the decryption key) to be kept separately from the pseudonymised data.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Another example of pseudonymisation is tokenisation, which is a non-mathematical approach to protecting data at rest that replaces sensitive data with non-sensitive substitutes, referred to as tokens. While the tokens have no extrinsic or exploitable meaning or value, they allow for specific data to be fully or partially visible for processing and analytics while sensitive information is kept hidden. Tokenisation does not alter the type or length of data, which means it can be processed by legacy systems such as databases that may be sensitive to data length and type. This also requires much fewer computational resources to process and less storage space in databases than traditionally-encrypted data.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Pseudonymisation is a privacy-enhancing technology and is recommended to reduce the risks to the concerned data subjects and also to help controllers and processors to meet their data protection obligations (Recital 28).


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: According to Article 30, records of processing activities have to be maintained by each organisation matching one of following criteria:


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Such requirements may be modified by each EU country. The records shall be in electronic form and the controller or the processor and, where applicable, the controller's or the processor's representative, shall make the record available to the supervisory authority on request.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Controllers and processors of personal data must put in place "appropriate technical and organizational measures" to implement the data protection principles. Business processes that handle personal data must be designed and built with consideration of the principles and provide safeguards to protect data (for example, using pseudonymization or full anonymization where appropriate). Data controllers must design information systems with privacy in mind. For instance, using the highest-possible privacy settings by default, so that the datasets are not publicly available by default and cannot be used to identify a subject. No personal data may be processed unless this processing is done under one of the six lawful bases specified by the regulation (consent, contract, public task, vital interest, legitimate interest or legal requirement). When the processing is based on consent the data subject has the right to revoke it at any time.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Article 33 states the data controller is under a legal obligation to notify the supervisory authority without undue delay unless the breach is unlikely to result in a risk to the rights and freedoms of the individuals. There is a maximum of 72 hours after becoming aware of the data breach to make the report. Individuals have to be notified if a high risk of an adverse impact is determined (Article 34). In addition, the data processor will have to notify the controller without undue delay after becoming aware of a personal data breach (Article 33).


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: However, the notice to data subjects is not required if the data controller has implemented appropriate technical and organisational protection measures that render the personal data unintelligible to any person who is not authorised to access it, such as encryption (Article 34).


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Article 37 requires appointment of a data protection officer. If processing is carried out by a public authority (except for courts or independent judicial authorities when acting in their judicial capacity), or if processing operations involve regular and systematic monitoring of data subjects on a large scale, or if processing on a large scale of special categories of data and personal data relating to criminal convictions and offences (Articles 9 and Article 10,) a data protection officer (DPO)—a person with expert knowledge of data protection law and practices—must be designated to assist the controller or processor in monitoring their internal compliance with the Regulation.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: A designated DPO can be a current member of staff of a controller or processor, or the role can be outsourced to an external person or agency through a service contract. In any case, the processing body must make sure that there is no conflict of interest in other roles or interests that a DPO may hold. The contact details for the DPO must be published by the processing organisation (for example, in a privacy notice) and registered with the supervisory authority.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The DPO is similar to a compliance officer and is also expected to be proficient at managing IT processes, data security (including dealing with cyberattacks) and other critical business continuity issues associated with the holding and processing of personal and sensitive data. The skill set required stretches beyond understanding legal compliance with data protection laws and regulations. The DPO must maintain a living data inventory of all data collected and stored on behalf of the organization. More details on the function and the role of data protection officer were given on 13 December 2016 (revised 5 April 2017) in a guideline document.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Organisations based outside the EU must also appoint an EU-based person as a representative and point of contact for their GDPR obligations (Article 27). This is a distinct role from a DPO, although there is overlap in responsibilities that suggest that this role can also be held by the designated DPO.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Besides the definitions as a criminal offence according to national law following Article 83 GDPR the following sanctions can be imposed:


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: These are some cases which are not addressed in the GDPR specifically, thus are treated as exemptions.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: When the GDPR was being created, it was strictly created for the regulation of personal data which goes into the hands of companies. What is not covered by the GDPR is non-commercial information or household activities. An example of these household activities may be emails between two high school friends.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Conversely, an entity or more precisely an "enterprise" has to be engaged in "economic activity" to be covered by the GDPR. Economic activity is defined broadly under European Union competition law.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The GDPR also applies to data controllers and processors outside of the European Economic Area (EEA) if they are engaged in the "offering of goods or services" (regardless of whether a payment is required) to data subjects within the EEA, or are monitoring the behaviour of data subjects within the EEA (Article 3(2)). The regulation applies regardless of where the processing takes place. This has been interpreted as intentionally giving GDPR extraterritorial jurisdiction for non-EU establishments if they are doing business with people located in the EU.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Under Article 27, non-EU establishments subject to GDPR are obliged to have a designee within the European Union, an "EU Representative", to serve as a point of contact for their obligations under the regulation. The EU Representative is the Controller's or Processor's contact person vis-à-vis European privacy supervisors and data subjects, in all matters relating to processing, to ensure compliance with this GDPR. A natural (individual) or moral (corporation) person can play the role of an EU Representative. The non-EU establishment must issue a duly signed document (letter of accreditation) designating a given individual or company as its EU Representative. The said designation can only be given in writing.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: An establishment's failure to designate an EU Representative is considered ignorance of the regulation and relevant obligations, which itself is a violation of the GDPR subject to fines of up to €10 million or up to 2% of the annual worldwide turnover of the preceding financial year in case of an enterprise, whichever is greater. The intentional or negligent (willful blindness) character of the infringement (failure to designate an EU Representative) may rather constitute aggravating factors.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: An establishment does not need to name an EU Representative if they only engage in occasional processing that does not include, on a large scale, processing of special categories of data as referred to in Article 9(1) of GDPR or processing of personal data relating to criminal convictions and offences referred to in Article 10, and such processing is unlikely to result in a risk to the rights and freedoms of natural persons, taking into account the nature, context, scope and purposes of the processing. Non-EU public authorities and bodies are equally exempted.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Chapter V of the GDPR forbids the transfer of the personal data of EU data subjects to countries outside of the EEA — known as "third countries" — unless appropriate safeguards are imposed, or the third country's data protection regulations are formally considered adequate by the European Commission (Article 45). Binding corporate rules, standard contractual clauses for data protection issued by a Data Processing Agreement (DPA), or a scheme of binding and enforceable commitments by the data controller or processor situated in a third country, are among examples.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The applicability of GDPR in the United Kingdom is affected by Brexit. Although the United Kingdom formally withdrew from the European Union on 31 January 2020, it remained subject to EU law, including GDPR, until the end of the transition period on 31 December 2020. The United Kingdom granted royal assent to the Data Protection Act 2018 on 23 May 2018, which augmented the GDPR, including aspects of the regulation that are to be determined by national law, and criminal offences for knowingly or recklessly obtaining, redistributing, or retaining personal data without the consent of the data controller.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, existing and relevant EU law was transposed into local law upon completion of the transition, and the GDPR was amended by statutory instrument to remove certain provisions no longer needed due to the UK's non-membership in the EU. Thereafter, the regulation will be referred to as "UK GDPR". The UK will not restrict the transfer of personal data to countries within the EEA under UK GDPR. However, the UK will become a "third country" under the EU GDPR, meaning that personal data may not be transferred to the country unless appropriate safeguards are imposed, or the European Commission performs an adequacy decision on the suitability of British data protection legislation (Chapter V). As part of the withdrawal agreement, the European Commission committed to perform an adequacy assessment.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In April 2019, the UK Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) issued a proposed code of practice for social networking services when used by minors, enforceable under GDPR, which also includes restrictions on "like" and "streak" mechanisms in order to discourage social media addiction and on the use of this data for processing interests.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In March 2021, Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Oliver Dowden stated that the UK was exploring divergence from the EU GDPR in order to "[focus] more on the outcomes that we want to have and less on the burdens of the rules imposed on individual businesses".


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: As per a study conducted by Deloitte in 2018, 92% of companies believe they are able to comply with GDPR in their business practices in the long run.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Companies operating outside of the EU have invested heavily to align their business practices with GDPR. The area of GDPR consent has a number of implications for businesses who record calls as a matter of practice. A typical disclaimer is not considered sufficient to gain assumed consent to record calls. Additionally, when recording has commenced, should the caller withdraw their consent, then the agent receiving the call must be able to stop a previously started recording and ensure the recording does not get stored.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: IT professionals expect that compliance with the GDPR will require additional investment overall: over 80 percent of those surveyed expected GDPR-related spending to be at least US$100,000.<ref name="Babel, 7/11/2017 High Cost of GDPR"></ref> The concerns were echoed in a report commissioned by the law firm Baker & McKenzie that found that "around 70 percent of respondents believe that organizations will need to invest additional budget/effort to comply with the consent, data mapping and cross-border data transfer requirements under the GDPR." The total cost for EU companies is estimated at around €200 billion while for US companies the estimate is for $41.7 billion. It has been argued that smaller businesses and startup companies might not have the financial resources to adequately comply with the GDPR, unlike the larger international technology firms (such as Facebook and Google) that the regulation is ostensibly meant to target first and foremost. A lack of knowledge and understanding of the regulations has also been a concern in the lead-up to its adoption. A counter-argument to this has been that companies were made aware of these changes two years prior to them coming into effect and should have had enough time to prepare.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The regulations, including whether an enterprise must have a data protection officer, have been criticized for potential administrative burden and unclear compliance requirements. Although data minimisation is a requirement, with pseudonymisation being one of the possible means, the regulation provide no guidance on how or what constitutes an effective data de-identification scheme, with a grey area on what would be considered as inadequate pseudonymisation subject to Section 5 enforcement actions. There is also concern regarding the implementation of the GDPR in blockchain systems, as the transparent and fixed record of blockchain transactions contradicts the very nature of the GDPR. Many media outlets have commented on the introduction of a "right to explanation" of algorithmic decisions, but legal scholars have since argued that the existence of such a right is highly unclear without judicial tests and is limited at best.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The GDPR has garnered support from businesses who regard it as an opportunity to improve their data management. Mark Zuckerberg has also called it a "very positive for the Internet", and has called for GDPR-style laws to be adopted in the US. Consumer rights groups such as The European Consumer Organisation are among the most vocal proponents of the legislation. Other supporters have attributed its passage to the whistleblower Edward Snowden. Free software advocate Richard Stallman has praised some aspects of the GDPR but called for additional safeguards to prevent technology companies from "manufacturing consent".


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Academic experts who participated in the formulation of the GDPR wrote that the law "is the most consequential regulatory development in information policy in a generation. The GDPR brings personal data into a complex and protective regulatory regime."


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Despite having had at least two years to prepare and do so, many companies and websites changed their privacy policies and features worldwide directly prior to GDPR's implementation, and customarily provided email and other notifications discussing these changes. This was criticised for resulting in a fatiguing number of communications, while experts noted that some reminder emails incorrectly asserted that new consent for data processing had to be obtained for when the GDPR took effect (any previously-obtained consent to processing is valid as long as it met the regulation's requirements). Phishing scams also emerged using falsified versions of GDPR-related emails, and it was also argued that some GDPR notice emails may have actually been sent in violation of anti-spam laws. In March 2019, a provider of compliance software found that many websites operated by EU member state governments contained embedded tracking from ad technology providers.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The deluge of GDPR-related notices also inspired memes, including those surrounding privacy policy notices being delivered by atypical means (such as a Ouija board or "Star Wars" opening crawl), suggesting that Santa Claus's "naughty or nice" list was a violation, and a recording of excerpts from the regulation by a former BBC Radio 4 Shipping Forecast announcer. A blog, "GDPR Hall of Shame", was also created to showcase unusual delivery of GDPR notices, and attempts at compliance that contained egregious violations of the regulation's requirements. Its author remarked that the regulation "has a lot of nitty gritty, in-the-weeds details, but not a lot of information about how to comply", but also acknowledged that businesses had two years to comply, making some of its responses unjustified.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Research indicates that approximately 25% of software vulnerabilities have GDPR implications. Since Article 33 emphasizes breaches, not bugs, security experts advise companies to invest in processes and capabilities to identify vulnerabilities before they can be exploited, including coordinated vulnerability disclosure processes. An investigation of Android apps' privacy policies, data access capabilities, and data access behaviour has shown that numerous apps display a somewhat privacy-friendlier behaviour since the GDPR was implemented, although they still retain most of their data access privileges in their code. An investigation of the Consumer Council of Norway (called Forbrukerrådet in Norwegian) into the post-GDPR data subject dashboards on social media platforms (such as Google dashboard) has concluded that large social media firms deploy deceptive tactics in order to discourage their customers from sharpening their privacy settings.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: On the effective date, some websites began to block visitors from EU countries entirely (including Instapaper, Unroll.me, and Tribune Publishing-owned newspapers, such as the "Chicago Tribune" and the "Los Angeles Times") or redirect them to stripped-down versions of their services (in the case of National Public Radio and "USA Today") with limited functionality and/or no advertising so that they will not be liable. Some companies, such as Klout, and several online video games, ceased operations entirely to coincide with its implementation, citing the GDPR as a burden on their continued operations, especially due to the business model of the former. The volume of online behavioural advertising placements in Europe fell 25–40% on 25 May 2018.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In 2020, two years after the GDPR began its implementation, the European Commission assessed that users across the EU had increased their knowledge about their rights, stating that "69% of the population above the age of 16 in the EU have heard about the GDPR and 71% of people heard about their national data protection authority." The commission also found that privacy has become a competitive quality for companies which consumers are taking into account in their decisionmaking processes.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Facebook and subsidiaries WhatsApp and Instagram, as well as Google LLC (targeting Android), were immediately sued by Max Schrems's non-profit NOYB just hours after midnight on 25 May 2018, for their use of "forced consent". Schrems asserts that both companies violated Article 7(4) by not presenting opt-ins for data processing consent on an individualized basis, and requiring users to consent to all data processing activities (including those not strictly necessary) or would be forbidden from using the services. On 21 January 2019, Google was fined €50 million by the French DPA for showing insufficient control, consent, and transparency over use of personal data for behavioural advertising. In November 2018, following a journalistic investigation into Liviu Dragnea, the Romanian DPA (ANSPDCP) used a GDPR request to demand information on the RISE Project's sources.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In July 2019, the British Information Commissioner's Office issued an intention to fine British Airways a record £183 million (1.5% of turnover) for poor security arrangements that enabled a 2018 web skimming attack affecting around 380,000 transactions. British Airways was ultimately fined a reduced amount of £20m, with the ICO noting that they had "considered both representations from BA and the economic impact of COVID-19 on their business before setting a final penalty".


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In December 2019, "Politico" reported that Ireland and Luxembourg – two smaller EU countries that have had a reputation as a tax havens and (especially in the case of Ireland) as a base for European subsidiaries of U.S. big tech companies – were facing significant backlogs in their investigations of major foreign companies under GDPR, with Ireland citing the complexity of the regulation as a factor. Critics interviewed by "Politico" also argued that enforcement was also being hampered by varying interpretations between member states, the prioritisation of guidance over enforcement by some authorities, and a lack of cooperation between member states.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: While companies are now subject to legal obligations, there are still various inconsistencies in the practical and technical implementation of GDPR. As an example, according to the GDPR's right to access, the companies are obliged to provide data subjects with the data they gather about them. However, in a study on loyalty cards in Germany, companies did not provide the data subjects with the exact information of the purchased articles. One might argue that such companies do not collect the information of the purchased articles, which does not conform with their business models. Therefore, data subjects tend to see that as a GDPR violation. As a result, studies have suggested for a better control through authorities.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: According to the GDPR, end-users' consent should be valid, freely given, specific, informed and active. However, the lack of enforceability regarding obtaining lawful consents has been a challenge. As an example, a 2020 study, showed that the Big Tech, i.e. Google, Amazon, Facebook, Apple, and Microsoft (GAFAM), use dark patterns in their consent obtaining mechanisms, which raises doubts regarding the lawfulness of the acquired consent.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In March 2021, EU member states led by France were reported to be attempting to modify the impact of the privacy regulation in Europe by exempting national security agencies.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: After around 160 million Euros in GDPR fines were imposed in 2020, the figure was already over one billion Euros in 2021.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: Mass adoption of these new privacy standards by multinational companies has been cited as an example of the "Brussels effect", a phenomenon wherein European laws and regulations are used as a baseline due to their gravitas.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The U.S. state of California passed the California Consumer Privacy Act on 28 June 2018, taking effect on 1 January 2020; it grants rights to transparency and control over the collection of personal information by companies in a similar means to GDPR. Critics have argued that such laws need to be implemented at the federal level to be effective, as a collection of state-level laws would have varying standards that would complicate compliance. Two other U.S. states have since enacted similar legislation: Virginia passed the Consumer Data Privacy Act on 2 March 2021, and Colorado enacted the Colorado Privacy Act on 8 July 2021.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The Republic of Turkey, a candidate for European Union membership, has adopted the Law on The Protection of Personal Data on 24 March 2016 in compliance with the EU acquis.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In China, the Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL), "China's first comprehensive law designed to regulate online data and protect personal information" came into force in 2021.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: The EU Digital Single Market strategy relates to "digital economy" activities related to businesses and people in the EU. As part of the strategy, the GDPR and the NIS Directive all apply from 25 May 2018. The proposed ePrivacy Regulation was also planned to be applicable from 25 May 2018, but will be delayed for several months. The eIDAS Regulation is also part of the strategy.


title: General Data Protection Regulation

text: In an initial assessment, the European Council has stated that the GDPR should be considered "a prerequisite for the development of future digital policy initiatives".


title: The Wind Rises

text: "The Wind Rises" is a fictionalised biographical film of Jiro Horikoshi (1903–1982), designer of the Mitsubishi A5M fighter aircraft and its successor, the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, used by the Empire of Japan during World War II. The film was adapted from Miyazaki's manga of the same name, which itself combines elements from two unrelated sources; Tatsuo Hori's 1937 semi-autobiographical novel "The Wind Has Risen" and the life of Jiro Horikoshi. It was the final film directed by Miyazaki, released just before the public announcement of his intention to retire in September 2013.


title: The Wind Rises

text: "The Wind Rises" was the highest-grossing Japanese film in Japan in 2013. It received critical acclaim, with praise for its animation, music, screenplay and emotional weight. It was nominated for several awards, including the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and the Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year.


title: The Wind Rises

text: In 1916, a young Jiro Horikoshi longs to become a pilot, but his nearsightedness prevents it. One night, he dreams of his idol, the Italian aircraft designer Giovanni Battista Caproni, who tells him that he has never flown a plane in his life, and that building planes is better than flying them. Seven years later after World War I ended, Jiro is traveling by train to study aeronautical engineering at Tokyo Imperial University and meets a young girl, Nahoko Satomi, traveling with her maid. When the Great Kantō earthquake hits, Nahoko's maid's leg is broken and Jiro helps Nahoko carry her to Nahoko's family home, leaving without giving his name.


title: The Wind Rises

text: In 1925, Jiro graduates with his friend Kiro Honjo and both are employed at aircraft manufacturer Mitsubishi, assigned to design a fighter plane, the Mitsubishi 1MF9, for the Imperial Army. During a test, it breaks apart in midair and is rejected. Dispirited about what he perceives as the backwardness of Japanese aircraft technology, Jiro is sent with Honjo to the Weimar Republic in 1929 to carry out technical research and obtain a production license for a Junkers G.38 aircraft. Jiro dreams again of Caproni, who tells him that the world is better for the beauty of planes, even if humankind might put them to terrible purposes.


title: The Wind Rises

text: In early 1932, Jiro is promoted to chief designer for a fighter plane competition sponsored by the Imperial Navy, but his design, the Mitsubishi 1MF10, fails testing in 1933 and is rejected. Disappointed, he goes to a summer resort in Karuizawa to rest, where he meets Nahoko again. Hans Castorp, a German visitor privately critical of the Nazi regime, tells Jiro, who intends to visit Dessau, that Hugo Junkers is in trouble for fighting Nazism and that Germany will go to war again and must be stopped.


title: The Wind Rises

text: Later, Jiro asks Nahoko's father for his blessing to marry her, and the two are engaged. However, Nahoko has tuberculosis and wants to wait until she recovers to marry. Castorp assists in the romance before fleeing arrest by the Japanese secret police. Wanted in connection with Castorp, Jiro hides at his supervisor's home while he works on a new fighter aircraft project for the Imperial Navy. Following a lung hemorrhage, Nahoko recovers in a mountain sanatorium but cannot bear being apart from Jiro and returns to marry him. Jiro's sister Kayo, a doctor, warns Jiro that his marriage to Nahoko will end tragically as tuberculosis is incurable. Though Nahoko's health deteriorates, she and Jiro enjoy their time together.


title: The Wind Rises

text: Jiro leaves for the test flight of his new prototype aircraft, the Mitsubishi A5M. Knowing that she will die soon, Nahoko returns to the sanatorium, leaving letters for Jiro, her family, and friends. At the test site, Jiro is distracted from his success by a gust of wind, suggesting Nahoko's passing. In the summer of 1945, after Japan lost World War II, Jiro dreams of Caproni again, regretting that his aircraft was used for war. Caproni comforts him, saying that Jiro's dream of building beautiful aircraft was nonetheless realized. Nahoko appears, encouraging her husband to live his life to the fullest. Jiro and Caproni walk together into their shared kingdom of dreams.


title: The Wind Rises

text: "The Wind Rises" was directed by Hayao Miyazaki, whose previous films include "My Neighbor Totoro", "Princess Mononoke" and "Spirited Away". It was the first film Miyazaki solely directed since "Ponyo" in 2008.


title: The Wind Rises

text: Miyazaki began to conceive a story to illustrate the life of Jiro Horikoshi in 2008. He published the story as a manga series in the monthly magazine "Model Graphix" from April 2009 to January 2010, with the title borrowed from Tatsuo Hori's novel "The Wind Has Risen" ().


title: The Wind Rises

text: The story in the manga follows the historical account of Horikoshi's aircraft development up to 1935 (the year of the Mitsubishi A5M's maiden flight), and intertwines with fictional encounters with Caproni and Nahoko Satomi (). The scenes with Nahoko in the manga were adopted from the novel "The Wind Has Risen", in which Tatsuo Hori wrote about his life experience with his fiancée, Ayako Yano (), before she died from tuberculosis. The name "Nahoko Satomi" was borrowed from the female protagonist of another novel by Tatsuo Hori, "Nahoko" (). In real life however, Horikoshi's wife was called Sumako; she was not sickly, and their marriage produced six children.


title: The Wind Rises

text: Characters frequently discuss Thomas Mann's novel "The Magic Mountain", and, in a letter to Nahoko, Jiro names his fleeing German friend "Mr. Castorp" after its protagonist. The character himself is a caricature of Stephen Alpert, who was once the executive director of Ghibli's international division. He left the company in 2011 for personal reasons, but was instrumental in Ghibli's overseas expansion. He was asked to return to Japan to model for the character's appearance and a suitable voice.


title: The Wind Rises

text: After the release of "Ponyo", Miyazaki wanted his next film to be a sequel, "Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea II", but producer Toshio Suzuki proposed to adopt the manga "The Wind Has Risen" instead. At first, Miyazaki rejected the proposal because he created the manga as a hobby and considered its subjects not suitable for children, the traditional audience of Studio Ghibli's features. However, he changed his mind when a staff member suggested that "children should be allowed to be exposed to subjects they are not familiar with". He was also inspired to make the film after reading a quote from Horikoshi: "All I wanted to do was to make something beautiful".


title: The Wind Rises

text: The film's score was composed and conducted by Joe Hisaishi, and performed by the Yomiuri Nippon Symphony Orchestra.


title: The Wind Rises

text: The film also includes singer-songwriter Yumi Matsutoya's 1973 song . Matsutoya had collaborated with Studio Ghibli on "Kiki's Delivery Service", which features her songs and . Producer Suzuki recommended "Hikōki-gumo" to Miyazaki in December 2012, feeling the lyrics resembled the story of "The Wind Rises".


title: The Wind Rises

text: "Das gibt's nur einmal" (English: "It only happens once") is the German song Hans Castorp sings while playing the piano at Hotel Kusakaru in the film. Jiro Horikoshi and Nahoko's father later join the singing. The song was composed by Werner Richard Heymann for the German movie Der Kongreß tanzt.


title: The Wind Rises

text: "The Wind Rises" was to have been released simultaneously with "The Tale of the Princess Kaguya", another Ghibli film by Isao Takahata, in Japan in mid-2013. It would have been the first time the two directors' works were released together since the release of "My Neighbor Totoro" and "Grave of the Fireflies" in 1988. However, "Princess Kaguya" was delayed until 23 November 2013, and "The Wind Rises" was released on 20 July 2013.


title: The Wind Rises

text: The film played in competition at the 70th Venice International Film Festival. It had its official North American premiere at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival, although a sneak preview was presented earlier at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival, outside of the official program.


title: The Wind Rises

text: Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures distributed the film in North America through its Touchstone Pictures banner. English dubbing was directed by Gary Rydstrom. Disney held a one-week release window in the Los Angeles theatrical circuit beginning on 8 November 2013, so that it could qualify for Academy Awards consideration. It was released theatrically on 21 February 2014 in select cities, with wide release on 28 February. It was released in the United Kingdom on 9 May 2014 by StudioCanal.


title: The Wind Rises

text: Walt Disney Studios Japan released the movie on Blu-ray Disc and DVD in Japan on 18 June 2014. The Japanese DVD release sold 128,784 units until 7 December 2014 and a further 6,735 units between 8 December 2014 and 7 June 2015, for a combined DVD units .


title: The Wind Rises

text: In the United States, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on 18 November 2014. The release includes supplement features with storyboards, the original Japanese trailers and TV spots, a "Behind the Microphone" featurette with members of the English voice cast, and a video from when the film was announced to be completed. The audio for both English and Japanese language is monophonic (DTS-HD MA 1.0). Even though the North American rights Disney owned on Studio Ghibli films expired in 2017, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment continued to distribute "The Wind Rises" until 2020, when GKIDS re-released it on DVD and Blu-ray on 22 September 2020 with distribution through Shout! Factory (and, later, Universal Pictures Home Entertainment). The re-release took longer than with other Studio Ghibli titles as it was still a fairly new film, and Disney still held the US rights.


title: The Wind Rises

text: The film has grossed over from physical DVD and Blu-ray sales in the US . In the United Kingdom, it was 2015's fifth best-selling foreign-language film on home video, and third best-selling Asian film (below "The Raid 2" and "The Tale of the Princess Kaguya").


title: The Wind Rises

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes sampled 179 reviews and judged 88% of them positive, giving the film a "Certified Fresh" rating, with an average score of 7.91/10. The consensus states: ""The Wind Rises" is a fittingly bittersweet swan song for director Hayao Miyazaki". Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score, rated the film an 83/100 based on 41 reviews, citing "universal acclaim".


title: The Wind Rises

text: Critic David Ehrlich rated the film 9.7/10 and called it "perhaps the greatest animated film ever made." He wrote: "While initially jarring, Miyazaki's unapologetic deviations from fact help "The Wind Rises" to transcend the linearity of its expected structure, the film eventually revealing itself to be less of a biopic than it is a devastatingly honest lament for the corruption of beauty, and how invariably pathetic the human response to that loss must be. Miyazaki’s films are often preoccupied with absence, the value of things left behind and how the ghosts of beautiful things are traced onto our memories like the shadows of objects outlined by a nuclear flash. "The Wind Rises" looks back as only a culminating work can." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called the film "visually exquisite and emotionally charged". Film critic Mark Kermode called it "a rich treat for the eye and soul alike.".


title: The Wind Rises

text: "The Japan Times" gave the film 3 stars out of 5, and stated, "A visually sumptuous celebration of an unspoiled prewar Japan." In a review for "The Asia-Pacific Journal", Matthew Penney wrote: "What Miyazaki offers is a layered look at how Horikoshi's passion for flight was captured by capital and militarism"; and that it was "one of Miyazaki's most ambitious and thought-provoking visions as well as one of his most beautifully realized visual projects".


title: The Wind Rises

text: In Japan, "The Wind Rises" received criticism from both the political right and from the Japan Society for Tobacco Control. Miyazaki added to the controversy by publishing an essay in which he criticized the proposal by Japan's right-wing Liberal Democratic Party to change Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution to allow Japan to remilitarize.


title: The Wind Rises

text: In an interview with the "Asahi Shimbun", he said he had "very complex feelings" about World War II since, as a pacifist, he felt militarist Japan had acted out of "foolish arrogance". However, he also said that the Zero plane "represented one of the few things we Japanese could be proud of—[they] were a truly formidable presence, and so were the pilots who flew them".


title: The Wind Rises

text: "The Wind Rises" received 13 nominations and 17 awards for "Best Animated Feature", including one Academy Award nomination. Hayao Miyazaki won the award for Writing in an Animated Feature Production at the 41st Annie Awards. The film's musical composer, Joe Hisaishi, received the Japan Academy Prize for Best Music Score. The film was also selected as "Audience Favorite – Animation" at the Mill Valley Film Festival.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Bheemla Nayak is a 2022 Indian Telugu-language action thriller film directed by Saagar K Chandra from a screenplay by Trivikram Srinivas. It is a remake of the 2020 Malayalam film "Ayyappanum Koshiyum". The movie stars Pawan Kalyan and Rana Daggubati.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: "Bheemla Nayak" was filmed primarily in Hyderabad between January 2021 and February 2022 although temporarily halted by the COVID-19 pandemic. It has music composed by Thaman S with cinematography by Ravi K. Chandran and editing by Naveen Nooli. "Bheemla Nayak" was theatrically released on 25 February 2022 and opened to mixed reviews. The film grossed between crore, against a budget of over crore.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Daniel "Danny" Shekhar, an ex-Havaldar, and his driver cross the state border from Telangana to Andhra Pradesh on a night. The police at the check post stop them for carrying liquor beyond the permissible quota but a drunken Danny, who is furious that his sleep is disturbed, beats them up. SI Bheemla Nayak arrives and hits Danny, explaining his offense. Danny refuses by saying that his destination was in Telangana but Nayak arrests him nonetheless since Danny has physically crossed the border. A constable humiliates Danny by removing his loin cloth, which further aggravates his anger.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: The police file an FIR but after going through his phone contacts, they are shocked to know that Danny is the son of an influential politician and is connected to politically powerful men. Nayak informs the same to CI Kodanda Ram who asks him to treat Danny with respect. Nayak tries to reconcile with Danny but he refuses to budge. Nayak threatens him with a gun and they sit together. Danny then annoys Nayak for a drink. With no option left, Nayak opens a bottle from the seized liquor and serves, which Danny secretly films on his phone. The following day, Danny is taken to court where he is sentenced to 14-day imprisonment.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Danny's lawyer bails out him, subject to his biweekly appearance at the police station. In an act of vengeance, Danny releases the recorded video to the press. Nayak is arrested with an order to investigate his actions. Danny challenges Nayak in front of the police station. The villagers, who are staunch supporters of Nayak, try to attack Danny but Nayak stops them by saying their fight is personal. A local toddy shop owner, Nagaraju, with a grudge against Nayak, joins hands with Danny. A senior politician arranges a truce between them, where Danny would delay sending the evidence to SP, and his mandatory appearance for two weeks would be waived off. However, on the insistence of his father Jeevan Kumar, Danny sends the evidence anyway and Nayak is suspended. The following day, Nayak blows up Nagaraju's bar with explosives. Danny meets Nayak en-route in a bus and tries to assert his dominance by saying that he made Nayak lose his job. Nayak replies that even if the battle is lost, he'd return to win the war.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: The police seize Danny's vehicle and arrest the driver in retaliation. Meanwhile, Jeevan meets the SP and submits the evidence that Nayak's wife Suguna has indulged in smuggling by illegally buying forest goods from tribals which results in her arrest warrant. Knowing this, Nayak and Suguna, move along with their baby to a remote place in the forest. Jeevan's men, who track their location and steal Suguna's phone, threaten Nayak for her life. Furious Nayak attacks Jeevan's men in a lodge. Danny is unaware of his father's actions and asks Nayak to stop beating them. But Nayak blows up Danny's vehicle and they engage in a fight. The police arrive and stop them. Kodanda Ram tells Danny that Nayak is revered by the locals as an equivalent of the village deity "Kokkira Devara", hence it's not wise to have a tussle with him. Danny learns that 15 years ago, Nayak killed a ruthless contractor who preyed on tribal girls in order to save them and was seen by the people as their protecting saviour.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Danny asks Jeevan whether they should compromise, but he refuses. On Jeevan's demand, the SP goes to their place and arrests Suguna, angering Nayak. He goes and meets Jeevan at his home and forces him to call Danny at gunpoint. Danny, who has Nayak's baby in custody, asks him to meet at Erra Thanda, a place outside the police jurisdiction of both the states for a final duel. They fight intensively and just as Nayak is about to use his signature technique of removing an arm, Danny's wife arrives and pleads for mercy. Nayak recognizes her as one of the tribal girls he saved long ago and allows them to leave. They willingly withdraw the cases on each other. Nayak, who is transferred to Telangana, arrives at Danny's home. They re-introduce each other and shake hands.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: In June 2020, Sithara Entertainments bought the Telugu remake rights of the 2020 Malayalam film "Ayyappanum Koshiyum". Saagar K Chandra who earlier directed "Appatlo Okadundevadu" (2016) was signed to helm the project. Several actors including Ravi Teja, Nandamuri Balakrishna, and Rana Daggubati were approached for the lead role. In October 2020, the film was officially announced with Pawan Kalyan as one of the leads, in the role of a police officer originally played by Biju Menon.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: In December, Daggubati was confirmed the other lead, playing the role of Prithviraj Sukumaran from the original. Daggubati later revealed that he was on board for the project before Kalyan signed in. He compared his character Daniel Shekar with his earlier role Arjun Prasad from his debut film "Leader" (2010)"." While both are aspiring politicians, he said that Daniel was "an entitled guy who played dirty."


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: The filming was officially launched with a pooja ceremony in Hyderabad. The film used a working title "Production No.12" and was colloquially referred as "PSPK Rana Movie". The official title "Bheemla Nayak" was unveiled on 15 August 2021.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Writer-director Trivikram Srinivas was hired for the film's screenplay and dialogues. Thaman S was signed to compose the music with cinematography by Prasad Murella, editing by Naveen Nooli and production design handled by AS Prakash. In July 2021, Murella opted out of the project and cinematographer Ravi K. Chandran joined the film as the replacement.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Sai Pallavi was approached to play opposite Kalyan, while Aishwarya Rajesh was cast to be a pair with Daggubati. In March 2021, reports emerged that Pallavi may not join the project but director Saagar K Chandra refuted them by stating that she would join the production in April. However, Pallavi eventually opted out due to scheduling conflicts. In July, Nithya Menen was cast in place of Pallavi while Samuthirakani is signed to play a pivotal role. In September, Aishwarya left the project due to scheduling conflicts. Samyuktha Menon was confirmed to replace her in October. In December 2021, Brahmanandam confirmed through an interview that he was playing a role in the film.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Principal photography of the film began in January 2021. A 25-day schedule took place at an aluminium factory in Hyderabad. In March, action scenes featuring Kalyan and Daggubati were shot under the choreography of Dhilip Subbarayan. The second schedule of film began in April. Later, the shoot was halted due to the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic in India. 30% of the shoot is completed by June 2021, and a special set was constructed in Hyderabad for the next schedule. Filming resumed in July 2021. A new schedule began in December 2021, filming took place at Madanpalle Yellamma Temple in Vikarabad. Final sequences, including a promotional song featuring Kalyan were shot in February 2022. The shoot was wrapped up on 17 February 2022, a week ahead of its scheduled release.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: The film's soundtrack is composed by Thaman S in his second collaboration with Pawan Kalyan after "Vakeel Saab". The audio rights were acquired by Aditya Music label for a sum of .


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: "Bheemla Nayak" was released on 25 February 2022 one day later after the release of "Valimai" starring Ajith Kumar and Kartikeya Gummakonda. Earlier in July 2021, it was announced that the film would release on 12 January 2022, coinciding with the festival of Sankranti. However in December 2021, it was postponed to 25 February 2022 after requests by producers D. V. V. Danayya, Vamsi, and Dil Raju as their films "RRR" and "Radhe Shyam" were scheduled to release at the same time. Later in January 2022, the makers announced their intention to release the film either on 25 February or 1 April, whichever is conducive for a theatrical release due the prevailing COVID situation. In mid-February, the film was confirmed to be released theatrically on 25 February 2022.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: The film's global theatrical rights were sold for 102.5 crore, including the rights of Telugu states which were pegged at 84.3 crore. The pre-release event scheduled to take place on 21 February 2022 was postponed to 23 February in the wake of death of Andhra Pradesh's Minister Mekapati Goutham Reddy as a sign of respect.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: The digital distribution rights of the film were acquired by Disney+ Hotstar and aha while the satellite rights were acquired by Star Maa. The film was originally scheduled to stream on Disney+ Hotstar and aha on 25 March 2022, but it streamed a day earlier on 24 March 2022.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: "Bheemla Nayak" grossed 51–60 crore worldwide in its theatrical run. On its opening day, the film grossed crore worldwide, including 43.1 crore in the domestic territory and million from overseas. The netted 37 crore in India and emerged as the best post-pandemic opener in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. "Box Office India" reported that the lower ticket prices in Andhra coupled with stricter norms by the state government has negatively impacted the film's collections. In its opening weekend, the film grossed crore worldwide, of which 89.40 crore came from India, and the rest from the overseas. The film grossed 50 crore in 6 days, with the distributor's share standing at crore.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: After 10 days of its theatrical run, the film collected a worldwide distributor's share of crore, with a gross of crore. The film became a profitable venture in the United States, grossing $2.4 million in 11 days.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: "Bheemla Nayak" received positive reviews from the critics, with praise for "terrific mass elements" and "intense confrontation scenes". Writing for "The Hindu", Sangeetha Devi Dundoo termed "Bheemla Nayak" "racy, masala-laden adaptation," praising the screenplay, score and cinematography. Thadhagath Pathi of "The Times of India" also echoed the same while opining that the climax could have been fleshed out better. On performances, Pathi wrote: ""Bheemla Nayak" is an example of what makes Pawan Kalyan such a huge star [..]. Rana Daggubati is top notch and this film is proof of how well he can act. Nithya Menen is decent in her role but it’s Samyuktha Menon who delivers a mature performance."


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: Ram Venkat Srikar of "Cinema Express" wrote, "Although it is largely faithful to the central conceit of the original, "Bheemla Nayak" is bigger, fiercer, and massier." While saying "Bheemla Nayak" traded "depth for whistles", Srikar felt that this choice did "more good than harm" to the film. "Hindustan Times" Haricharan Pudipeddi opined that despite not recreating the original's magic, the remake still worked in its own ways, owing to "Kalyan's machismo" and "Daggubati's impressive performance." Sankeertha Varma of "Firstpost" felt that Trivikram not only tried to retain the essence the original but also successfully weaved mythology around his protagonists, in addition to a flashback that tied the loose ends.


title: Bheemla Nayak

text: A "Deccan Chronicle" reviewer called the film an "engaging experience," and wrote: "The director has managed the extremely difficult task of engaging the audience with a simplistic, single-thread plot, through with his writing." Janani.K of "India Today" wrote that "the remake turned out to be better than original, that has been spruced up with masala and mass moments but wisely have cut short the runtime as well". On the other hand, "The Indian Express" critic Manoj Kumar R was critical of the film for deviating much from the original, stating: "In "Bheemla Nayak", we get no sense of the place where the story plays out. The film is a very shallow reading of the text of "Ayyappanum Koshiyum"."


title: Mjölnir

text: Mjölnir (from Old Norse Mjǫllnir) is the hammer of the thunder god Thor in Norse mythology, used both as a devastating weapon and as a divine instrument to provide blessings. The hammer is attested in numerous sources, including the 11th century runic Kvinneby amulet, the "Poetic Edda", a collection of eddic poetry compiled in the 13th century, and the "Prose Edda", a collection of prose and poetry compiled in the 13th century. The hammer was commonly worn as a pendant during the Viking Age in the Scandinavian cultural sphere, and Thor and his hammer occur depicted on a variety of objects from the archaeological record. Today the symbol appears in a wide variety of media and is again worn as a pendant by various groups, including adherents of modern Heathenry.


title: Mjölnir

text: The etymology of the hammer's name, "Mjǫllnir", is disputed among historical linguists. Old Norse "Mjǫllnir" developed from Proto-Norse *"melluniaR" and one proposed derivation connects this form to Old Church Slavonic "mlunuji" and Russian "molnija" meaning 'lightning' (either borrowed from a Slavic source or both stemming from a common source) and subsequently yielding the meaning 'lightning-maker'. Another proposal connects "Mjǫllnir" to Old Norse "mjǫll" meaning 'new snow' and modern Icelandic "mjalli" meaning 'the color white', rendering "Mjǫllnir" as 'shining lightning weapon'. Finally, another proposal connects Old Norse "Mjǫllnir" to Old Norse "mala" meaning 'to grind' and Gothic "malwjan" 'to grind', yielding "Mjǫllnir" as meaning 'the grinder'.


title: Mjölnir

text: Likely worn around the neck, the Kvinneby amulet is a small copper amulet found in Öland, Sweden that dates from the 11th century and features an Old Norse Younger futhark inscription that invokes Thor and his hammer. Runologists Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees translate the amulet as follows:


title: Mjölnir

text: The amulet inscription references narratives recorded hundreds of years later in both the "Poetic Edda" and "Prose Edda" (see discussion regarding "Hymiskviða" and "Gylfaginning" below).


title: Mjölnir

text: In the "Poetic Edda", Mjölnir is mentioned in the eddic poems "Vafþrúðnismál", "Hymiskviða", "Lokasenna", and "Þrymskviða". In a stanza from "Vafþrúðnismál", the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir tells the disguised god Odin that after the events of Ragnarök, Móði and Magni, sons of Thor, will wield Mjölnir:


title: Mjölnir

text: In "Hymiskviða", after gaining a tremendous cauldron that the jötunn (and personified ocean) Ægir has requested so that he may brew the gods ale, Thor battles malicious jötnar with the hammer (referred to here as "whales" as a poetic device):


title: Mjölnir

text: In "Lokasenna", in which the deity Loki and other gods trade insults (see flyting). In the poem, the gods threaten Loki with Mjölnir as part of a refrain repeated in all four stanzas in which he speaks.


title: Mjölnir

text: The hammer is a focal point of the eddic poem "Þrymskviða". In the poem, Thor wakes one day to find that his hammer is missing. Furious, the god pulls his beard, shakes his head, and searches for the absent weapon. Thor consults with Loki, informing him that only he knows that his hammer is missing.


title: Mjölnir

text: Thor and Loki go to the goddess Freyja, and Loki asks her if he might use her feather garment. Freyja readily agrees, Loki puts on the cloak, and flies to Jötunheimr. There he finds the jötunn Þrymr sitting on a burial mound and caring for his animals.


title: Mjölnir

text: The two speak, and Þrymr confirms to Loki that he has stolen the hammer. Þrymr says that he has buried it deep in the ground and no one will ever get it back unless they bring him Freyja to be his wife. Loki flies back to Asgard and meets with Thor. Thor asks Loki if he has any news, and Loki tells Thor Þrymr's ultimatum.


title: Mjölnir

text: Thor and Loki go to Freyja. One of the two asks Freyja to put on a bridal head-dress and come with them to Jötunheim. Freyja is so enraged by this request that the hall shakes, and her necklace, Brísingamen, breaks off. The goddess refuses.


title: Mjölnir

text: The gods meet together in counsel (see Thing (assembly)) and discuss how to get the hammer back. The god Heimdallr proposes that Thor put on a bridal head-dress and wear Brísingamen as if he were Freyja. Thor initially rejects the proposal, but Loki convinces him that if he doesn't, the jötnar in Jötunheim who stole his hammer will soon call Asgard their home. The gods dress Thor in bridal gear, Loki dresses as "Freyja’s" maid to accompany him, and the two drive Thor's goat-led wagon to Jötunheimr, producing flames and splitting mountains along the way.


title: Mjölnir

text: From the hall yard, Þrym spots the duo arriving and tells his retinue to prepare by tossing straw on the hall benches. That night, Þrym says that he is surprised to find his bride-to-be ferociously eating and drinking, consuming nine entrees—one ox and eight salmon—and three casks of mead. Loki responds that "Freyja" had neither drank nor eaten for eight nights before this one as she was so eager to come to Jötunheimr.


title: Mjölnir

text: Þrym lifts "Freyja"’s bridal veil to kiss her, only to spring back: The bride’s eyes were "terrifying", as if "fire is burning from them". The disguised Loki explains this was because "Freyja" had not slept for eight nights before this one, because she was so eager to arrive in Jötunheim (on the topic of the numbers three and nine in Norse myth, see numbers in Norse mythology).


title: Mjölnir

text: Finally, Þrymr calls for Mjölnir to be brought forth to sanctify the bride with the assistance of the goddess Vár:


title: Mjölnir

text: "Freyja" sees the hammer and laughs internally before grabbing it, killing Þrym and another jötunn, and pummeling the gathered wedding guests. The poem ends with a prose note indicating that this is how the god got his hammer back.


title: Mjölnir

text: Early in "Gylfaginning", High describes the god Thor and his "three special possessions": his hammer Mjölnir, his iron gloves Járngreipr, and his belt Megingjörð. High explains that Thor must wear his gloves with his hammer, and that Mjölnir is well known among the jötnar due to the skulls of many jötunn it has smashed over time.


title: Mjölnir

text: The enthroned figure of Third reluctantly relates a tale in which Thor and Loki are riding in Thor's chariot, pulled by his two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr. Loki and Thor stop at the home of a peasant farmer, and there they are given lodging for a night. Thor slaughters his goats, skins them and puts them in a pot. When the goats are cooked, Loki and Thor sit down for their evening meal. Thor invites the peasant family to share the meal with him and they do so.


title: Mjölnir

text: At the end of the meal, Thor places the skins of the goat on the opposing side of the fire and tells the peasants to throw the bones of the goats on to the goatskins. The peasant's son Þjálfi takes one of the goat ham-bones and uses a knife to split it open, breaking the bone to get to the marrow. After staying the night at the peasants house, Thor wakes up and gets dressed before the break of dawn. Thor takes the hammer Mjölnir, raises it, and blesses the goat skins. Resurrected, the goats stand, but one of the two goats is lame in the hind leg. Noting this new lameness, Thor exclaims that someone has mistreated the bones of his goats; that someone broke the ham-bone during the meal the night before.


title: Mjölnir

text: In a tale recounted by Third, the gods Loki and Thor, along with Thor's servants Þjálfi and Röskva, encounter an enormous forest when they arrive in Jötunheimr. The group has difficulty finding lodging until they encounter a huge and peculiar building with a very wide entrance. They decide to spend the night in the structure. At midnight they experience an earthquake and decide to search the building. They find nothing. Mjölnir in hand, Thor guards the hall's entrance until the crew hears intense groaning and rumbling.


title: Mjölnir

text: At dawn, Thor leaves the hall and sees an enormous man asleep and loudly snoring. Thor realizes he had in fact heard the snoring of this tremendous man. The god puts on his belt, his strength increases, and the man stands. Seeing his height, Third says that "and the say that Thor was for once was afraid to strike him with the hammer, and asked him for his name". The large man says that his name is Skrýmir and reveals that Thor, Loki, Þjálfi, and Röskva had slept not in a hall but rather in Skrýmir's glove.


title: Mjölnir

text: Skrýmir tells Thor that he doesn't need to introduce himself because he already knows that he is Thor. Later in the trip, Thor attacks Skrýmir as he sleeps in three separate occasions: In the first instance, Skrýmir awakes and asks if a leaf has fallen on his head; in the second instance, Skrýmir awakes and asks if an acorn fell on his head; and on the third and final instance, Skrýmir asks if birds above him may have knocked twigs down on to his head.


title: Mjölnir

text: Later Skrýmir reveals that this had all been an illusion: For example, the enormous Skrýmir was in fact the sorcerer Útgarða-Loki and the blows Thor landed terrified him: He details that had they hit him, they would have killed him, and that his blows had hammered a deep valley in the landscape.


title: Mjölnir

text: "Gylfaginning" contains a retelling of the material found in "Hymiskviða" (discussed above). In this version, Thor throws his hammer and strikes off the head of the great serpent Jörmungandr. Third notes, however, that he does not believe that this occurred: Third says he believes that the serpent still lives in the sea, coiled around the world.


title: Mjölnir

text: Later in "Gylfaginning", High recounts the death and ship funeral of the god Baldr. The gods are unable to move the ship on their own, and so request that the powerful jötunn Hyrrokkin comes from Jötunheim to help. Hyrrokin arrives riding a wolf with vipers as reins. Hyrrokkin pushes the ship, and it launches with her first touch, it launches with intense flames and earthquakes. This infuriates Thor: He desires to crush Hyyrokkin's skull with his hammer but the other gods convince him not to attack her.


title: Mjölnir

text: Baldr's body is carried on to the ship. Baldr's wife, the goddess Nanna, sees it, and she dies of sorrow. The assembled place her with Baldr on the ship's pyre, before lighting it. Thor consecrates the boring ship with his hammer. A dwarf named Lit runs before his feet, and he kicks him into the flames, where he burns.


title: Mjölnir

text: "Gylfaginning" concludes with a foretelling of the events of Ragnarök, during which the world suffers from cataclysm and disasters before returning green and beautiful. High describes the return of various gods after Ragnarök, including Thor's sons Móði and Magni, who return to Asgard holding their father's hammer, Mjölnir. This account quotes the "Völuspá" stanza above.


title: Mjölnir

text: The "Prose Edda" book "Skáldskaparmál" contains a few mentions of the hammer, including an instance of its mention in skaldic poetry. A section dedicated to kennings used by poets to refer to the god says that Thor can be referred to as "ruler and owner" of Mjölnir.


title: Mjölnir

text: "Skáldskaparmál" provides an account of Thor's use of Mjölnir in a fight with the jötunn Hrungnir. In it, after the gods had grown tired of Hrungnir's obnoxious boasting in Asgard, they call on Thor, who immediately appears, his hammer raised. Thor ultimately duels Hrungnir, and to the duel Hrungnir brings a whetstone as a weapon. Thor throws the hammer at Hrungnir and Hrungnir responds by throwing the whetstone at Thor, and Mjölnir splits it in two. One part of the whetstone becomes the predecessor of all whetstones, whereas the other part lodges itself into Thor's head. Meanwhile, Mjölnir smashes Hrungnir's skull into fragments.


title: Mjölnir

text: In reference to this tale, the section provides extended excerpts from "Haustlöng", a piece attributed to 10th century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir. Þjóðólfr's poem mentions Mjölnir in a few different instances, such as "The rock-gentlemen [giant] did not have to wait long after that for a swift blow from the tough multitude-smashing friend [Thor] of hammer-face-troll [Miollnir]" and "There sank down the gully-land [mountain] prince [giant] before the tough hammer and the rock-Dane-breaker [Thor] forced back the mighty defiant one."


title: Mjölnir

text: "Skáldskaparmál" also contains a prose account of Thor's encounter with Geirröðr: The prose introduction notes that Thor arrived at Geirröðr's courts without his hammer. In its place, he uses a pole given to him by his jötunn lover, Gríðr.


title: Mjölnir

text: The final mention the hammer in "Skáldskaparmál" offers an explanation of its manufacture by the dwarf brothers Eitri and Brokkr. In this narrative, Loki cuts the goddess Sif's hair. Upon discovering this, Thor grabs Loki and threatens to crush every bone in his body if he does not come up with a solution. Loki goes to the svartálfar, and for him the Sons of Ivaldi make three special items: Sif's hair of gold, Freyr's ship Skíðblaðnir, and Odin's spear Gungnir.


title: Mjölnir

text: Seeing this, Loki wagers his head with the dwarf Brokkr on whether his brother Eitri can make three more items of equal quality. As Eitri works on the three precious objects, a fly enters the room and bites him three times: First, the fly lands on the dwarf's arm and bites it, but Brokkr does not react: He places a pig skin in the forge and from it pulls the golden boar Gullinbursti; second, the fly lands on and bites the back of the dwarf's neck, but he does not react: after inserting gold, he pulls from the forge Draupnir, a golden ring that produces eight more of itself every nine nights; and third and final, the fly lands on the dwarf's eyelid and bites him, causing blood to obscure his vision. Nonetheless, Brokkr inserts iron into the forge and pulls from it a hammer, Mjölnir.


title: Mjölnir

text: The gods Odin, Thor, and Freyr assemble to judge the quality of these items. While reviewing items and explaining their function, Brokkr says the following about Mjölnir:


title: Mjölnir

text: The three assembled gods judge the hammer to be the best of all the objects, and the tale continues without further mention of the object.


title: Mjölnir

text: Around 1000 pendants in distinctive shapes representing the hammer of Thor have been unearthed in what are today the Nordic countries, England, northern Germany, the Baltic countries and Russia. Most have very simple designs in iron or silver. Around 100 have more advanced designs with ornaments. The pendants have been found in a variety of contexts (including at urban sites, and in hoards) and occur in a variety of shapes. As of 2004, 10% of all finds were from graves, nearly all of which are cremations. The burials are often identified as women's graves. In addition to pendants, the hammer has been found depicted on objects such as on two Arabic coins found at an urban dig site.


title: Mjölnir

text: In 1999, German archaeologist Jörn Staecker proposed a typology for the hammer finds based on decorative style and material properties (such as amber, iron, or silver). In 2019, American scholar Katherine Suzanne Beard proposed an extension of the typology based on factors such as hammer shape and suspension type. In 2019, Beard also launched "Eitri: The Norse Artifacts Database", an online database that lists numerous hammer finds and includes data about their composition and discovery context.


title: Mjölnir

text: The development of the hammer pendants has been the subject of study by a variety of scholars. The hammers amulets appear to have developed from an earlier tradition of similar pendants among the north Germanic peoples. Scholars have also noted that the hammer may have developed from a pendant worn by other ancient Germanic people, the so-called club of Hercules amulet. The increase in popularity of the amulet in the Viking Age and some variants of it shape may have been a response to the use of Christian cross pendants appearing more commonly in the region during the process of Christianization.


title: Mjölnir

text: In Viking Age cremation graves in the Mälaren area, Åland and Russia, there are finds of what archaeologists have named Thor's hammer-rings. These are iron rings with multiple amulets attached; many but not all amulets are shaped like hammers. Found in cinerary urns, in graves for both sexes but more often in women's graves, the amulet rings may have played a role in cremation practices, but their exact function is unknown. The earliest examples are from the Vendel Period but they appear to have become more common in the late Viking Age, which might be connected to political and religious conflicts.


title: Mjölnir

text: The Eyrarland Statue, a copper alloy figure found near , Iceland dating from around the 11th century, may depict Thor seated and gripping his hammer.


title: Mjölnir

text: Pictorial representations of Thor's hammer appear on several runestones, such as DR 26, DR 48 and DR 120 in Denmark and VG 113, Sö 86 and Sö 111 in Sweden. At least three stones depict Thor fishing for the serpent , and two of them feature hammers: the Altuna Runestone in , Sweden and the Gosforth depiction in Gosforth, England.


title: Mjölnir

text: As Beard notes, Thor "is the only known god to have been called on to bless or hallow runestones from the Viking Age", a fact observed by scholars since at least the 19th century.


title: Mjölnir

text: Two sources describe Thor as wielding hammer-like objects, although not described as hammers. In the 11th century, chronicler Adam of Bremen records in his that a statue of Thor, who Adam describes as "mightiest", sits in the Temple at Uppsala in the center of a triple throne (flanked by Woden and "Fricco") located in , Sweden. Adam details that "Thor, they reckon, rules the sky; he governs thunder and lightning, winds and storms, fine weather and fertility" and that "Thor, with his mace, looks like Jupiter". Adam details that the people of had appointed priests to each of the gods, and that the priests were to offer up sacrifices. In Thor's case, he continues, these sacrifices were done when plague or famine threatened. Earlier in the same work, Adam relays that in 1030 an English preacher, Wulfred, was lynched by assembled Germanic pagans for "profaning" a representation of Thor.


title: Mjölnir

text: 12th century Danish author Saxo Grammaticus's "Gesta Danorum", an euhemerized version of the god depicts him as wielding a "clava", a club made from oak. Saxo provides a euhemerized tale about its origins that, like the "Skáldskaparmál" narrative above, describes the hammer as having a short handle, confirming a broader tradition both of the shortness of the hammer and also its role in narrative as a weapon intended for protecting the gods. This description occurs in book three of "Gesta Danorum":


title: Mjölnir

text: Various scholars have considered these weapons to simply be references to Mjölnir. Beard notes that "the archaeological hammer finds (even those contemporary to Adam's account) clearly do not resemble these club-like weapons at all, making it possible that their existence in the literature is more likely a result of "interpretatio romana" than anything else (although one should remember that the Irish Dagda also uses a club ...). Indeed, there is only a single instance of a hammer made of wood in the entirety of [the Eitri database], and this artifact is a mere half fragment that may not be a hammer at all."


title: Mjölnir

text: The Old Norse record mentions Thor using Mjölnir not only as a fearsome weapon but also a means of sanctifying or hallowing. For example, as detailed above, "Þrymskviða" mentions that the hammer was to be brought in to sanctify the bride (who in fact turns out to be Thor in disguise), in "Gylfaginning" Thor revives his goats Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr with the hammer, and in "Skáldskaparmál" Thor uses his hammer to bless Baldr's ship at his and Nana's ship funeral. A variety of items from the archaeological record call upon Thor for healing, some explicitly representing or invoking his hammer. According to Book 13 of Saxo Grammaticus's "Gesta Danorum", Magnus the Strong removed large hammer models from a temple dedicated to Thor (here referred to as "Jupiter" via "interpretatio romana") in 1125:


title: Mjölnir

text: According to Davidson, "it would seem indeed as though the power of the thunder god, symbolized by his hammer, extended all over that had to do with the well-being of the community. It covered birth, marriage, and death, burial, and cremation ceremonies, weapons and feasting, travelling, land-taking, and the making of oath between men. The famous weapon of Thor was not only the symbol of destructive power of the storm, of fire from heaven, but also a protection against the forces of evil and violence."


title: Mjölnir

text: Nordic Bronze Age petroglyphs depict figures holding hammers and hammer-like weapons, such as axes. Some scholars have proposed these to depict precursors to Mjölnir. As scholar Rudolf Simek summarizes, "as the Bronze Age rock carvings of axe or hammer-bearing god-like figures show, [Mjölnir] played a role as a consecratory instrument early on, probably in a fertility cult ... ".


title: Mjölnir

text: Thor is one various deities associated with or personifying thunder who wields a hammer-like object associated with phenomena such as lighting or fire in a variety of myth bodies. In some cases these hammer-like objects return to the deity when thrown or result in changes in weather. Examples frequently cited by scholars include Vedic Indra, who wields a lightning spear; Jupiter, who throws lightning bolts; and the Celtic deity Dagda, who carries a club. Numerous scholars have identified the concept of Thor and his hammer, like Indra, Zeus, and the Dagda, as stemming from Proto-Indo-European mythology.


title: Mjölnir

text: The swastika appears on a variety of objects produced or used by the ancient Germanic peoples. In late Icelandic folk belief, Icelandic grimoires list the swastika symbol as 'Thor's hammer'. According to runologists Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees, "By early modern times, the description 'Thor's hammer' had come to be applied to swastikas ('sun-wheels'), not the hammer symbols seen in medieval runic inscriptions. Similarly, terms once used for other symbols had also come to be associated with new forms, often of unclear origin." Other scholars have proposed that the swastika represented Thor's hammer among the ancient Germanic peoples form an early date. English folklorist Hilda Ellis Davidson surveys the swastika's use in the ancient archaeological Germanic record (up to 1964) and concludes that "Thor was the sender of lightning and the god who dealt out both sunshine and rain to men, and it seems likely the swastika as well as the hammer sign was connected with him."


title: Mjölnir

text: Mjölnir is depicted in a variety of media in the modern era. As noted by Rudolf Simek, in art "Thor is almost always depicted with [Mjölnir]", but how the hammer appears in modern depictions varies: At times it may appear as hammer-like depictions of the club of Hercules, to a large sledge hammer, and displaying influence from the archaeological record. Examples include Henry Fuseli's 1780 painting "Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent"; 's 1821–1822 statue "Thor"; B. E. Fogelberg's 1844 marble statue "Thor"; Mårten Eskil Winge's 1872 painting "Thor's Fight with the Giants"; K. Ehrenberg's 1883 drawing ; several illustrations by published in 's 1901 ("Thor"; ; ; ; ; ; ); J. C. Dollman's 1909 drawings "Thor and the Mountain" and "Sif and Thor"; G. Poppe's painting "Thor"; 's 1914 drawing ; H. Natter's marble statue "Thor"; and U. Brember's 1977 illustrations to by .


title: Mjölnir

text: A variety of locations, organizations, and objects are named after the hammer. Examples include Mjølnerparken in Copenhagen, Denmark; the Mjølnir crater, a meteorite crater off the coast of Norway; the Hammer of Thor monument in Quebec, Canada; the Thor's Hammer rollercoaster in the Tusenfryd theme park in Norway; the Norwegian football club FK Mjølner; and a variety of ship names, including the HNoMS Mjølner (1868) and several ships by the name of HSwMS Mjölner. Musical projects who take their name from that of the hammer include American-Norwegian metal band Thorr's Hammer and Icelandic rock band Thor's Hammer. Tórshavn Municipality, the capital city of the Faroe Islands, features a depiction of Mjölner on its seal and coat of arms, as does the Torsås Municipality in Sweden.


title: Mjölnir

text: In the modern era, Mjölnir pendants are worn by a variety of people and for a variety of purposes. For example, the symbol is commonly used by adherents of Heathenry, a new religious movement. Writing in 2006, scholars Jenny Blain and Robert J. Wallis observe that "the most common of heathen sacred artefacts is Thor's hammer" and details that "heathen spirituality is expressed visually and publicly in a number of ways, such as the display of reproduced artefacts (for example, Thor's hammer as a pendant … ), pilgrimages to sacred sites (and votive offerings left there), and 'visits' to museum collection displays of artefacts which offer direct visual (and other resonant) links to ancient religions." In the United States, Thor's Hammer is offered as a religious emblem (#55, "Hammer of Thor") for military veteran grave stones produced by the United States National Cemetery Administration.


title: Mjölnir

text: The symbol has seen some use in white nationalist and neo-Nazi circles. As noted by the Anti-Defamation League symbol database entry for "Thor's Hammer", "Although its traditional origins are non-racist, and although most Asatruers today are not racist, the Thor's Hammer symbol has been appropriated by neo-Nazis and other white supremacists, especially those who practice racist or white supremacist versions of neo-Norse beliefs under the guise of Odinism or Wotanism. White supremacists will often even create racist versions of the Thor's Hammer, incorporating swastikas or other hate symbols into the decoration." Scholar Katherine Beard notes that "most people who wear hammer pendants today do so for cultural, religious, or decorative reasons and maintain absolutely no ties to any racist groups or beliefs".


title: Philippine–American War

text: The Philippine–American War or the Filipino–American War (modern ), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an armed conflict between the First Philippine Republic and the United States that started on February 4, 1899, and ended on July 2, 1902. The conflict arose in 1898 when the United States, rather than acknowledging the Philippines' declaration of independence, annexed the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris at the conclusion of the Spanish–American War. The war can be seen as a continuation of the Philippine struggle for independence that began in 1896 with the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Fighting erupted between forces of the United States and those of the Philippine Republic on February 4, 1899, in what became known as the 1899 Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic officially declared war against the United States. The Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901, and the war was officially declared ended by the American government on July 2, 1902, with a victory for the United States. However, some Philippine groups—some led by veterans of the Katipunan, a Philippine revolutionary society that had launched the revolution against Spain—continued to battle the American forces for several more years. Among those leaders was Macario Sakay, a veteran Katipunan member who established (or re-established) the Tagalog Republic in 1902 along Katipunan lines in contrast to Aguinaldo's Republic, with himself as president. Other groups, including the Muslim Moro peoples of the southern Philippines and quasi-Catholic Pulahan religious movements, continued hostilities in remote areas. The resistance in the Moro-dominated provinces in the south, called the Moro Rebellion by the Americans, ended with their final defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15, 1913.


title: Philippine–American War

text: The war resulted in at least 200,000 Filipino civilian deaths, mostly due to famine and disease. Some estimates for total civilian dead reach up to a million. Atrocities were committed during the conflict by both sides, including torture, mutilation, and executions. In retaliation for Filipino guerrilla warfare tactics, the U.S. carried out reprisals and scorched earth campaigns, and forcibly relocated many civilians to concentration camps, where thousands died. The war and subsequent occupation by the U.S. changed the culture of the islands, leading to the rise of Protestantism and disestablishment of the Catholic Church and the introduction of English to the islands as the primary language of government, education, business, and industry.


title: Philippine–American War

text: In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which provided for the creation of the Philippine Assembly, with members to be elected by Filipino males (women did not have the right to vote until a 1937 plebiscite). This act was superseded by the 1916 Jones Act (Philippine Autonomy Act), which contained the first formal and official declaration of the United States government's commitment to eventually grant independence to the Philippines. The 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence Act) created the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, increasing self-governance, and established a process towards full independence (originally scheduled for 1944, but delayed by World War II and the Japanese occupation of the Philippines). The United States eventually granted full Philippine independence in 1946 through the Treaty of Manila.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Andrés Bonifacio was a warehouseman and clerk from Manila. On July 7, 1892, he established the Katipunan—a revolutionary organization formed to gain independence from Spanish colonial rule by armed revolt. In August 1896, the Katipunan was discovered by the Spanish authorities and thus launched its revolution. Fighters in Cavite province won early victories. One of the most influential and popular leaders from Cavite was Emilio Aguinaldo, mayor of Cavite El Viejo (modern-day Kawit), who gained control of much of the eastern portion of Cavite province. Eventually, Aguinaldo and his faction gained control of the leadership of the Philippine revolution. After Aguinaldo was elected president of a revolutionary government superseding the Katipunan at the Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897, his government had Bonifacio executed for treason after a show trial on May 10, 1897.


title: Philippine–American War

text: By late 1897, after a succession of defeats for the revolutionary forces, the Spanish had regained control over most of the Philippine territory the rebels had taken. Aguinaldo and Spanish Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera entered into armistice negotiations while Spanish forces surrounded Aguinaldo's hideout and base in Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province, and Aguinaldo reorganized his "Republic of the Philippines" in the meantime. On December 14, 1897, an agreement was reached in which the Spanish colonial government would pay Aguinaldo $MXN800,000 in Manila—in three installments if Aguinaldo would go into exile outside of the Philippines.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Upon receiving the first of the installments, Aguinaldo and 25 of his closest associates left their headquarters at Biak-na-Bato and made their way to Hong Kong, according to the terms of the agreement. Before his departure, Aguinaldo denounced the Philippine Revolution, exhorted Filipino rebel combatants to disarm, and declared those who continued hostilities and waging war to be bandits. Despite Aguinaldo's denunciation, some of the revolutionaries continued their armed revolt against the Spanish colonial government. According to Aguinaldo, the Spanish never paid the second and third installments of the agreed-upon sum.


title: Philippine–American War

text: On April 22, 1898, while in exile, Aguinaldo had a private meeting in Singapore with United States Consul E. Spencer Pratt, after which he decided to again take up the mantle of leadership in the Philippine Revolution. According to Aguinaldo, Pratt had communicated with Commodore George Dewey (commander of the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy) by telegram, and passed assurances from Dewey to Aguinaldo that the United States would recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy. Pratt reportedly stated that there was no necessity for entering into a formal written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were equivalent to the official word of the United States government. With these assurances, Aguinaldo agreed to return to the Philippines.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Pratt later contested Aguinaldo's account of these events, and denied any "dealings of a political character" with the leader. Admiral Dewey also refuted Aguinaldo's account, stating that he had promised nothing regarding the future:


title: Philippine–American War

text: Filipino historian Teodoro Agoncillo writes of "American apostasy", saying that it was the Americans who first approached Aguinaldo in Hong Kong and Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with Dewey in wresting power from the Spanish. Conceding that Dewey may not have promised Aguinaldo American recognition and Philippine independence (Dewey had no authority to make such promises), he writes that Dewey and Aguinaldo had an informal alliance to fight a common enemy, that Dewey breached that alliance by making secret arrangements for a Spanish surrender to American forces, and that he treated Aguinaldo badly after the surrender was secured. Agoncillo concludes that the American attitude towards Aguinaldo "... showed that they came to the Philippines not as a friend, but as an enemy masking as a friend."


title: Philippine–American War

text: After four months in exile, Aguinaldo decided to resume his role in the Philippine Revolution. He departed from Singapore aboard the steamship "Malacca" on April 27, 1898. He arrived in Hong Kong on May 1, the day that US Commodore George Dewey's naval forces destroyed Rear-Admiral Patricio Montojo's Spanish Pacific Squadron at the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo departed Hong Kong aboard the USRC "McCulloch" on May 17, arriving in Cavite on May 19.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Less than three months after Aguinaldo's return, the Philippine Revolutionary Army had conquered nearly all of the Philippines. With the exception of Manila, which was surrounded by revolutionary forces some 12,000 strong, the Filipinos controlled the Philippines. Aguinaldo turned over 15,000 Spanish prisoners to the Americans, offering them valuable intelligence. Aguinaldo declared independence at his house in Cavite El Viejo on June 12, 1898.


title: Philippine–American War

text: The Philippine Declaration of Independence was not recognized by either the United States or Spain, and the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, which was signed on December 10, 1898, in consideration for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets lost.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Upon his return in May 1898, Aguinaldo established a "Dictatorial Government" with himself as "Dictator", under which Philippine independence was declared. About a month later, he established a "Revolutionary Government" in its place and retook the title of "President". He then organized a congress in Malolos, Bulacan to draft a constitution. This led to the formal establishment of the "Philippine Republic" by late January 1899. This government was later known as the First Philippine Republic, as the current Republic of the Philippines considers itself the fifth, and also as the "Malolos Republic" after its capital. Aguinaldo, who had again been re-established as president (by the Malolos congress) on January 1, is today officially considered as "the first President of the Republic of the Philippines" by the current Philippine government based on his tenure for the First Republic.


title: Philippine–American War

text: On July 9, General Anderson informed Major General Henry Clark Corbin, the Adjutant General of the U.S. Army, that Aguinaldo "has declared himself Dictator and President, and is trying to take Manila without our assistance", opining that that would not be probable but, if done, would allow him to antagonize any U.S. attempt to establish a provisional government. On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three organic decrees assuming civil authority of the Philippines.


title: Philippine–American War

text: On July 18, General Anderson wrote that he suspected Aguinaldo to be secretly negotiating with the Spanish authorities. In a July 21 letter to the Adjutant General, General Anderson wrote that Aguinaldo had "put in operation an elaborate system of military government, under his assumed authority as Dictator, and has prohibited any supplies being given us, except by his order," and that Anderson had written to Aguinaldo that the requisitions on the country for necessary items must be filled, and that he must aid in having them filled.


title: Philippine–American War

text: On July 24, Aguinaldo wrote a letter to General Anderson in effect warning him not to disembark American troops in places conquered by the Filipinos from the Spaniards without first communicating in writing the places to be occupied and the object of the occupation. Murat Halstead, official historian of the Philippine Expedition, writes that General Merritt remarked shortly after his arrival on June 25,


title: Philippine–American War

text: U.S. commanders suspected that Aguinaldo and his forces were informing the Spanish of American movements. U.S. Army Major John R. M. Taylor later wrote, after translating and analyzing insurgent documents,


title: Philippine–American War

text: The secret agreement made by Commodore Dewey and Brigadier General Wesley Merritt with newly arrived Spanish Governor-General Fermín Jáudenes and with his predecessor Basilio Augustín was for the Spanish forces to surrender only to the Americans, not to the Filipino revolutionaries. To save face, the Spanish surrender would take place after a mock battle in Manila which the Spanish would lose; the Filipinos would not be allowed to enter the city. On the eve of the battle, Brigadier General Thomas M. Anderson telegraphed Aguinaldo, "Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the Pasig River you will be under fire." On August 13, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish.


title: Philippine–American War

text: Before the attack on Manila, American and Filipino forces had been allies against Spain in all but name. After the capture of Manila, Spanish and Americans were in a partnership that excluded the Filipino insurgents. Fighting between American and Filipino troops had almost broken out as the former moved in to dislodge the latter from strategic positions around Manila on the eve of the attack. Aguinaldo had been told bluntly by the Americans that his army could not participate and would be fired upon if it crossed into the city. The insurgents were infuriated at being denied triumphant entry into their own capital, but Aguinaldo bided his time. Relations continued to deteriorate, however, as it became clear to Filipinos that the Americans were in the islands to stay.


title: Philippine–American War

text: On August 12, 1898, "The New York Times" reported that a peace protocol had been signed in Washington that afternoon between the U.S. and Spain, suspending hostilities between the two nations. The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines." After conclusion of this agreement, U.S. President McKinley proclaimed a suspension of hostilities with Spain.


title: Philippine–American War

text: In a clash at Cavite between United States soldiers and insurgents on August 25, 1898, George Hudson of the Utah regiment was killed, Corporal William Anderson was mortally wounded, and four troopers of the Fourth Cavalry were slightly wounded. This provoked General Anderson to send Aguinaldo a letter saying, "In order to avoid the very serious misfortune of an encounter between our troops, I demand your immediate withdrawal with your guard from Cavite. One of my men has been killed and three wounded by your people. This is positive and does not admit of explanation or delay." Internal insurgent communications reported that the Americans were drunk at the time. Halstead writes that Aguinaldo expressed his regret and promised to punish the offenders. In internal insurgent communications, Apolinario Mabini initially proposed to investigate and punish any offenders identified. Aguinaldo modified this, ordering, "... say that he was not killed by your soldiers, but by them themselves [the Americans] since they were drunk according to your telegram". An insurgent officer in Cavite at the time reported on his record of services that he: "took part in the movement against the Americans on the afternoon of the 24th of August, under the orders of the commander of the troops and the adjutant of the post."


title: Philippine–American War

text: Elections were held by the Revolutionary Government between June and September 10, resulting in the seating of a legislature known as the Malolos Congress. In a session between September 15 and November 13, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was adopted. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899, creating the First Philippine Republic with Emilio Aguinaldo as president.