title: Steve Huffman

text: In 2014, Huffman said that his decision to sell Reddit had been a mistake, and that the site's growth had exceeded his expectations. On July 10, 2015, Reddit hired Huffman as CEO following the resignation of Ellen Pao and during a particularly difficult time for the company. Upon rejoining the company, Huffman's top goals included launching Reddit's iOS and Android apps, fixing Reddit's mobile website, and creating A/B testing infrastructure.


title: Steve Huffman

text: Since returning to Reddit, Huffman instituted a number of technological improvements including a better mobile experience and stronger infrastructure, as well as new content guidelines. These included a ban on content that incites violence, quarantining some material users might find offensive, and removing communities "that exist solely to ... make Reddit worse for everyone else". Shortly after returning, Huffman wrote that "neither Alexis nor I created reddit to be a bastion of free speech, but rather as a place where open and honest discussion can happen." In a 2012 interview, Ohanian had used the same phrase to describe Reddit, as noted by "The New Yorker" and "The Verge".


title: Steve Huffman

text: Huffman also worked to make the site more advertiser-friendly and led efforts to host video and images on site. In late 2016, Huffman was the focus of controversy for altering posts on a subreddit popular with supporters of Donald Trump, /r/The Donald. Following criticism from Reddit users, he undid the change and issued an apology.


title: Steve Huffman

text: Beginning in 2017, Huffman led the redesign of Reddit's website with its first major visual update in a decade. Huffman said the site had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist" whose outdated look deterred new users. Development of the new site took more than a year, and the redesign launched in April 2018.


title: Steve Huffman

text: On November 23, 2016, a member of a subreddit dedicated to Donald Trump, /r/The Donald, posted evidence indicating that Reddit administrators had modified multiple user comments inside the subreddit. Following this post, Huffman took responsibility for the comment modifications, writing that "Our community team is pretty pissed at me, so I most assuredly won't do this again." His administrative modifications involved changing one specific insulting phrase, in several comments, to make them appear as if the insults were directed toward the moderators of the subreddit instead of him. In a Reddit post, Huffman wrote that he "messed with" some of the comments but that he "restored the original comments after less than an hour." On November 30, 2016, Huffman announced that sticky posts from /r/The_Donald would no longer show up on r/all, stating that the community's moderators were abusing the feature in order to "slingshot posts into r/all, often in a manner that is antagonistic to the rest of the community."


title: Steve Huffman

text: On June 1, 2020, Huffman published an open letter as Reddit's CEO, titled "Remember to be Human - Black lives matter", which addressed the topic of racism on the platform.


title: Steve Huffman

text: Former Reddit CEO Ellen Pao called out Huffman's letter with a tweet on her official Twitter profile, saying that Reddit had long condoned racism and that the platform "monetizes white supremacy". The popular NBA and NFL subreddits agreed with Pao, obscuring their sections for 24 hours. Alexis Ohanian resigned on June 5, 2020, asking to be replaced by a black director and urging the company to finally ban hate Speech and hate communities on Reddit in an open letter.


title: Steve Huffman

text: Huffman is an advocate for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told "The New York Times" that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality.


title: Steve Huffman

text: Huffman lives in San Francisco, California. He mentors aspiring programmers at coding bootcamps including Hackbright Academy. Huffman was an instructor for e-learning courses on web development by Udacity. He is on the board of advisors for the Anti-Defamation League's Center for Technology and Society.


title: Steve Huffman

text: Huffman is a ballroom dancer. At UVA, Huffman competed in intercollegiate competitions. Huffman married in 2009 but is now divorced.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian () is an Uralic language spoken in Hungary and parts of several neighbouring countries. It is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary, it is also spoken by Hungarian communities in southern Slovakia, western Ukraine (Subcarpathia), central and western Romania (Transylvania), northern Serbia (Vojvodina), northern Croatia, northeastern Slovenia (Prekmurje), and eastern Austria.


title: Hungarian language

text: It is also spoken by Hungarian diaspora communities worldwide, especially in North America (particularly the United States and Canada) and Israel. With 17 million speakers, it is the Uralic family's largest member by number of speakers.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family. Linguistic connections between Hungarian and other Uralic languages were noticed in the 1670s, and the family itself (then called Finno-Ugric) was established in 1717. Hungarian has traditionally been assigned to the Ugric along with the Mansi and Khanty languages of western Siberia (Khanty–Mansia region), but it is no longer clear that it is a valid group. When the Samoyed languages were determined to be part of the family, it was thought at first that Finnic and Ugric (Finno-Ugric) were closer to each other than to the Samoyed branch of the family, but that is now frequently questioned.


title: Hungarian language

text: The name of Hungary could be a result of regular sound changes of "Ungrian/Ugrian", and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to Hungarians as "Ǫgry/Ǫgrove" (sg. "Ǫgrinŭ") seemed to confirm that. Current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onoğur (which means "ten arrows" or "ten tribes").


title: Hungarian language

text: There are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian corresponds to Khanty in certain positions, and Hungarian corresponds to Khanty , while Hungarian final corresponds to Khanty final . For example, Hungarian "ház" "house" vs. Khanty "xot" "house", and Hungarian "száz" "hundred" vs. Khanty "sot" "hundred". The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular.


title: Hungarian language

text: The traditional view holds that the Hungarian language diverged from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, in western Siberia east of the southern Urals. The Hungarians gradually changed their lifestyle from being settled hunters to being nomadic pastoralists, probably as a result of early contacts with Iranian nomads (Scythians and Sarmatians) or Turkic nomads. In Hungarian, Iranian loanwords date back to the time immediately following the breakup of Ugric and probably span well over a millennium. Among these include "tehén" ‘cow’ (cf. Avestan "daénu"); "tíz" ‘ten’ (cf. Avestan "dasa"); "tej" ‘milk’ (cf. Persian "dáje" ‘wet nurse’); and "nád" ‘reed’ (from late Middle Iranian; cf. Middle Persian "nāy" and Modern Persian "ney").


title: Hungarian language

text: Archaeological evidence from present-day southern Bashkortostan confirms the existence of Hungarian settlements between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains. The Onoğurs (and Bulgars) later had a great influence on the language, especially between the 5th and 9th centuries. This layer of Turkic loans is large and varied (e.g. "szó" "word", from Turkic; and "daru" "crane", from the related Permic languages), and includes words borrowed from Oghur Turkic; e.g. "borjú" "calf" (cf. Chuvash "păru", "părăv" vs. Turkish "buzağı"); "dél" ‘noon; south’ (cf. Chuvash "tĕl" vs. Turkish dial. "düš"). Many words related to agriculture, state administration and even family relationships show evidence of such backgrounds. Hungarian syntax and grammar were not influenced in a similarly dramatic way over these three centuries.


title: Hungarian language

text: After the arrival of the Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin, the language came into contact with a variety of speech communities, among them Slavic, Turkic, and German. Turkic loans from this period come mainly from the Pechenegs and Cumanians, who settled in Hungary during the 12th and 13th centuries: e.g. "koboz" "cobza" (cf. Turkish "kopuz" ‘lute’); "komondor" "mop dog" (< *"kumandur" < "Cuman"). Hungarian borrowed 20% of words from neighbouring Slavic languages: e.g. "tégla" ‘brick’; "mák" ‘poppy seed’; "szerda" ‘Wednesday’; "csütörtök" ‘Thursday’...; "karácsony" ‘Christmas’. These languages in turn borrowed words from Hungarian: e.g. Serbo-Croatian "ašov" from Hungarian "ásó" ‘spade’. About 1.6 percent of the Romanian lexicon is of Hungarian origin.


title: Hungarian language

text: In the 21st century, studies support an origin of the Uralic languages, including early Hungarian, in eastern or central Siberia, somewhere between the Ob and Yenisei river or near the Sayan mountains in the Russian–Mongolian border region. A 2019 study based on genetics, archaeology and linguistics, found that early Uralic speakers arrived in Europe from the east, specifically from eastern Siberia.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian historian and archaeologist Gyula László claims that geological data from pollen analysis seems to contradict the placing of the ancient Hungarian homeland near the Urals.


title: Hungarian language

text: Today, the consensus among linguists is that Hungarian is a member of the Uralic family of languages.


title: Hungarian language

text: The classification of Hungarian as a Uralic/Finno-Ugric rather than a Turkic language continued to be a matter of impassioned political controversy throughout the 18th and into the 19th centuries. During the latter half of the 19th century, a competing hypothesis proposed a Turkic affinity of Hungarian, or, alternatively, that both the Uralic and the Turkic families formed part of a superfamily of Ural–Altaic languages. Following an academic debate known as "Az ugor-török háború" ("the Ugric-Turkic war"), the Finno-Ugric hypothesis was concluded the sounder of the two, mainly based on work by the German linguist Josef Budenz.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarians did, in fact, absorb some Turkic influences during several centuries of cohabitation. The influence on Hungarians was mainly from the Turkic Oghur speakers such as Sabirs, Bulgars of Atil, Kabars and Khazars. The Oghur tribes are often connected with the Hungarians whose exoethnonym is usually derived from Onogurs (> (H)ungars), a Turkic tribal confederation. The similarity between customs of Hungarians and the Chuvash people, the only surviving member of the Oghur tribes, is visible. For example, the Hungarians appear to have learned animal husbandry techniques from the Oghur speaking Chuvash people (or historically Suvar people), as a high proportion of words specific to agriculture and livestock are of Chuvash origin. A strong Chuvash influence was also apparent in Hungarian burial customs.


title: Hungarian language

text: The first written accounts of Hungarian date to the 10th century, such as mostly Hungarian personal names and place names in "De Administrando Imperio", written in Greek by Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VII. No significant texts written in Old Hungarian script have survived, because the medium of writing used at the time, wood, is perishable.


title: Hungarian language

text: The Kingdom of Hungary was founded in 1000 by Stephen I. The country became a Western-styled Christian (Roman Catholic) state, with Latin script replacing Hungarian runes. The earliest remaining fragments of the language are found in the establishing charter of the abbey of Tihany from 1055, intermingled with Latin text. The first extant text fully written in Hungarian is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer, which dates to the 1190s. Although the orthography of these early texts differed considerably from that used today, contemporary Hungarians can still understand a great deal of the reconstructed spoken language, despite changes in grammar and vocabulary.


title: Hungarian language

text: A more extensive body of Hungarian literature arose after 1300. The earliest known example of Hungarian religious poetry is the 14th-century "Lamentations of Mary". The first Bible translation was the Hussite Bible in the 1430s.


title: Hungarian language

text: The standard language lost its diphthongs, and several postpositions transformed into suffixes, including "reá" "onto" (the phrase "utu rea "onto the way" found in the 1055 text would later become "útra). There were also changes in the system of vowel harmony. At one time, Hungarian used six verb tenses, while today only two or three are used.


title: Hungarian language

text: In 1533, Kraków printer Benedek Komjáti published (modern orthography: ), the first Hungarian-language book set in movable type.


title: Hungarian language

text: By the 17th century, the language already closely resembled its present-day form, although two of the past tenses remained in use. German, Italian and French loans also began to appear. Further Turkish words were borrowed during the period of Ottoman rule (1541 to 1699).


title: Hungarian language

text: In the 19th century, a group of writers, most notably Ferenc Kazinczy, spearheaded a process of "nyelvújítás" (language revitalization). Some words were shortened ("győzedelem" > "győzelem", 'victory' or 'triumph'); a number of dialectal words spread nationally ("e.g.", "cselleng" 'dawdle'); extinct words were reintroduced ("dísz", 'décor'); a wide range of expressions were coined using the various derivative suffixes; and some other, less frequently used methods of expanding the language were utilized. This movement produced more than ten thousand words, most of which are used actively today.


title: Hungarian language

text: The 19th and 20th centuries saw further standardization of the language, and differences between mutually comprehensible dialects gradually diminished.


title: Hungarian language

text: In 1920, Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon, losing 71 percent of its territory and one-third of the ethnic Hungarian population along with it.


title: Hungarian language

text: Today, the language holds official status nationally in Hungary and regionally in Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, Austria and Slovenia.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian has about 13 million native speakers, of whom more than 9.8 million live in Hungary. According to the 2011 Hungarian census, 9,896,333 people (99.6% of the total population) speak Hungarian, of whom 9,827,875 people (98.9%) speak it as a first language, while 68,458 people (0.7%) speak it as a second language. About 2.2 million speakers live in other areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon (1920). Of these, the largest group lives in Transylvania, the western half of present-day Romania, where there are approximately 1.25 million Hungarians. There are large Hungarian communities also in Slovakia, Serbia and Ukraine, and Hungarians can also be found in Austria, Croatia, and Slovenia, as well as about a million additional people scattered in other parts of the world. For example, there are more than one hundred thousand Hungarian speakers in the Hungarian American community and 1.5 million with Hungarian ancestry in the United States.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian is the official language of Hungary, and thus an official language of the European Union. Hungarian is also one of the official languages of Serbian province of Vojvodina and an official language of three municipalities in Slovenia: Hodoš, Dobrovnik and Lendava, along with Slovene. Hungarian is officially recognized as a minority or regional language in Austria, Croatia, Romania, Zakarpattia in Ukraine, and Slovakia. In Romania it is a recognized minority language used at local level in communes, towns and municipalities with an ethnic Hungarian population of over 20%.


title: Hungarian language

text: The dialects of Hungarian identified by Ethnologue are: Alföld, West Danube, Danube-Tisza, King's Pass Hungarian, Northeast Hungarian, Northwest Hungarian, Székely and West Hungarian. These dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible. The Hungarian Csángó dialect, which is mentioned but not listed separately by Ethnologue, is spoken primarily in Bacău County in eastern Romania. The Csángó Hungarian group has been largely isolated from other Hungarian people, and therefore preserved features that closely resemble earlier forms of Hungarian.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian has 14 vowel phonemes and 25 consonant phonemes. The vowel phonemes can be grouped as pairs of short and long vowels such as "o" and "ó". Most of the pairs have an almost similar pronunciation and vary significantly only in their duration. However, pairs "a"/"á" and "e"/"é" differ both in closedness and length.


title: Hungarian language

text: The sound voiced palatal plosive , written , sounds similar to 'd' in British English 'duty'. It occurs in the name of the country, "Magyarország" (Hungary), pronounced . It is one of three palatal consonants, the others being and . Historically a fourth palatalized consonant existed, still written .


title: Hungarian language

text: A single 'r' is pronounced as an alveolar tap ("akkora" 'of that size'), but a double 'r' is pronounced as an alveolar trill ("akkorra" 'by that time'), like in Spanish and Italian.


title: Hungarian language

text: Primary stress is always on the first syllable of a word, as in Finnish and the neighbouring Slovak and Czech. There is a secondary stress on other syllables in compounds: "viszontlátásra" ("goodbye") is pronounced . Elongated vowels in non-initial syllables may seem to be stressed to an English-speaker, as length and stress correlate in English.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mainly suffixes but also some prefixes and a circumfix, to change a word's meaning and its grammatical function.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian uses vowel harmony to attach suffixes to words. That means that most suffixes have two or three different forms, and the choice between them depends on the vowels of the head word. There are some minor and unpredictable exceptions to the rule.


title: Hungarian language

text: Nouns have 18 cases, which are formed regularly with suffixes. The nominative case is unmarked ("az alma" 'the apple') and, for example, the accusative is marked with the suffix "–t" ("az almát" '[I eat] the apple'). Half of the cases express a combination of the source-location-target and surface-inside-proximity ternary distinctions (three times three cases); there is a separate case ending –"ból" / "–ből" meaning a combination of source and insideness: 'from inside of'.


title: Hungarian language

text: Possession is expressed by a possessive suffix on the possessed object, rather than the possessor as in English (Peter's apple becomes "Péter almája", literally 'Peter apple-his'). Noun plurals are formed with "–k" ("az almák" ‘the apples’), but after a numeral, the singular is used ("két alma" ‘two apples’, literally ‘two apple’; not "*két almák").


title: Hungarian language

text: Unlike English, Hungarian uses case suffixes and nearly always postpositions instead of prepositions.


title: Hungarian language

text: There are two types of articles in Hungarian, definite and indefinite, which roughly correspond to the equivalents in English.


title: Hungarian language

text: Adjectives precede nouns ("a piros alma" 'the red apple') and have three degrees: positive ("piros" 'red'), comparative ("pirosabb" 'redder') and superlative ("a legpirosabb" 'the reddest').


title: Hungarian language

text: If the noun takes the plural or a case, an attributive adjective is invariable: "a piros almák" 'the red apples'. However, a predicative adjective agrees with the noun: "az almák pirosak" 'the apples are red'. Adjectives by themselves can behave as nouns (and so can take case suffixes): "Melyik almát kéred? – A pirosat." 'Which apple would you like? – The red one'.


title: Hungarian language

text: The neutral word order is subject–verb–object (SVO). However, Hungarian is a topic-prominent language, and so has a word order that depends not only on syntax but also on the topic–comment structure of the sentence (for example, what aspect is assumed to be known and what is emphasized).


title: Hungarian language

text: A Hungarian sentence generally has the following order: topic, comment (or focus), verb and the rest.


title: Hungarian language

text: The topic shows that the proposition is only for that particular thing or aspect, and it implies that the proposition is not true for some others. For example, in ""Az almát János látja"." ('It is John who sees the apple'. Literally 'The apple John sees.'), the apple is in the topic, implying that other objects may be seen by not him but other people (the pear may be seen by Peter). The topic part may be empty.


title: Hungarian language

text: The focus shows the new information for the listeners that may not have been known or that their knowledge must be corrected. For example, "Én vagyok az apád". ('I am your father'. Literally, 'It is I who am your father'.), from the movie "The Empire Strikes Back", the pronoun I ("én") is in the focus and implies that it is new information, and the listener thought that someone else is his father.


title: Hungarian language

text: Although Hungarian is sometimes described as having free word order, different word orders are generally not interchangeable, and the neutral order is not always correct to use. Also, the intonation is also different with different topic-comment structures. The topic usually has a rising intonation, the focus having a falling intonation. In the following examples, the topic is marked with italics, and the focus (comment) is marked with boldface.


title: Hungarian language

text: The four-tiered system has somewhat been eroded due to the recent expansion of ""tegeződés"" and ""önözés"".


title: Hungarian language

text: Some anomalies emerged with the arrival of multinational companies who have addressed their customers in the "te" (least polite) form right from the beginning of their presence in Hungary. A typical example is the Swedish furniture shop IKEA, whose web site and other publications address the customers in "te" form. When a news site asked IKEA—using the "te" form—why they address their customers this way, IKEA's PR Manager explained in his answer—using the "ön" form—that their way of communication reflects IKEA's open-mindedness and the Swedish culture. However IKEA in France uses the polite ("vous") form. Another example is the communication of Telenor (a mobile network operator) towards its customers. Telenor chose to communicate towards business customers in the polite "ön" form while all other customers are addressed in the less polite "te" form.


title: Hungarian language

text: During the first early phase of Hungarian language reforms (late 18th and early 19th centuries) more than ten thousand words were coined, several thousand of which are still actively used today (see also Ferenc Kazinczy, the leading figure of the Hungarian language reforms.) Kazinczy's chief goal was to replace existing words of German and Latin origins with newly created Hungarian words. As a result, Kazinczy and his later followers (the reformers) significantly reduced the formerly high ratio of words of Latin and German origins in the Hungarian language, which were related to social sciences, natural sciences, politics and economics, institutional names, fashion etc.


title: Hungarian language

text: Giving an accurate estimate for the total word count is difficult, since it is hard to define a "word" in agglutinating languages, due to the existence of affixed words and compound words. To obtain a meaningful definition of compound words, it is necessary to exclude compounds whose meaning is the mere sum of its elements. The largest dictionaries giving translations from Hungarian to another language contain 120,000 words and phrases (but this may include redundant phrases as well, because of translation issues). The new desk lexicon of the Hungarian language contains 75,000 words, and the Comprehensive Dictionary of Hungarian Language (to be published in 18 volumes in the next twenty years) is planned to contain 110,000 words. The default Hungarian lexicon is usually estimated to comprise 60,000 to 100,000 words. (Independently of specific languages, speakers actively use at most 10,000 to 20,000 words, with an average intellectual using 25,000 to 30,000 words.) However, all the Hungarian lexemes collected from technical texts, dialects etc. would total up to 1,000,000 words.


title: Hungarian language

text: Parts of the lexicon can be organized using word-bushes (see an example on the right). The words in these bushes share a common root, are related through inflection, derivation and compounding, and are usually broadly related in meaning.


title: Hungarian language

text: The basic vocabulary shares several hundred word roots with other Uralic languages like Finnish, Estonian, Mansi and Khanty. Examples are the verb "él" "live" (Finnish "elää"), the numbers "kettő" (2), "három" (3), "négy" (4) (cf. Mansi китыг kitig, хурум khurum, нила "nila", Finnish "kaksi, kolme, neljä", Estonian "kaks, kolm, neli"), as well as "víz" 'water', "kéz" 'hand', "vér" 'blood', "fej" 'head' (cf. Finnish and Estonian "vesi, käsi, veri", Finnish "pää", Estonian "pea" or "pää").


title: Hungarian language

text: Words for elementary kinship and nature are more Ugric, less r-Turkic and less Slavic. Agricultural words are about 50% r-Turkic and 50% Slavic; pastoral terms are more r-Turkic, less Ugric and less Slavic. Finally, Christian and state terminology is more Slavic and less r-Turkic. The Slavic is most probably proto-Slovakian and/or -Slovenian. This is easily understood in the Uralic paradigm, proto-Magyars were first similar to Ob-Ugors, who were mainly hunters, fishers and gatherers, but with some horses too. Then they accultured to Bulgarian r-Turks, so the older layer of agriculture words (wine, beer, wheat, barley etc.) are purely r-Turkic, and many terms of statesmanship and religion were, too.


title: Hungarian language

text: Except for a few Latin and Greek loanwords, these differences are unnoticed even by native speakers; the words have been entirely adopted into the Hungarian lexicon. There are an increasing number of English loanwords, especially in technical fields.


title: Hungarian language

text: Another source differs in that loanwords in Hungarian are held to constitute about 45% of bases in the language. Although the lexical fraction of native words in Hungarian is 55%, their use accounts for 88.4% of all words used (the fraction of loanwords used being just 11.6%). Therefore, the history of Hungarian has come, especially since the 19th century, to favor neologisms from original bases, whilst still having developed as many terms from neighboring languages in the lexicon.


title: Hungarian language

text: Words can be compounds or derived. Most derivation is with suffixes, but there is a small set of derivational prefixes as well.


title: Hungarian language

text: Compounds have been present in the language since the Proto-Uralic era. Numerous ancient compounds transformed to base words during the centuries. Today, compounds play an important role in vocabulary.


title: Hungarian language

text: Compounds are made up of two base words: the first is the prefix, the latter is the suffix. A compound can be "subordinative": the prefix is in logical connection with the suffix. If the prefix is the subject of the suffix, the compound is generally classified as a subjective one. There are objective, determinative, and adjunctive compounds as well. Some examples are given below:


title: Hungarian language

text: According to current orthographic rules, a subordinative compound word has to be written as a single word, without spaces; however, if a compound of three or more words (not counting one-syllable verbal prefixes) is seven or more syllables long (not counting case suffixes), a hyphen must be inserted at the appropriate boundary to ease the determination of word boundaries for the reader.


title: Hungarian language

text: Other compound words are "coordinatives": there is no concrete relation between the prefix and the suffix. Subcategories include reduplication (to emphasise the meaning; "olykor-olykor"


title: Hungarian language

text: 'really occasionally'), twin words (where a base word and a distorted form of it makes up a compound: , where the suffix 'gaz' means 'weed' and the prefix is the distorted form; the compound itself means 'inconsiderable weed'), and such compounds which have meanings, but neither their prefixes, nor their suffixes make sense (for example, 'complex, obsolete procedures').


title: Hungarian language

text: A compound also can be made up by multiple (i.e., more than two) base words: in this case, at least one word element, or even both the prefix and the suffix, is a compound. Some examples:


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian words for the points of the compass are directly derived from the position of the Sun during the day in the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Hungarian language

text: There are two basic words for "red" in Hungarian: "piros" and "vörös" (variant: "veres"; compare with Estonian "verev" or Finnish "punainen"). (They are basic in the sense that one is not a sub-type of the other, as the English "scarlet" is of "red".) The word "vörös" is related to "vér", meaning "blood" (Finnish and Estonian "veri"). When they refer to an actual difference in colour (as on a colour chart), "vörös" usually refers to the deeper (darker and/or more red and less orange) hue of red. In English similar differences exist between "scarlet" and "red". While many languages have multiple names for this colour, often Hungarian scholars assume that this is unique in recognizing two shades of red as separate and distinct "folk colours".


title: Hungarian language

text: However, the two words are also used independently of the above in collocations. "Piros" is learned by children first, as it is generally used to describe inanimate, artificial things, or things seen as cheerful or neutral, while "vörös" typically refers to animate or natural things (biological, geological, physical and astronomical objects), as well as serious or emotionally charged subjects.


title: Hungarian language

text: When the rules outlined above are in contradiction, typical collocations usually prevail. In some cases where a typical collocation does not exist, the use of either of the two words may be equally adequate.


title: Hungarian language

text: The Hungarian words for brothers and sisters are differentiated based upon relative age. There is also a general word for "sibling": "testvér", from "test" "body" and "vér" "blood"; i.e., originating from the same body and blood.


title: Hungarian language

text: The words for "boy" and "girl" are applied with possessive suffixes. Nevertheless, the terms are differentiated with different declension or lexemes:


title: Hungarian language

text: "Fia" is only used in this, irregular possessive form; it has no nominative on its own (see inalienable possession). However, the word "fiú" can also take the regular suffix, in which case the resulting word "(fiúja)" will refer to a lover or partner (boyfriend), rather than a male offspring.


title: Hungarian language

text: The word "fiú" (boy) is also often noted as an extreme example of the ability of the language to add suffixes to a word, by forming "fiaiéi", adding vowel-form suffixes only, where the result is quite a frequently used word:


title: Hungarian language

text: The above word is often considered to be the longest word in Hungarian, although there are longer words like:


title: Hungarian language

text: Words of such length are not used in practice and are difficult to understand even for natives. They were invented to show, in a somewhat facetious way, the ability of the language to form long words (see agglutinative language). They are not compound words but are formed by adding a series of one- and two-syllable suffixes (and a few prefixes) to a simple root ("szent", saint or holy).


title: Hungarian language

text: There is virtually no limit for the length of words, but when too many suffixes are added, the meaning of the word becomes less clear, and the word becomes hard to understand and will work like a riddle even for native speakers.


title: Hungarian language

text: The English word best known as being of Hungarian origin is probably "paprika", from Serbo-Croatian "papar" "pepper" and the Hungarian diminutive "-ka". The most common, however, is "coach", from "kocsi", originally "kocsi szekér" "car from/in the style of Kocs". Others are:


title: Hungarian language

text: The Hungarian language was originally written in right-to-left Old Hungarian runes, superficially similar in appearance to the better-known futhark runes but unrelated. After Stephen I of Hungary established the Kingdom of Hungary in the year 1000, the old system was gradually discarded in favour of the Latin alphabet and left-to-right order. Although now not used at all in everyday life, the old script is still known and practised by some enthusiasts.


title: Hungarian language

text: Modern Hungarian is written using an expanded Latin alphabet and has a phonemic orthography, i.e. pronunciation can generally be predicted from the written language. In addition to the standard letters of the Latin alphabet, Hungarian uses several modified Latin characters to represent the additional vowel sounds of the language. These include letters with acute accents "(á, é, í, ó, ú)" to represent long vowels, and umlauts ("ö" and "ü") and their long counterparts "ő" and "ű" to represent front vowels. Sometimes (usually as a result of a technical glitch on a computer) or is used for , and for . This is often due to the limitations of the Latin-1 / ISO-8859-1 code page. These letters are not part of the Hungarian language and are considered misprints. Hungarian can be properly represented with the Latin-2 / ISO-8859-2 code page, but this code page is not always available. (Hungarian is the only language using both and .) Unicode includes them, and so they can be used on the Internet.


title: Hungarian language

text: Additionally, the letter pairs , , and represent the palatal consonants , , and (roughly analogous to the "d+y" sounds in British ""du"ke" or American "woul"d y"ou")—produced using a similar mechanism as the letter "d" when pronounced with the tongue pointing to the palate.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian uses for and for , which is the reverse of Polish usage. The letter is and is . These digraphs are considered single letters in the alphabet. The letter is also a "single letter digraph", but is pronounced like (English ) and appears mostly in old words. The letters and are exotic remnants and are hard to find even in longer texts. Some examples still in common use are "madzag" ("string"), "edzeni" ("to train (athletically)") and "dzsungel" ("jungle").


title: Hungarian language

text: Sometimes additional information is required for partitioning words with digraphs: házszám ("street number") = "ház" ("house") + "szám" ("number"), not an unintelligible "házs" + "zám".


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian distinguishes between long and short vowels, with long vowels written with acutes. It also distinguishes between long and short consonants, with long consonants being doubled. For example, "lenni" ("to be"), "hozzászólás" ("comment"). The digraphs, when doubled, become trigraphs: + = , e.g. "művésszel" ("with an artist"). But when the digraph occurs at the end of a line, all of the letters are written out. For example, ("with a bus"):


title: Hungarian language

text: When the first lexeme of a compound ends in a digraph and the second lexeme starts with the same digraph, both digraphs are written out: + = ("engagement/wedding ring", means "sign", "mark". The term means "to be engaged"; means "ring").


title: Hungarian language

text: Usually a trigraph is a double digraph, but there are a few exceptions: ("eighteen") is a concatenation of "tizen" + "nyolc". There are doubling minimal pairs: "tol" ("push") vs. "toll" ("feather" or "pen").


title: Hungarian language

text: While to English speakers they may seem unusual at first, once the new orthography and pronunciation are learned, written Hungarian is almost completely phonemic (except for etymological spellings and "ly, j" representing ).


title: Hungarian language

text: The word order is basically from general to specific. This is a typical analytical approach and is used generally in Hungarian.


title: Hungarian language

text: The Hungarian language uses the so-called eastern name order, in which the surname (general, deriving from the family) comes first and the given name comes last. If a second given name is used, this follows the first given name.


title: Hungarian language

text: For clarity, in foreign languages Hungarian names are usually represented in the western name order. Sometimes, however, especially in the neighbouring countries of Hungary – where there is a significant Hungarian population – the Hungarian name order is retained, as it causes less confusion there.


title: Hungarian language

text: For an example of foreign use, the birth name of the Hungarian-born physicist called the "father of the hydrogen bomb" was Teller Ede, but he immigrated to the United States in the 1930s and thus became known as Edward Teller. Prior to the mid-20th century, given names were usually translated along with the name order; this is no longer as common. For example, the pianist uses "András Schiff" when abroad, not "Andrew Schiff" (in Hungarian "Schiff András"). If a second given name is present, it becomes a middle name and is usually written out in full, rather than truncated to an initial.


title: Hungarian language

text: Before the 20th century, not only was it common to reverse the order of foreign personalities, they were also "Hungarianised": "Goethe János Farkas" (originally Johann Wolfgang Goethe). This usage sounds odd today, when only a few well-known personalities are referred to using their Hungarianised names, including "Verne Gyula" (Jules Verne), "Marx Károly" (Karl Marx), "Kolumbusz Kristóf" (Christopher Columbus; note that the last of these is also translated in English from the original Italian or possibly Ligurian).


title: Hungarian language

text: Some native speakers disapprove of this usage; the names of certain historical religious personalities (including popes), however, are always Hungarianised by practically all speakers, such as "Luther Márton" (Martin Luther), "Husz János" (Jan Hus), "Kálvin János" (John Calvin); just like the names of monarchs, for example the king of Spain, Juan Carlos I is referred to as "I. János Károly" or the late queen of the UK, Elizabeth II would be referred to as "II. Erzsébet".


title: Hungarian language

text: Japanese names, which are usually written in western order in the rest of Europe, retain their original order in Hungarian, e. g. "Kuroszava Akira" instead of Akira Kurosawa.


title: Hungarian language

text: The Hungarian convention for date and time is to go from the generic to the specific: 1. year, 2. month, 3. day, 4. hour, 5. minute, (6. second)


title: Hungarian language

text: The year and day are always written in Arabic numerals, followed by a full stop. The month can be written by its full name or can be abbreviated, or even denoted by Roman or Arabic numerals. Except for the first case (month written by its full name), the month is followed by a full stop. Usually, when the month is written in letters, there is no leading zero before the day. On the other hand, when the month is written in Arabic numerals, a leading zero is common, but not obligatory. Except at the beginning of a sentence, the name of the month always begins with a lower-case letter.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hours, minutes, and seconds are separated by a colon (H:m:s). Fractions of a second are separated by a full stop from the rest of the time. Hungary generally uses the 24-hour clock format, but in verbal (and written) communication 12-hour clock format can also be used. See below for usage examples.


title: Hungarian language

text: Date separated by hyphen is also spreading, especially on datestamps. Here – just like the version separated by full stops – leading zeros are in use.


title: Hungarian language

text: When only hours and minutes are written in a sentence (so not only "displaying" time), these parts can be separated by a full stop (e.g. "Találkozzunk 10.35-kor." – "Let's meet at 10.35."), or it is also regular to write hours in normal size, and minutes put in superscript (and not necessarily) underlined (e.g. "A találkozó 10-kor kezdődik." "or" "A találkozó 10-kor kezdődik." – "The meeting begins at 10.35.").


title: Hungarian language

text: Also, in verbal and written communication it is common to use "délelőtt" (literally "before noon") and "délután" (lit. "after noon") abbreviated as "de." and "du." respectively. Délelőtt and délután is said or written before the time, e.g. "Délután 4 óra van." – "It's 4 p.m.". However e.g. "délelőtt 5 óra" (should mean "5 a.m.") or "délután 10 óra" (should mean "10 p.m.") are never used, because at these times the sun is not up, instead "hajnal" ("dawn"), "reggel" ("morning"), "este" ("evening") and "éjjel" ("night") is used, however there are no exact rules for the use of these, as everybody uses them according to their habits (e.g. somebody may have woken up at 5 a.m. so he/she says "Reggel 6-kor ettem." – "I had food at "*morning" 6.", and somebody woke up at 11 a.m. so he/she says "Hajnali 6-kor még aludtam." – "I was still sleeping at "*dawn" 6."). Roughly, these expressions mean these times:


title: Hungarian language

text: Although address formatting is increasingly being influenced by standard European conventions, the traditional Hungarian style is:


title: Hungarian language

text: So the order is: 1) postcode 2) settlement (most general), 3) street/square/etc. (more specific), 4) house number (most specific). The house number may be followed by the storey and door numbers.


title: Hungarian language

text: Addresses on envelopes and postal parcels should be formatted and placed on the right side as follows:


title: Hungarian language

text: "Note: The stress is always placed on the first syllable of each word. The remaining syllables all receive an equal, lesser stress. All syllables are pronounced clearly and evenly, even at the end of a sentence, unlike in English."


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres (; minor-planet designation: 1 Ceres) is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It was the first asteroid discovered, on 1 January 1801, by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory in Sicily and announced as a new planet. Ceres was later classified as an asteroid and then a dwarf planetthe only one always inside Neptune's orbit.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres's small size means that even at its brightest, it is too dim to be seen by the naked eye, except under extremely dark skies. Its apparent magnitude ranges from 6.7 to 9.3, peaking at opposition (when it is closest to Earth) once every 15- to 16-month synodic period. As a result, its surface features are barely visible even with the most powerful telescopes, and little was known about it until the robotic NASA spacecraft "Dawn" approached Ceres for its orbital mission in 2015.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn" found Ceres's surface to be a mixture of water ice, and hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clay. Gravity data suggest Ceres to be partially differentiated into a muddy (ice-rock) mantle/core and a less dense but stronger crust that is at most 30% ice by volume. Although Ceres likely lacks an internal ocean of liquid water, brines still flow through the outer mantle and reach the surface, allowing cryovolcanoes such as Ahuna Mons to form roughly every fifty million years. This makes Ceres the closest known cryovolcanic body to the Sun, and the brines provide a potential habitat for microbial life.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In January 2014, emissions of water vapour were detected around Ceres, creating a tenuous, transient atmosphere known as an exosphere. This was unexpected because vapour is usually a hallmark of comets, not asteroids.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In the years between the acceptance of heliocentrism in the 18th century and the discovery of Neptune in 1846, several astronomers argued that mathematical laws predicted the existence of a hidden or missing planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. In 1596 theoretical astronomer Johannes Kepler believed that the ratios between planetary orbits would conform to "God's design" only with the addition of two planets: one between Jupiter and Mars and one between Venus and Mercury. Other theoreticians, such as Immanuel Kant, pondered whether the gap had been created by the gravity of Jupiter; in 1761 astronomer and mathematician Johann Heinrich Lambert asked, "And who knows whether already planets are missing which have departed from the vast space between Mars and Jupiter? Does it then hold of celestial bodies as well as of the Earth, that the stronger chafe the weaker, and are Jupiter and Saturn destined to plunder forever?"


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In 1772 German astronomer Johann Elert Bode, citing Johann Daniel Titius, published a formula later known as the Titius–Bode law that appeared to predict the orbits of the known planets but for an unexplained gap between Mars and Jupiter. This formula predicted that there ought to be another planet with an orbital radius near 2.8 astronomical units (AU), or 420millionkm, from the Sun. The Titius–Bode law gained more credence with William Herschel's 1781 discovery of Uranus near the predicted distance for a planet beyond Saturn. In 1800 a group headed by Franz Xaver von Zach, editor of the German astronomical journal ("Monthly Correspondence"), sent requests to 24 experienced astronomers, whom he dubbed the "celestial police", asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet. Although they did not discover Ceres, they later found the asteroids Pallas, Juno, and Vesta.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: One of the astronomers selected for the search was Giuseppe Piazzi, a Catholic priest at the Academy of Palermo, Sicily. Before receiving his invitation to join the group, Piazzi discovered Ceres on 1 January 1801. He was searching for "the 87th [star] of the Catalogue of the Zodiacal stars of Mr la Caille", but found that "it was preceded by another". Instead of a star, Piazzi had found a moving star-like object, which he first thought was a comet. Piazzi observed Ceres 24 times, the final time on 11 February 1801, when illness interrupted his work. He announced his discovery on 24 January 1801 in letters to two fellow astronomers, his compatriot Barnaba Oriani of Milan and Bode in Berlin. He reported it as a comet, but "since its movement is so slow and rather uniform, it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet". In April, Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani, Bode, and French astronomer Jérôme Lalande. The information was published in the September 1801 issue of the .


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: By this time, the apparent position of Ceres had changed (primarily due to Earth's motion around the Sun), and was too close to the Sun's glare for other astronomers to confirm Piazzi's observations. Towards the end of the year, Ceres should have been visible again, but after such a long time, it was difficult to predict its exact position. To recover Ceres, mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, then 24 years old, developed an efficient method of orbit determination. Within a few weeks, he predicted the path of Ceres and sent his results to von Zach. On 31 December 1801, von Zach and fellow celestial policeman Heinrich W. M. Olbers found Ceres near the predicted position and continued to record its position. At 2.8 AU from the Sun, Ceres appeared to fit the Titius–Bode law almost perfectly; when Neptune was discovered in 1846, eight AU closer than predicted, most astronomers concluded that the law was a coincidence.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The early observers were able to calculate the size of Ceres only to within an order of magnitude. Herschel underestimated its diameter at in 1802; in 1811, German astronomer Johann Hieronymus Schröter overestimated it as . In the 1970s, infrared photometry enabled more accurate measurements of its albedo, and Ceres's diameter was determined to within 10% of its true value of 939km.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Piazzi's proposed name for his discovery was "Ceres Ferdinandea": "Ceres" after the Roman goddess of agriculture, whose earthly home, and oldest temple, lay in Sicily; and "Ferdinandea" in honour of Piazzi's monarch and patron, King FerdinandIII of Sicily. The latter was not acceptable to other nations and was dropped. Before von Zach's recovery of Ceres in December 1801, von Zach referred to the planet as "Hera," and Bode referred to it as "Juno". Despite Piazzi's objections, those names gained currency in Germany before the object's existence was confirmed. Once it was, astronomers settled on Piazzi's name.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The adjectival forms of "Ceres" are "Cererian" and "Cererean", both pronounced . Cerium, a rare-earth element discovered in 1803, was named after the dwarf planet Ceres.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The old astronomical symbol of Ceres, still used in astrology, is a sickle, . The sickle was one of the classical symbols of the goddess Ceres and was suggested, apparently independently, by von Zach and Bode in 1802. In form, it is similar to the symbol (a circle with a small cross beneath) of the planet Venus, but with a break in the circle. It had various minor graphic variants, including a reversed form typeset as a 'C' (the initial letter of the name "Ceres") with a plus sign. The generic asteroid symbol of a numbered disk, ①, was introduced in 1867 and quickly became the norm.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The categorisation of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement. Bode believed Ceres to be the "missing planet" he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter. Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables (along with Pallas, Juno, and Vesta) for over half a century.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: As other objects were discovered in the neighbourhood of Ceres, astronomers began to suspect that it represented the first of a new class of objects. When Pallas was discovered in 1802, Herschel coined the term "asteroid" ("star-like") for these bodies, writing that "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes". In 1852 Johann Franz Encke, in the "Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch", declared the traditional system of granting planetary symbols too cumbersome for these new objects and introduced a new method of placing numbers before their names in order of discovery. Initially, the numbering system began with the fifth asteroid, 5 Astraea, as number1, but in 1867 Ceres was adopted into the new system under the name 1Ceres.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: By the 1860s, astronomers widely accepted that a fundamental difference existed between the major planets and asteroids such as Ceres, though the word "planet" had yet to be precisely defined. In the 1950s, scientists generally stopped considering most asteroids as planets, but Ceres sometimes retained its status after that because of its planet-like geophysical complexity. Then, in 2006, the debate surrounding Pluto led to calls for a definition of "planet", and the possible reclassification of Ceres, perhaps even its general reinstatement as a planet. A proposal before the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the global body responsible for astronomical nomenclature and classification, defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet". Had this resolution been adopted, it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun, but on 24 August 2006 the assembly adopted the additional requirement that a planet must have "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit". Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit, sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about 40% of the belt's total mass. Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second, such as Ceres, were instead classified as dwarf planets. Planetary geologists still often ignore this definition and consider Ceres to be a planet anyway.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres is a dwarf planet, but there is some confusion about whether it is also an asteroid. A NASA webpage states that Vesta, the belt's second-largest object, is the largest asteroid. The IAU has been equivocal on the subject, though its Minor Planet Center, the organisation charged with cataloguing such objects, notes that dwarf planets may have dual designations,


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter, near the middle of the asteroid belt, with an orbital period (year) of 4.6 Earth years. Compared to other planets and dwarf planets, Ceres's orbit is moderately tilted relative to that of Earth; its inclination ("i") is 10.6°, compared to 7° for Mercury and 17° for Pluto. It is also slightly elongated, with an eccentricity ("e") = 0.08, compared to 0.09 for Mars.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres is not part of an asteroid family, probably due to its large proportion of ice, as smaller bodies with the same composition would have sublimated to nothing over the age of the Solar System. It was once thought to be a member of the Gefion family, the members of which share similar proper orbital elements, suggesting a common origin through an asteroid collision in the past. Ceres was later found to have a different composition from the Gefion family and appears to be an interloper, having similar orbital elements but not a common origin.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Due to their small masses and large separations, objects within the asteroid belt rarely fall into gravitational resonances with each other. Nevertheless, Ceres is able to capture other asteroids into temporary 1:1 resonances (making them temporary trojans), for periods from a few hundred thousand to more than two million years. Fifty such objects have been identified. Ceres is close to a 1:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Pallas (their proper orbital periods differ by 0.2%), but not close enough to be significant over astronomical timescales.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The rotation period of Ceres (the Cererian day) is 9hours and 4minutes; the small equatorial crater of Kait is selected as its prime meridian. Ceres has an axial tilt of 4°, small enough for its polar regions to contain permanently shadowed craters that are expected to act as cold traps and accumulate water ice over time, similar to what occurs on the Moon and Mercury. About 0.14% of water molecules released from the surface are expected to end up in the traps, hopping an average of three times before escaping or being trapped.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn", the first spacecraft to orbit Ceres, determined that the north polar axis points at right ascension 19h 25m 40.3s (291.418°), declination +66° 45' 50" (about 1.5 degrees from Delta Draconis), which means an axial tilt of 4°. This means that Ceres currently sees little to no seasonal variation in sunlight by latitude. Over the course of three million years, gravitational influence from Jupiter and Saturn has triggered cyclical shifts in Ceres's axial tilt, ranging from two to twenty degrees, meaning that seasonal variation in sun exposure has occurred in the past, with the last period of seasonal activity estimated at 14,000 years ago. Those craters that remain in shadow during periods of maximum axial tilt are the most likely to retain water ice from eruptions or cometary impacts over the age of the Solar System.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres is the largest asteroid in the main asteroid belt. It has been classified as a Ctype or carbonaceous asteroid and, due to the presence of clay minerals, as a G-type asteroid. It has a similar, but not identical, composition to that of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. It is an oblate spheroid, with an equatorial diameter 8% larger than its polar diameter. Measurements from the "Dawn" spacecraft found a mean diameter of and a mass of . This gives Ceres a density of , suggesting that a quarter of its mass is water ice.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres comprises 40% of the estimated mass of the asteroid belt, and it has times the mass of the next asteroid, Vesta, but it is only 1.3% the mass of the Moon. It is close to being in hydrostatic equilibrium, but some deviations from an equilibrium shape have yet to be explained. Assuming it is in equilibrium, Ceres is the only dwarf planet that is always within the orbit of Neptune. Modelling has suggested Ceres's rocky material is partially differentiated, and that it may possess a small core,


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: but the data are also consistent with a mantle of hydrated silicates and no core. Because "Dawn" lacked a magnetometer, it is not known if Ceres has a magnetic field; it is believed not to. Ceres's internal differentiation may be related to its lack of a natural satellite, as satellites of main belt asteroids are mostly believed to form from collisional disruption, creating an undifferentiated, rubble pile structure.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The surface composition of Ceres is homogeneous on a global scale, and is rich in carbonates and ammoniated phyllosilicates that have been altered by water, though water ice in the regolith varies from approximately 10% in polar latitudes to much drier, even ice-free, in the equatorial regions.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Studies using the Hubble Space Telescope show graphite, sulfur, and sulfur dioxide on Ceres's surface. The graphite is evidently the result of space weathering on Ceres's older surfaces; the latter two are volatile under Cererian conditions and would be expected to either escape quickly or settle in cold traps, and so are evidently associated with areas with relatively recent geological activity.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Organic compounds were detected in Ernutet Crater, and most of the planet's near surface is rich in carbon, at approximately 20% by mass. The carbon content is more than five times higher than in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites analysed on Earth. The surface carbon shows evidence of being mixed with products of rock-water interactions, such as clays. This chemistry suggests Ceres formed in a cold environment, perhaps outside the orbit of Jupiter, and that it accreted from ultra-carbon-rich materials in the presence of water, which could provide conditions favourable to organic chemistry.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn" revealed that Ceres has a heavily cratered surface, though with fewer large craters than expected. Models based on the formation of the current asteroid belt had predicted Ceres should have ten to fifteen craters larger than in diameter. The largest confirmed crater on Ceres, Kerwan Basin, is across. The most likely reason for this is viscous relaxation of the crust slowly flattening out larger impacts.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres's north polar region shows far more cratering than the equatorial region, with the eastern equatorial region in particular comparatively lightly cratered. The overall size frequency of craters of between twenty and a hundred kilometres (10–60mi) is consistent with their having originated in the Late Heavy Bombardment, with craters outside the ancient polar regions likely erased by early cryovolcanism. Three large shallow basins (planitiae) with degraded rims are likely to be eroded craters. The largest, Vendimia Planitia, at across, is also the largest single geographical feature on Ceres. Two of the three have higher than average ammonium concentrations.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn" observed 4,423 boulders larger than in diameter on the surface of Ceres. These boulders likely formed through impacts, and are found within or near craters, though not all craters contain boulders. Large boulders are more numerous at higher latitudes. Boulders on Ceres are brittle and degrade rapidly due to thermal stress (at dawn and dusk, the surface temperature changes rapidly) and meteoritic impacts. Their maximum age is estimated to be 150million years, much shorter than the lifetime of boulders on Vesta.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Although Ceres lacks plate tectonics, with the vast majority of its surface features linked either to impacts or to cryovolcanic activity, several potentially tectonic features have been tentatively identified on its surface, particularly in its eastern hemisphere. The Samhain Catenae, kilometre-scale linear fractures on Ceres's surface, lack any apparent link to impacts and bear a stronger resemblance to pit crater chains, which are indicative of buried normal faults. Also, several craters on Ceres have shallow, fractured floors consistent with cryomagmatic intrusion.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres has one prominent mountain, Ahuna Mons; this appears to be a cryovolcano and has few craters, suggesting a maximum age of 240million years. Its relatively high gravitational field suggests it is dense, and thus composed more of rock than ice, and that its placement is likely due to diapirism of a slurry of brine and silicate particles from the top of the mantle. It is roughly antipodal to Kerwan Basin. Seismic energy from the Kerwan-forming impact may have focused on the opposite side of Ceres, fracturing the outer layers of the crust and triggering the movement of high-viscosity cryomagma (muddy water ice softened by its content of salts) onto the surface. Kerwan too shows evidence of the effects of liquid water due to impact-melting of subsurface ice.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: A 2018 computer simulation suggests that cryovolcanoes on Ceres, once formed, recede due to viscous relaxation over several hundred million years. The team identified 22 features as strong candidates for relaxed cryovolcanoes on Ceres's surface. Yamor Mons, an ancient, impact-cratered peak, resembles Ahuna Mons despite being much older, due to it lying in Ceres's northern polar region, where lower temperatures prevent viscous relaxation of the crust. Models suggest that, over the past billion years, one cryovolcano has formed on Ceres on average every fifty million years. The eruptions are not uniformly distributed over Ceres, but may be linked to ancient impact basins. The model suggests that, contrary to findings at Ahuna Mons, Cererian cryovolcanoes must be composed of far less dense material than average for Ceres's crust, or the observed viscous relaxation could not occur.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: An unexpectedly large number of Cererian craters have central pits, perhaps due to cryovolcanic processes; others have central peaks. Hundreds of bright spots (faculae) have been observed by "Dawn", the brightest in the middle of Occator Crater. The bright spot in the centre of Occator is named Cerealia Facula, and the group of bright spots to its east, Vinalia Faculae. Occator possesses a pit 9–10 km wide, partially filled by a central dome. The dome post-dates the faculae and is likely due to freezing of a subterranean reservoir, comparable to pingos in Earth's Arctic region. A haze periodically appears above Cerealia, supporting the hypothesis that some sort of outgassing or sublimating ice formed the bright spots. In March 2016 "Dawn" found definitive evidence of water ice on the surface of Ceres at Oxo crater.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: On 9 December 2015 NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be due to a type of salt from evaporated brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrate (MgSO·6HO); the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia-rich clays. Near-infrared spectra of these bright areas were reported in 2017 to be consistent with a large amount of sodium carbonate () and smaller amounts of ammonium chloride () or ammonium bicarbonate (). These materials have been suggested to originate from the crystallisation of brines that reached the surface. In August 2020 NASA confirmed that Ceres was a water-rich body with a deep reservoir of brine that percolated to the surface in hundreds of locations causing "bright spots", including those in Occator Crater.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The active geology of Ceres is driven by ice and brines. Water leached from rock is estimated to possess a salinity of around 5%. Altogether, Ceres is approximately 50% water by volume (compared to 0.1% for Earth) and 73% rock by mass.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres's largest craters are several kilometres deep, inconsistent with an ice-rich shallow subsurface. The fact that the surface has preserved craters almost in diameter indicates that the outermost layer of Ceres is roughly 1000 times stronger than water ice. This is consistent with a mixture of silicates, hydrated salts and methane clathrates, with no more than 30% water ice by volume.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Gravity measurements from "Dawn" have generated three competing models for Ceres's interior. In the three-layer model Ceres is thought to consist of an outer, thick crust of ice, salts and hydrated minerals and an inner muddy "mantle" of hydrated rock, such as clays, separated by a layer of a muddy mixture of brine and rock. It is not possible to tell if Ceres's deep interior contains liquid or a core of dense material rich in metal, but the low central density suggests it may retain about 10% porosity.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: One study estimated the densities of the core and mantle/crust to be 2.46–2.90 and 1.68–1.95g/cm respectively, with the mantle and crust together being thick. Only partial dehydration (expulsion of ice) from the core is expected, though the high density of the mantle relative to water ice reflects its enrichment in silicates and salts. That is, the core (if it exists), the mantle and crust all consist of rock and ice, though in different ratios.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres's mineral composition can be determined (indirectly) only for its outer . The solid outer crust, thick, is a mixture of ice, salts, and hydrated minerals. Under that is a layer that may contain a small amount of brine. This extends to a depth of at least the limit of detection. Under that is thought to be a mantle dominated by hydrated rocks such as clays.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In one two-layer model Ceres consists of a core of chondrules and a mantle of mixed ice and micron-sized solid particulates ("mud"). Sublimation of ice at the surface would leave a deposit of hydrated particulates perhaps twenty metres thick. The range of the extent of differentiation is consistent with the data, from a large, core of 75% chondrules and 25% particulates and a mantle of 75% ice and 25% particulates, to a small, core consisting nearly entirely of particulates and a mantle of 30% ice and 70% particulates. With a large core, the core–mantle boundary should be warm enough for pockets of brine. With a small core, the mantle should remain liquid below . In the latter case a 2% freezing of the liquid reservoir would compress the liquid enough to force some to the surface, producing cryovolcanism.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: A second two-layer model suggests a partial differentiation of Ceres into a volatile-rich crust and a denser mantle of hydrated silicates. A range of densities for the crust and mantle can be calculated from the types of meteorite thought to have impacted Ceres. With CI-class meteorites (density 2.46 g/cm), the crust would be approximately thick and have a density of 1.68 g/cm; with CM-class meteorites (density 2.9 g/cm), the crust would be approximately thick and have a density of 1.9 g/cm. Best-fit modelling yields a crust approximately thick with a density of approximately 1.25 g/cm, and a mantle/core density of approximately 2.4 g/cm.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In 2017 "Dawn" confirmed that Ceres has a transient atmosphere of water vapour. Hints of an atmosphere had appeared in early 2014, when the Herschel Space Observatory detected localised mid-latitude sources of water vapour on Ceres, no more than in diameter, which each give off approximately molecules (3kg) of water per second. Two potential source regions, designated Piazzi (123°E, 21°N) and Region A (231°E, 23°N), were visualised in the near infrared as dark areas (Region A also has a bright centre) by the Keck Observatory. Possible mechanisms for the vapour release are sublimation from approximately of exposed surface ice, cryovolcanic eruptions resulting from radiogenic internal heat, or pressurisation of a subsurface ocean due to thickening of an overlying layer of ice. In 2015 David Jewitt included Ceres in his list of active asteroids. Surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 AU from the Sun, so it is expected to sublime if exposed directly to solar radiation. Water ice can migrate from the deep layers of Ceres to the surface, but escapes in a short time. Surface sublimation would be expected to be lower when Ceres is farther from the Sun in its orbit, and internally powered emissions should not be affected by its orbital position. The limited data previously available suggested cometary-style sublimation, but evidence from "Dawn" suggests geologic activity could be at least partially responsible.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Studies using "Dawn's" gamma ray and neutron detector (GRaND) reveal that Ceres accelerates electrons from the solar wind; the most accepted hypothesis is that these electrons are being accelerated by collisions between the solar wind and a tenuous water vapour exosphere. Bow shocks like these could also be explained by a transient magnetic field, but this is considered less likely, as the interior of Ceres is not thought to be sufficiently electrically conductive.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres is a surviving protoplanet that formed 4.56billion years ago; alongside Pallas and Vesta, one of only three remaining in the inner Solar System, with the rest either merging to form terrestrial planets, being shattered in collisions or being ejected by Jupiter. Despite Ceres's current location, its composition is not consistent with having formed within the asteroid belt. It seems rather that it formed between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, and was deflected into the asteroid belt as Jupiter migrated outward. The discovery of ammonium salts in Occator Crater supports an origin in the outer Solar System, as ammonia is far more abundant in that region.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The early geological evolution of Ceres was dependent on the heat sources available during and after its formation: impact energy from planetesimal accretion and decay of radionuclides (possibly including short-lived extinct radionuclides such as aluminium-26). These may have been sufficient to allow Ceres to differentiate into a rocky core and icy mantle, or even a liquid water ocean, soon after its formation. This ocean should have left an icy layer under the surface as it froze. The fact that "Dawn" found no evidence of such a layer suggests that Ceres's original crust was at least partially destroyed by later impacts thoroughly mixing the ice with the salts and silicate-rich material of the ancient seafloor and the material beneath.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Ceres possesses surprisingly few large craters, suggesting that viscous relaxation and cryovolcanism have erased older geological features. The presence of clays and carbonates requires chemical reactions at temperatures above 50°C, consistent with hydrothermal activity.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: It has become considerably less geologically active over time, with a surface dominated by impact craters; nevertheless, evidence from "Dawn" reveals that internal processes have continued to sculpt Ceres's surface to a significant extent contrary to predictions that Ceres's small size would have ceased internal geological activity early in its history.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Although Ceres is not as actively discussed as a potential home for microbial extraterrestrial life as Mars, Europa, Enceladus, or Titan are, it has the most water of any body in the inner Solar System after Earth, and the likely brine pockets under its surface could provide habitats for life. It does not experience tidal heating, like Europa or Enceladus, but it is close enough to the Sun, and contains enough long-lived radioactive isotopes, to preserve liquid water in its subsurface for extended periods. The remote detection of organic compounds and the presence of water mixed with 20% carbon by mass in its near surface could provide conditions favourable to organic chemistry. Of the biochemical elements, Ceres is rich in carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, but phosphorus has yet to be detected, and sulfur, despite being suggested by Hubble UV observations, was not detected by "Dawn".


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: When in opposition near its perihelion, Ceres can reach an apparent magnitude of +6.7. This is too dim to be visible to the average naked eye, but under ideal viewing conditions, keen eyes may be able to see it. Vesta is the only other asteroid that can regularly reach a similarly bright magnitude, while Pallas and 7 Iris do so only when both in opposition and near perihelion. When in conjunction, Ceres has a magnitude of around +9.3, which corresponds to the faintest objects visible with 10×50 binoculars; thus it can be seen with such binoculars in a naturally dark and clear night sky around new moon.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: On 13 November 1984 an occultation of the star BD+8°471 by Ceres was observed in Mexico, Florida and across the Caribbean, allowing better measurements of its size, shape and albedo. On 25 June 1995 Hubble obtained ultraviolet images of Ceres with resolution. In 2002 the Keck Observatory obtained infrared images with resolution using adaptive optics.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: Before the "Dawn" mission only a few surface features had been unambiguously detected on Ceres. High-resolution ultraviolet Hubble images in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface, which was nicknamed "Piazzi" in honour of the discoverer of Ceres. It was thought to be a crater. Visible-light images of a full rotation taken by Hubble in 2003 and 2004 showed eleven recognisable surface features, the natures of which were undetermined. One of them corresponded to the Piazzi feature. Near-infrared images over a whole rotation, taken with adaptive optics by the Keck Observatory in 2012, showed bright and dark features moving with Ceres's rotation. Two dark features were circular and were presumed to be craters; one was observed to have a bright central region, and the other was identified as the Piazzi feature. "Dawn" eventually revealed Piazzi to be a dark region in the middle of Vendimia Planitia, close to the crater Dantu, and the other dark feature to be within Hanami Planitia and close to Occator Crater.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In the early 1990s NASA initiated the Discovery Program, which was intended to be a series of low-cost scientific missions. In 1996 the program's study team proposed a high-priority mission to explore the asteroid belt using a spacecraft with an ion engine. Funding remained problematic for nearly a decade, but by 2004 the "Dawn" vehicle passed its critical design review.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn", the first space mission to visit either Vesta or Ceres, was launched on 27 September 2007. On 3 May 2011 "Dawn" acquired its first targeting image from Vesta. After orbiting Vesta for thirteen months, "Dawn" used its ion engine to depart for Ceres, with gravitational capture occurring on 6 March 2015 at a separation of , four months before the "New Horizons" flyby of Pluto.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: The spacecraft instrumentation included a framing camera, a visual and infrared spectrometer, and a gamma-ray and neutron detector. These instruments examined Ceres's shape and elemental composition. On 13 January 2015, as "Dawn" approached Ceres, the spacecraft took its first images at near-Hubble resolution, revealing impact craters and a small high-albedo spot on the surface. Additional imaging sessions, at increasingly better resolution took place from February to April.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn's" mission profile called for it to study Ceres from a series of circular polar orbits at successively lower altitudes. It entered its first observational orbit ("RC3") around Ceres at an altitude of on 23 April 2015, staying for only one orbit (15 days). The spacecraft then reduced its orbital distance to for its second observational orbit ("survey") for three weeks, then down to ("HAMO;" high altitude mapping orbit) for two months and then down to its final orbit at ("LAMO;" low altitude mapping orbit) for at least three months. In October 2015 NASA released a true-colour portrait of Ceres made by "Dawn". In 2017 "Dawn"'s mission was extended to perform a series of closer orbits around Ceres until the hydrazine used to maintain its orbit ran out.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: "Dawn" soon discovered evidence of cryovolcanism. Two distinct bright spots (or high-albedo features) inside a crater (different from the bright spots observed in earlier Hubble images) were seen in a 19 February 2015 image, leading to speculation about a possible cryovolcanic origin or outgassing. On 2 September 2016 scientists from the "Dawn" team argued in a "Science" paper that Ahuna Mons was the strongest evidence yet for cryovolcanic features on Ceres. On 11 May 2015 NASA released a higher-resolution image showing that the spots were composed of multiple smaller spots. On 9 December 2015 NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt, particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrate (MgSO·6HO); the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia-rich clays. In June 2016 near-infrared spectra of these bright areas were found to be consistent with a large amount of sodium carbonate (), implying that recent geologic activity was probably involved in the creation of the bright spots.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: From June to October 2018 "Dawn" orbited Ceres from as close as to as far away as . The "Dawn" mission ended on 1 November 2018 after the spacecraft ran out of fuel.


title: Ceres (dwarf planet)

text: In 2020, an ESA team proposed the Calathus Mission concept, a followup mission to Occator Crater, to return a sample of the bright carbonate faculae and dark organics to Earth. The Chinese Space Agency is designing a sample-return mission from Ceres that would take place during the 2020s.


title: Pfizer

text: Pfizer Inc. ( ) is an American multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology corporation headquartered on 42nd Street in Manhattan, New York City. The company was established in 1849 in New York by two German entrepreneurs, Charles Pfizer (1824–1906) and his cousin Charles F. Erhart (1821–1891).


title: Pfizer

text: Pfizer develops and produces medicines and vaccines for immunology, oncology, cardiology, endocrinology, and neurology. The company has several blockbuster drugs or products that each generate more than billion in annual revenues. In 2020, 52% of the company's revenues came from the United States, 6% came from each of China and Japan, and 36% came from other countries.


title: Pfizer

text: Pfizer was a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average stock market index from 2004 to August 2020. The company ranks 64th on the Fortune 500 and 49th on the Forbes Global 2000.


title: Pfizer

text: Pfizer was founded in 1849 by Charles Pfizer and Charles F. Erhart, two cousins who had immigrated to the United States from Ludwigsburg, Germany, the year before. The business produced chemical compounds, and was headquartered on Bartlett Street in Williamsburgh, New York where they produced an antiparasitic called santonin. This was an immediate success, although it was production of citric acid that led to Pfizer's growth in the 1880s. Pfizer continued to buy property in the area (by now the Williamsburg district of the city of Brooklyn, New York and beginning in 1898, the City of Greater New York) to expand its lab and factory, retaining offices on Flushing Avenue until the 1960s; the Brooklyn plant ultimately closed in 2009. Following their success with citric acid, Pfizer (at the now-demolished 295 Washington Avenue) and Erhart (at 280 Washington Avenue) established their main residences in the nearby Clinton Hill district, known for its concentration of Gilded Age wealth. Pfizer spent summers in similarly exclusive Newport, Rhode Island where he died in 1906.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1881, Pfizer moved its administrative headquarters to 81 Maiden Lane in Manhattan, presaging the company's expansion to Chicago a year later. By 1906 sales exceeded $3million.


title: Pfizer

text: World War I caused a shortage of calcium citrate, which Pfizer imported from Italy for the manufacture of citric acid, and the company began a search for an alternative supply. Pfizer chemists learned of a fungus that ferments sugar to citric acid, and they were able to commercialize production of citric acid from this source in 1919. The company developed expertise in fermentation technology as a result. These skills were applied to the mass production of penicillin, an antibiotic, during World War II in response to the need to treat injured Allied soldiers.


title: Pfizer

text: Due to price declines for penicillin, Pfizer searched for new antibiotics with greater profit potential. Pfizer discovered oxytetracycline in 1950, and this changed the company from a manufacturer of fine chemicals to a research-based pharmaceutical company. Pfizer developed a drug discovery program focused on in vitro synthesis to augment its research in fermentation technology. In 1959, the company established an animal health division with a farm and research facility in Terre Haute, Indiana.


title: Pfizer

text: By the 1950s, Pfizer had established offices in Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, and the United Kingdom. In 1960, the company moved its medical research laboratory operations out of New York City to a new facility in Groton, Connecticut. In 1980, Pfizer launched "Feldene" (piroxicam), a prescription anti-inflammatory medication that became Pfizer's first product to reach $1billion in revenue.


title: Pfizer

text: As the area surrounding its Brooklyn plant fell into decline in the 1970s and 1980s, the company formed a public-private partnership with New York City that encompassed the construction of low- and middle-income housing, the refurbishment of apartment buildings for the homeless and the establishment of a charter school.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1972, Edmund T. Pratt Jr. became chief executive officer of the company, succeeding John Powers, Jr.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1981, the company received approval for "Diflucan" (fluconazole), the first oral treatment for severe fungal infections including candidiasis, blastomycosis, coccidiodomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, dermatophytosis, and pityriasis versicolor.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1986, Pfizer acquired the worldwide rights to "Zithromax" (azithromycin), a macrolide antibiotic that is recommended by the Infectious Disease Society of America as a first line treatment for certain cases of community-acquired pneumonia, from Pliva.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1989, Pfizer scientists Peter Dunn and Albert Wood created "Viagra" (sildenafil) for treating high blood pressure and angina, a chest pain associated with coronary artery disease. In 1991, it was patented in the United Kingdom as a heart medication. Early trials for the medication showed that it did not work for the treatment of heart disease, but volunteers in the clinical trials had increased erections several days after taking the drug. It was patented in the United States in 1996 and received approval by the Food and Drug Administration in March 1998. In December 1998, Pfizer hired Bob Dole as a spokesperson for the drug. The patents for Viagra expired in 2020.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1991, William C. Steere, Jr. became chief executive officer of the company, succeeding Edmund T. Pratt Jr.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1991 Pfizer also began marketing "Zoloft" (sertraline), an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class developed nine years earlier by Pfizer chemists Kenneth Koe and Willard Welch. Sertraline is primarily prescribed for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients as well as obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder in both adults and children. In 2005, the year before it became a generic drug, sales were over $3billion and over 100million people had been treated with the drug. The patent for Zoloft expired in the summer of 2006.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1996, Eisai, in partnership with Pfizer, received approval from the Food and Drug Administration for donepezil under the brand Aricept for treatment of Alzheimer's disease; Pfizer also received approval for "Norvasc" (amlodipine), an antihypertensive drug of the dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker class.


title: Pfizer

text: In 1997, the company entered into a co-marketing agreement with Warner–Lambert for "Lipitor" (atorvastatin), a statin for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Although atorvastatin was the fifth statin to be developed, clinical trials showed that atorvastatin caused a more dramatic reduction in low-density lipoprotein pattern C (LDL-C) than the other statin drugs. Upon its patent expiration in 2011, Lipitor was the best-selling drug ever, with approximately $125billion in sales over 14.5 years.


title: Pfizer

text: In 2001, Henry McKinnell became chief executive officer of the company, replacing William C. Steere, Jr.


title: Pfizer

text: In 2004, the company received approval for "Lyrica" (pregabalin), an anticonvulsant and anxiolytic medication used to treat epilepsy, neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, restless leg syndrome, and generalized anxiety disorder. The United States patent on Lyrica was challenged by generic manufacturers and was upheld in 2014, extending the expiration date to 2018. In 2016, the drug had sales of $4.2 billion.


title: Pfizer

text: In July 2006, Jeff Kindler was named chief executive officer of the company, replacing Henry McKinnell.


title: Pfizer

text: On December 3, 2006, Pfizer ceased development of torcetrapib, a drug that increases production of HDL, which reduces LDL thought to be correlated to heart disease. During a Phase III clinical trial involving 15,000 patients, more deaths than expected occurred in the group that took the medicine, and the mortality rate of patients taking the combination of torcetrapib and Lipitor (82 deaths during the study) was 60% higher than those taking Lipitor alone (52 deaths during the study). Lipitor alone was not implicated in the results, but Pfizer lost nearly $1billion developing the failed drug and its stock price dropped 11% on the day of the announcement.


title: Pfizer

text: Between 2007 and 2010, Pfizer spent $3.3million on investigations and legal fees and recovered about $5.1million, and had another $5million of pending recoveries from civil lawsuits against makers of counterfeit prescription drugs. Pfizer has hired customs and narcotics experts worldwide to track down fakes and assemble evidence that can be used to pursue civil suits for trademark infringement.


title: Pfizer

text: In July 2008, Pfizer announced 275 job cuts at its manufacturing facility in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Kalamazoo was previously the world headquarters of Upjohn Company, which had been acquired as part of Pharmacia.


title: Pfizer

text: In June 2000, Pfizer acquired Warner-Lambert outright for $116billion. To satisfy conditions imposed by antitrust regulators at the Federal Trade Commission, Pfizer sold off or transferred stakes in several minor products, including RID (a shampoo for treatment of head lice, sold to Bayer) and Warner-Lambert's antidepressant Celexa (which competes with Zoloft). The acquisition created what was, at the time, the second-largest pharmaceutical company worldwide.


title: Pfizer

text: In 2003, Pfizer merged with Pharmacia, and in the process acquired Searle and SUGEN. Searle had developed "Flagyl" (metronidazole), a nitroimidazole antibiotic medication used particularly for anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. Searle also developed celecoxib ("Celebrex") a COX-2 inhibitor and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat the pain and inflammation in osteoarthritis, acute pain in adults, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, painful menstruation, and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. SUGEN, a company focused on protein kinase inhibitors, had pioneered the use of ATP-mimetic small molecules to block signal transduction. The SUGEN facility was shut down in 2003 by Pfizer, with the loss of more than 300 jobs, and several programs were transferred to Pfizer. These included sunitinib ("Sutent"), a cancer medication which was approved for human use by the FDA in January 2006. A related compound, SU11654 (Toceranib), was also approved for cancer in dogs, and the ALK inhibitor Crizotinib also grew out of a SUGEN program.


title: Pfizer

text: On October 15, 2009, Pfizer acquired Wyeth for $68billion in cash and stock, including the assumption of debt, making Pfizer the largest pharmaceutical company in the world. The acquisition of Wyeth provided Pfizer with a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, trademarked Prevnar 13; this is used for the prevention of invasive pneumococcal infections. The introduction of the original, 7-valent version of the vaccine, developed by Wyeth in February 2000, led to a 75% reduction in the incidence of invasive pneumococcal infections among children under age5 in the United States. Pfizer introduced an improved version of the vaccine in 2010, for which it was granted a patent in India in 2017. Prevnar 13 provides coverage of 13 bacterial variants, expanding beyond the original 7-valent version. By 2012, the rate of invasive infections among children under age5 had been reduced by an additional 50%.


title: Pfizer

text: In February 2011, Pfizer announced the closure of its UK research and development facility (formerly also a manufacturing plant) in Sandwich, Kent, which at the time employed 2,400 people. In March 2011, Pfizer acquired King Pharmaceuticals for $3.6billion in cash. King produced emergency injectables such as the EpiPen.


title: Pfizer

text: On September 4, 2012, the FDA approved bosutinib ("Bosulif") for chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), a rare type of leukemia and a blood and bone marrow disease that affects primarily older adults. In November 2012, Pfizer received approval from the Food and Drug Administration for Xeljanz, a tofacitinib, for rheumatoid arthritis and ulcerative colitis. The drug had sales of $1.77billion in 2018, and in January 2019, it was the top drug in the United States for direct-to-consumer advertising, passing adalimumab ("Humira").


title: Pfizer

text: On February 1, 2013, Zoetis, the Agriculture Division of Pfizer and later Pfizer Animal Health, became a public company via an initial public offering, raising $2.2billion. Later in 2013, Pfizer completed the corporate spin-off of its remaining stake in Zoetis.


title: Pfizer

text: In September 2014, the company acquired Innopharma for $225million, plus up to $135million in milestone payments, in a deal that expanded Pfizer's range of generic and injectable drugs.


title: Pfizer

text: On January 5, 2015, the company announced it would acquire a controlling interest in Redvax, expanding its vaccine portfolio targeting human cytomegalovirus. In February 2015, the company received approval from the Food and Drug Administration for palbociclib ("Ibrance") for treatment of certain types of breast cancer. In March 2015, the company announced it would restart its collaboration with Eli Lilly and Company surrounding the Phase III trial of Tanezumab. In May 2015, Pfizer and a Bar-Ilan University laboratory announced a partnership based on the development of medical DNA nanotechnology. In June 2015, the company acquired "Nimenrix" and "Mencevax", meningococcal vaccines, from GlaxoSmithKline for around $130million. In September 2015, Pfizer acquired Hospira for $17billion, including the assumption of debt. Hospira was the largest producer of generic injectable pharmaceuticals in the world. On November 23, 2015, Pfizer and Allergan announced a planned $160billion merger, in the largest pharmaceutical deal ever and the third largest corporate merger in history. The proposed transaction contemplated that the merged company maintain Allergan's Republic of Ireland domicile, resulting in the new company being subject to corporation tax at the relatively low rate of 12.5%. The deal was to constitute a reverse merger, whereby Allergan acquired Pfizer, with the new company then changing its name to "Pfizer, plc". On April 6, 2016, Pfizer and Allergan terminated the merger agreement after the Obama administration and the United States Department of the Treasury introduced new laws intended to limit corporate inversions (the extent to which companies could move their headquarters overseas in order to reduce the amount of taxes they pay).


title: Pfizer

text: In June 2016, the company acquired Anacor Pharmaceuticals for $5.2billion, expanding its portfolio in both inflammation and immunology drugs areas. In August 2016, the company made a $40million bid for the assets of BIND Therapeutics, which was in bankruptcy. The same month, the company acquired Bamboo Therapeutics for $645million, expanding its gene therapy offerings. In September 2016, the company acquired cancer drug-maker Medivation for $14billion. In October 2016, the company licensed the anti-CTLA4 monoclonal antibody, ONC-392, from OncoImmune. In November 2016, Pfizer funded a $3,435,600 study with the CDC Foundation to research "screen-and-treat" strategies for cryptococcal disease in Botswana. In December 2016, Pfizer acquired AstraZeneca's small-molecule antibiotics business for $1.575 billion.


title: Pfizer

text: In January 2018, Pfizer announced that it would end its work on research into treatments for Alzheimer's disease and Parkinsonism (a symptom of Parkinson's disease and other conditions). The company said about 300 researchers would lose their jobs. In July 2018, the Food and Drug Administration approved enzalutamide, developed by Pfizer and Astellas Pharma for patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. In August 2018, Pfizer signed an agreement with BioNTech to conduct joint research and development activities regarding mRNA-based influenza vaccines. In October 2018, effective January 1, 2019, Albert Bourla was promoted to chief executive officer, succeeding Ian Read, his mentor.


title: Pfizer

text: In July 2019, the company acquired Therachon for up to $810million, expanding its rare disease portfolio through Therachon's recombinant human fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 compound, aimed at treating conditions such as achondroplasia. Also in July, Pfizer acquired Array Biopharma for $10.6billion, boosting its oncology pipeline. In August 2019, Pfizer merged its consumer health business with that of GlaxoSmithKline, into a joint venture owned 68% by GlaxoSmithKline and 32% by Pfizer, with plans to make it a public company. The transaction built on a 2018 transaction where GlaxoSmithKline acquired Novartis' stake in the GSK-Novartis consumer healthcare joint business. The transaction followed negotiations with other companies including Reckitt Benckiser, Sanofi, Johnson & Johnson, and Procter & Gamble. In September 2019, Pfizer initiated a study with the CDC Foundation to investigate the tracking of healthcare-associated infections, scheduled to run through to June 2023. In December 2019, Pfizer awarded the CDC Foundation a further $1,948,482 to continue its cryptococcal disease screening and treatment research in nine African countries.


title: Pfizer

text: In September 2020, the company acquired a 9.9% stake in CStone Pharmaceuticals for $200million (HK$1.55billion), helping to commercialise its anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibody, CS1001. In October 2020, the company acquired Arixa Pharmaceuticals. In November 2020, using a Reverse Morris Trust structure, Pfizer merged its off-patent branded and generic drug business, known as Upjohn, with Mylan to form Viatris, owned 57% by Pfizer shareholders.