title: Joseph Merrick

text: With Merrick admitted into the hospital, Treves now had time to conduct a more thorough examination. He discovered that Merrick's physical condition had deteriorated over the previous two years and that he had become quite impaired by his deformities. Treves also suspected that Merrick now had a heart condition and had only a few years left to live. Merrick's general health improved over the next five months under the care of the hospital staff. Although some nurses were initially upset by his appearance, they overcame this and cared for him.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: The problem of his unpleasant odour was mitigated through frequent bathing and Treves gradually developed an understanding of Merrick's speech. A new set of photographs was taken. The question of Merrick's long-term care had to be addressed. Francis Carr Gomm, the chairman of the hospital committee, had supported Treves in his decision to admit Merrick, but by November, long-term plans needed to be made. The London Hospital was not equipped or staffed to provide care for the incurable, which Merrick clearly was.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Carr Gomm contacted other institutions and hospitals more suited to caring for chronic cases, but none would accept Merrick. Gomm wrote a letter to "The Times", printed on 4 December, outlining Merrick's case and asking readers for suggestions. The public response—in letters and donations—was significant, and the situation was even covered by the "British Medical Journal". With the financial backing of the many donors, Gomm was able to make a convincing case to the committee for keeping Merrick in the hospital. It was decided that he would be allowed to stay there for the remainder of his life. He was moved from the attic to two rooms in the basement adjacent to a small courtyard. The rooms were adapted and furnished to suit Merrick, with a specially constructed bed and—at Treves's instruction—no mirrors.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Merrick settled into his new life at the London Hospital. Treves visited him daily and spent a couple of hours with him every Sunday. Now that Merrick had found someone who understood his speech, he was delighted to carry on long conversations with the doctor. Treves and Merrick built a friendly relationship, although Merrick never completely confided in him. He told Treves that he was an only child, and Treves had the impression that his mother, whose picture Merrick always carried with him, had abandoned him as a baby. Merrick was also reluctant to talk about his exhibition days, although he expressed gratitude towards his former managers. It did not take Treves long to realise that, contrary to his initial impressions, Merrick was not intellectually impaired.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Treves observed that Merrick was very sensitive and showed his emotions easily. At times, Merrick was bored and lonely, and demonstrated signs of depression. He had spent his entire adult life segregated from women, first in the workhouse and then as an exhibit. The women he met were either disgusted or frightened by his appearance. His opinions about women were derived from his memories of his mother and what he read in books. Treves decided that Merrick would like to be introduced to a woman and it would help him feel normal. The doctor arranged for a friend of his named Mrs. Leila Maturin, "a young and pretty widow", to visit Merrick. She agreed and with fair warning about his appearance, she went to his rooms for an introduction. The meeting was short, as Merrick quickly became overcome with emotion. He later told Treves that Maturin had been the first woman ever to smile at him, and the first to shake his hand. She kept in contact with him and a letter written by Merrick to her, thanking her for the gift of a book and a brace of grouse, is the only surviving letter written by Merrick. This first experience of meeting a woman, though brief, instilled in Merrick a new sense of self-confidence. He met other women during his life at the hospital, and appeared taken with them all. Treves believed that Merrick's hope was to go to live at an institution for the blind, where he might meet a woman who could not see his deformities.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Merrick wanted to know about the "real world", and questioned Treves on a number of topics. One day he expressed a desire to see inside what he considered a "real" house and Treves obliged, taking him to visit his Wimpole Street townhouse and meet his wife. At the hospital, Merrick filled his days with reading and constructing models of buildings out of card. He entertained visits from Treves and his house surgeons. He rose each day in the afternoon and would leave his rooms to walk in the small adjacent courtyard, after dark.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: As a result of Carr Gomm's letters to "The Times", Merrick's case attracted the notice of London's high society. One person who took a keen interest was actress Madge Kendal. Although she probably never met him in person, she was responsible for raising funds and public sympathy for Merrick. She sent him photographs of herself and employed a basket weaver to go to his rooms and teach him the craft. Other people of high society did visit him however, bringing gifts of photographs and books. He reciprocated with letters and hand made gifts of card models and baskets. Merrick enjoyed these visits and became confident enough to converse with people who passed his windows. A young man, Charles Taylor, the son of the engineer responsible for modifying Merrick's rooms, spent time with him, sometimes playing the violin. Occasionally, he grew bold enough to leave his small living quarters and would explore the hospital. When he was discovered, he was always hurried back to his quarters by the nurses, who feared he might frighten the patients.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: On 21 May 1887, two new buildings were completed at the hospital and the Prince and Princess of Wales came to open them officially. Princess Alexandra wished to meet the Elephant Man, so after a tour of the hospital, the royal party went to his rooms for an introduction. The princess shook Merrick's hand and sat with him, an experience that left him overjoyed. She gave him a signed photograph of herself, which became a prized possession, and she sent him a Christmas card each year.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: On at least one occasion, Merrick was able to fulfill a long-held desire to visit the theatre. Treves, with the help of Madge Kendal, arranged for him to attend the Christmas pantomime at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Treves sat with some nurses, concealed in Lady Burdett-Coutts' private box. According to Treves, Merrick was "awed" and "enthralled". "The spectacle left him speechless, so that if he were spoken to he took no heed." For weeks following the show, Merrick talked about the pantomime, reliving the story as if it had been real.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: On three occasions Merrick left the hospital and London on holiday, spending a few weeks at a time in the countryside. Through elaborate arrangements that allowed Merrick to board a train unseen and have an entire carriage to himself, he travelled to Northamptonshire to stay at Fawsley Hall, the estate of Lady Knightley. He stayed at the gamekeeper's cottage and spent the days walking in the estate's woods, collecting wild flowers. He befriended a young farm labourer who later recalled Merrick as an interesting and well-educated man. Treves called this "the one supreme holiday of [Merrick's] life", although in fact there were three such trips.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Merrick's condition gradually deteriorated during his four years at the London Hospital. He required a great deal of care from the nursing staff and spent much of his time in bed, or sitting in his quarters, with diminishing energy. His facial deformities continued to grow and his head became even more enlarged. He died on 11 April 1890, at the age of 27. At around 3:00 p.m. Treves's house surgeon visited Merrick and found him lying dead across his bed. His body was formally identified by his uncle, Charles Merrick. An inquest was held on 27 April by Wynne Edwin Baxter, who had come to notoriety conducting inquests for the Whitechapel murders of 1888.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Merrick's death was ruled accidental and the certified cause of death was asphyxia, caused by the weight of his head as he lay down. Treves, who performed an autopsy, said Merrick had died of a dislocated neck, which likely severed his vertebral arteries. Knowing that Merrick had always slept sitting upright out of necessity, Treves concluded that Merrick must have "made the experiment", attempting to sleep lying down "like other people".


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Joseph did not receive a burial, with almost all sections of his body, both skeleton and soft tissue, being preserved for study. Treves dissected Merrick's body and took plaster casts of his head and limbs. He took skin samples, which were later lost during the Second World War, and mounted his skeleton, which remains in the pathology collection at the Royal London Hospital, which amalgamated in 1995 with St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College, under the aegis of Queen Mary University of London, a constituent college of the federal University of London and a member of the United Hospitals. His mounted skeleton at the medical school is not on public display.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: There is a small museum dedicated to his life, housing some of his personal effects, and a new replica of his skeleton went on display in 2012. His remains, in a glass case in a private room at the university, can be viewed by medical students and professionals by appointment, to "allow medical students to view and understand the physical deformities resulting from Joseph Merrick's condition". Although Queen Mary University of London intends to keep his skeleton at its medical school, some are contending that as a devout Christian, Merrick should be given a Christian burial in his home city of Leicester.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: On 5 May 2019, author Jo Vigor-Mungovin discovered that Merrick's soft tissue was buried in the City of London Cemetery.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Ever since Joseph Merrick's days as a novelty exhibit on Whitechapel Road, his condition has been a source of curiosity for medical professionals. His appearance at the meeting of the Pathological Society of London in 1884 drew interest from the doctors present, but neither the answers nor the attention that Treves had hoped for. The case received only a brief mention in the "British Medical Journal", and the "Lancet" declined to mention it at all. Four months later, in 1885, Treves brought the case before the meeting for a second time. By then, Tom Norman's shop on Whitechapel Road had been closed, and Merrick had moved on. Without Merrick, Treves made do with the photographs he had taken during his examinations.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: One of the doctors present at the meeting was Henry Radcliffe Crocker, a dermatologist who was an authority on skin diseases. After hearing Treves's description of Merrick, and viewing the photographs, Crocker proposed that Merrick's condition might be a combination of pachydermatocele and an unnamed bone deformity, all caused by changes in the nervous system. Crocker wrote about Merrick's case in his 1888 book "Diseases of the Skin: their Description, Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment".


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In 1909, dermatologist Frederick Parkes Weber wrote an article in the "British Journal of Dermatology", erroneously citing Merrick as an example of von Recklinghausen Disease (neurofibromatosis), which German pathologist Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen had described in 1882. Recently it has been found that this conjecture was wrong, in fact, symptoms that are always present in this genetic disorder include tumours of the nervous tissue and bones, small warty growths on the skin, and the presence of light brown pigmentation on the skin called café au lait spots, which are of particular importance in diagnosing von Recklinghausen Disease; these spots were never observed on Merrick's body. For this reason, although this diagnosis was quite popular through most of the 20th century, other conjectural diagnoses were advanced, such as Maffucci syndrome and polyostotic fibrous dysplasia (Albright's disease).


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In a 1986 article in the "British Medical Journal", Michael Cohen and J. A. R. Tibbles put forward the hypothesis that Merrick had had Proteus syndrome, a very rare congenital disorder recently identified by Cohen in 1979 (this explains why this diagnosis was not advanced previously), citing Merrick's lack of reported café au lait spots and the absence of any histological proof that he had had the previously conjectured syndrome. In fact, Proteus syndrome affects tissue other than nerves, and it is a sporadic disorder rather than a genetically transmitted disease. Cohen and Tibbles said Merrick showed the following signs of Proteus syndrome: "macrocephaly; hyperostosis of the large skull; hypertrophy of long bones; and thickened skin and subcutaneous tissues, particularly of the hands and feet, including plantar hyperplasia, lipomas, and other unspecified subcutaneous masses".


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In a letter to "Biologist" in June 2001, British teacher and Chartered Biologist Paul Spiring speculated that Merrick might have had a combination of Proteus syndrome and neurofibromatosis. This hypothesis was reported by Robert Matthews, a correspondent for "The Sunday Telegraph". The possibility that Merrick had both conditions formed the basis for a 2003 documentary film entitled "The Curse of The Elephant Man", which was produced for the Discovery Health Channel by Natural History New Zealand.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: During 2002, genealogical research for the film led to a BBC appeal to trace Merrick's maternal family line. In response to the appeal, a Leicester resident named Pat Selby was discovered to be the granddaughter of Merrick's uncle George Potterton. A research team took DNA samples from Selby in an unsuccessful attempt to diagnose Merrick's condition. During 2003, the filmmakers commissioned further diagnostic tests using DNA from Merrick's hair and bone. However, the results of these tests proved inconclusive; therefore, the precise cause of Merrick's medical condition remains uncertain.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In 1923, Frederick Treves published a volume, "The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences", in which he detailed what he knew of Merrick's life and their personal interactions. This account is the source of much of what is known about Merrick, but there were several inaccuracies in the book. Merrick never completely confided in Treves about his early life, so these details were consequently sketchy in Treves's "Reminiscences". A more mysterious error is that of Merrick's first name. Treves, in his earlier journal articles as well as his book, insisted on calling him John Merrick. The reason for this is unclear; Merrick clearly signed his name as "Joseph" in the examples of his handwriting that remain. In the handwritten manuscript for "The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences", Treves began his account by writing "Joseph" and then crossed it out and replaced it with "John". Whatever the reason for the error, it is one that persisted throughout much of the 20th century; later biographers who based their work on Treves's book have continued the error.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Treves's depiction of Tom Norman, the showman who had exhibited Merrick, was that of a cruel drunk who had ruthlessly exploited his charge. In a letter to the "World's Fair" newspaper, and later in his own memoirs, Norman denied this characterisation and said he provided his show attractions with a way of earning a living, and that at the London Hospital Merrick was still on display, but with no control over how or when he was viewed. According to Nadja Durbach, author of "The Spectacle of Deformity: Freak Shows and Modern British Culture", Norman's view gives an insight into the Victorian freak show's function as a means of survival for poor people with deformities, as well as the attitude of medical professionals of the time. Durbach cautions that both Treves's and Norman's memoirs must be understood as "narrative reconstructions... that reflect personal and professional prejudices and cater to the demands and expectations of their very different audiences".


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In 1971, anthropologist Ashley Montagu published "The Elephant Man: A Study in Human Dignity" which drew on Treves's book and explored Merrick's character. Montagu reprinted Treves's account alongside various others such as Carr Gomm's letter to "The Times" and the report on Merrick's inquest. He pointed out inconsistencies between the accounts and sometimes disputed Treves's version of events; he noted, for example, that while Treves claimed Merrick knew nothing of his mother's appearance, Carr Gomm refers to Merrick carrying a painting of his mother with him, and he criticised Treves's assumption that Merrick's mother was "worthless and inhuman". However, Montagu also perpetuated some of the errors in Treves's work, including his use of the name "John" rather than "Joseph".


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In 1980, Michael Howell and Peter Ford published "The True History of the Elephant Man", presenting the fruits of their detailed archival research. Howell and Ford brought to light a large amount of new information about Merrick. In addition to proving that his name was Joseph, not John, they were able to describe in more detail his life story. They refuted some of the inaccuracies in Treves's account, showing that Merrick's mother had not abandoned him, and that Merrick deliberately chose to exhibit himself to make a living.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Some persons remarked on Merrick's strong Christian faith (Treves is also said to have been a Christian), and his strong character and courage in the face of disabilities earned him admiration. Between 1979 and 1982, Merrick's life story became the basis of several works of dramatic art; these were based on the accounts of Treves and Montagu. In 1979, "The Elephant Man", a Tony Award–winning play by American playwright Bernard Pomerance, was staged. The character based on Merrick was initially played by David Schofield and in subsequent productions by actors including Philip Anglim, David Bowie, Bruce Davison, Mark Hamill and Bradley Cooper. In 1980, a film "The Elephant Man", directed by David Lynch, was released; it received eight Academy Award nominations. Merrick was played by John Hurt and Frederick Treves by Anthony Hopkins. In 1982, US television network ABC broadcast an adaptation of Pomerance's play, starring Anglim.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: Merrick is portrayed by actor Joseph Drake in two episodes of the second series of BBC historical crime drama "Ripper Street", first broadcast in 2013. In 2017, the Malthouse Theatre, Melbourne, commissioned playwright Tom Wright to write a play about Merrick's life. "The Real and Imagined History of the Elephant Man" premiered on 4 August, and starred Daniel Monks in the title role. The cast also featured Paula Arundell, Julie Forsyth, Emma J. Hawkins, and Sophie Ross.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In August 2018 it was announced that Charlie Heaton would be playing Merrick in a new two part BBC drama, a decision which has drawn criticism from some quarters. In the 2019 sitcom "Year of the Rabbit", Merrick was played by David Dawson as a pretentious theatrical type.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In 2002, American heavy metal band Mastodon included an instrumental track, "Elephant Man", on their album "Remission". In 2004, on their album "Leviathan", they included a similar instrumental, "Joseph Merrick", as well as "Pendulous Skin", on 2006's "Blood Mountain." On their 2005 album "Doppelgänger", American band The Fall Of Troy released a song titled "Whacko Jacko Steals the Elephant Man's Bones", the title referencing reports that Michael Jackson had attempted to buy the skeleton from London Hospital. In 2003, American guitarist Buckethead included the track "John Merrick – Elephant Man Bones Explosion" on his album "Bucketheadland 2". In 2006, he released the album "The Elephant Man's Alarm Clock", which included a song with the same title. Merrick's life is the subject of "Joseph Merrick, The Elephant Man", an opera by composer Laurent Petitgirard, set to a French libretto by Eric Nonn. It premiered on 7 February 2002 at the State Opera House, Prague, and starred contralto Jana Sykorova in the title role.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In November 2016, Joanne Vigor-Mungovin published a book called "Joseph: The Life, Times and Places of the Elephant Man", which included a foreword written by a member of Joseph Merrick's family. The book looks into the early life of Merrick and his family in Vigor-Mungovin's hometown of Leicester, with detailed information about Joseph's family and his ambition to be self-sufficient rather than survive on the charity of others.


title: Joseph Merrick

text: In 2022, rapper Roc Marciano and producer The Alchemist released their collaborative album titled "The Elephant Man's Bones".


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: "Rumpelstiltskin" ( ; ) is a German fairy tale. It was collected by the Brothers Grimm in the 1812 edition of "Children's and Household Tales". The story is about a little imp who spins straw into gold in exchange for a girl's firstborn child.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: In order to appear superior, a miller brags to the king and people of the kingdom he lives in by claiming his daughter can spin straw into gold. The king calls for the girl, locks her up in a tower room filled with straw and a spinning wheel, and demands she spin the straw into gold by morning or he will have her killed. When she has given up all hope, a little imp-like man appears in the room and spins the straw into gold in return for her necklace. The next morning the king takes the girl to a larger room filled with straw to repeat the feat, the imp once again spins, in return for the girl's ring. On the third day, when the girl has been taken to an even larger room filled with straw and told by the king that he will marry her if she can fill this room with gold or execute her if she cannot, the girl has nothing left with which she can pay the strange creature. He extracts a promise from her that she will give him her firstborn child, and so he spins the straw into gold a final time.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The king keeps his promise to marry the miller's daughter. But when their first child is born, the imp returns to claim his payment. She offers him all the wealth she has to keep the child, but the imp has no interest in her riches. He finally agrees to give up his claim to the child if she can guess the imp's name within three days.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The queen's many guesses fail. But before the final night, she wanders into the woods searching for him and comes across his remote mountain cottage and watches, unseen, as he hops about his fire and sings. In his song's lyrics—"tonight tonight, my plans I make, tomorrow tomorrow, the baby I take. The queen will never win the game, for Rumpelstiltskin is my name"—he reveals his name.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: When the imp comes to the queen on the third day, after first feigning ignorance, she reveals his name, Rumpelstiltskin, and he loses his temper at the loss of their bargain. Versions vary about whether he accuses the devil or witches of having revealed his name to the queen. In the 1812 edition of the Brothers Grimm tales, Rumpelstiltskin then "ran away angrily, and never came back." The ending was revised in an 1857 edition to a more gruesome ending wherein Rumpelstiltskin "in his rage drove his right foot so far into the ground that it sank in up to his waist; then in a passion he seized the left foot with both hands and tore himself in two." Other versions have Rumpelstiltskin driving his right foot so far into the ground that he creates a chasm and falls into it, never to be seen again. In the oral version originally collected by the Brothers Grimm, Rumpelstiltskin flies out of the window on a cooking ladle.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: According to researchers at Durham University and the NOVA University Lisbon, the origins of the story can be traced back to around 4,000 years ago. A possible early literary reference to the tale appears in Dio of Halicarnassus' "Roman Antiquities", in the 1st century CE.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The same story pattern appears in numerous other cultures: "Tom Tit Tot" in United Kingdom (from "English Fairy Tales", 1890, by Joseph Jacobs); "The Lazy Beauty and her Aunts" in Ireland (from "", 1870 by Patrick Kennedy); "Whuppity Stoorie" in Scotland (from Robert Chambers's "Popular Rhymes of Scotland", 1826); "Gilitrutt" in Iceland; جعيدان ("Joaidane" "He who talks too much") in Arabic; Хламушка ("Khlamushka" "Junker") in Russia; "Rumplcimprcampr", "Rampelník" or "Martin Zvonek" in the Czech Republic; "Martinko Klingáč" in Slovakia; "Cvilidreta" in Croatia; "Ruidoquedito" ("Little noise") in South America; "Pancimanci" in Hungary (from 1862 folktale collection by László Arany); "Daiku to Oniroku" (大工と鬼六 "The carpenter and the ogre") in Japan and "Myrmidon" in France.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: An earlier literary variant in French was penned by Mme. L'Héritier, titled "Ricdin-Ricdon". A version of it exists in the compilation "Le Cabinet des Fées", Vol. XII. pp. 125-131.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The Cornish tale of Duffy and the Devil plays out an essentially similar plot featuring a "devil" named "Terry-top".


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: All these tales are classified in the Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index as tale type ATU 500, "The Name of the Supernatural Helper". According to scholarship, it is popular in "Denmark, Finland, Germany and Ireland".


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The name "Rumpelstilzchen" in German (IPA: ) means literally "little rattle stilt", a "stilt" being a post or pole that provides support for a structure. A "rumpelstilt" or "rumpelstilz" was consequently the name of a type of goblin, also called a "pophart" or "poppart", that makes noises by rattling posts and rapping on planks. The meaning is similar to "rumpelgeist" ("rattle ghost") or "poltergeist", a mischievous spirit that clatters and moves household objects. (Other related concepts are "mummarts" or "boggarts" and "hobs", which are mischievous household spirits that disguise themselves.) The ending "-chen" is a German diminutive cognate to English "-kin".


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The name is believed to be derived from Johann Fischart's "Geschichtklitterung, or Gargantua" of 1577 (a loose adaptation of Rabelais' "Gargantua and Pantagruel"), which refers to an "amusement" for children, a children's game named "Rumpele stilt oder der Poppart".


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: Translations of the original Grimm fairy tale (KHM 55) into various languages have generally substituted different names for the dwarf whose name is "Rumpelstilzchen". For some languages, a name was chosen that comes close in sound to the German name: "Rumpelstiltskin" or "Rumplestiltskin" in English, "Repelsteeltje" in Dutch, "Rumpelstichen" in Brazilian Portuguese, "Rumpelstinski", "Rumpelestíjeles", "Trasgolisto", "Jasil el Trasgu", "Barabay", "Rompelimbrá", "Barrabás", "Ruidoquedito", "Rompeltisquillo", "Tiribilitín", "Tremolín", "El enano saltarín" y "el duende saltarín" in Spanish, "Rumplcimprcampr" or "Rampelník" in Czech. In Japanese, it is called ルンペルシュティルツキン ("Runperushutirutsukin"). Russian might have the most accomplished imitation of the German name with Румпельшти́льцхен ("Rumpelʹshtílʹtskhen").


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: In other languages, the name was translated in a poetic and approximate way. Thus "Rumpelstilzchen" is known as "Päronskaft" (literally "Pear-stalk") in Swedish, where the sense of "stilt" or "stalk" of the second part is retained.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: Slovak translations use "Martinko Klingáč". Polish translations use "Titelitury" (or "Rumpelsztyk") and Finnish ones "Tittelintuure", "Rompanruoja" or "Hopskukkeli". The Hungarian name is Tűzmanócska and in Serbo-Croatian "Cvilidreta" ("Whine-screamer"). The Slovenian translation uses "Špicparkeljc" (pointy-hoof). For Hebrew the poet Avraham Shlonsky composed the name ("Ootz-li Gootz-li", a compact and rhymy touch to the original sentence and meaning of the story, "My adviser my midget"), when using the fairy tale as the basis of a children's musical, now a classic among Hebrew children's plays. Greek translations have used Ρουμπελστίλτσκιν (from the English) or Κουτσοκαλιγέρης ("Koutsokaliyéris"), which could figure as a Greek surname, formed with the particle κούτσο- ("koútso-" "limping"), and is perhaps derived from the Hebrew name. In Italian, the creature is usually called "Tremotino", which is probably formed from the world "tremoto", which means "earthquake" in Tuscan dialect, and the suffix "-ino", which generally indicates a small and/or sly character. The first Italian edition of the fables was published in 1897, and the books in those years were all written in Tuscan. Urdu versions of the tale used the name "Tees Mar Khan" for the imp.


title: Rumpelstiltskin

text: The value and power of using personal names and titles is well established in psychology, management, teaching and trial law. It is often referred to as the "Rumpelstiltskin principle". It derives from a very ancient belief that to give or know the true name of a being is to have power over it, for which compare Adam's naming of the animals in Genesis 2:19-20.


title: Cara Buono

text: Cara Buono (born 1973/1974) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as Dr. Faye Miller in the fourth season of the AMC drama series "Mad Men"; Kelli Moltisanti in the sixth season of "The Sopranos"; Linda Salvo in the 2006 comedy "Artie Lange's Beer League"; and Karen Wheeler in the horror sci-fi Netflix series "Stranger Things" (2016–present). She has appeared in films including "Hulk" (2003) and "Let Me In" (2010).


title: Cara Buono

text: Buono was born and raised in the Bronx in a blue-collar family of Italian descent. She has two brothers and a sister.


title: Cara Buono

text: Buono attended Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School and graduated from Columbia University where she was a double major in English and political science. She earned her degree in three years. She made her acting debut in Harvey Fierstein's play "Spookhouse" at the age of 12.


title: Cara Buono

text: Buono continued stage work both on Broadway and Off Broadway, and started her film career opposite Ethan Hawke and Jeremy Irons in "Waterland" (1992). Much of her work has been in indie films such as "Chutney Popcorn" (1999), "Happy Accidents" (2000), "Next Stop Wonderland" (1998) and "Two Ninas" (1999), which she co-produced. In 1999, she played a small role as a young Gerry Cummins in the TV movie, "Deep in My Heart" (1999).


title: Cara Buono

text: She starred in the final season of the NBC drama "Third Watch" (1999) as paramedic Grace Foster, and Ang Lee's adaptation of Marvel Comics' Hulk in 2003 as the mother of the title character's alter ego, Bruce Banner.


title: Cara Buono

text: She also appeared as Kelli, the wife of Christopher Moltisanti (Michael Imperioli), in the two-part final season of the HBO drama series "The Sopranos", which aired in 2006 and 2007. Additionally, she appeared as Dr. Faye Miller in the fourth season of the AMC drama series "Mad Men", for which she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in 2011.


title: Cara Buono

text: Buono lives in New York City's Greenwich Village with her husband Peter Thum, founder of Ethos Water, and their daughter.


title: Galadriel

text: Galadriel (IPA: ]) is a character created by J. R. R. Tolkien in his Middle-earth writings. She appears in "The Lord of the Rings", "The Silmarillion", and "Unfinished Tales".


title: Galadriel

text: She was a royal Elf of both the Noldor and the Teleri, being a grandchild of both King Finwë and King Olwë. She was also close kin of King Ingwë of the Vanyar through her grandmother Indis.


title: Galadriel

text: Galadriel was a leader during the rebellion of the Noldor, and present in their flight from Valinor during the First Age. Towards the end of her stay in Middle-earth, she was joint ruler of Lothlórien with her husband, Celeborn, when she was known as the Lady of Lórien, the Lady of the Galadhrim, the Lady of Light, or the Lady of the Golden Wood. Her daughter Celebrían was the wife of Elrond and mother of Arwen, Elladan, and Elrohir.


title: Galadriel

text: Tolkien describes Galadriel as "the mightiest and fairest of all the Elves that remained in Middle-earth" (after the death of Gil-galad) and the "greatest of elven women".


title: Galadriel

text: The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey has written that Galadriel represented Tolkien's attempt to re-create the kind of elf hinted at by surviving references in Old English. He has compared his elves also to those in a Christian Middle English source, "The Early South English Legendary", where the elves were angels. Another scholar, Marjorie Burns, compares Galadriel in multiple details to Rider Haggard's heroine , and to Tennyson's The Lady of Shalott, both being reworked figures of Arthurian legend. Galadriel, lady of light, assisting Frodo on his quest to destroy the One Ring, opposed to Shelob, the giant and evil female spider of darkness, have been compared to Homer's opposed female characters in the "Odyssey": Circe and Calypso as Odysseus's powerful and wise benefactors on his quest, against the perils of the attractive Sirens, and the deadly Scylla and Charybdis.


title: Galadriel

text: Modern songwriters have created songs about Galadriel; Tolkien's Quenya poem "Namárië" has been set to music by Donald Swann. Galadriel has appeared in both animated and live-action films and television. Cate Blanchett played her in Peter Jackson's film series, while Morfydd Clark played her in an earlier age in "".


title: Galadriel

text: Stories of Galadriel's life prior to the War of the Ring appear in both "The Silmarillion" and "Unfinished Tales". She was the only daughter and youngest child of Finarfin, prince of the Noldor, and of Eärwen, daughter of Olwë and cousin to Lúthien. Her elder brothers were Finrod Felagund, Angrod, and Aegnor. She was born in Valinor. She had the ability to peer into the minds of others to judge them fairly. She was a member of the royal House of Finwë. Galadriel was often called the fairest of all Elves, whether in Aman or Middle-earth.


title: Galadriel

text: According to the older account of her story, sketched by Tolkien in "The Road Goes Ever On" and used in "The Silmarillion", Galadriel was an eager participant and leader in the rebellion of the Noldor and their flight from Valinor; she was the "only female to stand tall in those days". She had, however, long since parted ways with Fëanor and his sons. In Beleriand she lived with her brother Finrod Felagund at Nargothrond and the court of Thingol and Melian in Doriath. In this account, she met Celeborn, a kinsman of Thingol, in Doriath. She carried some dark secrets from those times; she told Melian part of the violent story of the Silmarils and Morgoth's killing of Finwë, but did not mention the kinslaying of elves by elves.


title: Galadriel

text: Galadriel and Celeborn travelled first to Lindon, where they ruled over a group of Elves, and were themselves ruled by Gil-galad. According to "Concerning Galadriel and Celeborn," they then removed to the shores of Lake Nenuial (Evendim) and were accounted the Lord and Lady of all the Elves of Eriador. Later, they moved eastward and established the realm of Eregion (Hollin). They made contact with a Nandorin settlement in the valley of the River Anduin, which became Lothlórien. At some point, Celeborn and Galadriel left Eregion and settled in Lothlórien. According to some of Tolkien's accounts, they became rulers of Lothlórien for a time during the Second Age; but in all accounts they returned to Lórien to take up its rule after Amroth was lost in the middle of the Third Age.


title: Galadriel

text: During the Second Age, when the Rings of Power were forged, Galadriel distrusted Annatar, the loremaster who taught the craft of the Rings to Celebrimbor. Again according to some of the accounts, Celebrimbor rebelled against her view and seized power in Eregion. As a result, Galadriel departed to Lórien via the gates of Moria, but Celeborn refused to enter the dwarves' stronghold and stayed behind. Her distrust was justified, for Annatar turned out to be the Dark Lord, Sauron. When Sauron attacked Eregion, Celebrimbor entrusted Galadriel with Nenya, one of the Three Rings of the Elves. Celeborn joined up with Elrond, whose force was unable to relieve Eregion but managed to escape back to Imladris. Celeborn reunited with Galadriel when the war ended; according to one text, after some years in Imladris (during which Elrond first saw and fell in love with Celebrían) Galadriel's sea-longing became so strong that the couple removed to Belfalas and lived at the place later called Dol Amroth.


title: Galadriel

text: In "The Fellowship of the Ring", Galadriel welcomed the Fellowship to Lothlórien after their escape from Moria. When she met the Fellowship in her tree-dwelling she gave each member a searching look, testing their resolve—though Boromir interpreted this test as a temptation. She was in turn tested when Frodo Baggins offered to place the Ring in her keeping. Knowing that its corrupting influence would make her "great and terrible", and recalling the ambitions that had once brought her to Middle-earth, she refused the Ring. She accepted that her own ring's power would fail, that her people would diminish and fade with the One Ring's destruction, and that her only escape from the fading of the Elves and the dominion of Men would be to return at last to Valinor. It is implied, backed up by other writings, that in acknowledgement of this renunciation of power her personal ban from Valinor was lifted.


title: Galadriel

text: When the Fellowship left Lothlórien, she gave each member a gift and an Elven cloak, and furnished the party with supplies, both as practical support and as a symbol of faith, hope and goodwill. Her husband Celeborn likewise provided the Fellowship with Elven-boats.


title: Galadriel

text: On the day that the Fellowship left Lórien, but unknown to them, Gandalf arrived, carried by the eagle Gwaihir. Galadriel healed his wounds and re-clothed him in white, signalling his new status as head of the Istari, the order of wizards.


title: Galadriel

text: After Sauron perished, Celeborn led the host of Lórien across the Anduin and captured Dol Guldur. Galadriel came forth and "threw down its walls and laid bare its pits". She travelled to Minas Tirith for the wedding of her granddaughter Arwen to King Aragorn Elessar after the end of the war. Galadriel passed over the Great Sea with Elrond, Gandalf, and the Ring-bearers Bilbo and Frodo, marking the end of the Third Age. Celeborn remained behind, and Tolkien writes that "there is no record of the day when at last he sought the Grey Havens".


title: Galadriel

text: The Dúnedain said that her height was two "rangar", or "man-high" – some . However, Galadriel's most striking feature was her beautiful long silver-golden hair. The Elves of Tirion said it captured the radiance of the Two Trees Laurelin and Telperion themselves.


title: Galadriel

text: Nevertheless, Galadriel never repaid Fëanor's admiration. Fëanor "had begged her thrice for a tress and thrice she refused to give him even one hair. It is said that these two kinsfolk, being considered the greatest of the Eldar of Valinor, remain unfriends forever."


title: Galadriel

text: Her character was a blend of characteristics of the Eldar from whom she was descended. She had the pride and ambition of the Noldor, but in her they were tempered by the gentleness and insight of the Vanyar. She shared the latter virtues of character with her father Finarfin and her brother Finrod.


title: Galadriel

text: Her sympathy for Gimli the Dwarf in Lothlórien, (when she rebuked her husband Celeborn for being tempted to regret his decision to admit the Dwarf to that land), completely won him over.


title: Galadriel

text: The critic Tom Shippey notes that in creating Galadriel, Tolkien was attempting to reconstruct the kind of elf hinted at by elf references in Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words. The hints are, he observes, paradoxical: while "ælfscyne", "elf-beautiful", suggests a powerful allure, "ælfsogoða", "lunacy", implies that getting too close to elves is dangerous. In Shippey's view, Tolkien is telling the literal truth that "beauty is itself dangerous", as Chaucer did in "The Wife of Bath's Tale" where both elves and friars are sexually rapacious. So when Faramir says to Sam Gamgee in Ithilien that Galadriel must be "perilously fair", Shippey comments that this is a "highly accurate remark"; Sam replies that "folk takes their peril with them into Lorien... But perhaps you could call her perilous, because she's so strong in herself."


title: Galadriel

text: Shippey also considers the Christian Middle English attitude of the "South English Legendary", a hagiographic work which he supposes Tolkien must have read, that elves were angels. In Shippey's view, Tolkien's elves are much like fallen angels, above Men but below the angelic Maiar and the godlike Valar. He comments at once that Galadriel is in one way certainly not "fallen", as the elves avoided the war on Melkor in the First Age; but all the same, "Galadriel has been expelled from a kind of Heaven, the Deathless land of Valinor, and has been forbidden to return." Shippey suggests that the Men of Middle-earth might have thought the fall of Melkor and the expulsion of Galadriel added up to a similar fallen status; and he praises Tolkien for taking both sides of the story of elves into account.


title: Galadriel

text: The Tolkien scholar Marjorie Burns compares Galadriel to Rider Haggard's heroine Ayesha in his 1887 novel "", a book that Tolkien acknowledged as an important influence, and to Tennyson's The Lady of Shalott, which recast the Arthurian legend of Elaine of Astolat; she notes that Ayesha was herself an Arthurian figure, transposed to 19th century Africa.


title: Galadriel

text: The Tolkien scholar Mac Fenwick compares Galadriel and what he sees as her monstrous opposite, the giant and evil spider Shelob, with the struggle between the good and the monstrous female characters in Homer's "Odyssey". Like Galadriel, Circe and Calypso are rulers of their own secluded magical realms, and both offer help and advice to the protagonist. They help Odysseus to avoid destruction by the female monsters, the Sirens who would lure his ship on to the rocks, and Scylla and Charybdis who would smash or drown his ship; Galadriel gives Frodo the Phial of Galadriel, which by her power contains the light of Eärendil's star, able to blind and ward off Shelob in her darkest of dark lairs. Galadriel's gifts, too, are Homeric, including cloaks, food, and wisdom as well as light, just like those of Circe and Calypso.


title: Galadriel

text: Tolkien wrote a poem "Namárië" that Galadriel sings in farewell to the departing Fellowship, and to Frodo in particular. The song is in Quenya, and "spoke of things little-known in Middle-earth," but Frodo is said to have remembered the words and translated them long afterward. It is a lament in which Galadriel describes her separation from the Blessed Realm and the Valar, her longing to return there, and at the end a wish or hope that even though she herself is forbidden (by the Ban) to return, that Frodo might somehow come in the end to the city of Valimar in Valinor. The poem was set to music by Donald Swann with Tolkien's assistance. The sheet music and an audio recording are part of the song-cycle of "The Road Goes Ever On". In a recording, Tolkien sings it in the style of a Gregorian chant.


title: Galadriel

text: On their album "Once Again", the band Barclay James Harvest featured a song called "Galadriel". It gained notability because guitarist John Lees played John Lennon's Epiphone Casino guitar on this track, an event later recounted in a song on the band's 1990 album "Welcome To The Show" titled "John Lennon's Guitar".


title: Galadriel

text: Hank Marvin and John Farrar wrote a song "Galadriel", recorded by Cliff Richard; the four five-line stanzas include the couplet "Galadriel, spirit of starlight / Eagle and dove gave birth to thee".


title: Galadriel

text: An Australian band named Galadriel released a self-titled album in 1971 which "became a highly sought-after collectors' item among European progressive rock circles".


title: Galadriel

text: In 2003, Fran Walsh, Howard Shore, and Annie Lennox co-wrote the Oscar-winning song "Into the West" for the closing credits of "". Originally sung by Lennox, the song was conceived as Galadriel's bittersweet lament for those who have sailed across the Sundering Seas. The lyrics include phrases from the final chapter of the original novel. The song has since been covered by Yulia Townsend and Will Martin.


title: Galadriel

text: Galadriel was voiced by Annette Crosbie in Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated film of "The Lord of the Rings", and by Marian Diamond in BBC Radio's 1981 serialisation.


title: Galadriel

text: In Peter Jackson's "Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" trilogies, Galadriel is played by Cate Blanchett. In "", Galadriel narrates the prologue that explains the creation of the One Ring, as well as appearing in Lothlórien.


title: Galadriel

text: While Galadriel does not feature in Tolkien's "The Hobbit", the story was amended so that she could appear in Jackson's films based on the book.


title: Galadriel

text: On stage, Galadriel was portrayed by Rebecca Jackson Mendoza in the 2006 Toronto musical production of "The Lord of the Rings"; Mendoza's dress was hand-embroidered with some 1800 beads. The musical was revised and moved to London's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 2007, with Laura Michelle Kelly in the "glittering" role.


title: Galadriel

text: In the 2022 television series "", young Galadriel was portrayed by Morfydd Clark, and her younger version by Amelie Child Villiers.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga is a 2022 Lego-themed action-adventure game developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. It is the sixth entry in TT Games' "Lego Star Wars" series of video games and the successor to 2016's "". The game adapts all nine entries in the Skywalker Saga series of films, with additional characters based on other "Star Wars" films and television series released as DLC.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: "Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" was released on 5 April 2022 for Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. It received generally favorable reviews from critics, with praise for its graphics, level design, and humor; mixed opinions were directed at its side content and combat, while its technical issues and lack of online co-op were criticized. The game sold more than 3.2 million copies within two weeks of its release.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: Unlike most Lego video games in which players have to advance through the story in a linear order, players can choose to start the game from any of the three Skywalker Saga trilogies and complete them in any order they wish. Each episode contains five main story missions, totaling 45 levels, as opposed to six levels in previous games. There are also short pre-levels between the five main levels that advance the story forward but do not feature collectibles like minikits or True Jedi. Combat has been revamped from previous titles, such as lightsaber wielders now using a variety of combos with light attacks, heavy attacks, and Force moves, and blaster characters having an over-the-shoulder camera. The game features 380 playable characters, not necessarily restricted to the nine Skywalker Saga films.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: Much like its predecessor, "", the game's hub is not a single area, such as the Mos Eisley Cantina in "", but a wide range of fully explorable planets filled with many iconic "Star Wars" landmarks. Planets and moons featured in the game include Naboo, Tatooine, Coruscant, Kamino, Geonosis, Kashyyyk, Utapau, Mustafar, Yavin 4, Hoth, Dagobah, Bespin, Endor, Jakku, Takodana, D'Qar, Starkiller Base, Ahch-To, Cantonica, Crait, Ajan Kloss, Pasaana, Kijimi, Kef Bir, and Exegol. Many ships have freely explorable areas in the hub as well, such as Star Destroyers and the Death Star. Random encounters may occur in the game's hub world. For example, an Imperial Star Destroyer could suddenly jump out of hyperspace and send a fleet of TIE fighters after the player. Players can choose to engage in dogfights with them or continue onward to progress the story.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: "Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" does not feature a character customization tool unlike many previous Lego video games. The game also includes Mumble Mode, an extra feature allowing players to switch between the game's original voice acting and having the characters mumble and grunt, akin to the style of older Lego video games.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: Disney and Lucasfilm had not shared significant details of "" with the game team before the film's release. In the meantime, TT Games worked on other aspects of the game until Lucasfilm shared more details. The game is developed in Traveller's Tales' new engine, NTT (pronounced Entity).


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: On 20 January 2022, a report published by "Polygon" detailed the amount of crunch that occurred since the game began development back in late 2017, including dozens inside the company being at odds with management, due to expressing frustration over tight development schedules, the company’s crunch culture, and outdated development tools. In addition, the use of NTT was extremely controversial within the company, as many employees had been pushing to instead use Unreal Engine. NTT turned out to be incredibly difficult to use, with some animations taking hours more to produce than they would on the old engine. As a result, "Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" would end up being the only game developed by Traveller's Tales to use NTT, with the company deciding to use Unreal Engine going forward for their future projects.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: Like "Lego Star Wars: The Force Awakens", "Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" features original voice acting, with some actors reprising their roles from the films and TV series. The game also marks Tom Kane's final acting credit, due to a forced retirement in the wake of his stroke in November 2020.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: "Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" was first teased to be in development by Lucasfilm sound editor Matthew Wood at Star Wars Celebration Chicago. An announcement trailer premiered at E3 2019 during Microsoft's press conference. A second trailer showing one scene from all nine movies was released on 20 December to coincide with the release of "".


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: On 7 May 2020, the release date was revealed as 20 October 2020 through a trailer posted on the official "Star Wars" YouTube channel. On the same day, the original video was made private and a new video, in which the release date was cut out, was uploaded. At in August 2020, it was announced that the game would release in Q1/Q2 2021 with additional versions on the PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S. On 2 April 2021, it was announced that the game had been delayed, with no further release window specified. On 25 August 2021, during Gamescom, a second gameplay trailer was released along with the announcement that the game will be released in early 2022. On 20 January 2022, a gameplay trailer was released, officially revealing the release date as 5 April 2022.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: Before release, players were able to pre-order either the standard or deluxe edition of the game. The latter comes with all additional character packs, and a Luke Skywalker minifigure with "blue milk".


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: In May 2022, a month after the game was released, a patch was pushed out to address major glitches and added the Venator, "Invisible Hand", "Home One" and the "Fulminatrix" as new unlockable capital ships.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: On 7 March 2022, seven DLC packs were announced, which were released in the weeks following the game's launch. These initial DLC make up the "Character Collection 1" and are included in the Deluxe Edition and the later-released "Galactic Edition".


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: On 9 September 2022, at the 2022 D23 Expo Presentation, a "Galactic Edition" of the game was announced, which was released on 1 November 2022. This version comes with the first seven DLC packs and a new "Character Collection 2", which contains six new character packs, all of which were also made available for purchase separately, though some at later dates.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: "Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. It had the biggest launch of a "Lego" game on Steam. The retail version of the game debuted at No. 1 on the UK software sales chart in its week of release. It had the biggest launch ever for a "Lego" game in the UK, breaking the record previously set by "" (2008).


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: "IGN" gave the game an 8 out of 10, saying ""LEGO Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" provides some rollicking reimaginings of "Star Wars"s most iconic moments and seats them inside a series of interplanetary playgrounds that are dense with discovery and entertaining diversions." "Destructoid" gave the game a 7.5 out of 10 and wrote, ""Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" doesn't reinvent the wheel and the subject matter is limited because the narrative mostly adheres to the film trilogies [...] but it's a fun way to relive them as an adult and show them to kids at the same time." "Game Informer" praised the game's story-focused levels, combat, and character unlocks, stating, "While nailing the little moments, the immense scale of the project appears to have been too wide for TT Games to harness, as some of the content is uncharacteristically dull or uneven [...] Despite being periodically uneventful, the "Skywalker Saga" is a thorough and fun examination of all three Star Wars movie trilogies." "Shacknews" gave the title a 9 out of 10, praising its humor, combat features, voice acting, and visuals while taking minor issue with the excessive collectibles and challenges. "Nintendo Life" also praised its campaign, pacing, side content, co-op, humor, and music while criticizing some performance issues. "Push Square" similarly praised the game while lamenting occasional camera issues, performance dips, and the lack of online co-op. "Pure Xbox" likewise critized the lack of online co-op, but did not notice any performance issues, and praised the graphics as well as its "endlessly enjoyable gameplay". "Kotaku" called it "one of the best "Star Wars" games ever made", praising its graphics and humor.


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: "EGM" criticized the game for not including a more streamlined gameplay loop and coherent map system, but concluded that ""Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga" embraces a lot of what made earlier Lego games fun and a few that made them frustrating, while adding a new layer of polish and flair that's sure to please fans." "GameRevolution" stated that the game "does more than enough right" but noted that its scope was "undermined by the lackluster implementation of certain ideas that are supposed to be its big selling points, such as its improved combat and new camera angle." "GameSpot" lauded the combat mechanics, roster of character types, visuals, and humor, but criticized some "empty" campaign objectives, repetitive content in hub areas, and limited character upgrades. "GamesRadar+" commended the "gorgeous" visuals, multiplayer mode, and the amount of content on offer, but felt that the gameplay was too simplistic, concluding, "["The Skywalker Saga"] is funny, playable, technically stupendous, massive and immensely authentic, it's just a shame it feels so shallow and childish at times." "PC Gamer" criticized the combat and boss fights as feeling elongated, the lack of online co-op, and lamented the reported crunch during development, but ultimately stated, ""The Skywalker Saga" is an impressive package, successfully adapting some of the most iconic sci-fi movies of all time with equal amounts playful mockery of and loving adherence to the source material."


title: Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga

text: The game sold more than 3.2 million copies within two weeks of its release, surpassing global sales of all previous Lego console game launches. The game sold more than 5 million copies four months after its initial release.


title: Ice age

text: An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Earth's climate alternates between ice ages and greenhouse periods, during which there are no glaciers on the planet. Earth is currently in the Quaternary glaciation. Individual pulses of cold climate within an ice age are termed "glacial periods" (or, alternatively, "glacials, glaciations, glacial stages, stadials, stades", or colloquially, "ice ages"), and intermittent warm periods within an ice age are called "interglacials" or "interstadials".


title: Ice age

text: In glaciology, "ice age" implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, Earth is currently in an interglacial period—the Holocene. The amount of anthropogenic greenhouse gases emitted into Earth's oceans and atmosphere is predicted to prevent the next glacial period for the next 500,000 years, which otherwise would begin in around 50,000 years, and likely more glacial cycles after.


title: Ice age

text: In 1742, Pierre Martel (1706–1767), an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, visited the valley of Chamonix in the Alps of Savoy. Two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the glaciers, saying that they had once extended much farther. Later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier (1786–1855) in 1834. Comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Goethe's scientific work. Such explanations could also be found in other parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra (1806–1878) visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, the natives attributed fossil moraines to the former action of glaciers.


title: Ice age

text: Meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport. The Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice was a cause of the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton (1726–1797), explained erratic boulders in the Alps by the action of glaciers. Two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg (1780–1851) published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon.


title: Ice age

text: Only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark (1762–1839) argued for a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations. He attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earth's orbit. Esmark discovered the similarity between moraines near Haukalivatnet lake near sea level in Rogaland and moraines at branches of Jostedalsbreen. Esmark's discovery were later attributed to or appropriated by Theodor Kjerulf and Louis Agassiz.


title: Ice age

text: During the following years, Esmark's ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish and German scientists. At the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson (1774–1854) seemed to be relatively open to Esmark's ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen (1992). Jameson's remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark. In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–1849), a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker (since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen), adopted Esmark's theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about the polar ice caps once reaching as far as the temperate zones of the globe.


title: Ice age

text: In 1829, independently of these debates, the Swiss civil engineer Ignaz Venetz (1788–1859) explained the dispersal of erratic boulders in the Alps, the nearby Jura Mountains, and the North German Plain as being due to huge glaciers. When he read his paper before the Swiss Society for Natural Research, most scientists remained sceptical. Finally, Venetz convinced his friend Jean de Charpentier. Charpentier transformed Venetz's idea into a theory with a glaciation limited to the Alps. His thoughts resembled Wahlenberg's theory. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in Charpentier's case rather plutonistic assumptions, about Earth's history. In 1834, Charpentier presented his paper before the Swiss Society for Natural Research. In the meantime, the German botanist Karl Friedrich Schimper (1803–1867) was studying mosses which were growing on erratic boulders in the alpine upland of Bavaria. He began to wonder where such masses of stone had come from. During the summer of 1835 he made some excursions to the Bavarian Alps. Schimper came to the conclusion that ice must have been the means of transport for the boulders in the alpine upland. In the winter of 1835 to 1836 he held some lectures in Munich. Schimper then assumed that there must have been global times of obliteration ("Verödungszeiten") with a cold climate and frozen water. Schimper spent the summer months of 1836 at Devens, near Bex, in the Swiss Alps with his former university friend Louis Agassiz (1801–1873) and Jean de Charpentier. Schimper, Charpentier and possibly Venetz convinced Agassiz that there had been a time of glaciation. During the winter of 1836/37, Agassiz and Schimper developed the theory of a sequence of glaciations. They mainly drew upon the preceding works of Venetz, Charpentier and on their own fieldwork. Agassiz appears to have been already familiar with Bernhardi's paper at that time. At the beginning of 1837, Schimper coined the term "ice age" (""Eiszeit"") for the period of the glaciers. In July 1837 Agassiz presented their synthesis before the annual meeting of the Swiss Society for Natural Research at Neuchâtel. The audience was very critical, and some were opposed to the new theory because it contradicted the established opinions on climatic history. Most contemporary scientists thought that Earth had been gradually cooling down since its birth as a molten globe.


title: Ice age

text: In order to persuade the skeptics, Agassiz embarked on geological fieldwork. He published his book "Study on Glaciers" ("Études sur les glaciers") in 1840. Charpentier was put out by this, as he had also been preparing a book about the glaciation of the Alps. Charpentier felt that Agassiz should have given him precedence as it was he who had introduced Agassiz to in-depth glacial research. As a result of personal quarrels, Agassiz had also omitted any mention of Schimper in his book.


title: Ice age

text: It took several decades before the ice age theory was fully accepted by scientists. This happened on an international scale in the second half of the 1870s, following the work of James Croll, including the publication of "Climate and Time, in Their Geological Relations" in 1875, which provided a credible explanation for the causes of ice ages.


title: Ice age

text: "Geological" evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, glacial moraines, drumlins, valley cutting, and the deposition of till or tillites and glacial erratics. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence for earlier glaciations, making it difficult to interpret. Furthermore, this evidence was difficult to date exactly; early theories assumed that the glacials were short compared to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores revealed the true situation: glacials are long, interglacials short. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out.


title: Ice age

text: The "chemical" evidence mainly consists of variations in the ratios of isotopes in fossils present in sediments and sedimentary rocks and ocean sediment cores. For the most recent glacial periods, ice cores provide climate proxies, both from the ice itself and from atmospheric samples provided by included bubbles of air. Because water containing lighter isotopes has a lower heat of evaporation, its proportion decreases with warmer conditions. This allows a temperature record to be constructed. This evidence can be confounded, however, by other factors recorded by isotope ratios.


title: Ice age

text: The "paleontological" evidence consists of changes in the geographical distribution of fossils. During a glacial period, cold-adapted organisms spread into lower latitudes, and organisms that prefer warmer conditions become extinct or retreat into lower latitudes. This evidence is also difficult to interpret because it requires (1) sequences of sediments covering a long period of time, over a wide range of latitudes and which are easily correlated; (2) ancient organisms which survive for several million years without change and whose temperature preferences are easily diagnosed; and (3) the finding of the relevant fossils.


title: Ice age

text: Despite the difficulties, analysis of ice core and ocean sediment cores has provided a credible record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years. These also confirm the linkage between ice ages and continental crust phenomena such as glacial moraines, drumlins, and glacial erratics. Hence the continental crust phenomena are accepted as good evidence of earlier ice ages when they are found in layers created much earlier than the time range for which ice cores and ocean sediment cores are available.


title: Ice age

text: There have been at least five major ice ages in Earth's history (the Huronian, Cryogenian, Andean-Saharan, late Paleozoic, and the latest Quaternary Ice Age). Outside these ages, Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes; such periods are known as greenhouse periods.


title: Ice age

text: Rocks from the earliest well-established ice age, called the Huronian, have been dated to around 2.4 to 2.1 Ga (billion years) ago during the early Proterozoic Eon. Several hundreds of kilometers of the Huronian Supergroup are exposed north of the north shore of Lake Huron, extending from near Sault Ste. Marie to Sudbury, northeast of Lake Huron, with giant layers of now-lithified till beds, dropstones, varves, outwash, and scoured basement rocks. Correlative Huronian deposits have been found near Marquette, Michigan, and correlation has been made with Paleoproterozoic glacial deposits from Western Australia. The Huronian ice age was caused by the elimination of atmospheric methane, a greenhouse gas, during the Great Oxygenation Event.


title: Ice age

text: The next well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last billion years, occurred from 720 to 630 million years ago (the Cryogenian period) and may have produced a Snowball Earth in which glacial ice sheets reached the equator, possibly being ended by the accumulation of greenhouse gases such as produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on the continents and pack ice on the oceans would inhibit both silicate weathering and photosynthesis, which are the two major sinks for at present." It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent Ediacaran and Cambrian explosion, though this model is recent and controversial.


title: Ice age

text: The Andean-Saharan occurred from 460 to 420 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician and the Silurian period.


title: Ice age

text: The evolution of land plants at the onset of the Devonian period caused a long term increase in planetary oxygen levels and reduction of levels, which resulted in the late Paleozoic icehouse. Its former name, the Karoo glaciation, was named after the glacial tills found in the Karoo region of South Africa. There were extensive polar ice caps at intervals from 360 to 260 million years ago in South Africa during the Carboniferous and early Permian Periods. Correlatives are known from Argentina, also in the center of the ancient supercontinent Gondwanaland.


title: Ice age

text: The Quaternary Glaciation / Quaternary Ice Age started about 2.58 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary Period when the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere began. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000- and 100,000-year time scales called glacial periods, glacials or glacial advances, and interglacial periods, interglacials or glacial retreats. Earth is currently in an interglacial, and the last glacial period ended about 11,700 years ago. All that remains of the continental ice sheets are the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets and smaller glaciers such as on Baffin Island.


title: Ice age

text: The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 Ma is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene-Oligocene Boundary). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.


title: Ice age

text: Ice ages can be further divided by location and time; for example, the names "Riss" (180,000–130,000 years bp) and "Würm" (70,000–10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation in the Alpine region. The maximum extent of the ice is not maintained for the full interval. The scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet does not achieve full coverage.


title: Ice age

text: Within the current glaciation, more temperate and more severe periods have occurred. The colder periods are called "glacial periods", the warmer periods "interglacials", such as the Eemian Stage. There is evidence that similar glacial cycles occurred in previous glaciations, including the Andean-Saharan and the late Paleozoic ice house. The glacial cycles of the late Paleozoic ice house are likely responsible for the deposition of cyclothems.


title: Ice age

text: Glacials are characterized by cooler and drier climates over most of Earth and large land and sea ice masses extending outward from the poles. Mountain glaciers in otherwise unglaciated areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower snow line. Sea levels drop due to the removal of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps. There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. The glacials and interglacials coincide with changes in orbital forcing of climate due to Milankovitch cycles, which are periodic changes in Earth's orbit and the tilt of Earth's rotational axis.


title: Ice age

text: Earth has been in an interglacial period known as the Holocene for around 11,700 years, and an article in "Nature" in 2004 argues that it might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Predicted changes in orbital forcing suggest that the next glacial period would begin at least 50,000 years from now. Moreover, anthropogenic forcing from increased greenhouse gases is estimated to potentially outweigh the orbital forcing of the Milankovitch cycles for hundreds of thousands of years.


title: Ice age

text: Each glacial period is subject to positive feedback which makes it more severe, and negative feedback which mitigates and (in all cases so far) eventually ends it.


title: Ice age

text: An important form of feedback is provided by Earth's albedo, which is how much of the sun's energy is reflected rather than absorbed by Earth. Ice and snow increase Earth's albedo, while forests reduce its albedo. When the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and they reduce forest cover. This continues until competition with a negative feedback mechanism forces the system to an equilibrium.


title: Ice age

text: One theory is that when glaciers form, two things happen: the ice grinds rocks into dust, and the land becomes dry and arid. This allows winds to transport iron rich dust into the open ocean, where it acts as a fertilizer that causes massive algal blooms that pulls large amounts of out of the atmosphere. Which in turn makes it even colder and causes the glaciers to grow more.


title: Ice age

text: In 1956, Ewing and Donn hypothesized that an ice-free Arctic Ocean leads to increased snowfall at high latitudes. When low-temperature ice covers the Arctic Ocean there is little evaporation or sublimation and the polar regions are quite dry in terms of precipitation, comparable to the amount found in mid-latitude deserts. This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer. An ice-free Arctic Ocean absorbs solar radiation during the long summer days, and evaporates more water into the Arctic atmosphere. With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes "and" more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. Furthermore, under this hypothesis the lack of oceanic pack ice allows increased exchange of waters between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans, warming the Arctic and cooling the North Atlantic. (Current projected consequences of global warming include a brief ice-free Arctic Ocean period by 2050.) Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also reduce the global ocean water circulation. Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the Gulf Stream) would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer. It has also been suggested that during an extensive glacial, glaciers may move through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, extending into the North Atlantic Ocean far enough to block the Gulf Stream.


title: Ice age

text: Ice sheets that form during glaciations erode the land beneath them. This can reduce the land area above sea level and thus diminish the amount of space on which ice sheets can form. This mitigates the albedo feedback, as does the rise in sea level that accompanies the reduced area of ice sheets, since open ocean has a lower albedo than land.


title: Ice age

text: Another negative feedback mechanism is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar inverse positive feedbacks as for glacial advances.


title: Ice age

text: According to research published in "Nature Geoscience", human emissions of carbon dioxide (CO) will defer the next ice age. Researchers used data on Earth's orbit to find the historical warm interglacial period that looks most like the current one and from this have predicted that the next ice age would usually begin within 1,500 years. They go on to predict that emissions have been so high that it will not.


title: Ice age

text: The causes of ice ages are not fully understood for either the large-scale ice age periods or the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles; the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on Earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents; variations in solar output; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.


title: Ice age

text: Some of these factors influence each other. For example, changes in Earth's atmospheric composition (especially the concentrations of greenhouse gases) may alter the climate, while climate change itself can change the atmospheric composition (for example by changing the rate at which weathering removes ).


title: Ice age

text: Maureen Raymo, William Ruddiman and others propose that the Tibetan and Colorado Plateaus are immense "scrubbers" with a capacity to remove enough from the global atmosphere to be a significant causal factor of the 40 million year Cenozoic Cooling trend. They further claim that approximately half of their uplift (and "scrubbing" capacity) occurred in the past 10 million years.


title: Ice age

text: There is evidence that greenhouse gas levels fell at the start of ice ages and rose during the retreat of the ice sheets, but it is difficult to establish cause and effect (see the notes above on the role of weathering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affected by other factors which have been proposed as causes of ice ages, such as the movement of continents and volcanism.


title: Ice age

text: The Snowball Earth hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late Proterozoic was ended by an increase in levels in the atmosphere, mainly from volcanoes, and some supporters of Snowball Earth argue that it was caused in the first place by a reduction in atmospheric . The hypothesis also warns of future Snowball Earths.


title: Ice age

text: In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar insolation provide the initial trigger for Earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.


title: Ice age

text: The geological record appears to show that ice ages start when the continents are in positions which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles and thus allow ice sheets to form. The ice sheets increase Earth's reflectivity and thus reduce the absorption of solar radiation. With less radiation absorbed the atmosphere cools; the cooling allows the ice sheets to grow, which further increases reflectivity in a positive feedback loop. The ice age continues until the reduction in weathering causes an increase in the greenhouse effect.


title: Ice age

text: There are three main contributors from the layout of the continents that obstruct the movement of warm water to the poles:


title: Ice age

text: Since today's Earth has a continent over the South Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over the North Pole, geologists believe that Earth will continue to experience glacial periods in the geologically near future.


title: Ice age

text: Some scientists believe that the Himalayas are a major factor in the current ice age, because these mountains have increased Earth's total rainfall and therefore the rate at which carbon dioxide is washed out of the atmosphere, decreasing the greenhouse effect. The Himalayas' formation started about 70 million years ago when the Indo-Australian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate, and the Himalayas are still rising by about 5 mm per year because the Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm/year. The history of the Himalayas broadly fits the long-term decrease in Earth's average temperature since the mid-Eocene, 40 million years ago.


title: Ice age

text: Another important contribution to ancient climate regimes is the variation of ocean currents, which are modified by continent position, sea levels and salinity, as well as other factors. They have the ability to cool (e.g. aiding the creation of Antarctic ice) and the ability to warm (e.g. giving the British Isles a temperate as opposed to a boreal climate). The closing of the Isthmus of Panama about 3 million years ago may have ushered in the present period of strong glaciation over North America by ending the exchange of water between the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.


title: Ice age

text: Analyses suggest that ocean current fluctuations can adequately account for recent glacial oscillations. During the last glacial period the sea-level has fluctuated 20–30 m as water was sequestered, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. When ice collected and the sea level dropped sufficiently, flow through the Bering Strait (the narrow strait between Siberia and Alaska is about 50 m deep today) was reduced, resulting in increased flow from the North Atlantic. This realigned the thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic, increasing heat transport into the Arctic, which melted the polar ice accumulation and reduced other continental ice sheets. The release of water raised sea levels again, restoring the ingress of colder water from the Pacific with an accompanying shift to northern hemisphere ice accumulation.


title: Ice age

text: According to a study published in "Nature" in 2021, all glacial periods of ice ages over the last 1.5 million years were associated with northward shifts of melting Antarctic icebergs which changed ocean circulation patterns, leading to more CO being pulled out of the atmosphere. The authors suggest that this process may be disrupted in the future as the Southern Ocean will become too warm for the icebergs to travel far enough to trigger these changes.


title: Ice age

text: Matthias Kuhle's geological theory of Ice Age development was suggested by the existence of an ice sheet covering the Tibetan Plateau during the Ice Ages (Last Glacial Maximum?). According to Kuhle, the plate-tectonic uplift of Tibet past the snow-line has led to a surface of c. 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) changing from bare land to ice with a 70% greater albedo. The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the Pleistocene Ice Age. Because this highland is at a subtropical latitude, with 4 to 5 times the insolation of high-latitude areas, what would be Earth's strongest heating surface has turned into a cooling surface.


title: Ice age

text: Kuhle explains the interglacial periods by the 100,000-year cycle of radiation changes due to variations in Earth's orbit. This comparatively insignificant warming, when combined with the lowering of the Nordic inland ice areas and Tibet due to the weight of the superimposed ice-load, has led to the repeated complete thawing of the inland ice areas.


title: Ice age

text: The Milankovitch cycles are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other.


title: Ice age

text: There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milanković orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun, the precession of Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m to 550 W/m). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like may explain this mismatch.


title: Ice age

text: While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in Earth's orbital elements can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial–interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been 100,000 years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's orbital eccentricity and orbital inclination. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's obliquity (tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in Earth's climate system. Recent work suggests that the 100K year cycle dominates due to increased southern-pole sea-ice increasing total solar reflectivity.


title: Ice age

text: The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller, Gordon J. F. MacDonald, and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial.


title: Ice age

text: Another worker, William Ruddiman, has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by Didier Paillard. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles


title: Ice age

text: can be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the orbital forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamical


title: Ice age

text: model explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.


title: Ice age

text: Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the inception and/or the end of ice age periods. At times during the paleoclimate, carbon dioxide levels were two or three times greater than today. Volcanoes and movements in continental plates contributed to high amounts of CO in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from volcanoes probably contributed to periods with highest overall temperatures. One suggested explanation of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum is that undersea volcanoes released methane from clathrates and thus caused a large and rapid increase in the greenhouse effect. There appears to be no geological evidence for such eruptions at the right time, but this does not prove they did not happen.


title: Ice age

text: The current geological period, the Quaternary, which began about 2.6 million years ago and extends into the present, is marked by warm and cold episodes, cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age) lasting about 100,000 years, and which are then interrupted by the warmer interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the Last Glacial Period ended about 10,000 years ago. Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene.


title: Ice age

text: The major glacial stages of the current ice age in North America are the Illinoian, Eemian and Wisconsin glaciation. The use of the Nebraskan, Afton, Kansan, and Yarmouthian stages to subdivide the ice age in North America has been discontinued by Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists. These stages have all been merged into the Pre-Illinoian in the 1980s.


title: Ice age

text: During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the Last Glacial Maximum (26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 45th parallel north. These sheets were thick.


title: Ice age

text: This Wisconsin glaciation left widespread impacts on the North American landscape. The Great Lakes and the Finger Lakes were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and later filled with glacial meltwaters. The old Teays River drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the Ohio River drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as Niagara Falls, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall, at the present Clark Reservation State Park near Syracuse, New York, is now dry.


title: Ice age

text: The area from Long Island to Nantucket, Massachusetts was formed from glacial till, and the plethora of lakes on the Canadian Shield in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of loess many dozens of feet thick in the Missouri Valley. Post-glacial rebound continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.


title: Ice age

text: The Driftless Area, a portion of western and southwestern Wisconsin along with parts of adjacent Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois, was not covered by glaciers.


title: Ice age

text: A specially interesting climatic change during glacial times has taken place in the semi-arid Andes. Beside the expected cooling down in comparison with the current climate, a significant precipitation change happened here. So, researches in the presently semiarid subtropic Aconcagua-massif (6,962 m) have shown an unexpectedly extensive glacial glaciation of the type "ice stream network". The connected valley glaciers exceeding 100 km in length, flowed down on the East-side of this section of the Andes at 32–34°S and 69–71°W as far as a height of 2,060 m and on the western luff-side still clearly deeper. Where current glaciers scarcely reach 10 km in length, the snowline (ELA) runs at a height of 4,600 m and at that time was lowered to 3,200 m asl, i.e. about 1,400 m. From this follows that—beside of an annual depression of temperature about c. 8.4 °C— here was an increase in precipitation. Accordingly, at glacial times the humid climatic belt that today is situated several latitude degrees further to the S, was shifted much further to the N.


title: Ice age

text: Although the last glacial period ended more than 8,000 years ago, its effects can still be felt today. For example, the moving ice carved out the landscape in Canada (See Canadian Arctic Archipelago), Greenland, northern Eurasia and Antarctica. The erratic boulders, till, drumlins, eskers, fjords, kettle lakes, moraines, cirques, horns, etc., are typical features left behind by the glaciers.


title: Ice age

text: The weight of the ice sheets was so great that they deformed Earth's crust and mantle. After the ice sheets melted, the ice-covered land rebounded. Due to the high viscosity of Earth's mantle, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow—at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound area today.


title: Ice age

text: During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, thus global sea level dropped by about 110 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During deglaciation, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed ice dams resulting in salination of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary reglaciation. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the Baltic and Scandinavian regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the last glacial maximum, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe.


title: Ice age

text: The redistribution of ice-water on the surface of Earth and the flow of mantle rocks causes changes in the gravitational field as well as changes to the distribution of the moment of inertia of Earth. These changes to the moment of inertia result in a change in the angular velocity, axis, and wobble of Earth's rotation.


title: Ice age

text: The weight of the redistributed surface mass loaded the lithosphere, caused it to flex and also induced stress within Earth. The presence of the glaciers generally suppressed the movement of faults below. During deglaciation, the faults experience accelerated slip triggering earthquakes. Earthquakes triggered near the ice margin may in turn accelerate ice calving and may account for the Heinrich events. As more ice is removed near the ice margin, more intraplate earthquakes are induced and this positive feedback may explain the fast collapse of ice sheets.


title: Ice age

text: In Europe, glacial erosion and isostatic sinking from weight of ice made the Baltic Sea, which before the Ice Age was all land drained by the Eridanos River.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Ronald Joseph Radke (; born December 15, 1983) is an American singer, songwriter, rapper, musician, and record producer best known for being the current lead singer of Falling in Reverse and the former lead singer of Escape the Fate.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Radke rose to popularity as the lead singer for post-hardcore band Escape the Fate, but was kicked out in 2008 after being sentenced to prison for violating probation to owning brass knuckles in the state of Nevada in 2006. While in prison, Radke started a new band, Falling in Reverse, that didn't make a formal announcement until his release in December 2010. Radke spent much of his time writing for his new band.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: As a solo musician, Radke released a rap mixtape, "Watch Me", in 2014, which included collaborations with Deuce, , Tyler Carter, Sy Ari Da Kid, Jacoby Shaddix, Danny Worsnop, Andy Biersack, and Craig Mabbitt.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Ronald Joseph Radke was born on December 15, 1983, in St. Rose Hospital, in Las Vegas, Nevada, one of three children born to Russell Radke, the others being his brothers, Anthony James Radke (1980-2013) and Matthew Radke. Radke's mother abused drugs and was absent from his childhood, which he said caused him to have a general lack of respect towards women as an adult although he later forgave her when he posted a picture of her on Instagram after a Falling in Reverse show in 2014. Radke is part Blackfoot Indian and Portuguese.