title: Al-Andalus

text: Mass forced conversions of Muslims in 1499 led to a revolt that spread to Alpujarras and the mountains of Ronda; after this uprising the capitulations were revoked. In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile, although in the kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia (both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526. Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (see Expulsion of the Moriscos).


title: Al-Andalus

text: The last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. From then on, indigenous Islam is considered to have been extinguished in Spain.


title: Al-Andalus

text: There were many scientific advances, especially in the fields of medicine, astronomy, and agronomy in Al-Andalus. Córdoba served as a major center for this scientific growth, with a vast amount of these advancements occurring during the rule of ‘Abd al-Rahman III from 929 to 961, in part due to the exposure of scientists to translations of older Greek and Persian works during that time. Scholars often worked in many different and overlapping subjects, so it is difficult to place those discussed here into a single scientific field each.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Notable surgeons, physicians, and medical scholars from al-Andalus include Ibn al-Baytar (d. 1248), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Albucasis; d. 1013), Muhammad al-Shafrah (d. 1360), Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (d. 853), and Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar; d. 1162). Of particular note is al-Zahrawi, who is considered by many to be "probably the greatest physician in the entire history of Western Islam." Around the year 1000 C.E, he wrote a book with a title that roughly translates to "The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself" ("Kitab al-tasrif li-man 'ajiza 'an al-ta'alif")—a comprehensive medical encyclopedia with the goal of summarizing all existing medical knowledge and eliminating the need for students and practitioners to rely on multiple medical texts. The book is renowned for its chapter on surgery which included important illustrations of surgical instruments, as well as sections "on cauterization, on incisions, venesection and wounds, and on bone-setting." For hundreds of years after its publication it was one of the most widely used medical texts for students and medical practitioners and was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Castilian. This encyclopedia is also significant for its inclusion of al-Zahrawi's personal experiences as a surgeon, which provided important case studies for aspiring surgeons. This distinguishes it from other strictly factual medical works of the time, most notably Ibn Sina's "Canon of Medicine".


title: Al-Andalus

text: Other important medical texts include al-Baytar's "Comprehensive Book on Simple Drugs and Foodstuffs—"an encyclopedia with descriptions of the medical uses of over 1400 plants and other types of medicine—and ibn Habib's "Book of the Medicine of the Arabs" ("Kitab tibb al-'arab")—a historical summary of Arabic medicine until the 9th century"." Ibn Habib's work is significant because it is one of the oldest known writings in the field of prophetic medicine, which uses hadiths to create Islamic-based medicinal guidelines. His book is also significant because it uses principles of Galenic medicine, such as humorism and the theory of four temperaments, as the basis of its medical recommendations.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The ibn Zuhr family played a very important role in the production of Andalusi medical knowledge, as they produced five generations of medical experts, particularly in the fields of dietary sciences and medicaments. Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (d. 1162) is particularly notable, as he wrote the "Book of Moderation" ("Kitab al-Iqtisad")—a treatise on general therapy; the "Book of Foods" ("Kitab al-Aghdhiya")—a manual on foods and regimen which contains guidelines for a healthy life; and the "Kitab al-Taysir"—a book written to act as a compendium to Ibn Rushd's Colliget. In "Kitab al-Taysir" he provides one of the earliest clinical descriptions of the scabies mite.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Three of the most notable Andalusi astronomers were Ibn Tufail (d. 1185), Ibn Rushd (Averroes; d. 1198), and Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji (Alpetragius; d. 1204). All lived around the same time and focused their astronomical works on critiquing and revising Ptolemaic astronomy and the problem of the equant in his astronomical model. Instead, they accepted Aristotle's model and promoted the theory of homocentric spheres.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Al-Bitruji is believed to have studied under Ibn Tufail and Bitruji's "Book on Cosmology" ("Kitab fi al-hay'a") built on Ibn Tufail's work, as well as that of Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Maimonides. The book's goal was "to overcome the physical difficulties inherent in the geometrical models of Ptolemy's "Almagest" and to describe the cosmos in agreement with Aristotelian or Neoplatonic physics," which it succeeded in doing to an extent. Bitruji's book set a precedent of criticizing the "Almagest" in future works in the field of astronomy.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Although Ibn Rushd originally trained and practiced as a jurist, he was exposed to astronomy—possibly through Ibn Tufail—and became a renowned scientist in the field. His most popular work was his "Summary of the Almagest", but he also published shorter works discussing Aristotle's planetary theories"." Ibn Rushd published writings on philosophy, theology, and medicine throughout his life too, including commentaries on the works of Ibn Sina.


title: Al-Andalus

text: In addition to writing the important "Book of the Medicine of the Arabs", Ibn Habib also wrote the "Book on Stars" ("Kirab fi l-nujim"). This book included important "teachings on the lunar mansions, the signs of the zodiac, [and] the division of the seasons." In these teachings, Ibn-Habib calculated the phases of the moon and dates of the annual solstices and equinoxes with relative accuracy.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Another important astronomer from al-Andalus was Maslama al-Majriti (d. 1007), who played a role in translating and writing about Ptolemy's "Planisphaerium" and "Almagest". He built on the work of older astronomers, like Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, whose astronomical tables he wrote a discussion on and subsequently improved.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Zarqali (d. 1087) had many influential astronomical successes, as shown by Copernicus's recognition of him in his "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" five centuries later. Along with other astronomers, he undertook extensive work to edit the Toledan Zij astronomical tables. He also accurately calculated the motion of the solar apogee to be 12.04 seconds per year, which is relatively close to today's calculation of 11.8 seconds per year.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Other important scientific advances in al-Andalus occurred in the field of agronomy. These advances were in part facilitated by technological innovations in irrigation systems. State organized, large-scale irrigation projects provided water to city baths, mosques, gardens, residential homes, and governing palaces, such as the al-Hambra and its gardens in Granada. Collective, peasant-built irrigation infrastructure also played an important role, especially in agriculture. Many of these irrigation techniques, especially those utilized by peasants, were brought to al-Andalus by migrating Berber and Arab tribes. Although some irrigation projects built on existing Roman infrastructure, most of al-Andalus's irrigation systems were new projects built separate from old Roman aqueducts. However, there is some debate about this among scholars.


title: Al-Andalus

text: One notable agriculturalist was Ibn al-'Awwam, who wrote the "Book of Agriculture". This book contains 34 chapters about various aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, including discussions of over 580 different types of plants and how to treat plant diseases.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Other agronomic innovations in al-Andalus include the cultivation of the pomegranate from Syria, which has since become the namesake and ubiquitous symbol of the city of Granada, as well as the first attempt to create a botanical garden near Córdoba by ‘Abd al-Rahman I.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, mainly the distinction between the Arabs and the Berbers. The Arab elite regarded non-Arab Muslims as second-class citizens and particularly scorned the Berbers.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale, followed by, in descending order, Berbers, Muwalladûn, Mozarabes, and Jews. Each of the communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities. In the 10th century, a massive conversion of Christians took place, and "muladies" (Muslims of native Iberian origin), formed the majority of Muslims. The Muwalladûn had spoken in a Romance dialect of Latin called Mozarabic, but they increasingly adopted Arabic, which eventually evolved into Andalusi Arabic in which Muslims, Jews and Christians had become monolingual in the last surviving Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada (1230–1492). Eventually, the Muladies and later the Berber tribes adopted an Arabic identity, like the majority of subject people in Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and North Africa. Muladies, together with other Muslims, had comprised 80% of the population of al-Andalus by 1100.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Mozarabs were Christians who had long lived under Muslim and Arab rule and adopted many Arab customs, art and words, but they maintained their religion, Latin rituals and Romance languages.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The Jewish population worked mainly as tax collectors, in trade, or as doctors or ambassadors. In the late 15th century, there were about 50,000 Jews in Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Non-Muslims were given the status of "ahl al-dhimma" (people under protection), with adult men paying a "Jizya" tax equal to one dinar per year with exemptions for the elderly and the disabled. Those who were neither Christians nor Jews, such as pagans, were given the status of "Majus". The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the co-existence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Jews constituted more than five percent of the population. Al-Andalus was a key centre of Jewish life during the early Middle Ages, produced important scholars and was one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The longest period of relative tolerance began after 912, with the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II, and the Jews of al-Andalus prospered by devoting themselves to the service of the Caliphate of Córdoba the study of the sciences; and to commerce and industry, especially by trading in silk and slaves, which thus promoted the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Under the Almoravids and the Almohads, there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews, but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160. Muslim pogroms against Jews in al-Andalus occurred in Córdoba (1011) and in Granada (1066). However, massacres of "dhimmis" are believed to be rare in Islamic history.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The Almohadss, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusi territories by 1147, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and treated the non-Muslim harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Many ethnicities and religions co-existed in al-Andalus, each of which contributed to its intellectual prosperity. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than in many other nations in the West of the time.


title: Al-Andalus

text: In the 11th century, the Hindu-Arabic numeral system (base 10) had reached Europe via Al-Andalus through Spanish Muslis, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like the astrolabe, which was first imported by Gerbert of Aurillac. For that reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as Arabic numerals despite their origins in India.


title: Al-Andalus

text: From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the [|Abbasids]] and for Córdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to that of their rival, Baghdad. Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, there was freedom to travel between the two caliphates, which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Initially, most of the population spoke Romance dialects. That led to the formation of Iberian Romance dialects that were collectively known as Mozarabic or Andalusi Romance. The few writings in those dialects that have been found use an Arabic script and seem to retain many archaic features of Vulgar Latin. They are usually assumed to have been increasingly subject to Arabic influence. However, as the use of Arabic by Muwalladûn, urban Christians and Sephardi Jews spread in the south, and Mozarab Christians were linguistically assimilated by the Christian Kingdoms in the north, the Mozarabic dialects eventually disappeared. Because of that assimilation, however, Mozarabic became the main source and vehicle of transmission of Arabic loanwords to Spanish and Portuguese.


title: Al-Andalus

text: During the latter half of Islamic rule, most of the population eventually adopted a set of locally developed and Romance-influenced Arabic dialects that were collectively known as Andalusi Arabic. By the time of the Emirate of Granada, all of the populace, regardless of religion, had likely become monolingual in Andalusian Arabic.


title: Al-Andalus

text: In Cordoba, Abd ar-Rahman I built the Great Mosque of Cordoba in 785. It was expanded multiple times up until the 10th century, and after the Reconquista it was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Its key features include a hypostyle hall with marble columns supporting two-tiered arches, a horseshoe-arch mihrab, ribbed domes, a courtyard ("sahn") with gardens, and a minaret (later converted into a bell tower). Abd ar-Rahman III, at the height of his power, began construction of Madinat al-Zahra, a luxurious palace-city to serve as a new capital. The Umayyads also reconstructed the Roman-era bridge over the Guadalquivir River in Cordoba, while the Almohads later added the Calahorra Tower to the bridge. The Bab al-Mardum Mosque (later converted to a church) in Toledo is a well-preserved example of a small neighbourhood mosque built at the end of the Caliphate period.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The official workshops of the Caliphate, such as those at Madinat al-Zahra, fabricated luxury products for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe. Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal, figurative, and epigraphic motifs. Notable surviving examples include the Pyxis of al-Mughira, the Pyxis of Zamora, and the Leyre Casket.


title: Al-Andalus

text: During the Taifas period, art and culture continued to flourish despite the political fragmentation of Al-Andalus. The Aljaferia Palace of Zaragoza is the most significant palace preserved from this period, featuring complex ornamental arcades and stucco decoration. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as the Alcazaba of Málaga and the Alcazaba of Almería. Other examples of architecture from around this period include the Bañuelo of Granada, an Islamic bathhouse.


title: Al-Andalus

text: In Seville, Almohad rulers built the Great Mosque of Seville (later transformed into the Cathedral of Seville), which consisted of a hypostyle prayer hall, a courtyard (now known as the "Patio de los Naranjos" or Court of Oranges), and a massive minaret tower now known as the Giralda. The minaret was later expanded after being converted into a bell tower for the current cathedral. Almohad architecture promoted new forms and decorative designs such as the multifoil arch and the sebka motif, probably influenced by the Caliphate-period architecture of Cordoba.Artists and intellectuals took refuge at Granada after the Christian kingdoms expanded significantly in the 13th century. The palaces of the Alhambra and the Generalife in Granada reflect the culture and art of the last centuries of Muslim rule of Al-Andalus. The complex was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, and the last major additions were made during the reigns of Yusuf I (1333–1353) and Muhammad V (1353–1391). It integrates buildings and gardens with the natural qualities of the site and is a testament to Andalusi culture and to the skills of the Muslim artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. Nasrid architecture continued the earlier traditions of Andalusi architecture while also synthesizing them into its own distinctive style, which had many similarities with contemporary Marinid architecture in North Africa. It is characterized by the use of the courtyard as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their center, such as a reflective pool or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of buildings and was executed primarily with tile mosaics on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls. Geometric patterns, vegetal motifs, and calligraphy were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as muqarnas, was used for three-dimensional features like vaulted ceilings, particularly during the reign of Muhammad V and after.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Even after Muslim territories were conquered by the Christian kingdoms, Andalusi art and architecture continued to appear for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons employing Muslim craftsmen, becoming what is known as the Mudéjar style (named after the Mudéjars or Muslims under Christian rule). Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the Church of San Román, 13th century) and in the cities of Aragon such as Zaragoza and Teruel. Among the most famous examples is the Alcázar of Seville, the former Abbadid and Almohad palace redeveloped by Christian rulers such as Peter of Castile, who in 1364 started adding new Moorish-style sections with the help of Muslim craftsmen from Granada and Toledo. Some surviving 13th and 14th-century Jewish synagogues were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar style under Christian rule, such as the Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form circa 1250), the Synagogue of Cordoba (1315), and the Synagogue of El Tránsito (1355–1357).


title: Al-Andalus

text: A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to Spain and Sicily during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots, saffron and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'—"aceite" and "aceituna", respectively—are derived from the Arabic "al-zait", meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical Greco-Roman times.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques. One of the largest palm groves in the world, called the Palmeral of Elche, was established by the Arabs between the 7th-10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited by UNESCO as an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe).


title: Al-Andalus

text: The period of Arab rule also involved the extension of Roman irrigation channels as well as the introduction of novel irrigation techniques from the Persianate world, such as the "acequia" (deriving from the classical Arabic "as-sāqiya") – subterranean channels used to transport water from highland aquifers to lowland fields in arid environments –first originating in either the Arabian Peninsula or the Persian Empire (referred to as "qanat" or "karez" in the Middle East). These structures are still found in Andalusia province, particularly in Granada.


title: Al-Andalus

text: According to Isaak Moiseevich Filʹshtinskiĭ, "in the 10th century, a favourable influence on the development of Andalusi literature was exerted by the literary circles organised by rich and noble Cordovan patrons." According to Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila: "Andalusian literature was still very much dominated by the Eastern tradition around the year 1000, and the Arabs of Spain probably felt somewhat isolated."


title: Al-Andalus

text: Arabic-Andalusi poetry was marked by the rise of "muwashshah". As worded by James T. Monroe, Ibn Quzman also "raised the native, popular, and colloquial "zajal" form to a higher literary level than it had previously enjoyed in his homeland," although "his work found greater acceptance in Baghdad than it did in the far West of the Islamic world." "Rithā’ al-Andalus" is considered the most significant of a series of poems that were written in the classical tradition of "rithā’" (which denotes both lamentation and a literary genre in itself) by Andalusi poets who had taken inspiration from the fall of Andalusi cities and territories. Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus also developed, mostly but not exclusively in Hebrew, with significant consonance with Arabic poetry in both theme and form.


title: Al-Andalus

text: One specialist of Al-Andalus' intellectual history, Maria Luisa Avila, says that ""biographical dictionaries have recorded information about thousands of distinguished people in every period from al-Andalus, who were "cultivators of knowledge", particularly in the legal-religious sciences as well as authors"", and that ""the exact number of scholars which appears in the biographical sources has not been established yet, but it surely exceeds six thousand."" It has been estimated that in the 10th century between 70,000 and 80,000 manuscripts were copied on a yearly basis in Cordoba alone.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The music of al-Andalus represents an influential and highly regarded musical tradition. The legendary figure Ziryab came from the Abbasid East and arrived in Cordoba in 822, revolutionizing Andalusi music as well as other aspects of Andalusi culture. Poetic forms such as the "muwashshah", the "kharja", the "nawba", and the "zajal" are prominent in Andalusi music.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The historian Said al-Andalus wrote that Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars of medicine and "ancient sciences". Later, "al-Mustansir" (Al-Hakam II) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Córdoba. Córdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate.


title: Al-Andalus

text: When Al-Hakam's son Hisham II took over, real power was ceded to the "hajib", al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir. Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy, logic, and especially of astrology, so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense by Al-Hakam II, were burned publicly. With Al-Mansur's death in 1002, interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom". Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (died 1008) was an outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology; he was an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond and kept in touch with the Brethren of Purity. He is said to have brought the 51 "Epistles of the Brethren of Purity" to "al-Andalus" and added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar with the name al-Majriti. Another book attributed to al-Majriti is the "Ghayat al-Hakim", "The Aim of the Sage", which explored a synthesis of Platonism with Hermetic philosophy. Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although the Sufi communities continued to study it.


title: Al-Andalus

text: A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometer Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani who was followed, in turn, by Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world as Ibn Bajjah, "Avempace".


title: Al-Andalus

text: The al-Andalus philosopher Averroes (1126–1198) was the founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, and his works and commentaries influenced medieval thought in Western Europe. Another influential al-Andalus philosopher was Ibn Tufail.


title: Al-Andalus

text: As Jewish thought in Babylonia declined, the tolerance of "al-Andalus" made it the new centre of Jewish intellectual endeavours. Poets and commentators like Judah Halevi (1086–1145) and Dunash ben Labrat (920–990) contributed to the cultural life of "al-Andalus", but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers (see joint Jewish and Islamic philosophies), culminated with the widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages, Maimonides (1135–1205), though he did not actually do any of his work in "al-Andalus", his family having fled persecution by the Almohads when he was 13.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The "Encyclopedia of Homosexuality" states that "Al-Andalus had many links to Hellenistic culture, and except for the Almoravid and Almohadic periods (1086–1212), it was hedonistic and tolerant of homosexuality, indeed one of the times in world history in which sensuality of all sorts has been most openly enjoyed. Important rulers such as Abd al-Rahman III, al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and al-Mu-tamid openly chose boys as sexual partners, and kept catamites. Homosexual prostitution was widespread, and its customers came from higher levels of society than those of heterosexual prostitutes." The verses of Ibn Quzman describe an openly bisexual lifestyle. Andalusi anthologies of poetry such as the "Rāyāt al-mubarrizīn wa-ghāyāt al-mumayyazīn" are known in part for their homoerotic and "abundant pederastic poetry". Such themes were also found in the Sephardic Jewish poetry of the time.


title: Al-Andalus

text: In the book "Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia" Daniel Eisenberg describes homosexuality as "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that "in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept male harems; the memoirs of Abdallah ibn Buluggin, last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Both pederasty and love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so." Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.


title: Al-Andalus

text: Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in al-Andalus.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of the Reconquista in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe ("Saqaliba"). Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in the Caliphate of Cordoba where white slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The slaves of the Caliph were often European saqaliba slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe; while male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of harem guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.


title: Al-Andalus

text: The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of Abd al-Rahman I consisted of 6,300 women. They were appreciated for their light skin. The concubines (jawaris) were educated in accomplishments to please their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine. Jawaris concubines who gave birth to a child attained the status of an "umm walad", which meant that they could no longer be sold and were to be set free after the death of her master.


title: Al-Andalus

text: As Andalusi cities were conquered by Leon, Castile, and other Christian Spanish kingdoms, Christian monarchs such as Alfonso X of Castile started translating the mountainous libraries of al-Andalus into Latin. These libraries contained translations of Ancient Greek texts, as well as new ones made by Muslims in the Islamic Golden Age. That, combined with the interaction with Muslims during the Crusades, and the Fall of Constantinople introducing Greek scholars to the west, helped launch the Renaissance. Scientists and philosophers such as Averroes and Al-Zahrawi (fathers of rationalism and surgery, respectively) heavily inspired the Renaissance, and their ideas are still world renowned to this day. Al Andalus has also left art and architecture and has some of the best preserved Islamic Golden Age architecture in the world, with examples including the Cathedral of Córdoba, the Alhambra, the Giralda and many more.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Star Trek: Voyager is an American science fiction television series created by Rick Berman, Michael Piller, and Jeri Taylor. It originally aired from January 16, 1995, to May 23, 2001, on UPN, lasting for 172 episodes over seven seasons. It is the fifth series in the "Star Trek" franchise. Set in the 24th century, when Earth is part of a United Federation of Planets, it follows the adventures of the Starfleet vessel USS "Voyager" as it attempts to return home to the Alpha Quadrant after being stranded in the Delta Quadrant on the far side of the Milky Way galaxy.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Paramount Pictures commissioned the series following the termination of "" to accompany the ongoing "". They wanted it to help launch UPN, their newly established network. Berman, Piller, and Taylor devised the series to chronologically overlap with "Deep Space Nine" and to maintain thematic continuity with elements that had been introduced in "The Next Generation" and "Deep Space Nine." The complex relationship between Starfleet and ex-Federation colonists known as the Maquis was one such element and a persistent central theme. "Voyager" was the first "Star Trek" series to feature a female commanding officer, Captain Kathryn Janeway (Kate Mulgrew), as the lead character. Berman served as head executive producer in charge of the overall production, assisted by a series of executive producers: Piller, Taylor, Brannon Braga, and Kenneth Biller.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Set in a different part of the galaxy from preceding "Star Trek" shows, "Voyager" gave the series' writers space to introduce new alien species as recurring characters, namely the Kazon, Vidiians, Hirogen, and Species 8472. During the later seasons, the Borg—a species created for "The Next Generation"—were introduced as the main antagonists. During "Voyager"s run, various episode novelizations and tie-in video games were produced; after it ended, various novels continued the series' narrative.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: As "" ended, Paramount Pictures wanted to continue to have a second "Star Trek" TV series to accompany "". The studio also planned to start a new television network, and wanted the new series to help it succeed. This was reminiscent of Paramount's earlier plans to launch its own network by showcasing "" in 1977.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Initial work on "Star Trek: Voyager" began in 1993, when the seventh and final season of "Star Trek: The Next Generation" and the second season of "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine" were in production. Seeds for "Voyager"s backstory, including the development of the Maquis, were placed in several "The Next Generation" and "Deep Space Nine" episodes. "Voyager" was shot on the stages "The Next Generation" had used, and where the "Voyager" pilot "" was shot in September 1994. Costume designer Robert Blackman decided that the uniforms of "Voyager"s crew would be the same as those on "Deep Space Nine".


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: "Star Trek: Voyager" was the first "Star Trek" series to use computer-generated imagery (CGI), rather than models, for exterior space shots. "Babylon 5" and "seaQuest DSV" had previously used CGI to avoid the expense of models, but the "Star Trek" television department continued using models because they felt they were more realistic. Amblin Imaging won an Emmy for "Voyager"s opening CGI title visuals, but the weekly episode exteriors were captured with hand-built miniatures of "Voyager", its shuttlecraft, and other ships. This changed when "Voyager" went fully CGI for certain types of shots midway through season three (late 1996). Foundation Imaging was the studio responsible for special effects during "Babylon 5"s first three seasons. Season three's "" was the first episode to use Foundation's effects exclusively. "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine" began using Foundation Imaging in conjunction with Digital Muse in season six. In its later seasons, "Voyager" featured visual effects from Foundation Imaging and Digital Muse. The digital effects were produced at standard television resolution and some have speculated that it cannot be re-released in HD format without re-creating the special effects. However, "Enterprise" has been released in HD, but the special effects were rendered in 480p and upscaled.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Unlike "The Next Generation", where composer Jerry Goldsmith's theme from "" was reused, Goldsmith composed and conducted an entirely new main theme for "Voyager". As done with "The Next Generation" and "Deep Space Nine", a soundtrack album of the series' pilot episode "Caretaker" and a CD single containing three variations of the main theme were released by Crescendo Records in 1995 between seasons one and two. In 1996, the theme was also released as piano solo songbook.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 2017, La-La Land Records issued "Star Trek: Voyager Collection, Volume 1", a four-disc limited-edition release containing Goldsmith's theme music and tracks from Jay Chattaway's "Rise", "Night", the two-parter "Equinox", "Pathfinder", "Spirit Folk", "The Haunting of Deck Twelve", "Shattered", "The Void", and the two-parter "Scorpion"; Dennis McCarthy's "The 37's", the two-parter "Basics", "The Q and the Gray", "Concerning Flight", "Tinker Tenor Doctor Spy", and the two-parters "Workforce" and "Year of Hell", David Bell's "Dark Frontier", and Paul Baillargeon's "Lifesigns".


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 2020, "Newsweek" magazine said that the "Voyager" theme by Goldsmith, was the best of all "Star Trek" television series' themes. The article elaborates, "..."Voyager" recaptures some of the spacey ethereality of Courage's original vocal melody, while adding a deep space resonance that evoked the series' lost explorers, far from home among uncharted stars."


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In August 2015, the main cast members (except Jennifer Lien, who retired from acting in 2002) appeared together onstage in Las Vegas for the 20th anniversary of "Star Trek: Voyager" at the 2015 Las Vegas "Star Trek" convention.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Robert Duncan McNeill (Paris) and Roxann Dawson (Torres) went on to direct episodes of "Star Trek: Enterprise", while Jonathan Frakes, LeVar Burton, and Andrew Robinson (Garak of "Deep Space Nine") all directed episodes of "Star Trek: Voyager". "Star Trek" actors directing has been popular in this franchise, pioneered by Leonard Nimoy (famous for playing Spock in the first Star Trek), who got into directing and had this job for the third and fourth "Star Trek" theatrical films.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The sets used for USS "Voyager" were reused for the "Deep Space Nine" episode "" for her sister ship USS "Bellerophon" (NCC-74705), both of which are "Intrepid"-class starships. The sickbay set of USS "Voyager" was also used as the "Enterprise"-E sickbay in the films "" and "". Additionally, the "Voyager" ready room and the engineering set were also used as rooms aboard the "Enterprise-"E in "Insurrection".


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Production of episodes ran from June/July to March/April each year, with one episode typically taking about 7 days to shoot. Shooting started at 7 am each weekday and continued until finished for the day. The pilot (first) episode, "Caretaker" took 31 days to shoot and was one of the most expensive television pilots shot at the time.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In the pilot episode, "", departs the Deep Space Nine space station on a mission into the treacherous Badlands. They are searching for a missing ship piloted by a team of Maquis rebels, which "Voyager"s security officer, the Vulcan Lieutenant Tuvok, has secretly infiltrated. While in the Badlands, "Voyager" is enveloped by a powerful energy wave that kills several of its crew, damages the ship, and strands it in the galaxy's Delta Quadrant, more than 70,000 light-years from Earth. The wave was not a natural phenomenon. In fact, it was used by an alien entity known as the Caretaker to pull "Voyager" into the Delta Quadrant. The Caretaker is responsible for the continued care of the Ocampa, a race of aliens native to the Delta Quadrant, and has been abducting other species from around the galaxy in an effort to find a successor.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The Maquis ship was also pulled into the Delta Quadrant, and eventually the two crews reluctantly agree to join forces after the Caretaker space station is destroyed in a pitched space battle with another local alien species, the Kazon. Chakotay, leader of the Maquis group, becomes "Voyager"s first officer. B'Elanna Torres, a half-human/half-Klingon Maquis, becomes chief engineer. Tom Paris, whom Janeway released from a Federation prison to help find the Maquis ship, is made "Voyager"s helm officer. Due to the deaths of the ship's entire medical staff, the Doctor, an emergency medical hologram designed only for short-term use, is employed as the ship's full-time chief medical officer. Delta Quadrant natives Neelix, a Talaxian scavenger, and Kes, a young Ocampa, are welcomed aboard as the ship's chef/morale officer and the Doctor's medical assistant, respectively.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Due to its great distance from Federation space, the Delta Quadrant is unexplored by Starfleet, and "Voyager" is truly going where no human has gone before. As they set out on their projected 75-year journey home, the crew passes through regions belonging to various species: the barbaric and belligerent Kazon; the organ-harvesting, disease-ravaged Vidiians; the nomadic hunter race the Hirogen; the fearsome Species 8472 from fluidic space; and most notably the Borg, whose home is the Delta Quadrant, so that "Voyager" has to move through large areas of Borg-controlled space in later seasons. They also encounter perilous natural phenomena, a nebulous area called the Nekrit Expanse ("", third season), a large area of empty space called the Void ("", fifth season), wormholes, dangerous nebulae and other anomalies.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: "Voyager" is the third "Star Trek" series to feature Q, an omnipotent alien—and the second on a recurring basis, as Q made only one appearance on "". Starfleet Command learns of "Voyager"s survival when the crew discovers an ancient interstellar communications network, claimed by the Hirogen, into which they can tap. This relay network is later disabled, but due to the efforts of Earth-based Lieutenant Reginald Barclay, Starfleet eventually establishes regular contact in the season-six episode "", using a communications array and micro-wormhole technology.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In the first two episodes of the show's fourth season, Kes leaves the ship in the wake of an extreme transformation of her mental abilities, while Seven of Nine (known colloquially as Seven), a Borg drone who was assimilated as a six-year-old human girl, is liberated from the collective and joins the "Voyager" crew. As the series progresses, Seven begins to regain her humanity with the ongoing help of Captain Janeway, who shows her that emotions, friendship, love, and caring are more important than the sterile "perfection" the Borg espouse. The Doctor also becomes more human-like, due in part to a mobile holo-emitter the crew obtains in the third season which allows the Doctor to leave the confines of sickbay. He discovers his love of music and art, which he demonstrates in the episode "". In the sixth season, the crew discovers a group of adolescent aliens assimilated by the Borg, but prematurely released from their maturation chambers due to a malfunction on their Borg cube. As he did with Seven of Nine, the Doctor rehumanizes the children; , three of them eventually find a new adoptive home while the fourth, , chooses to stay aboard "Voyager."


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Life for the "Voyager" crew evolves during their long journey. Traitors and are uncovered in the early months ("", ""); loyal crew members are lost late in the journey; and other wayward Starfleet officers are integrated into the crew. In the second season, the first child is born aboard the ship to Ensign Samantha Wildman; as she grows up, Naomi Wildman becomes great friends with her godfather, Neelix, and develops an unexpected and close relationship with Seven of Nine. Early in the seventh season, Tom Paris and B'Elanna Torres marry after a long courtship, and Torres gives birth to their child, , in the series finale. Late in the seventh season, the crew finds a colony of Talaxians on a makeshift settlement in an asteroid field, and Neelix chooses to bid "Voyager" farewell and live once again among his people.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Over the course of the series, the "Voyager" crew finds various ways to reduce their 75-year journey by up to five decades (barring any other delays they may encounter): shortcuts, in the episodes "Year of Hell", "" and ""; technology boosts in "", "Dark Frontier", "" and "Hope and Fear"; a subspace corridor in ""; and a mind-powered push from a powerful former shipmate in "". Several other trip-shortening attempts are unsuccessful, as seen in the episodes "", "", "Future's End", "", and "". After traveling for seven years, a current (yet returning) shipmate helps instigate a series of complex efforts which shortens the remainder of the journey to a few minutes in the series finale, "".


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: As with other "Star Trek" series, the original "Star Trek"s Vulcans, Klingons, and Romulans appear in "Star Trek: Voyager". "Voyager" had appearances by several other races who initially appear in "The Next Generation": the Q, the Borg, Cardassians, Bajorans, Betazoids, and Ferengi, along with "Deep Space Nine"s Jem'Hadar (via hologram), as well as the Maquis resistance movement, previously established in episodes of "The Next Generation" and "Deep Space Nine".


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: One notable connection between "Voyager" and "The Next Generation" appears regarding a wormhole and the Ferengi. In "The Next Generation" season-three episode "", bidding takes place for rights to a wormhole. The Ferengi send a delegation to the bidding. When the "Enterprise" and Ferengi vessel each send shuttles into the wormhole, they appear in the Delta Quadrant, where the Ferengi shuttle becomes trapped. In the "Voyager" season-three episode "False Profits", the Ferengi who were trapped have since landed on a nearby planet, and begun exploiting the inhabitants for profit.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In some cases, the actors play the same character as elsewhere, such as Dwight Schultz who plays Reginald Barclay. In other cases, the same actors play different characters.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The series consists of 172 episodes, all 45 minutes in length, excluding advertisement breaks. Four episodes, "Caretaker", "Dark Frontier", "Flesh and Blood" and "Endgame" originally aired as 90 minute episodes (excluding advertisement breaks). In syndication these four episodes are each split into two episodes (45 minutes in length).


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: A total of 26 numbered books were released during the series' original run from 1995 to 2001. They include novelizations of the first episode, "Caretaker", "The Escape", "Violations", "Ragnarok", and novelizations of the episodes "Flashback", "Day of Honor", "Equinox" and "Endgame". Also, "unnumbered books", which are still part of the series, were released, though not part of the official release. These novels consist of episode novelizations except for "Caretaker", "Mosaic" (a biography of Kathryn Janeway), "Pathways" (a novel in which the biography of various crew members, including all of the senior staff, is given); and "The Nanotech War", a novel released in 2002, one year after the series' finale.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: A series of novels focusing on the continuing adventures of "Voyager" following the television series finale was implemented in 2003, much as Pocket Books did with the novel series, which features stories placed after the finale of that show. In the relaunch, several characters are reassigned while others are promoted but stay aboard "Voyager". These changes include Janeway's promotion to admiral, Chakotay becoming captain of "Voyager" and breaking up with Seven of Nine, Tuvok leaving the ship to serve as tactical officer under William Riker, and Tom Paris's promotion to first officer on the "Voyager". The series also introduces several new characters.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The series began with "Homecoming" and "The Farther Shore" in 2003, a direct sequel to the series' finale, "Endgame". These were followed in 2004 by "Spirit Walk: Old Wounds" and "Spirit Walk: Enemy of My Enemy". Under the direction of a new author, 2009 brought forth two more additions to the series: "Full Circle" and "Unworthy". In 2011, another book by the same author called "Children of the Storm" was released. Other novels—some set during the relaunch period, others during the show's broadcast run—have been published.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Three video games based specifically on "Voyager" were released: "" for PC (2000) and PS2 (2001), the arcade game "" (2002) and "" (2003), a sequel to "Elite Force". The PS2 game "" (2006) also features the ship and characters from the show. "Voyager" was a graphic adventure video game developed by Looking Glass Technologies but it was cancelled in 1997.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: "Star Trek: Voyager - Elite Force" drew revenues of $15 million and sold roughly 300,000 units worldwide by 2003.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: "Star Trek: Voyager" launched on UPN with repeats entering into syndication. The two hour long debut "" was seen by 21.3 million people in January 1995.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The series is available, Sunday through Friday evenings, on the broadcast network Heroes and Icons. It is also available for streaming in the United States on Paramount+ and Amazon Prime Video.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 2016, in a listing that included each "Star Trek" film and TV series separately, Voyager was ranked 6th by the "L.A. Times". In 2017, Vulture ranked "Star Trek: Voyager" the 4th best live-action "Star Trek" television show, prior to "". In 2019, Nerdist ranked this show the 5th best Star Trek series, in between "Enterprise" and "Star Trek: Discovery". Also in 2019, MovieFone ranked it the fifth best live-action Star Trek series.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 2019, CBR ranked Season 5 the 4th best season of a "Star Trek" show, and Season 4, the 8th best. In 2019, Popular Mechanics ranked "Star Trek: Voyager" the 36th best science fiction television show ever. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the show a rating of 77% overall of the seven seasons based on 49 reviews. Metacritic gives "Star Trek: Voyager" a score of 66 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In 2021, Variety ranked it the fourth best installment of "Star Trek", counting series and movies together, placing it ahead of all television series to-date except the original.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: "Voyager" is notable for being the most gender-balanced "Star Trek" series with the first female lead character and strong female supporting characters, with a review of the different series giving "Voyager" the highest Bechdel test rating. Critical and scholarly accounts noted the prevalence of women in leadership roles and with scientific expertise, but also the series' adherence to the gender binary and heterosexual norms.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In an article about "Voyager", Ian Grey wrote: "It was a rare heavy-hardware science fiction fantasy not built around a strong man, and more audaciously, it didn't seem to trouble itself over how fans would receive this. On "Voyager", female authority was assumed and unquestioned; women conveyed sexual power without shame and anger without guilt. Even more so than "Buffy", which debuted two years later, it was the most feminist show in American TV history."


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: About her years on "Voyager", Kate Mulgrew said: "The best thing was simply the privilege and the challenge of being able to take a shot at the first female captain, transcending stereotypes that I was very familiar with. I was able to do that in front of millions of viewers. That was a remarkable experience—and it continues to resonate."


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 2015, astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti tweeted the line from the Voyager TV show about coffee, from the International Space Station. The station was getting a shipment of supplies which triggered a chance to say how coffee really was in the incoming spacecraft (a Dragon cargo spacecraft). The spacecraft was carrying the ISSpresso machine which really would allow coffee beverages to be made aboard the real-life Space Station. The popular tweet was accompanied by her wearing a Star Trek uniform also.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The series was released on DVD in 2004 and again in 2017. In addition to the episodes, the DVDs also include some extra videos related to the show. There was an extra bonus video with the DVD set from the store Best Buy in 2004. "Voyager" had releases of episodes on VHS format, such as a collectors set with a special display box for the tapes.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: By the 2010s, the episodes were made available on various streaming services including the owners CBS All Access In 2016 Netflix made an agreement with CBS for worldwide distribution of all then existing 727 "Star Trek" episodes (including Voyager). "Voyager" has 172 episodes and has been reviewed as a binge watch, with the whole series taking about three months, as rate of two episodes per day on weekdays and three episodes per day on weekends. As of 2015 services known to carry the series include Netflix, Amazon Prime, Google Play, iTunes, and CBS.com.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: "Star Trek: Voyager" has not been remastered in high definition and there are no plans to do so, due to the costs of reassembling each episode from the film negatives and recreating visual effects.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 1995 for example, Jerry Goldsmith won an Emmy award for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Main Title Theme Music" and the series also won an Emmy for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Special Visual Effects."


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: The following episodes won Emmy awards, "Caretaker", "Threshold", "Fair Trade", "Dark Frontier", and "Endgame".


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic in May 2020, the cast of "Voyager" reunited for a live virtual event. The reunion broke the "Stars in the House" single-episode fundraising record, drawing donations totaling $19,225 for The Actors Fund's efforts to assist entertainment professionals in need during the COVID-19 pandemic. The previous "Stars in the House" record was set by a "Glee" reunion episode that raised $13,910.


title: Star Trek: Voyager

text: In 2021, plans for a "Star Trek: Voyager" documentary made news when it raised over $638,000 in the first two weeks of its Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign. The film is being produced by 455 Films which also produced the 2018 reunion documentary "What We Left Behind" about "," as well as other documentaries. Production of the film started in 2020 and included cast member interviews prior to kicking off crowdfunding to take the film to full production. By the end of March 2021 they had raised over $1.2 million from over 11 thousand donators to make it the most funded crowdfunded documentary ever, and announced the name "To The Journey: Looking Back At Star Trek: Voyager" for the documentary, which will include HD remastered footage (pending approval from ViacomCBS). The fundraising campaign was noted for getting support from Nana Visitor, Kate Mulgrew, William Shatner, Jonathan Frakes, and others.


title: Olivia Williams

text: Olivia Haigh Williams (born 26 July 1968) is a British actress who has appeared in British and American films and television.


title: Olivia Williams

text: After studying drama at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School for two years followed by three years at the Royal Shakespeare Company, her first significant screen role was as Jane Fairfax in the British television film "Emma" (1996), based on Jane Austen's novel. She made her film debut in 1997's "The Postman", followed by "Rushmore" (1998) and "The Sixth Sense" (1999). Williams then appeared in several British films, including "Lucky Break" (2001), "The Heart of Me" (2002) and "An Education" (2009). In 2010, she won acclaim for her performance as Ruth Lang in Roman Polanski's "The Ghost Writer". From 2017 to 2019, she played Emily Silk on the science fiction television series "Counterpart". In 2022, Williams portrayed Camilla Parker Bowles in the Netflix historical drama "The Crown" in its fifth season, a role she is set to reprise in its sixth and final season.


title: Olivia Williams

text: Williams was born in North London. Both her parents are barristers. Williams was educated at South Hampstead High School, an independent school for girls in Hampstead in north London, followed by Newnham College, Cambridge, from which she graduated with a degree in English literature. She then studied drama at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School for two years and spent three years at the Royal Shakespeare Company.


title: Olivia Williams

text: After graduation, Williams worked with the Royal Shakespeare Company in both Stratford-upon-Avon and London. In 1995, she toured the United States in a production of Shakespeare's "Richard III" starring Ian McKellen. Her first significant appearance before the cameras was as Jane Fairfax in the British TV film "Emma" (1996), based on Jane Austen's 1816 novel.


title: Olivia Williams

text: Williams made her film debut in the 1997 movie "The Postman", after doing a screen test for Kevin Costner. She later won the lead role of Rosemary Cross in Wes Anderson's "Rushmore" (1998). She then starred as Bruce Willis' wife in the blockbuster "The Sixth Sense" (1999), a film she would later parody during her brief appearance in the British sitcom "Spaced". Since then, Williams has appeared in several British films, including "Lucky Break" (2001), "The Heart of Me" (2002), for which she won the British Independent Film Award for Best Actress, and "An Education" (2009). She played Mrs. Darling in the 2003 film adaptation of "Peter Pan". Williams was uncredited for her role as Dr. Moira MacTaggert in the 2006 film "".


title: Olivia Williams

text: On TV, Williams portrayed British author Jane Austen in "Miss Austen Regrets" (2008) and was cast as Adelle DeWitt in Joss Whedon's "Dollhouse", which ran on Fox from 2009 to 2010.


title: Olivia Williams

text: In 2010, she won acclaim for her performance as Ruth Lang in Roman Polanski's "Ghost Writer", winning the National Society of Film Critics Award, London Critics Circle Film Award for best supporting actress and was runner-up for best supporting actress at the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards 2010.


title: Olivia Williams

text: In "Hanna" (2011), she played Rachel, a bohemian mother travelling across North Africa and Europe, who comes into contact with the eponymous teen assassin, who is on the run. The film starred Saoirse Ronan, Eric Bana and Cate Blanchett, and was a critical and sleeper hit. In 2014, Williams co-starred in David Cronenberg's "Maps to the Stars", a dark comic look at Hollywood excess. In 2014 she portrayed Meg Hamilton in the British mystery film "Altar".


title: Olivia Williams

text: In 2017 Williams began appearing in the Starz science-fiction series "Counterpart", playing Emily, the wife of lead character Howard Silk. In one universe she is still married to him, but her counterpart in the other universe is divorced from him. In 2021, she was cast as Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, for the final two seasons of "The Crown".


title: Olivia Williams

text: In 2000, Williams wrote the short story "The Significance of Hair" for BBC Radio, and read it on the air.


title: Olivia Williams

text: Williams had a seven-year relationship and then engagement to the actor Jonathan Cake which ended two weeks before their planned wedding. In 2003, she married the actor and playwright Rhashan Stone, with whom she has two daughters.


title: Olivia Williams

text: Williams was diagnosed with VIPoma in 2018 and, after treatment, became an ambassador for Pancreatic Cancer UK.


title: Cognac

text: Cognac ( , , ) is a variety of brandy named after the commune of Cognac, France. It is produced in the surrounding wine-growing region in the departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime.


title: Cognac

text: Cognac production falls under French appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) designation, with production methods and naming required to meet certain legal requirements. Among the specified grapes, Ugni blanc, known locally as Saint-Émilion, is most widely used. The brandy must be twice distilled in copper pot stills and aged at least two years in French oak barrels from Limousin or Tronçais. Cognac matures in the same way as whiskies and wines barrel-age, and most cognacs spend considerably longer "on the wood" than the minimum legal requirement.


title: Cognac

text: Cognac is a type of brandy, and after the distillation and during the aging process, is also called "eau de vie". It is produced by twice distilling grapes produced in any of the designated growing regions.


title: Cognac

text: The white wine used in making cognac is very dry, acidic, and thin; though it has been characterised as "virtually undrinkable", it is excellent for distillation and aging. It may be made only from a strict list of grape varieties. For it to be considered a true "cru", the wine must be at least 90% Ugni blanc (known in Italy as Trebbiano), Folle blanche and Colombard, while up to 10% of the grapes used can be Folignan, Jurançon blanc, Meslier St-François (also called Blanc Ramé), Sélect, Montils, or Sémillon. Cognacs which are not to carry the name of a "cru" are freer in the allowed grape varieties, needing at least 90% Colombard, Folle blanche, Jurançon blanc, Meslier Saint-François, Montils, Sémillon, or Ugni blanc, and up to 10% Folignan or Sélect.


title: Cognac

text: After the grapes are pressed, the juice is left to ferment for 2–3 weeks, with the region's native, wild yeasts converting the fruit sugars into alcohol; neither sugar nor sulphur may be added. At this point, the resulting wine is about 7 to 8% alcohol.


title: Cognac

text: Distillation takes place in traditionally shaped Charentais copper alembic stills, the design and dimensions of which are also legally controlled. Two distillations must be carried out; the resulting "eau de vie" is a colourless spirit of about 70% alcohol.


title: Cognac

text: Once distillation is complete, it must be aged in Limousin oak casks for at least two years before it can be sold to the public. It is typically put into casks at an alcohol by volume strength around 70%. As the cognac interacts with the oak barrel and the air, it evaporates at the rate of about 3% each year, slowly losing both alcohol and water (the former more rapidly, as it is more volatile). This phenomenon is called locally "la part des anges", or "the angels' share". When more than ten years pass in the oak barrel, the cognac's alcohol content decreases to 40% in volume. The cognac is then transferred to "large glass bottles called bonbonnes", then stored for future "blending." Since oak barrels stop contributing to flavor after four or five decades, longer aging periods may not be beneficial.


title: Cognac

text: The age of the cognac is calculated as that of the youngest component used in the blend. The blend is usually of different ages and (in the case of the larger and more commercial producers) from different local areas. This blending, or "marriage", of different "eaux de vie" is important to obtain a complexity of flavours absent from an "eau de vie" from a single distillery or vineyard. Each cognac house has a master taster ("maître de chai"), who is responsible for blending the spirits, so that cognac produced by a company will have a consistent house style and quality. In this respect, it is similar to the process of blending whisky or non-vintage Champagne to achieve a consistent brand flavor. A very small number of producers, such as Guillon Painturaud and Moyet, do not blend their final product from different ages of "eaux de vie", so produce a "purer" flavour.


title: Cognac

text: Hundreds of vineyards in the Cognac AOC region sell their own cognac. These are likewise blended from the "eaux de vie" of different years, but they are single-vineyard cognacs, varying slightly from year to year and according to the taste of the producer, hence lacking some of the predictability of the better-known commercial products. Depending on their success in marketing, small producers may sell a larger or smaller proportion of their product to individual buyers, wine dealers, bars and restaurants, the remainder being acquired by larger cognac houses for blending.


title: Cognac

text: According to the Bureau National Interprofessionnel du Cognac (BNIC), the official quality grades of cognac are:


title: Cognac

text: Most names of the grades are in English because the historical cognac trade, particularly in the 18th century, significantly involved the British.


title: Cognac

text: Cognac is also classified by "crus", tightly defined geographic denominations where the grapes are grown. Their distinctive soils and microclimates produce "eaux de vie" with characteristics particular to their specific location.


title: Cognac

text: The cognac-producing regions called Champagne should not be confused with the northeastern region of Champagne, a wine region that produces sparkling wine by that name, although they do share a common etymology.


title: Cognac

text: Close to 200 cognac producers exist. According to one 2008 estimate a large percentage of cognac—more than 90% for the US market—comes from only four producers: Courvoisier (owned by Beam Suntory), Hennessy (LVMH), Martell (Pernod Ricard), and Rémy Martin (Rémy Cointreau). Other brands meeting the AOC criteria for cognac include Bache-Gabrielsen/Dupuy, Braastad, Camus, La Fontaine de La Pouyade, Château Fontpinot, Delamain, Pierre Ferrand, Frapin, Gautier, Hine, Marcel Ragnaud, Monnet, Moyet, Otard, Meukow, and Cognac Croizet.


title: Cognac

text: In 2017, an agreement between the European Union and Armenia was signed, whereby Armenian producers will abandon the usage of the protected geographic name "cognac" from 2043. The name "cognac" will be prohibited for the domestic Armenian market from 2032.


title: YG Entertainment

text: YG Entertainment Inc. () is a South Korean multinational entertainment agency established in 1996 by Yang Hyun-suk. The company operates as a record label, talent agency, music production company, event management and concert production company, and music publishing house. In addition, the company operates a number of subsidiary ventures under a separate public traded company, YG Plus, which includes a clothing line, a golf management agency, and a cosmetics brand.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Current artists include Sechs Kies, Big Bang, Akdong Musician, Winner, iKon, Blackpink, and Treasure as well as actors and actresses including Kang Dong-won, Choi Ji-woo, Cha Seung-won, Lee Sung-kyung, Jin Kyung, Jang Ki-yong, Yoo In-na, Son Na-eun, and Yoo Seung-ho. Other notable artists include Jeon Somi, who is under YG Entertainment's subsidiary The Black Label.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Former artists include Wheesung, Epik High, 1TYM, Gummy, Seven, Minzy, Park Bom, 2NE1, Nam Tae-hyun, Lee Jong-suk, Psy, Seungri, B.I, One, CL, Lee Hi, Jinusean, Sandara Park, T.O.P, and Bang Ye-dam.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In March 1996, Yang Hyun-suk, a former member of the first-generation K-pop group Seo Taiji and Boys, founded YG Entertainment along with his younger brother Yang Min-suk. The company's first artist was the hip-hop trio Keep Six. When they failed to attract popularity, Yang turned his focus to the duo Jinusean and in 1998 to the debut of 1TYM. Both were successful artists that Yang credits for bringing YG and the hip hop genre into mainstream Korean music.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 1999, YG's artists released a collaborative album under the name YG Family. The label followed with releases from artists such as Perry, Swi.T, Big Mama, Lexy, Gummy and Wheesung. It also established the "YG Underground" label, which housed 45RPM and Stony Skunk. In 2001, a second YG Family album was released. Among others, it featured the 13-year-old G-Dragon, who was then a trainee.


title: YG Entertainment

text: The agency found success in both Korea and Japan with its first "idol" singer Seven in 2003, who became the company's first artist to attempt to cross over into the US music scene, though his US debut failed to gain momentum.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Following Se7en's success, YG formed its first idol group Big Bang in 2006. Despite an initial lukewarm reception, the group's breakthrough the following year and their consistent popularity have made them one of the biggest and most bankable boy bands in the world. This was followed by YG's first successful girl group 2NE1 in 2009, who, prior to their split in 2016, were considered one of the most successful and popular girl groups in South Korea. Similarly to Seven, both groups conducted successful careers in Japan.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2010, YG made a highly publicized move into a new building, while the old headquarters became a training facility. In the same year, the company unsuccessfully applied for listing on the stock exchange; it was suspected that this was because the company had too few active music groups and an unstable cash flow, despite an increase in earnings in 2009. Later that year, the label signed established artist Psy.


title: YG Entertainment

text: 2012 brought YG international recognition when Psy's "Gangnam Style" gained worldwide popularity as a viral video. On August 21, it charted at number one on the iTunes Music Video Charts. This feat was a first for a South Korean artist. By November 24, "Gangnam Style" had become the most viewed video in YouTube history, and the first video to surpass a billion views. The song was credited as the main reason for YG's share prices increasing by more than 60 per cent, with the record label subsequently filing its first annual report in 2012 with profits of over 50% after going public on the KOSDAQ the year before.


title: YG Entertainment

text: That same year, the label signed rapper and producer Tablo, leader of the hip hop group Epik High, relaunching his career after . Tablo's band Epik High later transitioned into the record label following his success.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Yang's increased involvement on competitive reality television series led to several record deals with contestants, starting with "K-pop Star"’s first season runner-up Lee Hi. Other participants on the show were signed as potential members of the label's future boy groups. On the second season of the show, both the winners, sibling duo Akdong Musician as well as runner-up Bang Ye-dam, signed under the agency. Additionally, the reality program "Win: Who is Next" was later launched by YG, in which two teams of male trainees competed against each other for the chance to sign a contract with the label to debut as the company's next boy band. The conclusion of the reality series saw the formation of Winner.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2014, YG acquired T Entertainment's staff and actors including Cha Seung-won, Im Ye-jin, and Jang Hyun-sung. Additionally, through the acquisition of modelling agency K-Plus, it expanded its acting division through the acting debuts of models Lee Sung-kyung and Nam Joo-hyuk. YG also signed a contract with actress Choi Ji-woo. French luxury giant LVMH's private equity arm, L Capital Asia, later announced that it would be investing up to US$80 million in YG. Headquartered in Singapore, L Capital Asia would become the second-largest investor in YG with an 11.5% stake, second only to Yang Hyun-suk's 28%. In 2014 YG also expanded into the beauty industry with the creation of its cosmetics brand Moonshot.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2015, YG invested nearly US$100 million in a new Gyeonggi-do-based industrial complex which was slated to be complete by December 2018. Real estate in Seoul worth ₩16 billion (US$14 million) was also purchased for the purpose of expanding their headquarters. In that year, the company also saw the creation of two sub-labels, the first led by Tablo and the second headed by YG producers Teddy Park of 1TYM and Kush of Stony Skunk. Additionally, the members of the losing team from the reality series "WIN: Who is Next" regrouped and debuted as iKon, along with a new member.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In April 2016, Gong Minji, the youngest member of 2NE1 announced that she had left 2NE1, YG Entertainment stated that the group would continue as a trio. However, in November 2016, YG announced that CL and Dara had renewed their contracts as solo artists, indicating Park Bom's departure from the agency and the disbandment of 2NE1. On January 21, 2017, 2NE1 appeared as a trio and released "Goodbye" as a farewell song that CL wrote when she heard the news of Minji's departure.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Sixteen years after the group's disbandment, first-generation K-pop boy band Sechs Kies signed a contract with YG in May 2016 to relaunch their career. In the same month, Chinese technology enterprises Tencent and Weiying Technology announced an investment of in YG. Weiying took an 8.2% stake in the company and Tencent a 4.5% stake. YG later added Lee Jong-suk, Kang Dong-won, and Kim Hee-jung to their list of actors.


title: YG Entertainment

text: YG debuted their second girl group Blackpink in 2016, their first since 2NE1, followed by the solo rapper One the following year.


title: YG Entertainment

text: At the end of 2017, YG with JTBC launched a talent survival show entitled "Mix Nine", a contest between trainees from different agencies. Although the winning team was scheduled to debut as idols, YG revealed that the debut for the male winning group had been cancelled. The failure of the show led to incurred losses of ₩7 billion won in the first quarter and ₩4 billion won in the last three months of 2017, causing JYP Entertainment to surpass YG as the second-highest valued K-pop company.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In May 2018, Psy left the company after eight years. Epik High member Tablo announced that his hip-hop group had terminated its contract with YG after six years of working together in October 2018. At the same time, HIGHGRND and it artist have been released from YG and Epik High.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In November 2018, YG announced YG Treasure Box, a talent survival show to determine the line-up for their next boy group scheduled to debut in 2019. YG later announced that this event would produce two groups, Treasure and Magnum, both of whom would be active as Treasure 13.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2019, the Burning Sun scandal involving Big Bang Seungri heated up and resulted in Seungri's decision to retire from the entertainment industry so that he could focus on the legal case that dragged his name, he officially announced his retirement on March 11, 2019. Comedian Yoo Byung-jae decided to leave YG before his contract ended, after this scandal further dragged the name of the agency.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In early June 2019, B.I, the leader of iKON, was reported to have attempted to purchase LSD and marijuana illegally in 2016, he announced his apology to fans and declared his departure from iKON and YG Entertainment. YG Executive Producer, Yang Hyunsuk was also reported to have colluded with the police to cover up the B.I case, In addition, Yang is also accused of money laundering, illegal gambling, and preparing sexual services for potential investors.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Due to this series of scandals and controversies, Yang Hyun Suk resigned from all his positions at the agency. Likewise, his younger brother, Yang Min Suk, relinquished his position as CEO of YG Entertainment as a form of accountability. This resignation was officially announced on June 14, 2019. Then CFO Hwang Bo-kyung was appointed as the new CEO of YG on June 20, 2019


title: YG Entertainment

text: In July 2019, rapper One announced that he had parted ways with YG and founded his own sole agency. Following 2NE1's disbandment in 2016, CL announced that she would not be renewing her contract with YG Entertainment in November 2019. At the end of December 2019, solo singer Lee Hi announced that YG was no longer her agency, not long after that she released a new album with AOMG.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2020, YG announced plans for Treasure's debut which had been delayed since 2019, Blackpink's first full album and Big Bang's comeback which was eventually delayed until 2022. They were also expected to appear at the 2020 Coachella concert however it got cancelled due to the Covid-19 pandemic.


title: YG Entertainment

text: During the first half of 2020, YG's financial growth slowly rebounded after the slump. This was assisted by the direction of its business strategy which was primarily international fan oriented. Domestic public sentiment still had not shown a positive influence, but 70% of YG Entertainment's revenue came from overseas fans, most of which came from IKon's first activities after B.I's departure and G-Dragon's activities in China at the time.


title: YG Entertainment

text: During the second half of 2020, YG displayed a positive financial trend due to Treasure's debut album series, Blackpink's full album, Winner's Mino, Yoon's solo activities and AKMU's Suhyun's solo activities. Although not in line with the expected target, this value is thought to be due to COVID-19, which caused some concerts to be cancelled. The construction of the new YG Entertainment building was declared complete in September 2020, this building was chosen as the most luxurious and most expensive entertainment agency building in South Korea.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In January 2021, it was reported that Big Hit Entertainment and its tech division beNX had invested a total of 70 billion won (US$63 million) in YG Entertainment's subsidiary YG Plus, or 17.9% of the company's total shares. This investment was made as a form of strategic collaboration between Big Hit Entertainment, beNX, YG Entertainment, and YG Plus, which will work together in various business areas such as platform, distribution, content, and merchandise. YG Plus is the main distributor of Hybe Corporation's products and beNX (now known as Weverse Company) provides content and a platform for YG artists.


title: YG Entertainment

text: On May 4, 2021, The Korea Exchange announced that YG was demoted in status from blue-chip companies to regular mid-sized businesses. The status was acquired in April 2013. The company recorded a net loss of 1.8 billion won and a return on equity of -0.5%. Its main business, music production and management, has experienced operational losses over the past two years.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2022, YG Entertainment announced that Treasure will be coming back with their new album, the album will be released in February 2022. After Jinwoo and Seunghoon finished their mandatory military service in January 2022, Winner gathered with a full lineup and announced that they would soon return with a new album and a full lineup after Seungyoon and Mino actively released solo albums during the group's break, YG Entertainment announced that Seungyoon will be releasing a single album in March 2022. Treasure and Winner will be holding concerts in April 2022, separately.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In February 2022, YG Entertainment announced that Big Bang would be releasing their first comeback after a hiatus which lasted for five years. In addition, they also announced that T.O.P terminated his contract with YG.


title: YG Entertainment

text: On July 1, 2022, Yang Min-suk, brother of YG Entertainment founder, Yang Hyun-suk, returned to the agency after 3 years as co-CEO, joining with the current CEO, Hwang Bo-kyung.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In March 2010, seven record labels in Korea (including the three biggest agencies: YG, SM Entertainment, JYP Entertainment, Star Empire Entertainment, Medialine, CAN Entertainment, and Music Factory) jointly established KMP Holdings, a service platform aiming to provide digital music distribution and television program productions. It was speculated that this was in challenge to the duopoly on music distribution in Korea by Mnet Media and LOEN Entertainment. In November 2012, KMP Holdings was acquired by KT Music. In January 2014, the seven agencies behind KMP Holdings formed a collective bond partnership and purchased 13.48% of KT Music's stocks, leaving parent company KT Corporation with 49.99%.


title: YG Entertainment

text: YGEX was established on April 12, 2011, as a partnership between Avex and YG for the promotion and release of all YG's material in Japan. Prior to this, YG's Japanese releases had been in partnership with Nexstar Records, a Nippon Columbia label that managed Japanese releases for Seven, and Universal Music Japan (which signed a three-year exclusive contract in 2008 for Big Bang's Japanese releases).


title: YG Entertainment

text: YGMM was established in May 2021 as a form of collaboration with GMM Grammy, Thailand's largest entertainment company with a capital of 200 billion bath (US$5 billion), the company will focus on entertainment and consulting businesses for concerts, theater and acting. GMM Grammy is one of the longest-serving mainstream entertainment companies in Thailand having a number of music labels along with TV and film productions. GMM Grammy is set to hold a 51% stake in the company, while the other 49% belongs to YG Entertainment.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In April 2011, United Asia Management was formed as a joint talent management agency between YG, SM, JYP, KeyEast, AMENT, and Star J Entertainment.


title: YG Entertainment

text: YG first collaborated with Californian concert promotion company Live Nation to produce Big Bang's Alive Galaxy Tour (2012). Live Nation subsequently directed 2NE1's New Evolution World Tour (2012) and G-Dragon's One of a Kind World Tour (2013). General Manager of Live Nation Asia, Mats Brandt, said in an interview that the company considered Big Bang to have the most potential to become a "global artist".


title: YG Entertainment

text: Asiana Airlines signed a deal with YG in January 2013, providing transportation for its personnel to and from domestic and international destinations in return for advertising.


title: YG Entertainment

text: HIGHGRND (read as "high ground") was an independent sub-label headed by Epik High's Tablo. Announced in March 2015, the label was set up by Yang Hyun-suk under the YG Entertainment umbrella as part of a long-term goal to reach out to the Korean indie and alternative scene. On June 21, 2015, Tablo introduced the band Hyukoh via Instagram as the label's first official artist. The company had fostered artists Millic, offonoff, Punchnello, Code Kunst, Way Ched, The Black Skirts, Idiotape, and Incredivle ever since.


title: YG Entertainment

text: However, on April 11, 2018, an article was released that HIGHGRND was no longer active due to Tablo's resignation as CEO the previous year. As of the release of this article, the artists in the label soon revealed that they had signed in with other labels and had other companies to distribute their new releases that year.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In June 2019, YG Plus took over the social media accounts of HIGHGRND and relaunched them under the name SEOUL MUSIC.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Following the successful formation of HIGHGRND, on September 22, 2015, YG Entertainment announced the creation of another independent sub-label, to be headed by YG Producer Teddy and Kush. The label currently houses Zion.T, Okasian, Danny Chung (formerly known as Decipher), Vince and Jeon So-mi.


title: YG Entertainment

text: On September 1, 2016, representatives of YG announced that Psy would be leading an independent sub-label titled PSYG, a portmanteau of "Psy" and "YG". The label was registered as a corporate subsidiary in June and marked another chapter in the collaboration between Psy and long-time friend Yang Hyun-suk, as it was revealed that the YG CEO had implicitly promised the creation of a sub-label when Psy had signed on to the company in 2010 amidst personal difficulties, having been encouraged by his wife to work with the YG founder. As Psy left the company in mid-2018, PSYG has ended its operations and closed its doors.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Yang Hyun-suk announced, in May 2018, that a subsidiary company called YGX Entertainment would merge with Seungri's DJ label NHR. On June 4, on his official Instagram account, he posted a picture of a business card showing Seungri as the CEO of YGX. In 2018, the label launched a dance and vocal academy, called X ACADEMY, where students could potentially be scouted by YG as trainees.


title: YG Entertainment

text: YG Plus Inc., previously named Phoenix Holdings Inc., is a publicly traded media and advertising company acquired by YG Entertainment in November 2014. In 2019, the company entered the music distribution industry and also engages in production, distribution, and licensing of merchandise related to music artists. In January 2021, Hybe Corporation and its technology subsidiary, Weverse Company, acquired 17.9% of the company in a merchandising and distribution deal that would see YG Entertainment's artists join Weverse in return.


title: YG Entertainment

text: Also known as YG China, home to trainees Jane (제인/简) and Vicky (비키/維琪). The sub-label was first announced on Youth With You (season 2).


title: YG Entertainment

text: YG pledged to donate 100 won for every album sold, 1% of all merchandise sales, and 1,000 won for every concert ticket, to charities. In 2009, they raised US$141,000, and in 2010 $160,000. The company has also directly delivered US$4,400 worth of charcoal to families in need during the winter season. It announced that it would be donating around US$500,000 for disaster relief to Japan after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2013, Yang Hyun-suk made headlines when he donated all of the dividends he received as a shareholder of YG to help young children needing surgery. His dividends totalled around US$922,000.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In 2015, YG donated a total of ₩100 million (US$92,450) to the Korean Committee for UNICEF in disaster relief following the earthquake in Nepal.


title: YG Entertainment

text: In March 2022, YG donated million to Hope Bridge Disaster Relief Association to help residents affected by wildfires in Uljin, Gyeongbuk, Samcheok, and Gangwon.


title: YG Entertainment

text: All musical artists and actors under YG Entertainment are collectively known respectively as YG Family and YG Stage.


title: Camila Mendes

text: Camila Carraro Mendes (born June 29, 1994) is an American actress and singer. She made her debut portraying Veronica Lodge on The CW teen drama series "Riverdale" (2017–present), for which she won the Teen Choice Award for Choice Scene Stealer in 2017. She has appeared as Morgan Cruise in the romantic comedy "The New Romantic" (2018), the Netflix original films "The Perfect Date" (2019), "Dangerous Lies" (2020), and "Do Revenge" (2022), as well as the critically acclaimed Hulu sci-fi comedy "Palm Springs" (2020).


title: Camila Mendes

text: Mendes was born on June 29, 1994, in Charlottesville, Virginia, to Brazilian parents. Her father, Victor Mendes, is a business executive and her mother, Gisele Carraro, is a flight attendant. She has an older sister. Shortly after her birth, she moved to Atlanta, Georgia, then back to Virginia, and then to Orlando, Florida. Due to her father's job and later, her parents' divorce, she moved 16 times growing up, but mainly lived in Florida. At the age of 10, she lived in Brasília, Brazil, for a year. Mendes attended the Fine Arts program at the American Heritage School in Plantation, Florida, graduating in 2012. In May 2016, Mendes graduated from New York University Tisch School of the Arts. While there, she also became friends with singer Maggie Rogers.


title: Camila Mendes

text: Mendes' first acting job was a commercial for IKEA. In 2016, Mendes was cast as "silver-tongued high school sophomore" Veronica Lodge in The CW's teen drama series "Riverdale", a subversive take on the Archie Comics. Mendes was represented by the Carson Kolker Organization, later changing to CAA. She appeared on the cover of "Women's Health" in December 2017 and "Cosmopolitan" in February 2018.


title: Camila Mendes

text: Mendes made her feature film debut as Morgan in "The New Romantic", which premiered at the SXSW Festival in March 2018. In the same month, Mendes joined the cast of the romantic comedy "The Perfect Date" alongside Laura Marano and Matt Walsh. The film was released on Netflix on April 12, 2019. In 2019, the film "Coyote Lake" premiered, in which Mendes is the lead. In 2020 she appeared in the critically acclaimed sci-fi/comedy "Palm Springs", which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was released that July on Hulu. She subsequently headlined the Netflix thriller film "Dangerous Lies", released that same year.


title: Camila Mendes

text: When auditioning for characters of Latin American background, she has been told "You don't look Latina enough." Mendes is Brazilian American and identifies as Latin American. She speaks Portuguese.


title: Camila Mendes

text: Mendes dated photographer and director Ian Wallace in 2013 but broke up in 2017. Mendes was in a relationship with her "Riverdale" co-star Charles Melton from October 2018 to December 2019. They briefly reconciled in June 2021.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: The United States Department of Defense (DoD, USDOD or DOD) is an executive branch department of the federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government directly related to national security and the United States Armed Forces. The DoD is the largest employer in the world, with over 1.34 million active-duty service members (soldiers, marines, sailors, airmen, and guardians) as of June 2022. The DoD also maintains over 778,000 National Guard and reservists, and over 747,000 civilians bringing the total to over 2.87 million employees. Headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C., the DoD's stated mission is to provide "the military forces needed to deter war and ensure our nation's security".


title: United States Department of Defense

text: The Department of Defense is headed by the secretary of defense, a cabinet-level head who reports directly to the president of the United States. Beneath the Department of Defense are three subordinate military departments: the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, and the Department of the Air Force. In addition, four national intelligence services are subordinate to the Department of Defense: the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the National Security Agency (NSA), the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), and the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). Other Defense agencies include the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA), the Missile Defense Agency (MDA), the Defense Health Agency (DHA), Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), the Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency (DCSA), the Space Development Agency (SDA) and the Pentagon Force Protection Agency (PFPA), all of which are subordinate to the secretary of defense. Additionally, the Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA) is responsible for administering contracts for the DoD. Military operations are managed by eleven regional or functional Unified combatant commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the Eisenhower School (ES) and the National War College (NWC).


title: United States Department of Defense

text: Faced with rising tensions between the Thirteen Colonies and the British government, one of the first actions taken by the First Continental Congress in September 1774 was to recommend that the colonies begin defensive military preparations. In mid-June 1775, after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress, recognizing the necessity of having a national army that could move about and fight beyond the boundaries of any particular colony, organized the Continental Army on 14 June 1775. This momentous event is commemorated in the U.S. annually as Flag Day. Later that year, Congress would charter the Continental Navy on 13 October, and the Continental Marines on 10 November.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: Upon the seating of the 1st U.S. Congress on 4 March 1789, legislation to create a military defense force stagnated as they focused on other concerns relevant to setting up the new government. President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military twice during this time. Finally, on the last day of the session, 29 September 1789, Congress created the War Department. The War Department handled naval affairs until Congress created the Navy Department in 1798. The secretaries of each department reported directly to the president as cabinet-level advisors until 1949, when all military departments became subordinate to the Secretary of Defense.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: After the end of World War II, President Harry Truman proposed the creation of a unified department of national defense. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the president cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts. Deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: On 26 July 1947, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, which set up a unified military command known as the "National Military Establishment", as well as creating the Central Intelligence Agency, the National Security Council, National Security Resources Board, United States Air Force (formerly the Army Air Forces) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single secretary of defense. The National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first secretary of defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the "Department of Defense" on 10 August 1949 and absorbed the three cabinet-level military departments, in an amendment to the original 1947 law. The renaming is alleged to be due to the Establishment's abbreviation, NME, being pronounced "enemy".


title: United States Department of Defense

text: Under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 (), channels of authority within the department were streamlined while still maintaining the ordinary authority of the Military Departments to organize, train, and equip their associated forces. The Act clarified the overall decision-making authority of the secretary of defense with respect to these subordinate Military Departments and more clearly defined the operational chain of command over U.S. military forces (created by the military departments) as running from the president to the secretary of defense and then to the unified combatant commanders. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized research authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency, eventually known as DARPA. The act was written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration and was signed into law 6 August 1958.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: A day before the September 11 attacks of 2001, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced that the department was unable to account for about $2.3 trillion worth of transactions. Reuters reported in 2013 that the Pentagon was the only federal agency that had not released annual audits as required by a 1992 law. According to Reuters, the Pentagon "annually reports to Congress that its books are in such disarray that an audit is impossible". In June 2016, the Office of the Inspector General released a report stating that the Army made $6.5 trillion in wrongful adjustments to its accounting entries in 2015.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: The secretary of defense, appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, is by federal law () the head of the Department of Defense, "the principal assistant to the President in all matters relating to Department of Defense", and has "authority, direction, and control over the Department of Defense". Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the president, the statutory authority of the secretary of defense is derived from their constitutional authority. Since it is impractical for either Congress or the president to participate in every piece of Department of Defense affairs, the secretary of defense and the secretary's subordinate officials generally exercise military authority.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: The Department of Defense is composed of the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and the Joint Staff (JS), Office of the Inspector General (DODIG), the Combatant Commands, the Military Departments (Department of the Army (DA), Department of the Navy (DON) & Department of the Air Force (DAF)), the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities, the National Guard Bureau (NGB), and such other offices, agencies, activities, organizations, and commands established or designated by law, or by the president or by the secretary of defense.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the organizational relationships within the department, and is the foundational issuance for delineating the major functions of the department. The latest version, signed by former secretary of defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: The Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) is the secretary and his/her deputy's (mainly) civilian staff.


title: United States Department of Defense

text: OSD is the principal staff element of the secretary of defense in the exercise of policy development, planning, resource management, fiscal and program evaluation and oversight, and interface and exchange with other U.S. government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, through formal and informal processes. OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies, Department of Defense Field Activities, and specialized Cross Functional Teams.