title: Oda Nobunaga

text: In 1575, Takeda Katsuyori, son of Takeda Shingen, moved to Tokugawa territory, attacked Yoshida castle and later besieged Nagashino Castle. Katsuyori, angered when Okudaira Sadamasa rejoined the Tokugawa, had originally conspired with Oga Yashiro to take the Tokugawa-controlled Okazaki Castle, the capital of Mikawa Province. This plot failed. Tokugawa Ieyasu appealed to Nobunaga for help and Nobunaga personally led an army of about 30,000 men to the relief of Nagashino Castle. The combined force of 38,000 men under Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated and devastated the Takeda clan with the strategic use of arquebuses at the decisive Battle of Nagashino. Nobunaga compensated for the arquebus' slow reloading time by organizing the arquebusiers and archers in three rows, firing in rotation. Takeda Katsuyori also wrongly assumed that rain had ruined the gunpowder of Nobunaga's forces. This battle was the greatest defeat of the Takeda clan.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: The end of the Takeda clan came in 1582, when Oda Nobutada and Tokugawa Ieyasu forces conquered Kai Province. Takeda Katsuyori was defeated at the Battle of Tenmokuzan and then committed "seppuku".


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: After the death of Takeda Shingen in May, 1573, Nobunaga's entry into Kyoto presented him with a situation very different from that from which he had come. He focused on Ashikaga Yoshiaki, who had openly declared hostility more than once, despite the Imperial Court's intervention. Nobunaga was able to defeat Yoshiaki's forces, and the power of the Ashikaga was effectively destroyed on 27 August 1573, when Nobunaga drove Yoshiaki out of Kyoto and sent him into exile. Yoshiaki became a Buddhist monk, shaving his head and taking the name "Sho-san", which he later changed to "Rei-o In", bringing the Ashikaga Shogunate to an end.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: After the Ashikaga Shogunate came to end, the authority of the Imperial Court of Emperor Ōgimachi also began to fall. This trend reversed after Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in a show of allegiance that indicated that the Emperor had the Oda clan's support.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: In early 1574, Nobunaga was promoted to the Lower Third Rank () of the Imperial Court and made a Court Advisor (). Court appointments would continue to be lavished on a nearly annual basis, possibly in hope of placating him. Nobunaga acquired many official titles, including Major Counselor (), General of the Right of the Imperial Army (), and Minister of the Right () in 1576. In February 1578 the court made him Grand Minister of State (), the highest post that could be given.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Azuchi Castle was built from 1576 to 1579 on Mount Azuchi on the eastern shore of Lake Biwa in Ōmi Province. Nobunaga intentionally built Azuchi Castle close enough to Kyoto that he could watch over and guard the approaches to the capital. Azuchi Castle's location was also strategically advantageous in managing the communications and transportation routes between Nobunaga's greatest foes - Uesugi to the north, the Takeda in the east, and the Mōri to the west.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: The conflict of Oda and Uesugi precipitated by Uesugi intervention in the domain of the Hatakeyama clan in Noto Province, an Oda client state. This event provoked the Uesugi incursion, a "coup d'état" led by the pro-Oda general Chō Shigetsura, who killed Hatakeyama Yoshinori, the lord of Noto and replaced him with Hatakeyama Yoshitaka as a puppet ruler. As a result, Uesugi Kenshin, the head of the Uesugi clan, mobilized an army and led it into Noto against Shigetsura. Consequently, Nobunaga sent an army led by Shibata Katsuie and some of his most experienced generals to attack Kenshin. They clashed at the Battle of Tedorigawa in Kaga Province in 1577.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: In November, 1577, The Battle of Tedorigawa took place near the Tedori River in Japan's Kaga Province. Kenshin tricked Nobunaga's forces into launching a frontal attack across the Tedorigawa and defeated him. Having suffered the loss of 1,000 men, the Oda withdrew south. The result was a decisive Uesugi victory, and Nobunaga considered ceding the northern provinces to Kenshin, but Kenshin's sudden death in early 1578 caused a succession crisis that ended the Uesugi's movement to the south.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: By 1580, Nobunaga was the most powerful lord in Japan, controlling 20 provinces in central Japan: Owari, Mino, Omi, Iga, Ise, Yamato, Yamashiro, Kawachi, Izumi, Settsu, Echizen, Hida, Kaga, Shinano, Kai, Tango, Harima, Inaba, Tanba and Bizen.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: The was two invasions of Iga province by the Oda clan during the Sengoku period. The province was conquered by Oda Nobunaga in 1581 after an unsuccessful attempt in 1579 by his son Oda Nobukatsu. The name of the war is derived from the Tenshō era name (1573–92) in which it occurred. Other names for the campaign include or . Oda Nobunaga himself toured the conquered province in early November 1581, and then withdrew his troops, placing control in Nobukatsu's hands.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: By 1582, Nobunaga was at the height of his power and, as the most powerful warlord, the "de facto" leader of Japan. Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu finally defeated the Takeda at the Battle of Tenmokuzan, destroying the clan and resulting in Takeda Katsuyori fleeing from the battle before committing suicide with his wife while being pursued by Oda forces. By this point, Nobunaga was preparing to launch invasions into Echigo Province and Shikoku. Nobunaga's former sandal-bearer, Hashiba Hideyoshi, invaded Bitchū Province and laid siege to Takamatsu Castle. The castle was vital to the Mori clan, and losing it would have left the Mori's home domain vulnerable. Mori reinforcements led by Mōri Terumoto arrived to relieve the siege, prompting Hideyoshi to ask in turn for reinforcements from Nobunaga. Nobunaga immediately ordered his leading generals and also Akechi Mitsuhide to prepare their armies, with the overall expedition to be led by Nobunaga. Nobunaga left Azuchi Castle for Honnō-ji, a temple in Kyoto he frequented when visiting the city, where he was to hold a tea ceremony. Hence, Nobunaga only had 30 pages with him, while his son Oda Nobutada had brought 2,000 of his cavalrymen.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Akechi Mitsuhide, stationed in the Tanba province, led his army toward Kyoto under the pretense of following the order of Nobunaga, but as they were crossing Katsura River, he decided to assassinate Nobunaga for unknown reasons, and the cause of his betrayal is controversial. Mitsuhide, aware that Nobunaga was nearby and unprotected for his tea ceremony, saw an opportunity to act, Mitsuhide announced to his troops that ""The enemy awaits at Honnō-ji!"" (敵は本能寺にあり, Teki wa Honnō-ji ni ari). On 21 June 1582, before dawn, the Akechi army surrounded the Honnō-ji temple with Nobunaga present, while another unit of Akechi troops were sent to Myōkaku-ji in a coup. Although Nobunaga and his servants resisted the unexpected intrusion, they were soon overwhelmed. As the Akechi troops closed in, Nobunaga decided to commit in one of the inner rooms. Reportedly his last words were, ""Ran, don't let them come in..."" referring to his young page, Mori Ranmaru, who set the temple on fire as Nobunaga requested so that no one would be able to get his decapitated head. Ranmaru then followed his lord, with his loyalty and devotion making him a revered figure in Japanese history. Nobunaga's remains were never found, a fact often speculated about by writers and historians. After capturing Honnō-ji, Mitsuhide attacked Nobutada, eldest son and heir of Nobunaga, who also committed suicide.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Later, Nobunaga's retainer Toyotomi Hideyoshi, subsequently abandoned his campaign against the Mōri clan to pursue Mitsuhide to avenge his beloved lord. Hideyoshi intercepted one of Mitsuhide's messengers trying to deliver a letter to the Mōri requesting to form an alliance against the Oda after informing them of Nobunaga's death. Hideyoshi managed to pacify the Mōri by demanding the suicide of Shimizu Muneharu in exchange for ending his siege of Takamatsu Castle, which the Mōri accepted.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Mitsuhide failed to establish his position after Nobunaga's death and Oda forces under Hideyoshi defeated his army at the Battle of Yamazaki in July 1582, however, Mitsuhide was murdered by bandits while fleeing after the battle. Hideyoshi continued and completed Nobunaga's conquest of Japan within the following decade.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: The goal of national unification and a return to the comparative political stability of the earlier Muromachi period was widely shared by the multitude of autonomous "daimyō" during the Sengoku period. Oda Nobunaga was the first for whom this goal seemed attainable. Nobunaga had gained control over most of Honshu before his death during the 1582 Honnō-ji incident, a coup attempt executed by Nobunaga's vassal, Akechi Mitsuhide. Nobunaga was betrayed by his own retainers who set the Honno-Ji temple on fire; then, instead of burning in flames, Oda Nobunaga had committed to escape the flames. The motivation behind Mitsuhide's betrayal was never revealed to anyone who survived the incident, and has been a subject of debate and conjecture ever since the incident.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Following the incident, Mitsuhide declared himself master over Nobunaga's domains, but was quickly defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who regained control of and greatly expanded the Oda holdings. Nobunaga's successful subjugation of much of Honshu enabled the later successes of his allies Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu toward the goal of national unification by subjugating local "daimyō" under a hereditary shogunate, which was ultimately accomplished in 1603 when Ieyasu was granted the title of Shogun by Emperor Go-Yōzei following the successful Sekigahara Campaign of 1600. The nature of the succession of power through the three "daimyō" is reflected in a well-known Japanese idiom:


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: The changing character of power through Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Ieyasu is reflected in another well-known idiom:


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: All three were born within eight years of each other (1534 to 1542), started their careers as samurai and finished them as statesmen. Nobunaga inherited his father's domain at the age of 17, and quickly gained control of Owari Province through . Hideyoshi started his career in Nobunaga's army as an but quickly rose up through the ranks as a samurai. Ieyasu initially fought against Nobunaga as the heir of a rival "daimyō", but later expanded his own inheritance through a profitable alliance with Nobunaga.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Militarily, Nobunaga changed the way of war was fought in Japan. His gunners and spear-wielding foot soldiers (who used unusually long spears between 18 and 21 feet which Nobunaga had designed himself) displaced mounted soldiers armed with bow and sword. His foot soldiers were trained and disciplined for group and mass movements, which replaced hand-to-hand fighting tactics. They wore distinctive uniforms which fostered esprit de corps, with red troops and black troops.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: He was ruthless in battle, pursuing fugitives and killing traitors without compassion. Through his methods, he became the ruler of 20 provinces.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: He built iron-plated warships and imported saltpeter to produce gunpowder, while also promoting the manufacture of artillery and ammunition.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: After consolidating military power in provinces he came to dominate, starting with Owari and Mino, Nobunaga implemented a plan for economic development. This included the declaration of free markets ("rakuichi"), the breaking of trade monopolies, and providing for open guilds ("rakuza"). Nobunaga instituted policies as a way to stimulate business and the overall economy through the use of a free market system. These policies abolished and prohibited monopolies and opened once closed and privileged unions, associations and guilds, which he saw as impediments to commerce. Even though these policies provided a major boost to the economy, they were still heavily dependent on the support of other "daimyō". Copies of his original proclamations can be found in Entoku-ji in the city of Gifu.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga initiated policies for civil administration, which included currency regulations, construction of roads and bridges. This included setting standards for the road widths and planting trees along roadsides. This was to ease the transport of soldiers and war material in addition to commerce. In general, Nobunaga thought in terms of "unifying factors", in the words of George Sansom.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga initiated a period in Japanese art history known as Fushimi, or the Azuchi-Momoyama period, in reference to the area south of Kyoto. He built extensive gardens and castles which were themselves great works of art. Azuchi Castle included a seven-story Tenshukaku, which included a treasury filled with gold and precious objects. Works of art included paintings on movable screens ("byōbu"), sliding doors ("fusuma"), and walls by Kanō Eitoku. During this time, Nobunaga's tea master Sen no Rikyū established key elements of the Japanese tea ceremony.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga was also famous for his "meibutsu-gari" hunt-down and acquisition of famous objects by which he collected tea ceremony objects with famous poetic or historic lineages.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Additionally, Nobunaga was very interested in European culture which was still very new to Japan. He collected pieces of Western art as well as arms and armor, and he is considered to be among the first Japanese people in recorded history to wear European clothes. He also became the patron of the Jesuit missionaries in Japan and supported the establishment of the first Christian church in Kyoto in 1576, although he never converted to Christianity.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Depending upon the source, Oda Nobunaga and the entire Oda clan are descendants of either the Fujiwara clan or the Taira clan (specifically, Taira no Shigemori's branch). His lineage can be directly traced to his great-great-grandfather, Oda Hisanaga, who was followed by Oda Toshisada, Oda Nobusada, Oda Nobuhide, and Nobunaga himself.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga was the eldest legitimate son of Oda Nobuhide, a minor warlord from Owari Province, and Tsuchida Gozen, who was also the mother to three of his brothers (Nobuyuki, Nobukane, and Hidetaka) and two of his sisters (Oinu and Oichi).


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga married Nōhime, the daughter of Saitō Dōsan, as a matter of political strategy; however, she was unable to give birth to children and was considered to be barren. It was his concubines Kitsuno and Lady Saka who bore his children. Kitsuno gave birth to Nobunaga's eldest son, Nobutada. Nobutada's son Hidenobu became ruler of the Oda clan after the deaths of Nobunaga and Nobutada. His son Oda Nobuhide was a Christian, and took the baptismal name Peter; he was adopted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and commissioned chamberlain.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: One of Nobunaga's younger sisters, Oichi, gave birth to three daughters. These three nieces of Nobunaga became involved with important historical figures. Chacha (also known as Lady Yodo), the eldest, became the mistress of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. O-Hatsu married Kyōgoku Takatsugu. The youngest, O-go, married the son of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tokugawa Hidetada (the second shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate). O-go's daughter Senhime married her cousin Toyotomi Hideyori, Lady Yodo's son.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga's nephew was Tsuda Nobuzumi, the son of Nobuyuki. Nobuzumi married Akechi Mitsuhide's daughter and was killed after the Honnō-ji coup by Nobunaga's third son, Nobutaka, who suspected him of being involved in the plot.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunari Oda, a retired figure skater, claims to be a 17th generation direct descendant of Nobunaga. The ex-monk celebrity Mudō Oda also claims descent from the Sengoku period warlord, but his claims have not been verified.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: One of the Five Swords under Heaven (天下五剣) made by Hōki Yasutsuna, this was the legendary sword with which Minamoto no Yorimitsu killed the boy-faced oni Shuten-dōji (酒呑童子) living near Mount Oe. It was presented to Oda Nobunaga by the Ashikaga family and was subsequently in the possession of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: means " cutter". In this case is a contraction of (弓籠手), the arm guard used by a samurai archer. This name comes from an episode in which Asakura Ujikage cut an opposing samurai's in the Battle of Toji in Kyoto. Oda Nobunaga gained possession of this sword and had it shortened to its present length.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga appears frequently within fiction and continues to be portrayed in many different anime, manga, video games, and cinematic films. Many depictions show him as villainous or even demonic in nature, though some portray him in a more positive light. The latter type of works include Akira Kurosawa's film "Kagemusha", which portrays Nobunaga as energetic, athletic and respectful towards his enemies. The film "Goemon" portrays him as a saintly mentor of Ishikawa Goemon. Nobunaga is a central character in Eiji Yoshikawa's historical novel "Taiko Ki", where he is a firm but benevolent lord. Nobunaga is also portrayed in a heroic light in some video games such as "Kessen III", "Ninja Gaiden II", and the "Warriors Orochi" series, while in the anime series "Nobunaga no Shinobi" Nobunaga is portrayed as a kind person as well as having a major sweet tooth.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: By contrast, in the novel "The Samurai's Tale" by Erik Christian Haugaard, he is portrayed as an antagonist "known for his merciless cruelty". He is portrayed as evil or megalomaniacal in some anime and manga series including "Samurai Deeper Kyo" and "Flame of Recca". Nobunaga is portrayed as evil, villainous, bloodthirsty, and/or demonic in many video games, such as the "Onimusha" series, "Ninja Master's", "Sengoku", "Maplestory", "", "Atlantica Online", the "Samurai Warriors" series, the "Sengoku BASARA series" (and its anime adaptation), and the "Soulcalibur" series.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga has been portrayed numerous times in a more neutral or historic framework, especially in the Taiga dramas shown on television in Japan. Oda Nobunaga appears in the manga series "Tail of the Moon", "Kacchū no Senshi Gamu", and Tsuji Kunio's historical fiction "The Signore: Shogun of the Warring States". Historical representations in video games (mostly Western-made strategy or action titles) include "", "", "Throne of Darkness", the eponymous "Nobunaga's Ambition" series, as well as "Civilization V", "", "Nioh", and "Nioh 2". Kamenashi Kazuya of the Japanese pop group KAT-TUN wrote and performed a song titled "1582" which is written from the perspective of Mori Ranmaru during the coup at Honnō temple.


title: Oda Nobunaga

text: Nobunaga has also been portrayed in fiction, such as when the figure of Nobunaga influences a story or inspires a characterization. In James Clavell's novel "Shōgun", the character Goroda is a pastiche of Nobunaga. In the film "Sengoku Jieitai 1549", Nobunaga is killed by time-travellers. The novel and anime series "Yōtōden", the novel "The Ouka Ninja Scrolls: Basilisk New Chapter" and the anime and manga "Basilisk" portray Nobunaga as a literal demon in addition to a power-mad warlord. Nobunaga also appears as a major character in the eroge "Sengoku Rance" and is a playable character in "Pokémon Conquest", with his partner Pokémon being Hydreigon, Rayquaza and Zekrom.


title: Stray (video game)

text: Stray is a 2022 adventure game developed by BlueTwelve Studio and published by Annapurna Interactive. The story follows a stray cat who falls into a walled city populated by robots, machines, and mutant bacteria, and sets out to return to the surface with the help of a drone companion, B-12. The game is presented through a third-person perspective. The player traverses by leaping across platforms and climbing up obstacles, and can interact with the environment to open new paths. Using B-12, they can store items found throughout the world and hack into technology to solve puzzles. Throughout the game, the player must evade the antagonistic Zurks and Sentinels, which attempt to kill them.


title: Stray (video game)

text: The development began in 2015, led by BlueTwelve Studio founders Koola and Viv, who wanted to pursue an independent project after working at Ubisoft Montpellier. They partnered with Annapurna Interactive to publish the game. "Stray" aesthetics were influenced by Kowloon Walled City, which the developers felt could be appropriately explored by a cat. The gameplay was inspired by the developers' cats, Murtaugh and Riggs, and the team studied images and videos of cats for research. They found that playing as a cat led to interesting level design opportunities, though they encountered challenges in balancing design and gameplay. The decision to populate the world with robot characters further influenced the narrative and backstory.


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Stray" was announced in 2020 and became highly anticipated. Following some delays, it was released on 19 July 2022, for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. It received generally positive reviews, with praise for its artistic design, cat gameplay, narrative, original score, and platforming elements, though critics were divided on the combat and stealth sequences. The game received accolades at The Game Awards and Golden Joystick Awards.


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Stray" is a third-person adventure game. The player controls a stray cat, who traverses by leaping across platforms and climbing up obstacles, and can open new paths by interacting with the environment, such as climbing in buckets, overturning paint cans, operating a vending machine, and clawing at objects. They solve puzzles to progress the narrative, often involving moving obstacles. Optional activities include sleeping, meowing, and nuzzling up to non-player characters, most of which often elicit a response. Some levels have open-world elements, allowing the player to roam at their freedom.


title: Stray (video game)

text: The player is accompanied by a drone companion, B-12, who assists by translating the language of other characters, storing items found throughout the world, providing light, and hacking into various technologies to open paths and solve puzzles. Throughout the game, the player finds several of B-12's memories, providing more context for the story. Most of these memories are optional, but some are unlocked through story progression. The player can collect badges, including several optional throughout the world, which are displayed on the cat's backpack.


title: Stray (video game)

text: The world is populated by robots, who often employ the player to locate objects that reveal more information and progress the narrative. Some robots provide optional tasks, such as Morusque, who plays songs upon being provided with music sheets found around the slums. The player can interact with most robots in the world. "Stray" features two types of enemies who can kill the player: Zurks, a large, mutated bacteria that can swarm and devour the cat; and Sentinels, security drones who will attempt to shoot the player upon spotting them. For a portion of the game, the player can attach a Defluxor to B-12 to destroy the Zurks, though it can only be used for a limited time before B-12 overheats and requires a brief charge. The player can evade Sentinels by avoiding their sight lines, indicated by glowing lights.


title: Stray (video game)

text: While a group of four stray cats trek through the ruins of an abandoned facility, one becomes separated from the others after falling into a chasm leading to an unpopulated underground city. The cat finds a lab where it helps download an artificial intelligence into the body of a small drone, which calls itself B-12. It explains it previously helped a scientist but much of its memory was corrupted and needs time to recover. B-12 promises to help the cat return to the surface and accompanies it further into the city. As they travel farther, the pair discover that, while the city is completely devoid of human life, their robotic servants, Companions, remain. With humans absent, the Companions have grown self-aware and have built their own society among the ruins of the city, but they likewise are trapped underground. The ruins are infested with Zurks, mutant bacteria that have evolved to devour both organic life and robots.


title: Stray (video game)

text: The pair meet Momo, a member of the Outsiders, a group of Companions dedicated to finding a way to the surface. With the Outsiders's help, the cat and B-12 proceed to the Midtown sector of the city. There, they locate Clementine, another Outsider who plans to steal an atomic battery to power a subway train leading to the surface. The trio are caught and arrested by the Sentinels, but the cat helps them all escape prison. Clementine stays behind to mislead the Sentinels while the cat and B-12 escape on the subway, which takes them to the city control center. B-12 finally recovers all of its memories. It reveals that it was originally a human scientist who attempted to upload their own consciousness into a robot body, but the process went awry until the cat arrived. B-12 remembers that the city, Walled City 99, was built to shelter humanity from a catastrophe on the surface, but a plague eventually wiped out the entire human population. Realising humanity's legacy now lies with the Companions and the cat, B-12 sacrifices itself to open the blast doors over the city, exposing it to sunlight which kills the Zurks and deactivates the Sentinels. With the main exit unsealed, the cat leaves the city and reaches the surface. As the cat leaves, a screen near the exit flickers and activates.


title: Stray (video game)

text: BlueTwelve Studio founders Koola and Viv began working on "Stray" in 2015 as they wanted to pursue an independent project after working at Ubisoft Montpellier. They maintained a development blog for the game, then known as "HK Project". After they shared some footage on Twitter, Annapurna Interactive reached out in April 2016 to publish the project; Koola and Viv had only developed some early scenes, but had a strong direction for the final project. Annapurna, which had not published any games by the time the deal was formed, assisted in building the company over the years, providing occasional feedback but largely leaving creative freedom to the developers. Funding for the studio was confirmed in April 2017, and the development team grew to five by the end of 2017. From early in development, Koola and Viv knew they wanted to maintain a small team of developers, as they prefer working with direct communication. The small team meant the game's scope reduced over time, with focus directed towards elements the developers considered important. After revealing the game, the team wanted to focus on production and only begin marketing when development was nearing completion; they found the reception to the reveal added to the pressure of delivering a polished experience. The game uses Unreal Engine 4.


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Stray" was heavily influenced aesthetically by Kowloon Walled City; Koola and Viv liked the city's organic construction, and found it interesting to approach as artists. They designed some graphical tests of the environments and buildings, and found the city was the "perfect playground for a cat" due to the various paths and views. The development team found gameplay as a cat led to interesting level design opportunities, particularly regarding platforming and puzzle elements. They encountered artistic and technical challenges in balancing interesting game design with the open world, as typically decorative items—such as pipes and air conditioning units—are explorable paths in "Stray". The in-game location Antvillage allowed the team to experiment with vertical game design and provide several path options for the player. The team decided to avoid standard platforming challenges early in development, after watching players consistently miss jumps, which they thought "didn't feel cat-like". According to producer Swann Martin-Raget, the movements of a cat feel smoother, which led the team to create its guided movement system while still allowing for freedom of choice. The team found the DualSense controller's sounds and vibrations added to the physicality and interactivity of playing as a cat, and the low camera angle led to deeper observation of the environment than a human protagonist.


title: Stray (video game)

text: Contrasting elements were important to the developers, such as the "small, organic, and lively" cat contrasted against the "angular and bold" robots. Viv initially created some human non-player characters, but was unsatisfied with the result and realised the high visual quality required would be too time-consuming with a smaller team. After experimenting with robots, they found them easier to place within scenes, and enjoyed the contrast with the cat. The inclusion of robots inspired more of the story, and the team found it fitting because of their fascination with films like "Blade Runner" (1982). The robots' language printed throughout the world was added to make players feel as though they were in a foreign location; its inclusion led to the development of the world's backstory. B-12 was added as the cat's companion to add additional abilities for the player, such as interacting with technology. Both B-12 and the cat's backpack were conceived early in development, when the game was still known as "HK Project".


title: Stray (video game)

text: The gameplay experience was specifically inspired by the founders' cats, Murtaugh and Riggs, and the studio's in-house cats, Oscar and Jun. Murtaugh, a former stray cat found under a car in Montpellier, was the primary inspiration for the protagonist, while Oscar, a furless Sphynx, provided effective reference for animation. The cat animator, Miko, studied several images and videos of cats for research, and worked with cat programmer Rémi Bismuth to find a balance between smooth animations and enjoyable gameplay. Most of the team own cats, providing consistent inspiration and reference material. When the office cats began reacting to and interacting with the in-game cat, the team figured their choices had been successful. While the game is a "love letter" to the team's cats, they intentionally avoided making a simulator game, opting for interesting gameplay over complete realism. The action sequences were added to provide some stress to the player, and the team wanted to build a rhythm to maintain the story's progression. The sequence in which the player can kill the Zurks was seen as revenge by Koola and Viv for a bedbug infestation they underwent. The user interface was kept minimal, with directions integrated in the game world to guide the player.


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Stray" was announced on 11 June 2020, at PlayStation's "Future of Gaming" event, in development for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. In a January 2021 Consumer Electronics Show trailer, the release window was printed as October 2021, which was later removed. In July 2021, Annapurna Interactive revealed an early 2022 release window in a new gameplay trailer, but it was delayed to a mid-year release in April 2022. During PlayStation's State of Play presentation in June, the release date was announced as 19 July 2022. At launch, it became available for the members of the Extra, Deluxe, and Premium tiers of PlayStation Plus. Two physical versions will be released by iam8bit and Skybound Games: the standard retail version for PlayStation 5 on 20 September 2022, featuring six art cards; and the Exclusive Edition for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 in Q4 2022, with an additional poster and embroidered patch. iam8bit is distributing a vinyl record of the soundtrack in Q1 2023, with album art by Fernando Correa. Preorders for the physical versions and soundtrack began on 12 July.


title: Stray (video game)

text: Highly anticipated following its announcement, the game topped Steam's wishlist charts before release, broke Annapurna Interactive's record for concurrent Steam players upon release, with over 62,000 players, and became the highest user-rated game of the year on the platform. In July, it was the most-downloaded PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 game in North America, and the second-most PlayStation 5 and third-most PlayStation 4 in Europe; in August, it was the fifth-most-downloaded PlayStation 5 and sixth-most PlayStation 4 game in North America, and the fifth-most on both platforms in Europe; and in September, it ranked 19th on PlayStation 5 in Europe. Videos of cats watching footage of "Stray" went viral after the release, with the dedicated Twitter account @CatsWatchStray garnering over 32,000 followers. For the release, Annapurna Interactive partnered with several charities to raise money for homeless cats by providing giveaways as incentives for donations.


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Stray" received "generally favorable reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic, based on 99 reviews for PlayStation 5 and 41 reviews for Windows. Chris Scullion of "Video Games Chronicle" considered it one of Annapurna Interactive's best releases, and Andrew Webster of "The Verge" named it among the best games of the year to date. "VG247"s Kelsey Raynor described it as "a touching tale of loss, loneliness, environmental destruction", and "Ars Technica"s Sam Machkovech declared it a blend of the "eerie, atmospheric exploration" of "Half-Life" (1998) and the "childlike whimsy of a classic Studio Ghibli film".


title: Stray (video game)

text: Critics praised the graphical quality and art design, and several particularly lauded its use of lighting. Alyse Stanley of "The Washington Post" described "Stray" as "a master class in environmental story telling and level design", lauding the subtle directions provided to the player. Bill Lavoy of "Shacknews" found the world to be among the most beautifully-designed, praising the attention to detail in each environment, though criticising the lack of graphical settings. "Kotaku"s Ari Notis likened the cinematic cutscenes to games by prestigious studios like Naughty Dog. Sam Loveridge of "GamesRadar+" found the atmosphere unique among recent releases, describing the world as "a stunning place to just exist in". Blake Hester of "Game Informer" similarly praised the enjoyability of exploring the world. "Push Square"s Stephen Tailby wrote the game conveys an atmosphere of melancholy and hope. "NME"s Jordan Oloman considered the worldbuilding the strongest element, though noted it failed to reach levels of intelligence or subtlety like "" (2017). "VentureBeat"s Rachel Kaser found the Zurk-infested levels among the worst visually, and some reviewers noted minor glitches. William Hughes of "The A.V. Club" felt the concept of the underground city populated by robots felt like a "Lego stack of ready-made video game tropes". "Kotaku"s Sisi Jang found "Stray" a troubling example of techno-orientalism.


title: Stray (video game)

text: Katharine Castle of "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" determined assuming control of a cat "is at least 50% of the appeal here". The realistic recreation of cat behaviour in the gameplay received widespread praise; critics lauded the animation and easy controls, and the immersion of the movement and navigation, though some noted occasionally awkward controls and camera angles while navigating. "VG247"s Raynor was prepared for a repetitive gameplay system, but ultimately found it maintained consistent enjoyment. Keza MacDonald of "The Guardian" considered "Stray" "an excellent example of how a change of perspective can enliven a fictional setting to which we've become habituated". Scullion of "Video Games Chronicle" found the platforming simple but effective, and Alessandro Barbosa of "GameSpot" commended the balanced pacing between the gameplay sequences. Pauline Leclercq of "Jeuxvideo.com" felt the puzzles generally lacked difficulty, but improved in the second half, while Hughes of "The A.V. Club" found it repetitive over time. "PCMag"s Gabriel Zamora noted disappointment at the lack of choice while platforming, and "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s Josh Harmon wrote the core gameplay loop of objectives and puzzles "feels distinctly uncatlike".


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Hardcore Gamer"s Kyle LeClair felt "Stray" has "a terrific story with profound themes to uncover and great emotional beats along the way". Several reviewers were surprised by the narrative themes, considering the basic gameplay concept: Stanley of "The Washington Post" found them memorable, and "Game Informer"s Hester considered them simple but effective. "The Verge"s Webster recognised "themes ranging from wealth inequality to environmental disaster" and found the ending to be tragic and beautiful. "GameSpot"s Barbosa similarly found the ending satisfying, noting it allowed reflection on the character relationships. "Polygon"s Alexis Ong identified themes related to the ongoing democratic development in Hong Kong, particularly regarding police brutality and the 2019–2020 protests, citing the working title "HK Project". Reviewers lauded the robot characters in the game world, described by "PCGamesN"s Nat Smith as "whimsical and strikingly human". Loveridge of "GamesRadar+" felt the interactions directed the narrative, which itself touched on themes of hardship and friendship. Raynor of "VG247" similarly found the friendships effective and emotional. "VentureBeat"s Kaser and "PC Gamer"s Jon Bailes both shared strong feelings towards the protagonist, a sentiment echoed by "Rock, Paper, Shotgun"s Kaser towards both the cat and B-12.


title: Stray (video game)

text: The original score received praise, and was described as among the year's best by "Ars Technica"s Machkovech, who compared it favourably to "Half-Life". Scullion of "Video Games Chronicle" wrote the score "knows exactly when to evoke awe, when to creep the player out, and when to pluck at our pesky human heartstrings". "Kotaku"s Notis called it "deliciously jazzy", and "Jeuxvideo.com"s Leclercq found it appropriate within the game world. "Hardcore Gamer"s LeClair and "Shacknews"s Lavoy appreciated in the environmental melodies, including those played by the robot Morusque, and some on the in-game radio. Smith of "PCGamesN" described the music as "gently optimistic and abruptly unsettling", lauding the seamless switching between tracks dependent on the gameplay.


title: Stray (video game)

text: The combat sequences polarised critics; some found them tense and exciting, while others found them tiresome and less interesting than its other elements. The gameplay sequences involving Zurks—compared by several critics to the headcrabs from the "Half-Life" series—were positively described as "more authentically cat" by "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s Harmon, while "GamesRadar+"s Loveridge found they added balance to the calmer moments. "The Escapist"s Damien Lawardorn found the sequences an effective example of body horror, and among the most compelling and effective chapters. Webster of "The Verge" similarly felt they added necessary tension, likening them to the swarms of "" (2019), but wrote they could become frustrating. This sentiment was echoed by "IGN"s Tom Marks and "PC Gamer"s Bailes, the latter of whom described a confrontation as "repeated backpedalling and shooting". "NME"s Oloman considered the sequences a vast difference from the rest of the game, and "Game Informer"s Hester found monotonous, though appreciated their rarity. The stealth mechanics received similarly polarised responses: "PC Gamer"s Bailes found them entertaining, while they were described by "PCMag"s Zamora as sufficient but simplistic, and by "Vice"s Renata Price as ranging "from fine to frustrating".


title: Stray (video game)

text: "Stray" won PlayStation Game of the Year at the 40th Golden Joystick Awards. It was nominated for six awards at The Game Awards 2022, including Game of the Year and Best Game Direction; it won Best Independent Game and Best Debut Indie Game.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: The Nun (stylized as THE NUИ) is a 2018 American gothic supernatural horror film directed by Corin Hardy and written by Gary Dauberman, from a story by Dauberman and James Wan. It is a spin-off/prequel of 2016's "The Conjuring 2" and the fifth installment in "The Conjuring Universe" franchise. The film stars Taissa Farmiga, Demián Bichir and Jonas Bloquet, with Bonnie Aarons reprising her role as the Demon Nun, an incarnation of Valak, from "The Conjuring 2". The plot follows a Roman Catholic priest and a nun in her novitiate as they uncover an unholy secret in 1952 Romania.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Warner Bros. Pictures and New Line Cinema announced "The Nun", a spin-off film to "The Conjuring 2", which had opened five days earlier, with Safran and Wan producing. The initial script for the film was written by David Leslie Johnson. Hardy had signed on to direct "The Nun" with a new screenplay from Wan and Dauberman. Principal photography began in May 2017 in Bucharest, Romania, and during filming, the set was blessed by an Eastern Orthodox priest.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: "The Nun" was released in the United States on September 7, 2018, by Warner Bros. Pictures. Critics praised its performances and atmosphere, but criticized its weak narrative and inconsistent logic. It grossed $365million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of the series. A sequel, "The Nun 2", is currently in production with Michael Chaves directing and James Wan and Peter Safran co-producing.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: In 1952 Romania, two nuns living at the Saint Cartha's monastery are attacked by an unseen evil force after one of them entered a tunnel to retrieve an ancient Christian relic. The surviving nun, Sister Victoria, flees from the attacker, a demon appearing as a nun, and hangs herself. Her body is discovered by Frenchie, a villager who transports supplies to the nuns.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: The Vatican learns of the incident and summons Father Burke to Rome, where they ask him to travel with Sister Irene, a nun in her novitiate, to Romania in order to investigate the situation. While Sister Irene is teaching children the relationship between religion and science in a school, her Mother Superior interrupts her and informs her that Burke has arrived in order to request Irene's accompaniment in his trip to Romania.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: The pair travels to Romania and meets with Frenchie, who leads them to the abbey. They discover Victoria's body and take a key from her corpse. Inside, they encounter the Abbess, who informs them that the nuns observe a period of silence during the night and offers them lodging at the attached convent if they wish to return tomorrow. Frenchie is attacked by a demon as he returns to the village, but escapes. Burke tells Irene that a boy he exorcised in the past, Daniel, was fatally injured during the ritual, and Burke has carried the burden of the boy's death. Irene reveals that as a girl, she had visions and each of them concluded with "Mary points the way", causing the Church to take an interest in her. That night, Burke is rescued by Irene after being buried alive in the graveyard by the demonic entity.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: The next day, Irene and Burke return to the abbey, but only Irene can enter as it is cloistered. She meets some of the other nuns and learns that they are praying constantly, swapping in shifts, to keep the entity at bay. Sister Oana reveals the abbey was built in the Middle Ages as a castle to be used by the Duke of St. Carta, a powerful aristocrat obsessed with the occult. The duke summoned the demon through a rift in the catacombs but was killed by Christian knights, who sealed the rift with a vial filled with the Blood of Christ. However, the bombings during World War II reopened the rift, unleashing the entity. Burke identifies the demon as Valak and discovers the Abbess has been dead all along.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Frenchie heads back to the abbey to help Irene and Burke. Irene is attacked by Valak and joins the nuns in desperate prayer to ward off the demon. When the group reunites, Irene discovers that none of the nuns she had seen and talked to were real and she had been praying alone, later realizing that Sister Victoria had been the last nun in the abbey and had sacrificed herself to stop Valak from possessing her body and unleashing evil.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Theorizing that Valak can only be stopped if they seal the rift with the blood of Christ contained in the reliquary, the trio retrieves the vial with the key Victoria possessed. Irene informs Burke that God has called her to make her solemn vows as a nun and asks Burke to elevate her to the status of a professed nun, which he does in the abbey's chapel.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: After the trio unlocks the tunnel door, Irene is lured into a pentagram and possessed by Valak. Frenchie smears some of the blood of Christ on her face, casting out the demon. Burke is wounded by Daniel's ghost as Valak starts to drown Irene in a flooded chamber. Irene expels the blood of Christ in the demon's face, banishing it as the rift is sealed. After Frenchie resuscitates Irene, he reveals his name is Maurice. Unbeknownst to the others, Maurice has been possessed by Valak, as evidenced by an inverted crucifix on the back of his neck.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Twenty years later at a university seminar in Wakefield, Massachusetts, Carolyn Perron watches as Ed and Lorraine Warren present footage of their attempt to exorcise a possessed Maurice. In the footage, Maurice grabs Lorraine, giving her visions of Ed dying, which initiates the Warrens' investigation of the Perron farmhouse haunting.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Additionally, Patrick Wilson, Vera Farmiga, Christof Veillon, Lili Taylor and Shannon Kook appear in archive footage from "The Conjuring" as Ed and Lorraine Warren, the older Maurice Theriault, Carolyn Perron and Drew Thomas respectively.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: On June 15, 2016, Warner Bros. Pictures and New Line Cinema announced "The Nun", a spin-off film to "The Conjuring 2", which had opened five days earlier. Peter Safran and James Wan produced. The initial script for the film was written by David Leslie Johnson. On February 17, 2017, it was announced that Corin Hardy had signed on to direct "The Nun" with a new screenplay from Wan and Gary Dauberman. During the filming of "", Safran revealed that "The Nun" would chronologically come first in the Conjuring Universe, making it a further prequel to "The Conjuring" series and "Annabelle" series. He said, "We have a board that we created that has what we hope will ultimately be our series of movies. We have it in chronological order, so we can keep track of where it all happens."


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: On April 5, 2017, Demián Bichir was cast in the film, as a priest investigating a nun's mysterious suicide. Taissa Farmiga was cast shortly after, as a Roman Catholic nun in her novitiate. Corin Hardy later said that he initially did not want to cast Farmiga due to her being the sister of "The Conjuring" star Vera Farmiga, but changed his mind when he saw her auditions, "I watched 100 auditions for this role and she had some kind of presence outside of her own body that is evident, and she's phenomenal." Bonnie Aarons was then set to reprise her role as the "Demon Nun" character Valak from "The Conjuring 2". Charlotte Hope, Jonas Bloquet, and Ingrid Bisu were subsequently announced to star, rounding out the main cast.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Principal photography for the film began on May 3, 2017, at Castel Film Studios in Bucharest, Romania, with Maxime Alexandre serving as cinematographer. Film director Corin Hardy had a Roman Catholic priest bless the set prior to filming. Scenes were filmed in the Palace of the Parliament building in June, for a fee of €5,000 per hour. Filming also took place at the Corvin Castle in Hunedoara and in Sighișoara, Transylvania. Hardy saw a handprint in the dust while filming in Mogoșoaia, which he believed to be that of a ghost. Hardy announced on his social media accounts that production had wrapped on June 23, 2017, after 38 days.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: "The Nun" reportedly went under extensive reshoots. "The Curse of La Llorona" cinematographer Michael Burgess had worked on the film. Wan also worked as a second unit director under Hardy.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: The original musical score for "The Nun" was composed by Abel Korzeniowski, and was released on August 31, 2018, by WaterTower Music.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: On June 13, 2018, a teaser trailer was released. In August 2018, a short advertisement for the film was removed from YouTube due to an unskippable jump scare that violated the platform's "Shocking Content" policies. The studio spent an estimated $90million on prints and advertisements for the film.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Warner Bros. Pictures had initially scheduled "The Nun" to be released in the United States on July 13, 2018. In February 2018, it was announced that the film's release date would be pushed back to September 7, 2018. The film was released on Digital HD on November 20, 2018, and on Blu-ray and DVD on December 4, 2018. On May 31, 2022 it was released alongside other The Conjuring Universe movies in Blu-ray, excluding The Curse of Llorona.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: "The Nun" grossed $117.5million in the United States and Canada, and $248.1million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $365.6million, against a production budget of $22million, becoming the highest-grossing film in the franchise. "Deadline Hollywood" calculated the net profit of the film to be $155million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "The Nun" was released alongside "Peppermint" and "God Bless the Broken Road", and was originally projected to gross $32–37million in its opening weekend. By the week of its release, forecasts had been increased to $36–45million from 3,876 theaters. It made $22.4million on its first day, including $5.4million from Thursday night previews, both the highest such numbers for "The Conjuring" films. It went on to debut to $53.8million, also marking the best figure of the franchise, and became the first film in almost a month to finish ahead of "Crazy Rich Asians" at the box office.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: In other territories, it currently ranks as the highest-grossing horror film of all time in twelve markets, including the Philippines (where it has grossed $5million in its first week), Indonesia, Brazil, Romania and UAE.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, ""The Nun" boasts strong performances, spooky atmospherics, and a couple decent set-pieces, but its sins include inconsistent logic and narrative slackness." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale, the lowest of the series.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: Several reviewers criticized a lack of consistent narrative logic. Donald Clarke of "The Irish Times" wrote, "To compare it to a ghost train would be to understate the narrative cohesion that habitually governs those seaside entertainments." Matthew Rozsa for "Salon" said, "By overly relying on jump scares, "The Nun" uses a mechanical approach toward instilling fear rather than a more profound understanding of terror." Writing for the "A.V. Club", Katie Rife compared it to Gothic horror by Mario Bava and Hammer Films, praising the "giddiness" but criticizing the "heavy-handed" exposition and lack of suspense.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: The "Plugged In" review for the film summarized the spirituality evident in the film: "Evil is real, the movie tells us, but so is God. Spiritual trappings are everywhere. And when in doubt or danger, you can't go wrong with a little prayer." In her review of the film published in the "National Catholic Reporter", Sr. Rose Pacatte, a nun belonging to the Daughters of St. Paul, stated "that there are two Catholic theological aspects of this film that are accurate: one is that the devil exists, and the other is that Mary, the Mother of Jesus, will show us the way." Another religious sister, Nicole Reich, stated in her review of the film published on Syfy Wire that if Valak was a real demon, he would never be able to reveal himself while the "sisters were in perpetual adoration ... because the Lord was present".


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: In August 2017, Wan discussed the possibility of a "Nun" sequel and what its storyline might entail: "I do know where potentially, if "The Nun" works out, where "The Nun 2" could lead to and how that ties back to Lorraine's story that we've set up with the first two "Conjuring"s and make it all come full circle."


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: In April 2019, it was announced by Peter Safran that a sequel was in development. He stated there was a "really fun" storyline planned for the film, and commented that there was an "inevitability to another "The Nun" movie". Later that month, Akela Cooper signed onto the project as screenwriter, while Safran and James Wan will serve as producers.


title: The Nun (2018 film)

text: On April 26, 2022, Warner Bros. Pictures officially announced the movie as a part of its upcoming slate at the 2022 CinemaCon. The following day, it was announced that Michael Chaves will direct the film. Principal photography began on April 29, 2022. Bonnie Aarons was confirmed to be reprising her role as Valak.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Habeas corpus (; from Medieval Latin, ) is a recourse in law through which a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment to a court and request that the court order the custodian of the person, usually a prison official, to bring the prisoner to court, to determine whether the detention is lawful.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The writ of "habeas corpus" was described in the eighteenth century by William Blackstone as a "great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement". It is a summons with the force of a court order; it is addressed to the custodian (a prison official, for example) and demands that a prisoner be brought before the court, and that the custodian present proof of authority, allowing the court to determine whether the custodian has lawful authority to detain the prisoner. If the custodian is acting beyond their authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on their behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, for a writ of "habeas corpus". One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a similar remedy for those unlawfully detained, but this is not always called "habeas corpus". For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the "amparo de libertad" ("protection of freedom").


title: Habeas corpus

text: "Habeas corpus" has certain limitations. Though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. It is technically only a procedural remedy; it is a guarantee against any detention that is forbidden by law, but it does not necessarily protect other rights, such as the entitlement to a fair trial. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, then "habeas corpus" may not be a useful remedy. In some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of a war or state of emergency, for example by Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War (see Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863)).


title: Habeas corpus

text: The right to petition for a writ of "habeas corpus" has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject. The jurist Albert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty".


title: Habeas corpus

text: The writ of "habeas corpus" is one of what are called the "extraordinary", "common law", or "prerogative writs", which were historically issued by the English courts in the name of the monarch to control inferior courts and public authorities within the kingdom. The most common of the other such prerogative writs are "quo warranto", "prohibito", "mandamus", "procedendo", and "certiorari". The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, because they incorporate the presumption of non-authority. The official who is the respondent must prove their authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person, not just an interested party. This differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The phrase is from the Latin "habeās", 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of "habēre", "to have", "to hold"; and "corpus", accusative singular of "corpus", "body". In reference to more than one person, the phrase is "habeas corpora".


title: Habeas corpus

text: Literally, the phrase means "[we command] that you should have the [detainee's] body [brought to court]". The complete phrase "habeas corpus [coram nobis] ad subjiciendum" means "that you have the person [before us] for the purpose of subjecting (the case to examination)". These are words of writs included in a 14th-century Anglo-French document requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge, especially to determine if that person is being legally detained.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, also named "habeas corpus". These include:


title: Habeas corpus

text: "Habeas corpus" originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon of 1166, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England in the 12th century. The foundations for "habeas corpus" are "wrongly thought" to have originated in Magna Carta, but in fact predates it. This charter declared that:


title: Habeas corpus

text: Pursuant to that language, a person may not be subjected to any legal proceeding, such as arrest and imprisonment, without sufficient evidence having already been collected to show that there is a "prima facie" case to answer. This evidence must be collected beforehand, because it must be available to be exhibited in a public hearing within hours, or at the most days, after arrest, not months or longer as may happen in other jurisdictions that apply Napoleonic-inquisitorial criminal laws where evidence is commonly sought after a suspect's incarceration. Any charge levelled at the hearing thus must be based on evidence already collected, and an arrest and incarceration order is not lawful if not supported by sufficient evidence.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In contrast with the common law approach, consider the case of "Luciano Ferrari-Bravo v. Italy" the European Court of Human Rights ruled that "detention is intended to facilitate … the preliminary investigation". Ferrari-Bravo sought relief after nearly five years of preventive detention, and his application was rejected. The European Court of Human Rights deemed the five-year detention to be "reasonable" under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides that a prisoner has a right to a public hearing before an impartial tribunal within a "reasonable" time after arrest. After his eventual trial, the evidence against Ferrari-Bravo was deemed insufficient and he was found not guilty.


title: Habeas corpus

text: William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of "habeas corpus ad subjiciendum" in 1305, during the reign of King Edward I. However, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. Blackstone explained the basis of the writ, saying "[t]he king is at all times entitled to have an account, why the liberty of any of his subjects is restrained, wherever that restraint may be inflicted." The procedure for issuing a writ of "habeas corpus" was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ. A previous law (the Habeas Corpus Act 1640) had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of "habeas corpus". The cornerstone purpose of the "writ of habeas corpus" was to limit the King's Chancery's ability to undermine the surety of law by allowing courts of justice decisions to be overturned in favor and application of "equity", a process managed by the Chancellor (a bishop) with the King's authority.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The 1679 codification of "habeas corpus" took place in the context of a sharp confrontation between King Charles II and the Parliament, which was dominated by the then sharply oppositional, nascent Whig Party. The Whig leaders had good reasons to fear the King moving against them through the courts (as indeed happened in 1681) and regarded "habeas corpus" as safeguarding their own persons. The short-lived Parliament which made this enactment came to be known as the "Habeas Corpus Parliament" – being dissolved by the King immediately afterwards.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Then, as now, the writ of "habeas corpus" was issued by a superior court in the name of the Sovereign, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the royal courts of law. A "habeas corpus" petition could be made by the prisoner him or herself or by a third party on his or her behalf and, as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts, could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge. Since the 18th century the writ has also been used in cases of unlawful detention by private individuals, most famously in "Somersett's Case" (1772), where the black slave, Somersett, was ordered to be freed. During that case, these famous words are said to have been uttered: "... that the air of England was too pure for slavery" (although it was the lawyers in argument who expressly used this phrase – referenced from a much earlier argument heard in The Star Chamber – and not Lord Mansfield himself). During the Seven Years' War and later conflicts, the Writ was used on behalf of soldiers and sailors pressed into military and naval service. The Habeas Corpus Act 1816 introduced some changes and expanded the territoriality of the legislation.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The privilege of "habeas corpus" has been suspended or restricted several times during English history, most recently during the 18th and 19th centuries. Although internment without trial has been authorised by statute since that time, for example during the two World Wars and the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the "habeas corpus" procedure has in modern times always technically remained available to such internees. However, as "habeas corpus" is only a procedural device to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner's detention, so long as the detention is in accordance with an Act of Parliament, the petition for "habeas corpus" is unsuccessful. Since the passage of the Human Rights Act 1998, the courts have been able to declare an Act of Parliament to be incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but such a declaration of incompatibility has no legal effect unless and until it is acted upon by the government.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The wording of the writ of "habeas corpus" implies that the prisoner is brought to the court for the legality of the imprisonment to be examined. However, rather than issuing the writ immediately and waiting for the return of the writ by the custodian, modern practice in England is for the original application to be followed by a hearing with both parties present to decide the legality of the detention, without any writ being issued. If the detention is held to be unlawful, the prisoner can usually then be released or bailed by order of the court without having to be produced before it. With the development of modern public law, applications for "habeas corpus" have been to some extent discouraged, in favour of applications for judicial review. The writ, however, maintains its vigour, and was held by the UK Supreme Court in 2012 to be available in respect of a prisoner captured by British forces in Afghanistan, albeit that the Secretary of State made a valid return to the writ justifying the detention of the claimant.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Although the first recorded historical references come from Anglo-Saxon law in the 12th century and one of the first documents referring to this right is a law of the English Parliament (1679), it must be noted that in Catalonia there are already references from 1428 in the (appeal of people's manifestation) collected in the of the Crown of Aragon and some references to this term in the Law of the Lordship of Biscay (1527).


title: Habeas corpus

text: The writ of "habeas corpus" as a procedural remedy is part of Australia's English law inheritance. In 2005, the Australian parliament passed the Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005. Some legal experts questioned the constitutionality of the act, due in part to limitations it placed on "habeas corpus".


title: Habeas corpus

text: "Habeas corpus" rights are part of the British legal tradition inherited by Canada. The rights exist in the common law but have been enshrined in section 10(c) of the "Charter of Rights and Freedoms", which states that "[e]veryone has the right on arrest or detention ... to have the validity of the detention determined by way of "habeas corpus" and to be released if the detention is not lawful". The test for "habeas corpus" in Canada was recently laid down by the Supreme Court of Canada in "Mission Institution v Khela", as follows:To be successful, an application for "habeas corpus" must satisfy the following criteria. First, the applicant [i.e., the person seeking "habeas corpus" review] must establish that he or she has been deprived of liberty. Once a deprivation of liberty is proven, the applicant must raise a legitimate ground upon which to question its legality. If the applicant has raised such a ground, the onus shifts to the respondent authorities [i.e., the person or institution detaining the applicant] to show that the deprivation of liberty was lawful.Suspension of the writ in Canadian history occurred famously during the October Crisis, during which the "War Measures Act" was invoked by the Governor General of Canada on the constitutional advice of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, who had received a request from the Quebec Cabinet. The Act was also used to justify German, Slavic, and Ukrainian Canadian internment during the First World War, and the internment of German-Canadians, Italian-Canadians and Japanese-Canadians during the Second World War. The writ was suspended for several years following the Battle of Fort Erie (1866) during the Fenian Rising, though the suspension was only ever applied to suspects in the Thomas D'Arcy McGee assassination.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The writ is available where there is no other adequate remedy. However, a superior court always has the discretion to grant the writ even in the face of an alternative remedy (see "May v Ferndale Institution"). Under the "Criminal Code" the writ is largely unavailable if a statutory right of appeal exists, whether or not this right has been exercised.


title: Habeas corpus

text: A fundamental human right in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen drafted by Lafayette in cooperation with Thomas Jefferson, the guarantees against arbitrary detention are enshrined in the French Constitution and regulated by the Penal Code. The safeguards are equivalent to those found under the Habeas-Corpus provisions found in Germany, the United States and several Commonwealth countries. The French system of accountability prescribes severe penalties for ministers, police officers and civil and judiciary authorities who either violate or fail to enforce the law.


title: Habeas corpus

text: France and the United States played a synergistic role in the international team, led by Eleanor Roosevelt, which crafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The French judge and Nobel Peace Laureate René Cassin produced the first draft and argued against arbitrary detentions. René Cassin and the French team subsequently championed the "habeas corpus" provisions enshrined in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Germany has constitutional guarantees against improper detention and these have been implemented in statutory law in a manner that can be considered as equivalent to writs of "habeas corpus".


title: Habeas corpus

text: Article 104, paragraph 1 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany provides that deprivations of liberty may be imposed only on the basis of a specific enabling statute that also must include procedural rules. Article 104, paragraph 2 requires that any arrested individual be brought before a judge by the end of the day following the day of the arrest. For those detained as criminal suspects, article 104, paragraph 3 specifically requires that the judge must grant a hearing to the suspect in order to rule on the detention.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Restrictions on the power of the authorities to arrest and detain individuals also emanate from article 2 paragraph 2 of the Basic Law which guarantees liberty and requires a statutory authorization for any deprivation of liberty. In addition, several other articles of the Basic Law have a bearing on the issue. The most important of these are article 19, which generally requires a statutory basis for any infringements of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Basic Law while also guaranteeing judicial review; article 20, paragraph 3, which guarantees the rule of law; and article 3 which guarantees equality.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In particular, a constitutional obligation to grant remedies for improper detention is required by article 19, paragraph 4 of the Basic Law, which provides as follows: "Should any person's right be violated by public authority, he may have recourse to the courts. If no other jurisdiction has been established, recourse shall be to the ordinary courts."


title: Habeas corpus

text: The Indian judiciary, in a catena of cases, has effectively resorted to the writ of "habeas corpus" to secure release of a person from illegal detention. For example, in October 2009, the Karnataka High Court heard a "habeas corpus" petition filed by the parents of a girl who married a Muslim boy from Kannur district and was allegedly confined in a "madrasa" in Malapuram town. Usually, in most other jurisdictions, the writ is directed at police authorities. The extension to non-state authorities has its grounds in two cases: the 1898 Queen's Bench case of "Ex Parte Daisy Hopkins", wherein the Proctor of Cambridge University did detain and arrest Hopkins without his jurisdiction, and Hopkins was released, and that of "Somerset v Stewart", in which an African slave whose master had moved to London was freed by action of the writ.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The Indian judiciary has dispensed with the traditional doctrine of "locus standi", so that if a detained person is not in a position to file a petition, it can be moved on his behalf by any other person. The scope of "habeas" relief has expanded in recent times by actions of the Indian judiciary.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In 1976, the "habeas" writ was used in the Rajan case, a student victim of torture in local police custody during the nationwide Emergency in India. On 12 March 2014, Subrata Roy's counsel approached the Chief Justice moving a "habeas corpus" petition. It was also filed by the Panthers Party to protest the imprisonment of Anna Hazare, a social activist.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In the Republic of Ireland, the writ of "habeas corpus" is available at common law and under the Habeas Corpus Acts of 1782 and 1816.


title: Habeas corpus

text: A remedy equivalent to "habeas corpus" is also guaranteed by Article 40 of the 1937 constitution. The article guarantees that "no citizen shall be deprived of his personal liberty save in accordance with law" and outlines a specific procedure for the High Court to enquire into the lawfulness of any person's detention. It does not mention the Latin term "habeas corpus", but includes the English phrase "produce the body".


title: Habeas corpus

text: Article 40.4.2° provides that a prisoner, or anyone acting on his behalf, may make a complaint to the High Court (or to any High Court judge) of unlawful detention. The court must then investigate the matter "forthwith" and may order that the defendant bring the prisoner before the court and give reasons for his detention. The court must immediately release the detainee unless it is satisfied that he is being held lawfully. The remedy is available not only to prisoners of the state, but also to persons unlawfully detained by any private party. However, the constitution provides that the procedure is not binding on the Defence Forces during a state of war or armed rebellion.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The writ of "habeas corpus" continued as part of the Irish law when the state seceded from the United Kingdom in 1922. A remedy equivalent to "habeas corpus" was also guaranteed by Article 6 of the Constitution of the Irish Free State, enacted in 1922. That article used similar wording to Article 40.4 of the current constitution, which replaced it 1937.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The relationship between the Article 40 and the Habeas Corpus Acts of 1782 and 1816 is ambiguous, and Forde and Leonard write that "The extent if any to which Article 40.4 has replaced these Acts has yet to be determined". In "The State (Ahern) v. Cotter" (1982) Walsh J. opined that the ancient writ referred to in the Habeas Corpus Acts remains in existence in Irish law as a separate remedy from that provided for in Article 40.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In 1941, the Article 40 procedure was restricted by the Second Amendment. Prior to the amendment, a prisoner had the constitutional right to apply to any High Court judge for an enquiry into her detention, and to as many High Court judges as she wished. If the prisoner successfully challenged her detention before the High Court she was entitled to immediate, unconditional release.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The Second Amendment provided that a prisoner has only the right to apply to a single judge, and, once a writ has been issued, the President of the High Court has authority to choose the judge or panel of three judges who will decide the case. If the High Court finds that the prisoner's detention is unlawful due to the unconstitutionality of a law the judge must refer the matter to the Supreme Court, and until the Supreme Court's decision is rendered the prisoner may be released only on bail.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The power of the state to detain persons prior to trial was extended by the Sixteenth Amendment, in 1996. In 1965, the Supreme Court ruled in the "O'Callaghan" case that the constitution required that an individual charged with a crime could be refused bail only if she was likely to flee or to interfere with witnesses or evidence. Since the Sixteenth Amendment, it has been possible for a court to take into account whether a person has committed serious crimes while on bail in the past.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The right to freedom from arbitrary detention is guaranteed by Article 13 of the Constitution of Italy, which states:


title: Habeas corpus

text: Furthermore, if subject to a valid detention, an arrested can ask for a review of the detention to another court, called the Review Court ("Tribunale del Riesame", also known as the Freedom Court, "Tribunale della Libertà").


title: Habeas corpus

text: In Macau, the relevant provision is Article 204 in the Code of Penal Processes, which became law in 1996 under Portuguese rule. cases are heard before the Tribunal of Ultimate Instance. A notable case is Case 3/2008 in Macau.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In Malaysia, the remedy of "habeas corpus" is guaranteed by the federal constitution, although not by name. Article 5(2) of the Constitution of Malaysia provides that "Where complaint is made to a High Court or any judge thereof that a person is being unlawfully detained the court shall inquire into the complaint and, unless satisfied that the detention is lawful, shall order him to be produced before the court and release him".


title: Habeas corpus

text: As there are several statutes, for example, the Internal Security Act 1960, that still permit detention without trial, the procedure is usually effective in such cases only if it can be shown that there was a procedural error in the way that the detention was ordered.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In New Zealand, "habeas corpus" may be invoked against the government or private individuals. In 2006, a child was allegedly kidnapped by his maternal grandfather after a custody dispute. The father began "habeas corpus" proceedings against the mother, the grandfather, the grandmother, the great grandmother, and another person alleged to have assisted in the kidnap of the child. The mother did not present the child to the court and so was imprisoned for contempt of court. She was released when the grandfather came forward with the child in late January 2007.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Issuance of a writ is an exercise of an extraordinary jurisdiction of the superior courts in Pakistan. A writ of "habeas corpus" may be issued by any High Court of a province in Pakistan. Article 199 of the 1973 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, specifically provides for the issuance of a writ of "habeas corpus", empowering the courts to exercise this prerogative. Subject to the Article 199 of the Constitution, "A High Court may, if it is satisfied that no other adequate remedy is provided by law, on the application of any person, make an order that a person in custody within the territorial jurisdiction of the Court be brought before it so that the Court may satisfy itself that he is not being held in custody without a lawful authority or in an unlawful manner". The hallmark of extraordinary constitutional jurisdiction is to keep various functionaries of State within the ambit of their authority. Once a High Court has assumed jurisdiction to adjudicate the matter before it, justiciability of the issue raised before it is beyond question. The Supreme Court of Pakistan has stated clearly that the use of words "in an unlawful manner" implies that the court may examine, if a statute has allowed such detention, whether it was a colorable exercise of the power of authority. Thus, the court can examine the malafides of the action taken.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In Portugal, article 31 of the Constitution guarantees citizens against improper arrest, imprisonment or detention.


title: Habeas corpus

text: There are also statutory provisions, most notably the Code of Criminal Procedure, articles 220 and 222 that stipulate the reasons by which a judge may guarantee "habeas corpus".


title: Habeas corpus

text: In the Bill of Rights of the Philippine constitution, "habeas corpus" is guaranteed in terms almost identically to those used in the U.S. Constitution. Article 3, Section 15 of the Constitution of the Philippines states that "The privilege of the writ of "habeas corpus" shall not be suspended except in cases of invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it".


title: Habeas corpus

text: In 1971, after the Plaza Miranda bombing, the Marcos administration, under Ferdinand Marcos, suspended "habeas corpus" in an effort to stifle the oncoming insurgency, having blamed the Filipino Communist Party for the events of August 21. Many considered this to be a prelude to martial law. After widespread protests, however, the Marcos administration decided to reintroduce the writ. The writ was again suspended when Marcos declared martial law in 1972.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In December 2009, "habeas corpus" was suspended in Maguindanao as President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo placed the province under martial law. This occurred in response to the Maguindanao massacre.


title: Habeas corpus

text: At 10 pm on 23 May 2017 Philippine time, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law in the whole island of Mindanao including Sulu and Tawi-tawi for the period of 60 days due to the series of attacks mounted by the Maute group, an ISIS-linked terrorist organization. The declaration suspended the writ.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The Parliament of Scotland passed a law to have the same effect as "habeas corpus" in the 18th century. This is now known as the Criminal Procedure Act 1701 c.6. It was originally called "the Act for preventing wrongful imprisonment and against undue delays in trials". It is still in force although certain parts have been repealed.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The present Constitution of Spain states that "A "habeas corpus" procedure shall be provided for by law to ensure the immediate handing over to the judicial authorities of any person illegally arrested". The statute which regulates the procedure is the "Law of Habeas Corpus of 24 May 1984", which provides that a person imprisoned may, on her or his own or through a third person, allege that she or he is imprisoned unlawfully and request to appear before a judge. The request must specify the grounds on which the detention is considered to be unlawful, which can be, for example, that the custodian holding the prisoner does not have the legal authority, that the prisoner's constitutional rights have been violated, or that he has been subjected to mistreatment. The judge may then request additional information if needed, and may issue a "habeas corpus" order, at which point the custodian has 24 hours to bring the prisoner before the judge.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Historically, many of the territories of Spain had remedies equivalent to the "habeas corpus", such as the privilege of "manifestación" in the Crown of Aragon or the right of the Tree in Biscay.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The United States inherited "habeas corpus" from the English common law. In England, the writ was issued in the name of the monarch. When the original thirteen American colonies declared independence, and became a republic based on popular sovereignty, any person, in the name of the people, acquired authority to initiate such writs. The U.S. Constitution specifically includes the "habeas" procedure in the Suspension Clause (Clause 2), located in Article One, Section 9. This states that "The privilege of the writ of "habeas corpus" shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it".


title: Habeas corpus

text: The writ of "habeas corpus ad subjiciendum" is a civil, not criminal, "ex parte" proceeding in which a court inquires as to the legitimacy of a prisoner's custody. Typically, "habeas corpus" proceedings are to determine whether the court that imposed sentence on the defendant had jurisdiction and authority to do so, or whether the defendant's sentence has expired. "Habeas corpus" is also used as a legal avenue to challenge other types of custody such as pretrial detention or detention by the United States Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement pursuant to a deportation proceeding.


title: Habeas corpus

text: Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant suspended "habeas corpus" during the Civil War and Reconstruction for some places or types of cases. During World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt suspended habeas corpus. Following the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush attempted to place Guantanamo Bay detainees outside of the jurisdiction of "habeas corpus", but the Supreme Court of the United States overturned this action in "Boumediene v. Bush".


title: Habeas corpus

text: In 1526, the "Fuero Nuevo of the Señorío de Vizcaya" ("New Charter of the Lordship of Biscay") established a form of "habeas corpus" in the territory of the "Señorío de Vizcaya", nowadays part of Spain. This revised version of the "Fuero Viejo" (Old Charter) of 1451 codified the medieval custom whereby no person could be arbitrarily detained without being summoned first to the Oak of Gernika, an ancestral oak tree located in the outskirts of Gernika under which all laws of the Lordship of Biscay were passed.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The New Charter formalised that no one could be detained without a court order (Law 26 of Chapter 9) nor due to debts (Law 3 of Chapter 16). It also established due process and a form of "habeas corpus": no one could be arrested without previously having been summoned to the Oak of Gernika and given 30 days to answer the said summons. Upon appearing under the Tree, they had to be provided with accusations and all evidence held against them so that they could defend themselves (Law 7 of Chapter 9). No one could be sent to prison or deprived of their freedom until being formally trialed, and no one could be accused of a different crime until their current court trial was over (Law 5 of Chapter 5). Those fearing they were being arrested illegally could appeal to the "Regimiento General" that their rights could be upheld. The "Regimiento" (the executive arm of the Juntas Generales of Biscay) would demand the prisoner be handed over to them, and thereafter the prisoner would be released and placed under the protection of the Regimiento while awaiting for trial.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The Crown of Aragon also had a remedy equivalent to the "habeas corpus" called the "manifestación de personas" (literally, "demonstration of persons"). According to the right of "manifestación", the Justicia de Aragon (lit. "Justice of Aragon", an Aragonese judiciary figure similar to an ombudsman, but with far reaching executive powers) could require a judge, a court of justice, or any other official that they handed over to the "Justicia" (i.e., that they be "demonstrated" to the Justicia) anyone being prosecuted so as to guarantee that this person's rights were upheld, and that no violence would befall this person prior to their being sentenced. Furthermore, the "Justicia" retained the right to examine the judgement passed, and decide whether it satisfied the conditions of a fair trial. If the "Justicia" was not satisfied, he could refuse to hand over the accused back to the authorities. The right of "manifestación" acted like a "habeas corpus": knowing that the appeal to the "Justicia" would immediately follow any unlawful detention, these were effectively illegal. Equally, torture (which had been banned since 1325 in Aragon) would never take place. In some cases, people exerting their right of "manifestación" were kept under the Justicia's watch in "manifestación" prisons (famous for their mild and easy conditions) or under house arrest. More generally however, the person was released from confinement and placed under the "Justicia's protection", awaiting for trial. The "Justicia" always granted the right of "manifestación" by default, but they only really had to act in extreme cases, as for instance famously happened in 1590 when Antonio Pérez, the disgraced secretary to Philip II of Spain, fled from Castile to Aragon and used his Aragonese ascendency to appeal to the "Justicia" for manifestación right, thereby preventing his arrest at the King's behest.


title: Habeas corpus

text: The right of "manifestación" was codified in 1325 in the Declaratio Privilegii generalis passed by the Aragonese Corts under king James II of Aragon. It had been practised since the inception of the kingdom of Aragon in the 11th century, and therefore predates the English "habeas corpus" itself.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In 1430, King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland granted the Privilege of Jedlnia, which proclaimed, "Neminem captivabimus nisi iure victum" ("We will not imprison anyone except if convicted by law"). This revolutionary innovation in civil libertarianism gave Polish citizens due process-style rights that did not exist in any other European country for another 250 years. Originally, the Privilege of Jedlnia was restricted to the nobility (the szlachta), but it was extended to cover townsmen in the 1791 Constitution. Importantly, social classifications in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were not as rigid as in other European countries; townspeople and Jews were sometimes ennobled. The Privilege of Jedlnia provided broader coverage than many subsequently enacted habeas corpus laws, because Poland's nobility constituted an unusually large percentage of the country's total population, which was Europe's largest. As a result, by the 16th century, it was protecting the liberty of between five hundred thousand and a million Poles.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In South Africa and other countries whose legal systems are based on Roman-Dutch law, the "interdictum de homine libero exhibendo" is the equivalent of the writ of "habeas corpus". In South Africa, it has been entrenched in the Bill of Rights, which provides in section 35(2)(d) that every detained person has the right to challenge the lawfulness of the detention in person before a court and, if the detention is unlawful, to be released.


title: Habeas corpus

text: In the 1950s, American lawyer Luis Kutner began advocating an international writ of "habeas corpus" to protect individual human rights. In 1952, he filed a petition for a "United Nations Writ of Habeas Corpus" on behalf of William N. Oatis, an American journalist jailed the previous year by the Communist government of Czechoslovakia. Alleging that Czechoslovakia had violated Oatis' rights under the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and that the United Nations General Assembly had "inherent power" to fashion remedies for human rights violations, the petition was filed with the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Commission forwarded the petition to Czechoslovakia, but no other United Nations action was taken. Oatis was released in 1953. Kutner went on to publish numerous articles and books advocating the creation of an "International Court of Habeas Corpus".


title: Habeas corpus

text: Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that "everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person". Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights goes further and calls for persons detained to have the right to challenge their detention, providing at article 5.4:


title: Victorious

text: Victorious (stylized as "VICTORiOUS") is an American sitcom created by Dan Schneider that originally aired on Nickelodeon, debuting on March 27, 2010, and concluding on February 2, 2013 after four seasons. The series revolves around aspiring singer Tori Vega (portrayed by Victoria Justice), a teenager who attends a performing arts high school called Hollywood Arts High School, after taking her older sister Trina's (Daniella Monet) place in a showcase while getting into screwball situations on a daily basis. On her first day at Hollywood Arts, she meets Andre Harris (Leon Thomas III), Robbie Shapiro (Matt Bennett), Rex Powers (Robbie's puppet), Jade West (Elizabeth Gillies), Cat Valentine (Ariana Grande), and Beck Oliver (Avan Jogia). The series premiered after the 2010 Kids' Choice Awards. The series won Favorite TV Show award at the 2012 Kids' Choice Awards and 2013 Kids' Choice Awards, beating out "iCarly". "Victorious" earned four Emmy nominations.


title: Victorious

text: On August 10, 2012, Justice stated that the series would not be renewed. After the spin-off series "Sam & Cat" was announced, fans of "Victorious" expressed dismay that its spin-off series was the reason for its ending, but Schneider himself stated otherwise. Although the "Victorious" cast only filmed three seasons, when the decision to end the series was made, Nickelodeon split the third season in half, making a fourth season.


title: Victorious

text: The series follows Tori Vega, a teenage girl who is accepted into Hollywood Arts, a fictional elite performing arts high school for talented teens. Other students at Hollywood Arts (and the students who later make up Tori's group of friends) include the musical prodigy Andre Harris, the socially awkward Robbie Shapiro and his ventriloquist dummy Rex, the sweet but dim-witted red-head Cat Valentine, the sarcastic and mean Jade West (who serves as Tori's frenemy), Jade's handsome down-to-earth, actor boyfriend Beck Oliver, and Tori's very untalented and self-absorbed older sister Trina. Other characters include Erwin Sikowitz, the performing-arts teacher for Hollywood Arts; Lane Alexander, the school's guidance counselor; and Sinjin Van Cleef, an odd and often unsettling classmate that handles audiovisual.


title: Victorious

text: "Victorious" is the fifth series created by Dan Schneider for Nickelodeon, after "The Amanda Show", "Drake & Josh", "Zoey 101", and "iCarly". Schneider first met Victoria Justice in 2005, when she was twelve and arrived to audition for the part of Lola Martinez on "Zoey 101". Impressed by her energy and look, Schneider hired her and, after working with her on three episodes, called Nickelodeon to say, "I've got your next star." Justice continued her role on "Zoey 101" until the series ended in 2008. In the meantime, Disney Channel, Nickelodeon's main competitor, had experienced immense success with franchises like "Hannah Montana" and "High School Musical", which featured original songs and generated revenue through music as well as television. Seeking to "follow where the kids are", Nickelodeon executives asked Schneider to create a music-based show for the channel. Near the end of "Zoey 101"s run, Justice was summoned to meet with Schneider about a potential series starring her. "Victorious" is the first series on Nickelodeon to premiere in the 2010s decade. "Big Time Rush"s first episode premiered two months earlier, but its original pilot premiered in 2009.


title: Victorious

text: While discussing possible concepts for the series during the meeting, Justice mentioned that she had attended a performing arts middle school. The idea intrigued Schneider, who recognized the appeal of a series concerning fame. "If there is anything I've learned about kids today—and I'm not saying this is good or bad—it's that they all want to be stars," said Schneider. Marjorie Cohn, who was then Nickelodeon's executive vice president of original programming and development, agreed. "Every kid thinks they're five minutes away and one lucky circumstance from being famous", Cohn stated. She noted that Schneider's "iCarly", a sitcom about a girl who hosts a popular web show, was spurred by the rise of YouTube celebrities and has become a successful series for Nickelodeon.


title: Victorious

text: On August 13, 2008, Nickelodeon announced that Justice had signed "an overall talent and music deal" with the company, agreeing to star in a then-untitled musical-comedy series about a girl who attends a performing arts high school. While discussing the show's premise, Schneider stated that while it would be nice if more children "wanted to be teachers and social workers" instead of celebrities, "At least in "Victorious", you see a world where they're all working on the talent part." Nickelodeon Productions and the Columbia/Epic Label Group of Sony Music Entertainment agreed to co-produce the series as part of a partnership to develop talent and release their music.


title: Victorious

text: Jerry Trainor, Perez Hilton, Josh Peck, Kesha, Nathan Kress, Drake Bell, Miranda Sings, and Jennette McCurdy have appeared on the series in cameos or as guest stars.


title: Victorious

text: Season 1 of "Victorious" began filming on October 5, 2009, and ended on April 14, 2010, with 20 episodes produced. Season 2 began filming October 4, 2010, and finished filming on February 23, 2011. In August 2011, Victoria Justice confirmed that she was returning to the Victorious set, as Season 3 began filming on October 3, 2011. During the TV special "7 Secrets with Victoria Justice", Justice explained the weekly schedule the cast and crew operate on: scripts are issued to them on Sunday nights, the cast has table reads on Mondays and Tuesdays, then the episode is shot on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday and on Saturday, they watch a premiering of their show that is newly released to the public then.


title: Victorious

text: Victoria Justice told "M Magazine" in August 2012 that "We will not be expecting a fourth season, this is the first time I've talked about it. I just found out a couple of days ago that we're not coming back. It's sad because I've been with Nickelodeon since I was 12 years old and I became a family with my "Victorious" cast. We spent a lot of time together and bonded for sure – I'll look back on the experience very fondly. It's a little shocking and a little bittersweet, but at the end of the day it might not be such a bad thing – we all want to do our own thing and continue to grow." The third season was split into two, thus making four seasons in total.


title: Victorious

text: The series ended without a proper finale, a fact referenced in an episode of the series' spin-off, "Sam & Cat", when the title characters' favorite show is cancelled and Cat asks, "What kind of network cancels a show without giving it a proper finale?"