title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The empire ran more militaristic with stricter social stratifications than the Mali Empire. The ruling classes were composed of elite warriors from the Nyancho ( Ñaanco) tracing their patrilineal lineage to Tiramakhan Troare, and matrilineal to a mysterious native called Baleba who was believed to possess supernatural powers (p. 3). The Mansaba was established matrilineally through the sister of the Mansaba, whose son would be next in line (p. 3).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The Nyancho were immersed in a warrior culture, and were reputed to be excellent cavalry men and warring raiders, slaves farmed and maintained their mounts, for the Nyancho the highest honour was to achieve Mansaba (p. 6). Young men would travel solely for the goal of marauding and war. Europeans reported these were expert horsemen to the point other kingdoms requested them, and they typically filled the high military ranks of other forces (p. 369).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The society was militaristic focused on control of the slave trade in the region. The warrior clans became rich trading with the Europeans (p. 6). In efforts to stave off northern military incursions from the Serer and Wolof states, and control trade they incorporated surrounding states, giving better protect to themselves and securing economic gain from the trade markets (p. 7).Trade would bring the noble spirits, imported cloth, beads, metal ware, and firearms as commodities that enhanced their prestige, and a surplus of foodstuffs providing security and securing political alliances (p. 8). The life maintained by the elites had to of course be sustained, this is where commoners and slaves became useful, the latter maintained horses and did the agricultural work, commoners were the farmers, artisans created farm equipment and tools for horse riding, and the marabouts and non-Islamic priests dealt in magic and divination (p. 8). In summary the Empires organisation was that the central government was in Kansala, the Kaabu Mansaba was the emperor with Farim Mansa's as governors of each province, provinces provided soldiers and were further divided into administrative units, who were governed over by aristocratic families (p. 5).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The empires was Mandinka, the lingua franca was Mandinka, the social institutions was Mandinka, the political institutions was Mandinka, and the historical traditions was Mandinka, the empire prided itself on its Imperial Mandinka history (p. 11). 'Mandinkization' was big in the empire, individuals from other ethnic background became Mandinka culturally, and the frequent inter-ethnic marriages between the Mandinka and other ethnicities assisted the process, Europeans and Afro-Europeans living in the region could and would become 'Mandinkized' to a certain extent, due to these loose ethnical boundaries it became that kinship was more important than ethnicity (p. 12). Kinship was important at the highest echelons of society. The elite were likely to identify with each other regardless of ethnic backgrounds, "Soninke" who practiced "Soninkeya" was their identification, "Soninke" referred to animists in the region, this term bound together these elites regardless of origins or location (p. 12). Their religion was the worship of stocks and stones and regularly communication with divinatory, the high priest had residence in the main capital of the empire (p. 368). Kaabu was the most powerful Western Mandinka state at the time after Mali fell (p. 13).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Commoners lived through the employment of their skills, such as growing crops, rearing livestock, becoming traders for the nobles, or marabouts making magical charms for elite warriors (p. 15). Those with no way of employing their skills were in a dangerous situation, and servitude was likely to their end under Europeans, North Africans, or far off African courts (p. 15).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Moreover, the Kaabu integrated more closely the trade networks of Guinea Bissau to North Africa in the 14th century, and the Europeans in the 15th century (p. 3). The trade that Kaabu tapped into in Guinea Bissau was economically enrichening (p. 4). Slaves were a large source of income, reports estimated in the years between the 1600s and 1700s, 700 slaves annually left the region, so 70,000 slaves in a 100 years were exported, of which Kaabu would of had a big hand in supplying (p. 5) The Arabians (North Africans) and surrounding merchants were noted for trading specifically in the region for gold, which the country was said to have much of (p. 367).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: After 800 years of existence and 47 Mansa's the Empire began to decline for multiple reasons including civil war. In the 18th and 19th centuries Muslim states surrounded this pagan state, resulting in the Imamate of Futa Jallon declaring Jihad on them, with assistance from Muslim Soninke and Mandinka chiefs. Futa Jallon gained support from the local Fula's who wanted independence from Kaabu (p. 5, 6). The two states warred for a number of years with Kaabu repelling the Imamate for a long period, stopping the Imamate at the fort of Berekolong until the 1860s, where they were defeated at Berekolong. This war lead to a final confrontation between the Imamate and Kaabu in 1867 called the Battle of Kansala, an army led by General Alfa Molo Balde laid siege to the earthen walls of Kansala for 11 days. The Fulani forces consisted of 35,000 ground troops and 12,000 cavalry. Oral traditions say a Timbo marabout told the Fulani forces that if they fired the first shot they would lose, and a Jakhanke told the Nyancho if they fired the first shot they would lose. The siege was in a stalemate until a Nyancho angered at the presence of Fula troops outside their walls, seeing it cowardly not to attack shot first, the Mandinka kept the Fulani from climbing the walls for a time, but the walls were overwhelmed. The Mansaba Dianke Walli seeing that he would lose, gave the Imamate a pyrrhic victory, ordering his troops to set the cities gunpowder on fire, killing the Mandinka defenders alongside the Imamate ones. The loss of Kansala marked the end of the Kaabu, alongside Mandinka dominance in the region with their incorporation into the Imamate of Futa Jallon (p. 3). Smaller Mandinka states did continue to exist in the region until their incorporation into the Portuguese Empire (p. 7).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea Bissau was made known to Europeans by the mid 1400s by mainly Portuguese explorers, Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto in 1455, Portuguese explorer Diogo Gomes in 1456, Portuguese explorer Duarte Pacheco Pareira in the 1480s, and Flemish explorer Eustache de la Fosse in 1479-1480 (p. 7, 12, 13, 16). Additionally, the region was mentioned in secondary sources like the writings of Gomes Eanes de Zurara in the 1450s, Valentim Fernandes in the early 1500s, and German scholar Jerome Münzer in the early 1500s. (p. 4, 9, 15).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The region from at least 1550 was known to the Portuguese as 'The Guinea of Cape Verde', Santiago was the administrative capital of the region (p. 138). Additionally, most of the settlers in Guinea Bissau at the time were whites of Cape Verdean origin (p. 139). Trade between European and African agents began as early as the 1440s (p. 151).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: White settlements on the mainland was discouraged by Portuguese authorities, in contrast to the offshore Islands where settlements were encouraged. This discouragement was ignored by the Lançados (p. 140). Tangomão were white trader who assimilated into indigenous culture and customs, also used to describe white traders native auxiliaries (p. 141). Allied to the Lançados were the 'Grumete' made up of different natives in the region, these were at first slaves of sailors but later began to apply to free native assistants. Assistants varied on the rationale for their placement, some were slaves, others employed, and some relatives to the European trader. Grumetes remained an important part of the Lançados community (p. 151). Lançados were mainly from impoverished backgrounds, most traders were from Cape Verde and were people exiled from Portugal, traders were also of Jewish and New Christians backgrounds a result of anti-Semitism in the Iberian peninsula (p. 148, 150). Lançados were targeted by Portuguese authorities as they ignored rules and regulations, rules such as the illegality of entering the region without a royal licence, trading goods without being a licenced trader, ships only porting at authorised ports, captains were responsible for their crews, and people regardless of rank could not assimilate into the native community (p. 142). In the 1500s Portugal took steps to reduce the Lançado problem in the region, aiming legislations at Cape Verde as the Islands acted like recruitment centres. Rules were made to reduce the chances of recruitment or the carrying out of illegal trade. The legislations were ineffective and did not reduce illegal trading with the mainland (p. 144). In 1520 measures against the Lançados reduced, trade and settlements increased on the mainland (p. 145). Reasons for reduced measures were religious and commercial, and in the latter half of the 1500s no hostile legislation passed against the Lançados (p. 145, 146). The settlement population increased on the mainland and it was normal for Europeans to be living side by side with the natives. These Europeans were mainly Portuguese but there were also Spanish, Genoese, English, French, and Dutch settlers in the region (p. 150).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The Lançados were focused on slavery and as intermediaries between European vessels and African producers, the regions rivers possessed no natural harbours, leaving the Lançados to navigate riverways and creeks in small boats, to take native products back to European vessels on the few ports available, being Cacheu, Bissau, and Guinala. The waterways being the main mode of transport, small boats were used by both the Lançados and native to navigate these rivers. Lançados bought boats from European vessels, or in most circumstances built them themselves through specially trained grumetes. At different estuaries trading depots were established some linked to Cape Verde, and others serving as clearing houses for the trading centres of Cacheu, Guinala, and Bissau. The furthest point of the rivers held trading centres connected to the produce of the interior (p. 153-157). Settlements were established in relation to these trading centres, convenient villages and locations were chosen for settlement. Villages that had a Lançado population attracted other Africans. Movement in the areas of Bissau, Cacheu, Guinala, and local trading centres were one type of migration because of Portuguese activity, the other was groups from the interior migrating closer to the coast in small numbers, Interior expeditions by the Portuguese were more common than migration. The Mande from the interior offered resources like gums, ivory, hides, civet, dyes, slaves, and gold of which Lançados traversed into the interior for, transporting it back to the coast to be made available to the international community (p. 158-160). Trade was not limited to the Atlantic as Lançados helped establish trade between different regions of the Upper Guinea, trade was opened from the Gambia through Guinea-Bissau to the Cape Mount region (p. 162, 163).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Europeans were not accepted in all communities, the Jolas, Balantas, and at first the Bijagos were hostile, in the 1500s a common sarcastic saying used by the Papels was:


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The other ethnicities of the region interacted with Europeans friendlier, all the groups harboured communities of Lançados. Lançados primarily interacted with the higher echelons of the regions society, any European trader on the land of a native king would be subject to taxation (p. 164, 165). Moreover, Lançados were subject to the laws and customs of the community they lived in, he was also subject to the local courts. The Lançados would use these local customs to their advantage, pushing to swear oaths and secure deals in the native way to have 100% guarantee (p. 172, 173). Latter half of the 1500s the Lançados and their agreement to follow local customs came into question, their attempts to change certain customs and rules caused disagreements, such as in 1580 when they abandoned the settlement of Buguendo near Cacheu, once again in 1583 their settlement in Guinala, and Cacheu where they felt the customs were causing them harm and decided to create fortified settlements of their own along the coast. The forts construction was granted by the King Chapala of Cacheu in 1589 (p. 175-177).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: These changes led to Papels, Manjaks, and Biafadas becoming hostile towards the Portuguese, other reasons for the declining relations was that the natives became fluent in Kriol, and becoming familiar with Lançados for some reason became contemptuous of them (p. 177, 178). In 1591 the first significant hostility between the Portuguese and mainland natives occurred, the Manjaks of Cacheu invaded the Fort of Cacheu which was a failure, the conflict ended in a peace agreement. This violent reaction contrasted the Biafadas reaction to the Portuguese actions in 1583, the Biafadas began to charge more for slaves and resources (p. 179, 180). These responses by the native resulted in Lançados withdrawing into their own forts, to defend from any future attacks, and find exemption from native rules and customs. A lack of manpower meant garrisoning the forts of Cacheu and Guinala was difficult, and so they were still subject to the local rules and customs. Kicking the Lançados out was out of the question, as goods that the Lançados brought in were in demand with the upper class natives (p. 180-184).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The Portuguese were still dealing with the Lançados, whom not hunted like in the early 1500s, still defied authorities in the region causing difficulties with the Portuguese receiving their revenues from the trade, and governing Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau (p. 242). In 1580 because of the Iberian Union possessions in Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde were attacked by the enemies of Spain. The French, Dutch, and English ships made Portuguese monopoly difficult, and trade increased between other Europeans and the natives. The Lançados would facilitate trade with the English, French, and Dutch in the late 1500s especially at Cacheu, and Cacheu was the centre of Portuguese trade in the region (p. 244-253).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: In the 1500s Upper Guinea was split into two districts, the 'Sierra Leone' and 'Rivers of Guinea' with the region of Guinea Bissau falling into the latter. In 1637, the contract of Cape Verde-Guinea was tied to three clauses that gives insight into the regional administration, from Santiago at least 12 ships in a four year period must be sent to the coast, prohibitions on certain items being sold to the natives (Primarily weapons), and guaranteeing settlers free trade on the mainland, along with enough slaves being imported for their own use (p. 243, 244). Santiago's importance in the 1600s was reflected in the custom of all ships heading to and from the mainland, stopping and paying duties at Santiago. Santiago stopped ships from Spain and the Canaries going to the mainland, and heading to the Spanish Indies and not paying duties, in 1608 and 1615 Cape Verdeans petitioned to further enforce the Santiago rule that was being ignored, Portugal in 1619 reaffirmed the earlier decree of that ships must go through Santiago but was ineffective. After 1640 the Portuguese fought European encroachment in the region of Cape Verde-Guinea Bissau, in the form of commercial attacks in Cacheu. Portugal had to re-establish monopoly in the region, that had been weakened during the Iberian Union (p. 254-261).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The main centres of Portuguese activity after the Iberian Unions collapse in 1640 was Bissau and Cacheu (p. 260). An independent Portugal tried to counter Spain's influence, King João IV decreed Cape Verde-Guinea Bissau could not trade with Spain, Spanish vessels had to go through the Portuguese authorities, and Spanish ships were embargoed in the ports. These impositions on Spanish vessels were precursors to Portuguese conflicts with the natives and Lançados. From 1580-1640 the Spanish were key traders in the region, so Portuguese legislation against Spain effected the natives and pro-Spanish Lançados (p. 261, 262).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Moreover, in 1641 settler in Bissau, Guinala, Geba, and Cacheu swore allegiance to the Portuguese King and aired grievances stemming from Spanish refusal to trade because of the embargo, further grieved by the 1639 to 1641 famines caused by locust attacks. Spanish trade resumed in 1641, welcomed by the Lançados and Manjak chiefs at Cacheu. The Manjaks who controlled the Cacheu port, viewed European merchandise as necessities, the Spanish not trading caused the Manjaks to threaten the white settlers of Cacheu with death if Captain-Major Luis de Magalhães did not allow free trade (p. 263). The settlement at Cacheu was not allowed a water supply leaving the supply of water in Manjak hands, if cut off then trouble would ensue, additionally the famine of 1639-1641 wiped out the slave population in charge of defending the settlement, these and the fact Manjaks surrounded the ports once a ship was spotted to facilitate free trade, pushed Captain-Major Luis de Magalhães to life the embargo and allow free trade against the wishes of the authorities. Free trade in the region between the Spanish, Bissau, Geba, and Cacheu continued regardless of the Portuguese ban, through the facilitation of the Lançados and Manjak, Papel, and Biafada chiefs (p. 263-265).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The position of Captain-Major was decided by the Conselho Ultramarino, and in 1641 Luis de Magalhães stepped down and was replaced with Gonçalo de Gamboa de Ayala, and Paulo Barradas da Silva was made treasurer. The Portuguese goal was to turn the fort of Cacheu to a fortress of stone, for better protection against European and the natives. Ayala won over the local King of Mata, Chief of Mompatas, Chief of Baorilla, and stopped Spanish ships at Cacheu. The peaceful approach taken was questioned after negotiations with the King Equendé of Bissau, two Spanish ships entered Bissau and were afforded full protection, Ayala for the first time pushed for violent repercussions against the King of Bissau though nothing came of it. Another problem was getting the Lançados under control, he was successfully through resettling the settlers of the infamous settlement of Geba, to the settlement of Farim north of Cacheu taking back control of the rivers estuary, and counter illegal commerce in the region (p. 266-271). Successful as these attempts were at monopolising control in the region, the British, French, and Dutch were still making profits off the Portuguese and native traders (p. 277). Free trade was difficult for the Portuguese to deal with, as the economic interests of the native leaders and Lançados never fully aligned with the Portuguese.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The slave trade in the region was not as prominent as it was in other regions, however, still Guinea Bissau was a significant region in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade (p. 186). Slaves at the start were mainly sent to Cape Verde and the Iberian Peninsula, moreover, the Madeira and Canary Islands saw an influx of Bissau Guinean slaves at lower volumes (p. 187). From 1580 to 1640 slaves from Guinea-Bissau were destined for the Spanish Indies (p. 278). There were five main ways slaves were made, as punishment for law breaking, selling themselves or relatives during famines, kidnapped by native marauders or European raiders, previously a slave sold to Europeans by a previous master, or as prisoners of war (p. 198, 199, 210, 211, 216). Europeans rarely risked slave raiding, the selling of themselves into slavery was most rare, and commonly slaves were bought by Europeans from local rulers or traders (p. 199, 200).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The diverse number of ethnicities made the slave trade common in the region, wars produced prisoners that could be sold off, however, most wars were waged for the sole purpose of capturing slaves (p. 204). The Bijagos mirrored the latter reason, staging coastal raids to capture slaves, the victims of the Bijagos were the Biafadas, Papels, Jolas, and Balantas (p. 204). The Papels slave raided the Balantas, Biafadas, and Bijagos with the direct assistance of the Lançados (p. 209). The Mandinka had great political and military power in the region, in the form of Kaabu Empire, slave raided the coastal groups (p. 219-221). The Biafadas were singled out for the amount of criminals sold to Europeans, neighbouring groups accused them of introducing slavery (p. 217). The Balantas and Jolas did not slave raid and were hostile towards it (p. 208, 217). In the Jolas case Mandinka slave raiders from Gambia travelled sailed south capturing them, later on Jolas would become prepared for this and in turn captured Mandinkas (p. 208). The Bijagos were too far from the mainland, coupled with their ferocious nature, proclivity to commit suicide, stage rebellions on ships, and tendency to escape plantations meant the Europeans did not favour them as slaves unless as children (p. 218). The inter-ethnic wars were noted to never be about territorial gain or political dominance, and only rarely happened because of any real animosity (p. 208). The incentive of European goods fuelled these wars, that European observers from the time deemed little more than robberies and man-hunts (p. 209). Slave raiding in this way started to take the form of a profession, individuals would wholly dedicate themselves to the act of capturing slaves for profit, the heir of the throne of the Kingdom of Bissau in the 1600s was himself a professional slave raider (p. 210).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The slave trade and class divisions were intertwined in the region, victims of the slave trade were mostly of the lower class, the laws that could get individuals enslaved were created and implemented by nobles and king, this was summarised by Mateo de Anguiano:


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: "the rich and powerful enjoy the privilege of making captives, because there is nobody to resist them. They (the nobles) look upon so many persons with dislike, and when they feel so inclined, they easily exercise their privilege, because their own interests are not harmed by their greed. The king proceeds with the same licence." (p. 228).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: If captured nobles were likely to be released, as the captors would be paid a ransom for them, even the Bijagos were willing to offer back captured nobles for a price, and this practice continued until the end of the 18th century, where captured nobles would be released on payment of a ransom (p. 229). This practice of nobles escaping slavery even carried over to the Europeans, when nobles were captured they were usually released once their nobility was discovered (p. 230). The relationship between kings and European traders was one of partnership and cooperation, with the two regularly making deals on how the trade was to be conducted, who was to be enslaved and who was not, and the prices of the slaves (p. 230, 233, 234). It was noted by Fernão Guerreiro and Mateo de Anguiano when they questioned multiple kings on their part in the slave trade, they recognised the trade as evil but reasoned that they did it because the Europeans would buy no other goods from them (p. 234). The trade would carry on until the 19th century when it was abolished.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Kaabu, part of the Mali Empire in the 16th century. Parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century. Other parts of the territory in the current country were considered by the Portuguese as part of their empire. Portuguese Guinea was known as the Slave Coast, as it was a major area for the exportation of African slaves by Europeans to the western hemisphere.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Early reports of Europeans reaching this area include those of the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto's voyage of 1455, the 1479–1480 voyage by Flemish-French trader Eustache de la Fosse, and Diogo Cão. In the 1480s this Portuguese explorer reached the Congo River and the lands of Bakongo, setting up the foundations of modern Angola, some 4200 km down the African coast from Guinea-Bissau.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Although the rivers and coast of this area were among the first places colonized by the Portuguese, who set up trading posts in the 16th century, they did not explore the interior until the 19th century. The local African rulers in Guinea, some of whom prospered greatly from the slave trade, controlled the inland trade and did not allow the Europeans into the interior. They kept them in the fortified coastal settlements where the trading took place. African communities that fought back against slave traders also distrusted European adventurers and would-be settlers. The Portuguese in Guinea were largely restricted to the ports of Bissau and Cacheu. A small number of European settlers established isolated farms along Bissau's inland rivers.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a rival foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama. But by the 19th century the Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as their own special territory.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: An armed rebellion, begun in 1956 by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral gradually consolidated its hold on the then Portuguese Guinea. Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended its military control over large portions of the territory, aided by the jungle-like terrain, its easily reached borderlines with neighbouring allies, and large quantities of arms from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and left-leaning African countries. Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors, and technicians. The PAIGC even managed to acquire a significant anti-aircraft capability in order to defend itself against aerial attack. By 1973, the PAIGC was in control of many parts of Guinea, although the movement suffered a setback in January 1973 when Cabral was assassinated.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Independence was unilaterally declared on 24 September 1973, which is now celebrated as the country's Independence Day, a public holiday. Recognition became universal following 25 April 1974 socialist-inspired military coup in Portugal, which overthrew Lisbon's Estado Novo regime. Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania was the first country to formally recognise Guinea-Bissau and the first to sign agreements with the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: That same time upon independence, "Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada", the national anthem of Guinea-Bissau, was shared alongside Cape Verde, which later adopted its own official national anthem "Cântico da Liberdade" in 1996, separating it.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Luís Cabral, brother of Amílcar and co-founder of PAIGC, was appointed the first president of Guinea-Bissau. Independence had begun under the best of auspices. The Bissau-Guinean diaspora had returned to the country en masse. A system of access to school for all had been created. Books were free and schools seemed to have a sufficient number of teachers. The education of girls, previously neglected, was encouraged and a new school calendar, more adapted to the rural world, was adopted. In 1980, economic conditions deteriorated significantly, leading to general discontent with the government in power. On 14 November 1980, João Bernardo Vieira, known as "Nino Vieira," overthrew President Luís Cabral. The constitution was suspended and a nine-member military council of the revolution, chaired by Vieira, was established. Since then, the country has moved toward a liberal economy. Budget cuts have been made at the expense of the social sector and education.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984. The first multi-party elections were held in 1994. An army uprising in May 1998 led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War and the president's ousting in June 1999. Elections were held again in 2000, and Kumba Ialá was elected president.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: In September 2003, a military coup was conducted. The military arrested Ialá on the charge of being "unable to solve the problems". After being delayed several times, legislative elections were held in March 2004. A mutiny in October 2004 over pay arrears resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: In June 2005, presidential elections were held for the first time since the coup that deposed Ialá. Ialá returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate president of the country, but the election was won by former president João Bernardo Vieira, deposed in the 1999 coup. Vieira beat Malam Bacai Sanhá in a run-off election. Sanhá initially refused to concede, claiming that tampering and electoral fraud occurred in two constituencies including the capital, Bissau.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Despite reports of arms entering the country prior to the election and some "disturbances during campaigning", including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen, foreign election monitors described the 2005 election overall as "calm and organized".


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Three years later, PAIGC won a strong parliamentary majority, with 67 of 100 seats, in the parliamentary election held in November 2008. In November 2008, President Vieira's official residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard but leaving the president unharmed.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: On 2 March 2009, however, Vieira was assassinated by what preliminary reports indicated to be a group of soldiers avenging the death of the head of joint chiefs of staff, General Batista Tagme Na Wai, who had been killed in an explosion the day before. Vieira's death did not trigger widespread violence, but there were signs of turmoil in the country, according to the advocacy group Swisspeace. Military leaders in the country pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession. National Assembly Speaker Raimundo Pereira was appointed as an interim president until a nationwide election on 28 June 2009. It was won by Malam Bacai Sanhá of the PAIGC, against Kumba Ialá as the presidential candidate of the PRS.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: On 9 January 2012, President Sanhá died of complications from diabetes, and Pereira was again appointed as an interim president. On the evening of 12 April 2012, members of the country's military staged a "coup d'état" and arrested the interim president and a leading presidential candidate. Former vice chief of staff, General Mamadu Ture Kuruma, assumed control of the country in the transitional period and started negotiations with opposition parties.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: José Mário Vaz was the President of Guinea-Bissau from 2014 until 2019 presidential elections. At the end of his term, Vaz became the first elected president to complete his five-year mandate. He lost the 2019 election, however, to Umaro Sissoco Embaló, who took office in February 2020. Embaló is the first president to be elected without the backing of the PAIGC.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: On 1 February 2022, there was an attempted coup d'état to overthrow President Umaro Sissoco Embaló. On 2 February 2022, state radio announced that four assailants and two members of the presidential guard had been killed in the incident. The African Union and ECOWAS both condemned the coup. Six days after the attempted coup d'état, on 7 February 2022, there was an attack on the building of Rádio Capital FM, a radio station critical of the Bissau-Guinean government; this was the second time the radio station suffered an attack of this nature in less than two years. A journalist working for the station recalled, while wishing to stay anonymous, that one of their colleagues had recognized one of the cars carrying the attackers as belonging to the presidency.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau is a republic.<ref name="Guinea-Bissau 09/03"></ref> In the past, the government had been highly centralized. Multi-party governance was not established until mid-1991. The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. From independence in 1974, until Jose Mario Vaz ended his five-year term as president on 24 June 2019, no president successfully served a full five-year term.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: At the legislative level, a unicameral "Assembleia Nacional Popular" (National People's Assembly) is made up of 100 members. They are popularly elected from multi-member constituencies to serve a four-year term. The judicial system is headed by a "Tribunal Supremo da Justiça" (Supreme Court), made up of nine justices appointed by the president; they serve at the pleasure of the president.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The two main political parties are the PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) and the PRS (Party for Social Renewal). There are more than 20 minor parties.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, and international organisation and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: A 2019 estimate put the size of the Guinea-Bissau Armed Forces at around 4,400 personnel and military spending is less than 2% of GDP .


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau is divided into eight regions () and one autonomous sector (). These, in turn, are subdivided into 37 Sectors. The regions are:


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau is bordered by Senegal to the north and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west. It lies mostly between latitudes 11° and 13°N (a small area is south of 11°), and longitudes 11° and 15°W.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The highest point is Monte Torin with an elevation of . Its terrain is mostly low coastal plains with swamps of the Guinean mangroves rising to the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic in the east. Its monsoon-like rainy season alternates with periods of hot, dry harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara. The Bijagos Archipelago lies off of the mainland. The country is home to two ecoregions: Guinean forest-savanna mosaic and Guinean mangroves.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau is warm all year round with mild temperature fluctuations; it averages . The average rainfall for Bissau is , although this is almost entirely accounted for during the rainy season which falls between June and September/October. From December through April, the country experiences drought.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Severe environmental problems include deforestation, soil erosion, overgrazing, and overfishing. Guinea-Bissau had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.7/10, ranking it 97th globally out of 172 countries.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau's GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and its Human Development Index is one of the lowest on earth. More than two-thirds of the population lives below the poverty line. The economy depends mainly on agriculture; fish, cashew nuts, and ground nuts are its major exports.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: A long period of political instability has resulted in depressed economic activity, deteriorating social conditions, and increased macroeconomic imbalances. It takes longer on average to register a new business in Guinea-Bissau (233 days or about 33 weeks) than in any other country in the world except Suriname.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau has started to show some economic advances after a pact of stability was signed by the main political parties of the country, leading to an IMF-backed structural reform program.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: After several years of economic downturn and political instability, in 1997, Guinea-Bissau entered the CFA franc monetary system, bringing about some internal monetary stability. The civil war that took place in 1998 and 1999, and a military coup in September 2003 again disrupted economic activity, leaving a substantial part of the economic and social infrastructure in ruins and intensifying the already widespread poverty. Following the parliamentary elections in March 2004 and presidential elections in July 2005, the country is trying to recover from the long period of instability, despite a still-fragile political situation.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Beginning around 2005, drug traffickers based in Latin America began to use Guinea-Bissau, along with several neighbouring West African nations, as a transshipment point to Europe for cocaine. The nation was described by a United Nations official as being at risk for becoming a "narco-state". The government and the military have done little to stop drug trafficking, which increased after the 2012 coup d'état.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The government of Guinea-Bissau continues to be ravaged by illegal drug distribution, according to The Week magazine.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Guinea-Bissau is a member of the Organisation for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: According to , Guinea-Bissau's population was in , compared to 518,000 in 1950. The proportion of the population below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.3%, 55.4% were aged between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% were aged 65 years or older.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The population of Guinea-Bissau is ethnically diverse and has many distinct languages, customs, and social structures.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Portuguese natives are a very small percentage of Bissau-Guineans. After Guinea-Bissau gained independence, most of the Portuguese nationals left the country. The country has a tiny Chinese population. These include traders and merchants of mixed Portuguese and Cantonese ancestry from the former Asian Portuguese colony of Macau.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Though a small country, Guinea-Bissau has several ethnic groups which are very distinct from each other, with their own cultures and languages. This is due to Guinea-Bissau being a refugee and migration territory within Africa. Colonisation and racial intermixing brought Portuguese and the Portuguese creole known as Kriol or "crioulo".


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The sole official language of Guinea-Bissau since independence, Standard Portuguese is spoken mostly as a second language, with few native speakers and its use is often confined to the intellectual and political elites. It is the language of government and national communication as a legacy of colonial rule. Schooling from the primary to tertiary levels is conducted in Portuguese, although only 67% of children have access to any formal education. Data suggests that the number of Portuguese speakers ranges from 11 to 15%. In the latest census (2009) 27.1% of the population claimed to speak non-creole Portuguese (46.3% of city dwellers and 14.7% of the rural population, respectively). Portuguese creole is spoken by 44% of the population and is effectively the lingua franca among distinct groups for most of the population. Creole's usage is still expanding, and it is understood by the vast majority of the population. However, decreolisation processes are occurring, due to undergoing interference from Standard Portuguese and the creole forms a continuum of varieties with the standard language, the most distant are basilects and the closer ones, acrolects. A post-creole continuum exists in Guinea-Bissau and crioulo 'leve' ('soft' creole) variety being closer to the Portuguese-language norm.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The remaining rural population speaks a variety of native African languages unique to each ethnicity: Fula (16%), Balanta (14%), Mandinka (7%), Manjak (5%), Papel (3%), Felupe (1%), Beafada (0.7%), Bijagó (0.3%), and Nalu (0.1%), which form the ethnic African languages spoken by the population. Most Portuguese and Mestiços speakers also have one of the African languages and Kriol as additional languages. Ethnic African languages are not discouraged, in any situation, despite their lower prestige. These languages are the link between individuals of the same ethnic background and daily used in villages, between neighbours or friends, traditional and religious ceremonies, and also used in contact between the urban and rural populations. However, none of these languages are dominant in Guinea-Bissau.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: French is taught as a foreign language in schools, because Guinea-Bissau is surrounded by French-speaking nations. Guinea-Bissau is a full member of the Francophonie.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Various studies suggest that slightly less than half of the population of Guinea-Bissau is Muslim, while substantial minorities follow folk religions or Christianity. The CIA World Factbook's 2020 estimate stated that the population was 46.1% Muslim, 30.6% following folk religions, 18.9% Christian, 4.4% other or unaffiliated. In 2010, a Pew Research survey determined that the population was 45.1% Muslim and 19.7% Christian, with 30.9% practicing folk religion and 4.3 other faiths. A 2015 Pew-Templeton study found that the population was 45.1% Muslim, 30.9% practicing folk religions, 19.7% Christian, and 4.3% unaffiliated. The ARDA projected in 2020 the share of the Muslim population to be 44.7%. It also estimated 41.2% of the population to be practitioners of ethnic religions and 13% to be Christians.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Concerning religious identity among Muslims, a Pew report determined that in Guinea-Bissau there is no prevailing sectarian identity. Guinea-Bissau shared this distinction with other Sub-Saharan countries like Tanzania, Uganda, Liberia, Nigeria and Cameroon. This Pew research also stated that countries in this specific study that declared to not have any clear dominant sectarian identity were mostly concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa. Another Pew report, "The Future of World Religions", predicts that from 2010 to 2050, practitioners of Islam will increase their share of the population in Guinea-Bissau.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Many residents practice syncretic forms of Islamic and Christian faiths, combining their practices with traditional African beliefs. Muslims dominate the north and east, while Christians dominate the south and coastal regions. The Roman Catholic Church claims most of the Christian community.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The 2021 US Department of State Report on International Religious Freedom mentions the fact that leaders of different religious communities believe that the existing communities are essentially tolerant, but express some concerns about rising religious fundamentalism in the country. An incident in July 2022, when a Catholic Church in the overwhelmingly Muslim region of Gabú was vandalised, raised concern amongst the Christian community that Islamic extremism might be infiltrating the country. However, there have been no further similar incidents, and no direct links to Islamic extremists have surfaced.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Education is compulsory from the age of 7 to 13. Pre-school education for children between three and six years of age is optional and in its early stages. There are five levels of education: pre-school, elemental and complementary basic education, general and complementary secondary education, general secondary education, technical and professional teaching, and higher education (university and non-universities). Basic education is under reform, and now forms a single cycle, comprising six years of education. Secondary education is widely available and there are two cycles (7th to 9th "classe" and 10th to 11th "classe"). Professional education in public institutions is nonoperational, however private school offerings opened, including the "Centro de Formação São João Bosco" (since 2004) and the "Centro de Formação Luís Inácio Lula da Silva" (since 2011).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Higher education is limited and most prefer to be educated abroad, with students preferring to enroll in Portugal. A number of universities, to which an institutionally autonomous Faculty of Law as well as a Faculty of Medicine that is maintained by Cuba and functions in different cities.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Child labor is very common. The enrollment of boys is higher than that of girls. In 1998, the gross primary enrollment rate was 53.5%, with higher enrollment ratio for males (67.7%) compared to females (40%).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Non-formal education is centered on community schools and the teaching of adults. In 2011, the literacy rate was estimated at 55.3% (68.9% male, and 42.1% female).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Usually, the many different ethnic groups in Guinea-Bissau coexist peacefully, but when conflicts do erupt, they tend to revolve around access to land.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The music of Guinea-Bissau is usually associated with the polyrhythmic gumbe genre, the country's primary musical export. However, civil unrest and other factors have combined over the years to keep gumbe, and other genres, out of mainstream audiences, even in generally syncretist African countries.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The cabasa is the primary musical instrument of Guinea-Bissau, and is used in extremely swift and rhythmically complex dance music. Lyrics are almost always in Guinea-Bissau Creole, a Portuguese-based creole language, and are often humorous and topical, revolving around current events and controversies.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: The word "gumbe" is sometimes used generically, to refer to any music of the country, although it most specifically refers to a unique style that fuses about ten of the country's folk music traditions. Tina and tinga are other popular genres, while extent folk traditions include ceremonial music used in funerals, initiations, and other rituals, as well as Balanta brosca and kussundé, Mandinga djambadon, and the kundere sound of the Bissagos Islands.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Common dishes include soups and stews. Common ingredients include yams, sweet potato, cassava, onion, tomato, and plantain. Spices, peppers, and chilis are used in cooking, including Aframomum melegueta seeds (Guinea pepper).


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Flora Gomes is an internationally renowned film director; his most famous film is "Nha Fala" (). Gomes's "Mortu Nega" ("Death Denied") (1988) was the first fiction film and the second feature film ever made in Guinea-Bissau. (The first feature film was "N’tturudu", by director in 1987.) At FESPACO 1989, "Mortu Nega" won the prestigious Oumarou Ganda Prize. In 1992, Gomes directed "Udju Azul di Yonta", which was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival. Gomes has also served on the boards of many Africa-centric film festivals. The actress Babetida Sadjo was born in Bafatá, Guinea-Bissau.


title: Guinea-Bissau

text: Football is the most popular sport in Guinea-Bissau. The Guinea-Bissau national football team is controlled by the Federação de Futebol da Guiné-Bissau. They are a member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and FIFA.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord (, Afrikaans for "The Answer") is a South African alternative hip hop group formed in Cape Town in 2008.


title: Die Antwoord

text: The group comprises rappers Watkin Tudor "Ninja" Jones and Anri "Yolandi Visser" du Toit, a male/female duo, and producers HITEK5000 and Lil2Hood. Their image revolves around the South African counterculture movement known as "zef" and has incorporated work by other artists associated with the movement, such as photographer Roger Ballen.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord has had mainstream success worldwide. Their albums and singles have charted in the top 50—if not top 10—in countries in Europe and North America, and also Australia. Their music has been featured on best-selling video games in the "Far Cry" franchise as well. One of their earliest songs, "Enter the Ninja", did well in Australia and the UK, while later songs like "Pitbull Terrier" and "Ugly Boy" did well in the US. Their 2016 album peaked at a higher chart position in nearly every country than their previous 2014 album.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In recent years, the group has been involved in many controversies, including accusations of child abuse, sexual assault, and hate crimes. Proof for some of these allegations have yet to be obtained.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord's male vocalist, Watkin Tudor "Ninja" Jones, was part of the South African music scene for many years, fronting acts such as The Original Evergreen, MaxNormal.TV and The Constructus Corporation. Their debut album "$O$" relates to their earlier work, specifically "Good Morning South Africa". In the album, multiple tracks are sampled from, or are exact copies of songs on "Good Morning South Africa", such as the "Rap Rave Megamix" (where the first glimpses of Jones's Ninja character was seen) were later reformed into the "Zef Side" video, featuring a few verses from "Beat Boy". Ninja told "Rolling Stone", "Everything I did before Die Antwoord was me experimenting, messing around and trying to find "Die Antwoord" . . . everything before it was disposable. It was all throwaway."


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord observed that journalists and critics, particularly in the United States, frequently ask if their creative output is a joke or a hoax. When asked if he was playing a character, Ninja said, "Ninja is, how can I say, like Superman is to Clark Kent. The only difference is I don't take off this fokken Superman suit." They have described their work as "documentary fiction" and "exaggerated experience" designed for shock value. Ninja told "Spin":


title: Die Antwoord

text: People are unconscious, and you have to use your art as a shock machine to wake them up. Some people are too far gone. They'll just keep asking, "Is it real? Is it real?" That's dwanky. That's a word we have in South Africa, "dwanky." It's like lame. "Is it real?" You have to be futuristic and carry on. You gotta be a good guide to help people get away from dull experience.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord is known for their cult following, in particular the unusually prolific creation of fan art by their followers.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord's musical and visual style incorporates elements of a "zef" culture, described as modern and trashy, appropriating out-of-date, discarded cultural elements. Yo-Landi said, "It's associated with people who soup their cars up and rock gold and shit. Zef is, you're poor but you're fancy. You're poor but you're sexy, you've got style." Their lyrics are performed in Afrikaans and English.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord formed in 2008. Their name is Afrikaans for "The Answer" Their debut album "$O$" was made available as a free download on their official website. A song from the album, "Wie Maak die Jol Vol" features Cape Flats rappers Garlic Brown (aka Knoffel Bruin), Scallywag, Isaac Mutant, and Jaak Paarl. "Wat Pomp?" features South African rapper Jack Parow. He is also featured in "Doos Dronk" along with Fokofpolisiekar. The album cover was shot by photographer Clayton James Cubitt.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In 2009 South African cinematographer Rob Malpage (along with co-director Ninja) shot the video for their single "Enter the Ninja". The song incorporates elements of Smile.dk's song Butterfly, famous for appearing in the Dance Dance Revolution series. The video features Cape Town artist and turntablist Leon Botha. The video received millions of views online nine months later, which featured on a number of high-traffic blog sites, most notably BoingBoing. This forced them to move their website to a US-based hosting provider to handle the traffic.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Following the success of the video, Die Antwoord signed a record deal with Interscope Records. In April 2010, they performed their first international concert at the Coachella Music Festival, in front of 40,000 people. They then toured internationally in support of "$O$".


title: Die Antwoord

text: The EP "5" was the first official release by Die Antwoord on a major record label, Cherrytree Records (an imprint of Interscope Records). The EP features some previously released material, as well as one new track and a remix. "Fish Paste" was released as a promotional single. Pitchfork Media made the entire EP available to stream on 12 June 2010.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Shortly after, they joined the 2011 Big Day Out circuit which took them to New Zealand and Australia, sharing back-to-back sold-out sideshows with M.I.A. At the end of 2010, Die Antwoord won the Myspace Best Music Video of 2010 award for their debut video, "Enter the Ninja".


title: Die Antwoord

text: In November 2011, Die Antwoord left Interscope Records over a dispute concerning their upcoming album and its lead single, "Fok Julle Naaiers". Visser explained that Interscope "kept pushing us to be more generic" in order to make more money: "If you try to make songs that other people like, your band will always be shit. You always gotta do what you like. If it connects, it's a miracle, but it happened with Die Antwoord." Die Antwoord formed their own independent label, Zef Recordz, and released their new album "Ten$Ion" through it.


title: Die Antwoord

text: The release was in association with the Good Smile Company and Downtown Records, which handled the marketing and distribution for the record worldwide. "Ten$Ion" included three more singles following "Fok Julle Naaiers": "I Fink U Freeky", "Baby's on Fire", and "Fatty Boom Boom". The singles included on "Ten$Ion" began to bring Die Antwoord more into the global spotlight as they were invited to perform on American talk shows and featured in an Alexander Wang advertisement. However, the album was met with average to poor reviews by many critics.


title: Die Antwoord

text: "Ten$Ion" was followed up with a non-album single, "XP€N$IV $H1T", as well as a remix of Mims' song This Is Why I'm Hot, "Diz Iz Why I'm Hot".


title: Die Antwoord

text: Following the release of "XP€N$IV $H1T", Die Antwoord set out on a brief tour across Europe from June to July. Soon after they began touring, snippets for a new single called "Cookie Thumper!", which was to be accompanied by a music video, were released. Around the release of their new single, Die Antwoord also announced the title of their third album, "Donker Mag", which was released on 3 June 2014.


title: Die Antwoord

text: The video for "Cookie Thumper!" was released on 18 June 2014 on Noisey's YouTube channel. The video has over 37 million views as of February 2019. On 20 May 2014, "Pitbull Terrier", the second music video from "Donker Mag", was released on Die Antwoord's YouTube channel. The video has over 49 million views as of December 2019. The third and final single "Ugly Boy" was released on 4 November 2014.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In February 2015, Die Antwoord announced that they had started work on new material with DJ Muggs of Cypress Hill. On 19 May 2016 the duo released a mixtape titled "Suck on This" on SoundCloud. The mixtape features productions from DJ Muggs (known on the album as The Black Goat) and God (formerly known as DJ Hi-Tek, the producer of the group). The track list includes the previously released "Dazed and Confused" and "Bum Bum" as well as "Gucci Coochie," a collaboration with Dita Von Teese. A teaser for the song's video was released on 18 May 2016. However, the music video was never released as of February 2019, and is presumed to be scrapped.


title: Die Antwoord

text: The mixtape also includes remixes for some of the group's previous songs including "I Fink You Freeky," "Fok Julle Naaiers," and "Pitbull Terrier." On 22 July 2016, it was announced that the album would be titled "Mount Ninji and da Nice Time Kid," originally called "We Have Candy". The album was released on 16 September 2016.


title: Die Antwoord

text: The first video from the album, "Banana Brain", was released on 31 August 2016. It has accumulated over 21 million views as of January 2017. The second video from the album, "Fat Faded Fuck Face", was released on Vimeo rather than on YouTube, due to its adult content, on 16 December 2016. The video has over 1.2 million views as of January 2018.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In early 2017, Die Antwoord announced via social media networks that they are to release their final album, titled "The Book of Zef", in September 2017 and disband immediately after. Later the band revealed that the name was changed to "27". The first single, "Love Drug", was released on 5 May 2017. A second single "2•GOLDEN DAWN•7" was released on 22 June 2018.


title: Die Antwoord

text: On 3 May 2019, Die Antwoord released the single "DntTakeMe4aPoes." The song features South African rapper G Boy. A second video published on the same day revealed that the title of the upcoming album would be "House of Zef", and that it would feature several amateur guest rappers from South Africa.


title: Die Antwoord

text: A US tour was announced for late 2019. However, an unlisted video on Die Antwoord's channel revealed it was postponed to 2020 to finish the album as well as other projects.


title: Die Antwoord

text: The second single, "Baita Jou Sabela" was released on 30 November 2019, featuring South African rapper Slagysta.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In an interview with "Exclaim!" magazine in 2010, the group revealed they have a five album plan. According to Ninja, "We'll be dropping films between each of the albums, feature films... We have one we're working on for next year called The Answer. It's like the story of how Die Antwoord started. But that's like, our power, and where our energy is at right now." They have filmed a short film with American filmmaker Harmony Korine. The short film premiered at SXSW as "Umshini Wam" (in reference to the Zulu "struggle" song "Umshini wami") and features "furry costumes, wheelchairs, a music video breakdown, and plenty of zef slang." The film is available online.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In 2014, it was revealed that Die Antwoord would appear in the Neill Blomkamp film "Chappie". In an interview, Ninja states that "Neill is, like, our favorite director, so when he asked us to be in "Chappie", it was like a complete freak-out". In the film, Die Antwoord star as two gangsters (also named Ninja and Yolandi) who act like the parents of Chappie, a sentient robot, and teach him how to be a gangster. The film was released on 4 March 2015.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In 2019, Die Antwoord started releasing an online reality web series called ZEF TV. There are currently 8 episodes which make up the first season. Later that year, it was revealed that they would be releasing a documentary called "IS IT REAL?" that had been in the works for 10 years, as well as a feature film called "THE FLOWER FROM THE OUTSIDE WORLD."


title: Die Antwoord

text: In a teaser video for the "Ten$ion" album, a character that resembles Jane Alexander's the Butcher Boys was featured. Due to a copyright claim, the video was removed.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Anton Kannemeyer's "Black Gynecologist" was inspiration for the "Fatty Boom Boom" music video scene, in which a Parktown prawn is removed from Lady Gaga.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Several of Die Antwoord's songs have been featured in the open-world action video games "Far Cry 3" and "Far Cry New Dawn", "I Fink U Freeky", "Fatty Boom Boom", "Cookie Thumper" and "Shit Just Got Real".


title: Die Antwoord

text: On 18 March 2019, Australian musician Zheani Sparkes released a diss track titled "The Question" accusing Jones of sexually assaulting her in South Africa in 2013. According to Sparkes, Jones drugged her and trafficked her to Africa, as well as sending explicit photos of her to cast members of "Chappie". She also said he was interested in her because of her resemblance to his daughter Sixteen, who was 8 years old at the time of the alleged assault. Text messages shown in the music video for the track allegedly show Jones attempting to engage in incest fantasies with Sparkes. Sparkes later clarified during an interview that her labeling of Jones as a pedophile was more pejorative than a serious accusation.


title: Die Antwoord

text: A conflict between Die Antwoord and Sparkes ensued on social media afterwards, where Jones accused Sparkes of catfishing him. In September 2019, Sparkes filed a police report in Queensland, Australia formalizing her accusations of sexual assault and revenge porn.


title: Die Antwoord

text: American singer Dionna Dal Monte also accused Jones of sexual assault. Dal Monte asserts the assault occurred at a Die Antwoord show in Padova in 2014.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In a June 2022 interview, American rapper Danny Brown alleged that Jones sat on his lap and forcibly kissed him on the neck at an afterparty in Paris, France.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In 2019, a video from 2012 surfaced, showing Jones and du Toit fighting Hercules and Love Affair founder Andy Butler, who is gay, and calling him homophobic slurs such as "faggot". After fighting him, du Toit and Jones alert security staff, and, while crying, du Toit claims she was sexually assaulted in a bathroom by Butler. Later on in the video, Jones tells du Toit that her performance was "Oscar-winning".


title: Die Antwoord

text: Jones responded on Facebook, claiming that the former photographer and videographer for the group, Ben Jay Crossman, who filmed the video, edited it to make it seem like he and du Toit were in the wrong. He claimed that Butler harassed them in the days leading up to the fight. Jones also claimed that he told du Toit to act as "dramatic as possible" about what Butler did to avoid getting detained by security after the fight.


title: Die Antwoord

text: In April 2022, Gabriel "Tokkie" du Preez alleged that Jones and du Toit had emotionally, physically and sexually abused him, as well as other minors. In 2010, Jones and du Toit first met du Preez, then age nine, at his school in Vrededorp. In 2013, his mother entered into a foster arrangement with Jones and du Toit, and in the subsequent years du Preez appeared as an actor in various live shows and videos.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Die Antwoord's agent Scumeck Sabottka, of MCT-Agentur in Berlin, released a statement denying the allegations, saying "Die Antwoord don't agree with Tokkie's statements."


title: Die Antwoord

text: "City Press" / "News24" reported that six of the cast and crew of Neill Blomkamp's 2015 Hollywood film, "Chappie", confirmed under condition of anonymity that first time actor Watkin Jones "made life on set hell during filming".


title: Die Antwoord

text: Roger Ballen is a frequent collaborator of Die Antwoord, who claim their artwork is heavily inspired by his photography. Ballen helped design the set for their music video "Enter the Ninja". Ballen co-directed the "I Fink You Freeky" music video. The Erdmann Contemporary Photographers Gallery in Cape Town featured some works of Ballen from the video.


title: Die Antwoord

text: Bitter Comix's creator Anton Kannemeyer released some work featuring Die Antwoord in 2011. He described the song "Doos Dronk" with the words "if ever there were a song that sounded like Bitter Comix, this is it."


title: Die Antwoord

text: House of Zef features several South African rappers, who were included to bring a spotlight onto them.


title: Kate Capshaw

text: Kathleen Sue Spielberg ("née" Nail; born November 3, 1953), known professionally as Kate Capshaw, is an American retired actress. She is best known for her portrayal of Willie Scott, an American nightclub singer and performer in "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom" (1984), directed by eventual husband Steven Spielberg. Since then, she starred in "Dreamscape" (1984), "Power" (1986), "SpaceCamp" (1986), "Black Rain" (1989), "Love Affair" (1994), "Just Cause" (1995), and "The Love Letter" (1999). Her portraiture work has been shown in the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery.


title: Kate Capshaw

text: Capshaw was born Kathleen Sue Nail in Fort Worth, Texas, the daughter of Beverley Sue (née Simon), a travel agent and beautician, and Edwin Leon Nail, an airline employee. She moved to St. Louis, Missouri, at the age of five, and graduated from Hazelwood Senior High School in 1972. Capshaw earned a degree in education from the University of Missouri, where she was a member of Alpha Delta Pi. She taught Special Education at Southern Boone High School in Ashland, Missouri, and Rock Bridge High School in Columbia, Missouri.


title: Kate Capshaw

text: She married marketing manager Robert Capshaw in January 1976 and they had one child, Jessica Capshaw, before eventually divorcing in 1980. However, she kept the surname Capshaw, which she used for her professional name upon becoming an actress.


title: Kate Capshaw

text: Capshaw moved to New York City to pursue her dream of acting, landing her first role on the soap opera "The Edge of Night". After auditioning for a small role in "A Little Sex", she was offered the role of the leading lady, which is when she asked for a dismissal from "The Edge of Night". She starred in "Dreamscape" in 1984, and afterwards was directed by her then-boyfriend Armyan Bernstein in "Windy City".


title: Kate Capshaw

text: She met film director and future husband Steven Spielberg upon winning the female lead as Willie Scott in "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom" (1984), a prequel to Spielberg's "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981). Capshaw starred opposite Harrison Ford, who played Indiana Jones. In addition, she appeared as Andie Bergstrom, an appealing and stern yet frustrated camp instructor in the 1986 film "SpaceCamp", opposite Richard Gere and Gene Hackman in "Power" (1986), and starred as Susanna McKaskel in "The Quick and The Dead" (1987) with Sam Elliott. Capshaw also starred in the spy film/romance "Her Secret Life".


title: Kate Capshaw

text: Capshaw had roles in several films throughout the late 1980s into the 1990s. She starred alongside Michael Douglas and Andy García in "Black Rain" (1989), Sean Connery and Laurence Fishburne in "Just Cause" (1995), and Warren Beatty and Annette Bening in "Love Affair" (1994). She was also featured in the 1997 film "The Alarmist" with David Arquette and Stanley Tucci. In 1999, she starred in and produced "The Love Letter."


title: Kate Capshaw

text: In 2001, she starred in the Showtime Cable Network TV Movie "A Girl Thing", with Stockard Channing, Rebecca De Mornay and Elle Macpherson. She retired from acting after her final screen appearance in the 2001 TV movie, "Due East".


title: Kate Capshaw

text: During the production of the film "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom" (1984), Capshaw became close to director Steven Spielberg, whom she later married. Originally an Episcopalian, she converted to Judaism before marrying Spielberg on October 12, 1991. The two were married in both a civil ceremony and an Orthodox ceremony.


title: Kate Capshaw

text: Capshaw has severe ophidiophobia, which she discovered on the set of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and led to a scene with her and a snake being cut from the movie by Steven Spielberg.


title: Barrett M82

text: The Barrett M82 (standardized by the U.S. military as the M107) is a recoil-operated, semi-automatic anti-materiel rifle developed by the American company Barrett Firearms Manufacturing.


title: Barrett M82

text: Also called the Light Fifty (due to its chambering of the .50 BMG 12.7×99mm NATO cartridge), the weapon is classified in three variants: the original M82A1 (and M82A3) models, the bullpup M82A2 model, and the Barrett M107A1, with an attached muzzle brake (designed to accept a suppressor, and made out of titanium instead of steel). The M82A2 is no longer manufactured, though the XM500 can be seen as its successor.


title: Barrett M82

text: Despite being designated as an anti-materiel rifle, the M82 can also be deployed as an anti-personnel system.


title: Barrett M82

text: Barrett Firearms Manufacturing was founded by Ronnie Barrett for the sole purpose of building semi-automatic rifles chambered for the powerful 12.7×99mm NATO (.50 BMG) ammunition, originally developed for and used in M2 Browning machine guns. The weapon was first sold to the Swedish Army in 1989. In 1990, the United States armed forces purchased the M82A1 during operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm in Kuwait and Iraq. About 125 rifles were initially bought by the United States Marine Corps, and orders from the Army and Air Force soon followed. The M82A1 is known by the U.S. military as the SASR—"Special Applications Scoped Rifle", and it was and still is used as an anti-materiel rifle and explosive ordnance disposal tool.


title: Barrett M82

text: In 2006, Barrett completed development of the XM500, which has a bullpup configuration similar to the M82A2. Barrett M82 rifles were bought by various military and police forces from at least 30 countries, such as Belgium, Chile, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Indonesia, Italy, Jamaica, Mexico, the Netherlands, and others.


title: Barrett M82

text: The Barrett M82A1 rifle was used in 2002 as a platform for the experimental OSW (Objective Sniper Weapon) prototype. This weapon was fitted with a shorter barrel, and fired 25 mm high-explosive shells developed for the 25×59 mm OCSW (Objective Crew Served Weapon) automatic grenade launcher. The experimental OSW showed an increased effectiveness against various targets, but the recoil was beyond human limitations. This weapon, also known as the Barrett "Payload Rifle", has now been designated the XM109.


title: Barrett M82

text: The Provisional IRA smuggled a number of M82s into Ireland from the United States in the 1980s, apparently made and sold by a gunsmith and former Barrett Firearms employee in Texas. One of the M82s was shipped from Chicago to Dublin in pieces, where it was re-assembled. The IRA equipped two sniper teams with the light-fifties, later reinforced with a couple of M90s bought in the United States from an arms dealer in 1995. The IRA snipers killed five soldiers and a constable with .50 rifles from 1992 to 1997. The snipers usually fired on their targets from a distance of less than 300 metres, despite the 1,800 metres effective range of the weapons.


title: Barrett M82

text: In 2021, Barrett and nine other U.S. gun manufacturers were named in a lawsuit brought by the Mexican government in the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts, seeking $10 billion in damages. The Mexican government claimed that the Barrett M82 is one of the weapons of choice for drug cartels. According to Romain Le Cour Grandmaison, an expert interviewed by Reuters, the M82 has disrupted the balance of power between criminals and poorly-equipped police forces.


title: Barrett M82

text: The XM107 was originally intended to be a bolt-action sniper rifle, and the rifle Barrett M95 was originally selected by the U.S. Army in a competition between such weapons. However, under the trials, the decision was made that the U.S. Army did not, in fact, require such a weapon.


title: Barrett M82

text: Then the Army decided on the Barrett M82, a semi-automatic rifle. In summer 2002, the M82 finally emerged from its Army trial phase and was approved for "full materiel release", meaning it was officially adopted as the Long Range Sniper Rifle, Caliber .50, M107. The M107 uses a Leupold 4.5–14×50 Mark 4 scope.


title: Barrett M82

text: The Barrett M107 is a .50 caliber, shoulder-fired, semi-automatic sniper rifle. Like its predecessors, the rifle is said to have manageable recoil for a weapon of its size owing to the barrel assembly that itself absorbs force, moving inward toward the receiver against large springs with every shot. Additionally, the weapon's weight and large muzzle brake also assist in recoil reduction. Various changes were made to the original M82A1 to create the M107, with new features such as a lengthened accessory rail, rear grip, and monopod socket. Barrett has recently been asked to develop a lightweight version of the M107 under the Anti-Materiel Sniper Rifle Congressional Program and has already come up with a scheme to build important component parts such as the receiver frame and muzzle brake out of lighter-weight materials.


title: Barrett M82

text: The Barrett M107, like previous members of the M82 line, is also referred to as the Barrett "Light Fifty". The designation has in many instances supplanted earlier ones, with the M107 being voted one of 2005's top 10 military inventions by the U.S. Army.


title: Barrett M82

text: The U.S. Army and Marine Corps plan to field another Barrett rifle, the Mk22 MRAD, in 2021 to replace the M107. The Mk22 is a bolt-action multi-caliber rifle that is powerful enough to replace the M107 when chambered in .338 Norma Magnum.


title: Barrett M82

text: The M82 is a short-recoil semi-automatic firearm. When the gun is fired, the barrel initially recoils for a short distance (about ), while being securely locked by the rotating bolt. After the short travel, the lower part of the accelerator arm, held by the receiver upper part, is already hinged in the bolt carrier and the middle portion strikes it back to the barrel by a rod placed in the bolt carrier, transferring part of the recoil energy of the barrel to the bolt to achieve reliable cycling and unlock it from the barrel. The bolt is unlocked by turning in the curved cam track in the bolt carrier. Then the barrel is stopped by the combined effect of the accelerator, buffer spring, and the muzzle brake and the bolt continues back, to extract and eject a spent case. On its return stroke, the bolt strips the fresh cartridge from the box magazine and feeds it into the chamber and finally locks itself to the barrel. The striker is also cocked on the return stroke of the bolt. The gun is fed from a large, detachable box magazine holding up to ten rounds, although a rare twelve-round magazine was developed for use during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.


title: Barrett M82

text: The receiver is made from two parts (upper and lower), stamped from sheet steel and connected by cross-pins. The heavy barrel is fluted to improve heat dissipation and save weight, and fitted with a large and effective reactive muzzle brake. The muzzle brakes on the earlier models had a round cross-section; later M82 rifles are equipped with two-chamber brakes of rectangular cross-section.


title: Barrett M82

text: M82A1 rifles are fitted with scope mount and folding backup iron sights, should the glass scope break. The U.S. military M82 rifles are often equipped with Leupold Mark 4 telescopic sights. The M82A1M (USMC M82A3) rifles have long Picatinny accessory rails mounted and US Optics telescopic sights. Every M82 rifle is equipped with a folding carrying handle and a folding bipod (both are detachable on the M82A3). The M82A3 is also fitted with a detachable rear monopod under the butt. The buttpad is fitted with a soft recoil pad to further decrease the felt recoil. M82A1 and M82A3 rifles could be mounted on the M3 or M122 infantry tripods (originally intended for machine guns) or on vehicles using the special Barrett soft-mount. The M82A1 can be fitted with a carry sling, but according to those who carried it in the field, the M82 is too uncomfortable to be carried on a sling due to its excessive length and weight. It is usually carried in a special carry soft or hard case.


title: Barrett M82

text: The M82A2 differed from M82A1 mostly in its configuration; the pistol grip along with trigger was placed ahead of the magazine, and the buttpad placed below the receiver, just after the magazine. An additional forward grip was added below the receiver, and the scope mount was moved forward.


title: Barrett M82

text: The maximum effective range of the M107 is . The maximum range of this weapon (specifically the M107 variant) is , as quoted in the owner's manual. Fifty-caliber (and larger) rounds have the potential to travel great distances if fired in an artillery-like fashion (with a high angle, which creates an indirect-fire situation), necessitating the observance of extensive safety margins when firing on a range.


title: Barrett M82

text: On February 26, 2016, the U.S. state of Tennessee named the Barrett Model M82 as its official state rifle.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF; ), also known as the Chinese Air Force (中国空军) or the People's Air Force (人民空军), is an aerial service branch of the People's Liberation Army, the regular armed forces of the People's Republic of China. The PLAAF was officially established on 11 November 1949 and it is composed of 5 branches which are aviation, anti-aircraft artillery, surface-to-air missiles (SAM), radar, and Airborne Corps.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The PLAAF first faced combat in the Korean War against the United States using primarily the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter aircraft, aircraft provided by the Soviet Union, which also assisted with the expansion of the Chinese aerospace industry. Changes in the organization of the PLAAF followed by modernization programs in the 1990s and increased technology development in the 21st century has created the J-20 stealth multirole fighter, the first of its kind for China.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The PLA's first organized air unit, was formed in July 1949 at Beijing Nanyuan Airport. It consisted of six P-51s, two Mosquitoes, and two PT-19s. On 25 October 1949, Liu Yalou was appointed as the chief of air force in the People's Liberation Army. By 11 November, the air force command was officially formed from the headquarters of Liu Yalou's 14th "bingtuan" (which Witson translates as "Army"). The process was aided by significant Soviet assistance.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The air force expanded rapidly during the Korean War. Two brigades were created in 1950, but disbanded in the early 1950s and replaced by division; both had subordinate regiments. During the war, 26 divisions and a smaller number of independent regiments and schools were created by personnel transfers from the army; the air force inherited the army's organization and was commanded by army officers. By early 1954, there were 28 divisions, with 70 regiments, and five independent regiments operating 3000 aircraft. The Soviets provided Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 aircraft (J-2 in Chinese service), training, and support for developing the domestic aviation industry. Shenyang Aircraft Corporation built the two-seat MiG-15UTI trainer as the JJ-2, and during the war manufactured various components to maintain the Soviet-built fighters. By 1956 the People's Republic was assembling copies of MiG-15s and eight years later was producing both the Shenyang J-5 (MiG-17) and the Shenyang J-6 (MiG-19) under license.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The PLAAF emerged from the war as an air defence force. The main role was to support the army by achieving air superiority using fighters, radar, and ground-based weapons. This was reinforced through the 1950s and 1960s when the PLAAF's main activities were skirmishing with the Republic of China Air Force near the Taiwan Strait, and intercepting American aircraft. The bombing role was neglected due to the underestimation of the significant of air power during the war; the Chinese were impressed that they had suffered more casualties from ground fire rather than from bombing. From the Korean to the Sino-Vietnamese War, PLAAF bombing missions were restrained by technical capability and political concerns over escalation.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The 1960s were a difficult time for the PLAAF. Modernization and development was severely impacted by political and economic chaos of the Cultural Revolution, the Great Leap Forward, and the Sino-Soviet split. The prioritization of missile and nuclear weapon programs crippled the aviation industry, which markedly declined through 1963. A recovery began around 1965 as J-2s, J-5s, and some J-6s were provided to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Development of the Shenyang J-8, China's first indigenous fighter, was also initiated during the 1960s.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Force reductions led to reorganization and streamlining starting in 1985. Before the 1985 reorganization, the Air Force reportedly had four branches: air defense, ground attack, bombing, and independent air regiments. In peacetime the Air Force Directorate, under the supervision of the PLA General Staff Department, controlled the Air Force through headquarters located with, or in communication with, each of the seven military region headquarters. In war, control of the Air Force probably reverted to the regional commanders. In 1987 it was not clear how the reorganization and the incorporation of air support elements into the group armies affected air force organization. The largest Air Force organizational unit was the division, which consisted of 17,000 personnel in three regiments. A typical air defense regiment had three squadrons of three flights; each flight had three or four aircraft. The Air Force also had 220,000 air defense personnel who controlled about 100 surface-to-air missile sites and over 16,000 AA guns. In addition, it had a large number of early-warning, ground-control-intercept, and air-base radars operated by specialized troops organized into at least twenty-two independent regiments.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: In the 1980s the Air Force made serious efforts to raise the educational level and improve the training of its pilots. Superannuated pilots were retired or assigned to other duties. All new pilots were at least middle-school graduates. The time it took to train a qualified pilot capable of performing combat missions reportedly was reduced from four or five years to two years. Training emphasized raising technical and tactical skills in individual pilots and participation in combined-arms operations. Flight safety also increased.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: From 1986 to 1988, each military region converted a division into a division-level transition training base (改装训练基地), which replaced training regiments in operational divisions.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: In 1987 the Air Force had serious technological deficiencies — especially when compared with its principal threat, the Soviet Armed Forces — and had many needs that it could not satisfy. It needed more advanced aircraft, better avionics, electronic countermeasures equipment, more powerful aircraft weaponry, a low-altitude surface-to-air missile, and better controlled antiaircraft artillery guns. Some progress was made in aircraft design with the incorporation of Western avionics into the Chengdu J-7 and Shenyang J-8, the development of refueling capabilities for the B-6D bomber and the A-5 attack fighter, increased aircraft all-weather capabilities, and the production of the HQ-2J high-altitude surface-to-air missile and the C-601 air-to-ship missile.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Although the PLAAF received significant support from Western nations in the 1980s when China was seen as a counterweight to Soviet power, this support ended in 1989 as a result of the Chinese crackdown on the Tiananmen protests of 1989 and the later collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. After the fall of the USSR, the Russian Federation became China's principal arms supplier, to the extent that Chinese economic growth allowed Russia to sustain its aerospace industry.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: In the late 1980s, the primary mission of the PLAAF was the defense of the mainland, and most aircraft were assigned to this role. A smaller number of ground attack and bomber units were assigned to Air interdiction and possibly close air support, and some bomber units could be used for nuclear delivery. The force had only limited military airlift and aerial reconnaissance capabilities.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: In the early 1990s, the PLAAF began a program of modernization, motivated by the collapse of the Soviet Union, as well as the possibility of military conflict with the Republic of China and perhaps also involving the United States. This process began with the acquisition of Su-27s in the early 1990s and the development of various fourth-generation aircraft, including the domestic J-10, and the FC-1. The PLAAF also strove to improve its pilot training and continued to retire obsolete aircraft. This resulted in a reduction of the overall number of aircraft in the PLAAF with a concurrent increase in the quality of its air fleet.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The 21st century has seen the continuation of the modernization program with China's huge economic growth. It acquired 76 Su-30MKK's from 2000 to 2003, and 24 upgraded Su-30MK2's in 2004. It also produced around 200 J-11s from 2002 onwards and bought 3 batches (at a total of 76) of the Su-27SK/UBK. Production of the J-10 fighter began in 2002 with an estimated 200 aircraft in service currently. The PLAAF also began developing its own tanker aircraft, which it previously lacked, by modifying the old H-6 bomber (Tupolev Tu-16). In 2005 it announced plans to buy approximately 30 IL-76 transport planes and 8 Il-78 tanker planes, which would greatly increase its troop airlift capability and offer an extended range to many aircraft, though as of 2009 this deal is still on hold.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Predictions of the PLAAF's future aircraft fleet indicate that it will consist of large quantities of Chengdu J-10 and Shenyang J-11 as its main force, with J-16 and JH-7A as the PLAAF backbone precision strike fighters. Future stealth fighter projects such as the Chengdu J-20 will be inducted into the air fleet in small numbers, assigned to elite PLAAF selected pilots. The transport fleet will comprise Y-9 medium range transport aircraft, along with the Soviet Ilyushin Il-76, and domestic Y-20 heavy transport aircraft. Its helicopter fleet will comprise Z-20, Z-15 and Mi-17 troop transporters, and the WZ-10 attack helicopter for its ground forces. AWACS/AEW will be refined variants of the existing service fleet of KJ-2000 and KJ-200, with UAV/UCAV in the early stages of service in the PLAAF.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Senior Colonel Wu Guohui has said that the PLAAF is working on a stealth bomber, which some people have called the H-18.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Lt Gen Xu Anxiang, PLAAF Deputy Commander, revealed the PLAAF has a multiphase roadmap for building a strong, modern air force. He said the building of a strategic force by 2020 would integrate aviation, space power, strike and defense capabilities.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: When this goal is achieved, the PLAAF's fourth-generation jet fighters will make up the backbone of the Air Force's arsenal and J-16 along with J-10 would be main stay of PLAAF. Gen Xu also said information-based combat capabilities will be enhanced.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The ranks in the Chinese People's Liberation Army Air Force are similar to those of the Chinese Army, formally known as the People's Liberation Army Ground Force, except that those of the PLA Air Force are prefixed by 空军 (Kong Jun) meaning Air Force. See Ranks of the People's Liberation Army or the article on an individual rank for details on the evolution of rank and insignia in the PLAAF. This article primarily covers the existing ranks and insignia.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The markings of the PLAAF are a red star in front of a red band, it is very similar to the insignia of the Russian Air Force. The Red star contains the Chinese characters for eight and one, representing August 1, 1927, the date of the formation of the PLA. PLAAF aircraft carry these markings on the fins as well.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The highest leadership organization is PLAAF Headquarters (PLAAF HQ). PLAAF HQ's peacetime responsibilities are force generation, modernization, and operational control of some units like the Airborne Corps and the 34th Air Transport Division. PLAAF HQ contains four first-level departments: Headquarters, Political, Logistics, and Equipment.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Below PLAAF HQ are the Theater Command Air Forces (TCAF); they succeeded the Military Region Air Forces (MRAF) in 2016.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Before 2003, MRAF had subordinate air corps and Bases which exercised direct control over units in their area of responsibility (AOR); MRAF only directly controlled fighter and ground attack divisions in the same province as MRAF headquarters (MRAF HQ). From 2004, leadership of units was consolidated in MRAF HQ, with air corps and Bases downgraded to command posts that acted on behalf of MRAF HQ. From 2012 onwards, the command posts were mostly replaced by Bases that exercised command and control over units (brigades) in their AOR and conducted joint exercises.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: Below TCAF/MRAF and the air corps/command posts/Bases are corps, division, brigade, and regimental level units (部队).


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The first divisions in the 1950s was organized into a HQ and two or three regiments. In 1953, this was standardized to three regiments per division, including one training regiment. Regiments had three or four flight groups, each in turn made of three or four squadrons. Between 1964 and 1970, regiments were called groups. In the late 1980s, operational squadrons lost their training regiments. By 2010, many divisions had only two regiments. In 2019, the bomber, transport, and specialized divisions had not been reorganized into brigades and remained under the control of PLAAF HQ and TCAF headquarters.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: New multifunction brigades were formed starting in 2011. Brigades contain several subordinate flight groups; a flight group has one type of aircraft. All fighter and ground attack divisions and regiments were reorganized into air force brigades, organized into a brigade HQ and the flight groups organized under it.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: In 2020, International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) listed eight H-6 bomber regiments, with another brigade forming.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: 26th Ftr Div with one regiment previously at Shanghai-Chongming Island; <br>31st Fighter Division previously with Jinan MR; 35th Ftr Div.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The August 1st (aerobatic team) is the first PLAAF aerobatics team. It was formed in 1962. Aircraft inventory of PLAAF August Aerobatic Team includes the J-10 and it has previously flown the JJ-5 and J-7. The Sky Wing and Red Falcon air demonstration teams, which operate Nanchang CJ-6 and Hongdu JL-8 respectively, were established in 2011.


title: People's Liberation Army Air Force

text: The People's Liberation Army Air Force operates a large and varied fleet of some 3,010+ aircraft, of which around 2,100 are combat aircraft (fighter, attack and bombers). According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, PLAAF combat pilots acquire an average of 100-150 flying hours per year. For a list of aircraft no-longer flown by the People's Liberation Army Air Force see; List of historic aircraft of the People's Liberation Army Air Force.


title: James Coburn

text: James Harrison Coburn III (August 31, 1928 – November 18, 2002) was an American film and television actor who was featured in more than 70 films, largely action roles, and made 100 television appearances during a 45-year career.


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn was a capable, rough-hewn leading man, whose toothy grin and lanky physique made him a perfect tough guy in numerous leading and supporting roles in Westerns and action films, such as "The Magnificent Seven", "Hell Is for Heroes"; "The Great Escape"; "Charade", "Our Man Flint", "In Like Flint", "The President's Analyst", "Hard Times", "Duck, You Sucker!", "Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid", and "Cross of Iron". In 1998, Coburn won an Academy Award for his supporting role as Glen Whitehouse in "Affliction". In 2002, he received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries nomination for producing "The Mists of Avalon".


title: James Coburn

text: James Harrison Coburn III was born in Laurel, Nebraska, on August 31, 1928, the son of James Harrison Coburn II (October 6, 1902 – December 24, 1975) and Mylet S. Coburn ("née" Johnson; November 15, 1900 – February 20, 1984). His father and namesake was of Scots-Irish ancestry and his mother was an immigrant from Sweden. His father had a garage business in Laurel that was destroyed by the Great Depression. Coburn was raised in Compton, California, where he attended Compton Junior College.


title: James Coburn

text: In 1950, Coburn was drafted in the United States Army, where he served as a truck driver and occasionally a disc jockey on an Army radio station in Texas. He also narrated Army training films in Mainz, West Germany. He attended Los Angeles City College, where he studied acting with fellow future actor Jeff Corey under Stella Adler’s tutelage, and later made his stage debut at the La Jolla Playhouse in Herman Melville's "Billy Budd".


title: James Coburn

text: He was selected for a Remington Products razor commercial, where he was able to shave off 11 days of beard growth in less than 60 seconds while joking that he had more teeth to show on camera than the other 12 candidates for the part.


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn's film debut came in 1959 as the sidekick of Pernell Roberts in the Randolph Scott Western "Ride Lonesome". He soon got a job in another Western, "Face of a Fugitive" (1959).


title: James Coburn

text: He also appeared in dozens of television roles, including, with Roberts, several episodes of NBC's "Bonanza". He appeared twice each on two other NBC Westerns: "Tales of Wells Fargo" with Dale Robertson, one episode in the role of Butch Cassidy; and "The Restless Gun" with John Payne in "The Pawn" and "The Way Back", the latter segment alongside "Bonanza"'s Dan Blocker. "Butch Cassidy" aired in 1958.


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn's third film was a major breakthrough for him, as the knife-wielding Britt in "The Magnificent Seven" (1960), directed by John Sturges for the Mirisch Company. Coburn was hired on the recommendation of his friend Robert Vaughn.


title: James Coburn

text: During the 1960–61 season, Coburn co-starred with Ralph Taeger and Joi Lansing in the NBC adventure/drama series "Klondike", set in the Alaskan gold rush town of Skagway.


title: James Coburn

text: When "Klondike" was cancelled, Taeger and Coburn were regrouped as detectives in Mexico in NBC's equally short-lived "Acapulco".


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn also made two guest appearances on CBS's "Perry Mason", both times as the murder victim, in "The Case of the Envious Editor" and "The Case of the Angry Astronaut". In 1962, he portrayed Col. Briscoe in the "Hostage Child" of CBS's "Rawhide".


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn had a good role in "Hell Is for Heroes" (1962), a war movie with Steve McQueen. He followed it with another war film with McQueen, "The Great Escape" (1963), directed by Sturges for the Mirisches, where Coburn played an Australian. For the Mirisches, Coburn narrated "Kings of the Sun" (1963).


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn was one of the villains in "Charade" (1963), starring Cary Grant and Audrey Hepburn. He was then cast as a glib naval officer in Paddy Chayefsky's "The Americanization of Emily", replacing James Garner, who had moved up to the lead when William Holden pulled out. This led to Coburn being signed to a seven-year contract with 20th Century Fox.


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn had another excellent support role as a one-armed Indian tracker in "Major Dundee" (1965), directed by Sam Peckinpah and starring Charlton Heston.


title: James Coburn

text: At Fox, he was second-billed in the pirate film "A High Wind in Jamaica" (1965), supporting Anthony Quinn. He had a cameo in "The Loved One" (1965).


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn became a genuine star following the release of Fox's James Bond parody film "Our Man Flint" (1966), playing super agent Derek Flint. It was a solid success at the box office.


title: James Coburn

text: He followed it with "What Did You Do in the War, Daddy?" (1966), a wartime comedy from Blake Edwards, which was made for the Mirisches; Coburn was top billed. It was a commercial disappointment. "Dead Heat on a Merry-Go-Round" (1966) was a crime movie made at Columbia.


title: James Coburn

text: Back at Fox, Coburn made a second Flint film, "In Like Flint" (1967), which was popular, but Coburn did not wish to make any more movies in that series. He went over to Paramount for a Western comedy, "Waterhole No. 3" (1967) and the political satire "The President's Analyst" (1967). Neither performed particularly well, but over the years, "The President's Analyst" has become a cult film. In 1967, Coburn was voted the 12th-biggest star in Hollywood.


title: James Coburn

text: Over at Columbia, Coburn was in a Swinging '60s heist film, "Duffy" (1968), which flopped. He was one of several stars who had cameos in "Candy" (1968), then played a hitman in "Hard Contract" (1969) for Fox, another flop.


title: James Coburn

text: Coburn tried a change of pace, an adaptation of a Tennessee Williams play, "Last of the Mobile Hot Shots" (1970) directed by Sidney Lumet, but the film was not popular.