title: Hemoglobin

text: Hemoglobin mass can be measured in humans using the non-radioactive, carbon monoxide (CO) rebreathing technique that has been used for more than 100 years. With this technique, a small volume of pure CO gas is inhaled and rebreathed for a few minutes. During rebreathing, CO binds to hemoglobin present in red blood cells. Based on the increase in blood CO after the rebreathing period, the haemoglobin mass can be determined through the dilution principle. Although CO gas in large volumes is toxic to humans, the volume of CO used to assess blood volumes corresponds to what would be inhaled when smoking a cigarette. While researchers typically use custom-made rebreathing circuits, the Detalo Performance from Detalo Health has automated the procedure and made the measurement available to a larger group of users.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Long-term control of blood sugar concentration can be measured by the concentration of Hb A. Measuring it directly would require many samples because blood sugar levels vary widely through the day. Hb A is the product of the irreversible reaction of hemoglobin A with glucose. A higher glucose concentration results in more Hb A. Because the reaction is slow, the Hb A proportion represents glucose level in blood averaged over the half-life of red blood cells, is typically ~120 days. An Hb A proportion of 6.0% or less show good long-term glucose control, while values above 7.0% are elevated. This test is especially useful for diabetics.


title: Hemoglobin

text: The functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) machine uses the signal from deoxyhemoglobin, which is sensitive to magnetic fields since it is paramagnetic. Combined measurement with NIRS shows good correlation with both the oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin signal compared to the BOLD signal.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Hemoglobin can be tracked noninvasively, to build an individual data set tracking the hemoconcentration and hemodilution effects of daily activities for better understanding of sports performance and training. Athletes are often concerned about endurance and intensity of exercise. The sensor uses light-emitting diodes that emit red and infrared light through the tissue to a light detector, which then sends a signal to a processor to calculate the absorption of light by the hemoglobin protein.


title: Hemoglobin

text: This sensor is similar to a pulse oximeter, which consists of a small sensing device that clips to the finger.


title: Hemoglobin

text: A variety of oxygen-transport and -binding proteins exist in organisms throughout the animal and plant kingdoms. Organisms including bacteria, protozoans, and fungi all have hemoglobin-like proteins whose known and predicted roles include the reversible binding of gaseous ligands. Since many of these proteins contain globins and the heme moiety (iron in a flat porphyrin support), they are often called hemoglobins, even if their overall tertiary structure is very different from that of vertebrate hemoglobin. In particular, the distinction of "myoglobin" and hemoglobin in lower animals is often impossible, because some of these organisms do not contain muscles. Or, they may have a recognizable separate circulatory system but not one that deals with oxygen transport (for example, many insects and other arthropods). In all these groups, heme/globin-containing molecules (even monomeric globin ones) that deal with gas-binding are referred to as oxyhemoglobins. In addition to dealing with transport and sensing of oxygen, they may also deal with NO, CO, sulfide compounds, and even O scavenging in environments that must be anaerobic. They may even deal with detoxification of chlorinated materials in a way analogous to heme-containing P450 enzymes and peroxidases.


title: Hemoglobin

text: The structure of hemoglobins varies across species. Hemoglobin occurs in all kingdoms of organisms, but not in all organisms. Primitive species such as bacteria, protozoa, algae, and plants often have single-globin hemoglobins. Many nematode worms, molluscs, and crustaceans contain very large multisubunit molecules, much larger than those in vertebrates. In particular, chimeric hemoglobins found in fungi and giant annelids may contain both globin and other types of proteins.


title: Hemoglobin

text: One of the most striking occurrences and uses of hemoglobin in organisms is in the giant tube worm ("Riftia pachyptila", also called Vestimentifera), which can reach 2.4 meters length and populates ocean volcanic vents. Instead of a digestive tract, these worms contain a population of bacteria constituting half the organism's weight. The bacteria oxidize HS from the vent with O from the water to produce energy to make food from HO and CO. The worms' upper end is a deep-red fan-like structure ("plume"), which extends into the water and absorbs HS and O for the bacteria, and CO for use as synthetic raw material similar to photosynthetic plants. The structures are bright red due to their content of several extraordinarily complex hemoglobins that have up to 144 globin chains, each including associated heme structures. These hemoglobins are remarkable for being able to carry oxygen in the presence of sulfide, and even to carry sulfide, without being completely "poisoned" or inhibited by it as hemoglobins in most other species are.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Some nonerythroid cells (i.e., cells other than the red blood cell line) contain hemoglobin. In the brain, these include the A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, astrocytes in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, and in all mature oligodendrocytes. It has been suggested that brain hemoglobin in these cells may enable the "storage of oxygen to provide a homeostatic mechanism in anoxic conditions, which is especially important for A9 DA neurons that have an elevated metabolism with a high requirement for energy production". It has been noted further that "A9 dopaminergic neurons may be at particular risk since in addition to their high mitochondrial activity they are under intense oxidative stress caused by the production of hydrogen peroxide via autoxidation and/or monoamine oxidase (MAO)-mediated deamination of dopamine and the subsequent reaction of accessible ferrous iron to generate highly toxic hydroxyl radicals". This may explain the risk of these cells for degeneration in Parkinson's disease. The hemoglobin-derived iron in these cells is not the cause of the post-mortem darkness of these cells (origin of the Latin name, substantia "nigra"), but rather is due to neuromelanin.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Outside the brain, hemoglobin has non-oxygen-carrying functions as an antioxidant and a regulator of iron metabolism in macrophages, alveolar cells, and mesangial cells in the kidney.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Historically, an association between the color of blood and rust occurs in the association of the planet Mars, with the Roman god of war, since the planet is an orange-red, which reminded the ancients of blood. Although the color of the planet is due to iron compounds in combination with oxygen in the Martian soil, it is a common misconception that the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides gives blood its red color. The color is actually due to the porphyrin moiety of hemoglobin to which the iron is bound, not the iron itself, although the ligation and redox state of the iron can influence the pi to pi* or n to pi* electronic transitions of the porphyrin and hence its optical characteristics.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Artist Julian Voss-Andreae created a sculpture called "Heart of Steel (Hemoglobin)" in 2005, based on the protein's backbone. The sculpture was made from glass and weathering steel. The intentional rusting of the initially shiny work of art mirrors hemoglobin's fundamental chemical reaction of oxygen binding to iron.


title: Hemoglobin

text: Montreal artist Nicolas Baier created "Lustre (Hémoglobine)", a sculpture in stainless steel that shows the structure of the hemoglobin molecule. It is displayed in the atrium of McGill University Health Centre's research centre in Montreal. The sculpture measures about 10 metres × 10 metres × 10 metres.


title: Oliver Tree

text: Oliver Nickell (born June 29, 1993) is an American singer, record producer, and comedian. Born in Santa Cruz, California, Tree signed to Atlantic Records in 2017 after his song "When I'm Down" went viral and released his debut studio album "Ugly Is Beautiful" in 2020. He achieved international success with his songs "Life Goes On" in 2021, and "Miss You" in 2022. He released his second studio album "Cowboy Tears" on February 18, 2022.


title: Oliver Tree

text: Oliver Tree Nickell was born on June 29, 1993, in Santa Cruz, California, where he was also raised. He has said he took "piano lessons at three years old, [began] songwriting the next year, and [had] an album written by age six."


title: Oliver Tree

text: Oliver launched his solo recording career as "Tree" in 2010. By then, he had made presentations for performances such as Skrillex and Zeds Dead. He initially self-released his music but signed with R&S Records in 2011. He sang and played guitar in a ska band called Irony, which was his first experience performing. Under the pseudonym Kryph, Tree produced dubstep for a brief period of time and performed at festivals such as Wobbleland 2011 in San Francisco. He performed shows opening for acts such as Tyler, the Creator, Nero, and Frank Ocean, and released music under his pseudonym, Tree.


title: Oliver Tree

text: At age 18, Tree signed up with London-based R&S Records and released his debut EP, "Demons". The EP gained some recognition after Radiohead lead singer Thom Yorke approved of his cover of their song "Karma Police". Tree eventually found himself on hiatus as he went back to school, studying music technology at the California Institute of the Arts.


title: Oliver Tree

text: In November 2016, he returned to music with his television debut, performing with Getter on "Last Call with Carson Daly".


title: Oliver Tree

text: Shortly after the release of "When I'm Down", Tree signed to Atlantic Records, and a month later, graduated from the California Institute of the Arts.


title: Oliver Tree

text: Tree often writes, acts, and directs sketches in comedy videos, and has worked with companies such as Fuck Jerry.


title: Oliver Tree

text: In February 2018, Tree released his major-label debut EP, "Alien Boy", along with the double music video for "All That x Alien Boy". Tree wrote and directed the debut, which took over nine months to create. He spent five months practicing freestyle monster truck jumping at the Perris Auto Speedway and performed all his stunts in the music video.


title: Oliver Tree

text: Oliver Tree has played major festivals such as Lollapalooza and Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, and performed as a special guest at Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival and EDC, most notably at Coachella, where he was subsequently named on "LA Weekly"s "The Best (and Weirdest) Fashion at Coachella" list in 2017.


title: Oliver Tree

text: He was the supporting act on Louis the Child's 2017 Last to Leave Tour (2017) and Skizzy Mars' Are You OK? Tour (2018), and was scheduled to join Lil Dicky and DJ Mustard on the Life Lessons Tour Fall 2018 before it was canceled. Tree toured North America and Europe with Hobo Johnson in 2018.


title: Oliver Tree

text: Throughout 2018 and 2019, Tree released singles that would make an appearance on his debut album, "Ugly Is Beautiful". On December 7, 2018, Tree released his second music video, "Hurt", a single from the album. He travelled to Ukraine to film the video, which he wrote and co-directed with Brendan Vaughan, an up-and-coming music video director. In the first week, the music video for "Hurt" reached one million views while the song received significant radio play.


title: Oliver Tree

text: On April 11, 2019, Tree released a standalone single, "Fuck", with the music video being released on the same day.


title: Oliver Tree

text: His fourth music video and single, "Miracle Man", was released on June 7, 2019, with the video reaching 1.3 million views on the first day of release. Tree released his second EP, "Do You Feel Me?" on August 2, 2019, to generally positive reviews.


title: Oliver Tree

text: On December 6, 2019, Tree released "Cash Machine", a single accompanied by a music video. Together with the single, Tree announced his debut album, "Ugly Is Beautiful," and announced that the album would be released on March 27, 2020"." On March 25, 2020, Tree posted a message to his Twitter page, stating that due to the COVID-19 pandemic, "Ugly Is Beautiful" would not be released on time. However, on May 19, the album's official release date was revealed to be June 12.


title: Oliver Tree

text: On May 16, 2020, Tree set the Guinness World Record for the world's largest kick scooter, which he later uploaded a video of himself riding on July 17, 2020.


title: Oliver Tree

text: On June 8, 2020, Tree announced his decision to delay "Ugly Is Beautiful" yet again, this time to July 17. He stated that, because of the issues of racism and police violence against black people going on during that time after the murder of George Floyd, he "did not believe it was an appropriate time" to release the album when "much bigger things" deserved attention. On July 17, 2020, "Ugly Is Beautiful" was released.


title: Oliver Tree

text: Despite claiming that he was retired, he released the single "Out of Ordinary" on February 4, 2021, announcing the deluxe edition of "Ugly Is Beautiful".


title: Oliver Tree

text: On May 28, 2021, Tree released a deluxe version of his debut album named "Ugly Is Beautiful: Shorter, Thicker & Uglier."


title: Oliver Tree

text: He would later collaborate with Russian rave band Little Big and release the single "Turn It Up", featuring Tommy Cash, from their collaborative EP "Welcome to the Internet", which was later released on September 30, 2021.


title: Oliver Tree

text: On January 12, 2022, Tree released the single "Cowboys Don't Cry" from his second album "Cowboy Tears". "Cowboy Tears" was released on February 18, 2022. On May 20, 2022, Tree released a single, "I Hate You" along with "Cowboys Don't Cry". He also announced a tour to accompany the album "Cowboy Tears".


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Doolittle Raid, also known as the Tokyo Raid, was an air raid on 18 April 1942 by the United States on the Japanese capital Tokyo and other places on Honshu during World War II. It was the first American air operation to strike the Japanese archipelago. Although the raid caused comparatively minor damage, it demonstrated that the Japanese mainland was vulnerable to American air attacks. It served as an initial retaliation for the 7 December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, and provided an important boost to American morale. The raid was planned by, led by, and named after Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle (later a Lieutenant General in the US Army Air Forces and the US Air Force Reserve).


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Under the final plan, 16 B-25B Mitchell medium bombers, each with a crew of five, were launched from the US Navy aircraft carrier , in the Pacific Ocean, off Japan. There were no fighter escorts. After bombing the military and industrial targets, the crews were to continue westward to land in China.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: On the ground the raid killed about 50 people and injured 400. Damage to Japanese military and industrial targets was slight, but the raid had major psychological effects. In the United States, it raised morale. In Japan, it raised fear and doubt about the ability of military leaders to defend the home islands, but the bombing and strafing of civilians steeled Japanese resolve to gain retribution – this was exploited for propaganda purposes. The raid also pushed forward Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's plans to attack Midway Island in the Central Pacific – an attack that turned into a decisive defeat of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) by the US Navy in the Battle of Midway. The consequences of the Doolittle Raid were most severely felt in China: in reprisal for the raid, the Japanese launched the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign, killing 250,000 civilians and 70,000 soldiers.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Of the 16 USAAF crews involved, 14 complete crews of five returned to the United States or to US forces elsewhere – one crew was killed in action. Eight US aviators were captured by Japanese forces in Eastern China and three of these were later executed. All but one of the B-25s were destroyed in crashes, while the 16th landed at Vladivostok, in the Soviet Union.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Because the Soviet Union was not officially at war with Japan, it was required, under international law, to intern the crew during the war, and their B-25 was confiscated. However, within a year, the crew was secretly allowed to leave the Soviet Union, under the guise of an escape – they returned to the United States, or to US units elsewhere, by way of Allied-occupied Iran and North Africa.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Doolittle initially believed that the loss of his aircraft would lead to his court-martial – instead he received the Medal of Honor and was promoted two ranks to brigadier general.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: President Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke to the Joint Chiefs of Staff in a meeting at the White House on 21 December 1941 and said that Japan should be bombed as soon as possible to boost public morale after Pearl Harbor. Doolittle recounted in his autobiography that the raid was intended to bolster American morale and to cause the Japanese to begin doubting their leadership: "An attack on the Japanese homeland would cause confusion in the minds of the Japanese people and sow doubt about the reliability of their leaders. ... Americans badly needed a morale boost."


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The concept for the attack came from Navy Captain Francis S. Low, Assistant Chief of Staff for antisubmarine warfare. He reported to Admiral Ernest J. King on 10 January 1942 that he thought that twin-engined Army bombers could be launched from an aircraft carrier, after observing several at Naval Station Norfolk Chambers Field in Norfolk, where the runway was painted with the outline of a carrier deck for landing practice. Doolittle, a famous military test pilot, civilian aviator, and aeronautical engineer before the war, was assigned to Army Air Forces Headquarters to plan the raid. The aircraft to be used would need a cruising range of with a bomb load, so Doolittle selected the B-25B Mitchell to carry out the mission. The range of the Mitchell was about 1,300 miles, so the bombers had to be modified to hold nearly twice the normal fuel reserves. Doolittle also considered the Martin B-26 Marauder, Douglas B-18 Bolo, and Douglas B-23 Dragon, but the B-26 had questionable takeoff characteristics from a carrier deck and the B-23's wingspan was nearly 50-percent greater than the B-25's, reducing the number that could be taken aboard a carrier and posing risks to the ship's superstructure. The B-18 was one of the final two types that Doolittle considered, and he rejected it for the same reason. The B-25 had yet to see combat, but tests indicated that it could fulfill the mission's requirements.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Doolittle's first report on the plan suggested that the bombers might land in Vladivostok, shortening the flight by on the basis of turning over the B-25s as Lend-Lease. Negotiations with the Soviet Union were fruitless for permission to land because it had signed a neutrality pact with Japan in April 1941. China's Chiang Kai-shek agreed to the landing sites in China despite the concern of Japanese reprisals. Five possible airfields were selected. These sites would serve as refueling stops, allowing the crews to fly to Chungking. Bombers attacking defended targets often relied on a fighter escort to defend them from enemy fighters, but accompanying fighters were not possible.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: When planning indicated that the B-25 was the aircraft that best met all of the requirements of the mission, two were loaded aboard the aircraft carrier at Norfolk, Virginia, and were flown off the deck without difficulty on 3 February 1942. The raid was immediately approved and the 17th Bombardment Group (Medium) was chosen to provide the pool of crews from which volunteers would be recruited. The 17th BG had been the first group to receive B-25s, with all four of its squadrons equipped with the bomber by September 1941. The 17th not only was the first medium bomb group of the Army Air Corps, but in early 1942, also had the most experienced B-25 crews. Its first assignment following the entry of the United States into the war was to the U.S. Eighth Air Force.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 17th BG, then flying antisubmarine patrols from Pendleton, Oregon, was immediately moved cross-country to Columbia Army Air Base at West Columbia, South Carolina, ostensibly to fly similar patrols off the East Coast of the United States, but in actuality to prepare for the mission against Japan. The group officially transferred effective 9 February 1942 to Columbia, where its combat crews were offered the opportunity to volunteer for an "extremely hazardous", but unspecified mission. On 19 February, the group was detached from the Eighth Air Force and officially assigned to III Bomber Command.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Initial planning called for 20 aircraft to fly the mission, and 24 of the group's B-25B Mitchell bombers were diverted to the Mid-Continent Airlines modification center in Minneapolis, Minnesota. With support provided by two senior airline managers, Wold-Chamberlain Field's maintenance hangar was the first modification center to become operational. From nearby Fort Snelling, the 710th Military Police Battalion provided tight security around this hangar. B-25B aircraft modifications included the following:


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 24 crews were selected and picked up the modified bombers in Minneapolis and flew them to Eglin Field, Florida, beginning 1 March 1942. There, the crews received concentrated training for three weeks in simulated carrier deck takeoffs, low-level and night flying, low-altitude bombing, and over-water navigation, operating primarily out of Eglin Auxiliary Field#1, a more secluded site. Lieutenant Henry L. Miller, a U.S. Navy flight instructor from nearby Naval Air Station Pensacola, supervised their takeoff training and accompanied the crews to the launch. For his efforts, Miller is considered an honorary member of the Raider group.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Doolittle stated in his after-action report that the crews reached a "safely operational" level of training, despite several days when flying was not possible because of rain and fog. One aircraft was written off in a landing accident on 10 March and another was heavily damaged in a takeoff accident on 23 March, while a third was removed from the mission because of a nose wheel shimmy that could not be repaired in time.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: On 25 March 1942, the remaining 22 B-25s took off from Eglin for McClellan Field, California. They arrived two days later at the Sacramento Air Depot for inspection and final modifications. A total of 16 B-25s were flown to NAS Alameda, California on 31 March. Fifteen made up the mission force and the 16th, by last-minute agreement with the Navy, was loaded so that it could be launched shortly after departure from San Francisco to demonstrate to the Army pilots that there was sufficient deck space for a safe takeoff. Instead, that bomber was made part of the mission force.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: On 1 April 1942, the 16 modified bombers, their five-man crews, and Army maintenance personnel, totaling 71 officers and 130 enlisted men, were loaded onto "Hornet" at Naval Air Station Alameda in California. Each aircraft carried four specially constructed 500-pound (225 kg) bombs. Three of these were high-explosive munitions and one was a bundle of incendiaries. The incendiaries were long tubes, wrapped together to be carried in the bomb bay, but designed to separate and scatter over a wide area after release. Five bombs had Japanese "friendship" medals wired to them—medals awarded by the Japanese government to U.S. servicemen before the war.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The bombers' armament was reduced to increase range by decreasing weight. Each bomber launched with two .50-caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns in an upper turret and a .30-caliber (7.62 mm) machine gun in the nose. The aircraft were clustered closely and tied down on "Hornet"s flight deck in the order of launch.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: "Hornet" and Task Force 18 got underway from San Francisco Bay at 08:48 on 2 April with the 16 bombers in clear view. At noon the next day, parts to complete modifications that had not been finished at McClellan were lowered to the forward deck of "Hornet" by Navy blimp "L-8". A few days later, the carrier met with Task Force 16, commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.—the carrier and her escort of cruisers and destroyers in the mid-Pacific Ocean north of Hawaii. "Enterprise"s fighters and scout planes provided protection for the entire task force in the event of a Japanese air attack, since "Hornet"s fighters were stowed below decks to allow the B-25s to use the flight deck.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The combined force was two carriers ("Hornet" and "Enterprise"), three heavy cruisers (, , ), one light cruiser (), eight destroyers (, , , , , , , ), and two fleet oilers ( and ). The ships proceeded in radio silence. On the afternoon of 17 April, the slow oilers refueled the task force, then withdrew with the destroyers to the east while the carriers and cruisers dashed west at toward their intended launch point in enemy-controlled waters east of Japan.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: At 07:38 on the morning of 18 April, while the task force was still about from Japan (around ), it was sighted by the Japanese picket boat No. 23" Nittō Maru", a 70-ton patrol craft, which radioed an attack warning to Japan. The boat was sunk by gunfire from . The chief petty officer who captained the boat killed himself rather than be captured, but five of the 11 crew were picked up by "Nashville".


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Doolittle and "Hornet" skipper Captain Marc Mitscher decided to launch the B-25s immediately—10 hours early and farther from Japan than planned. After respotting to allow for engine start and runups, Doolittle's aircraft had of takeoff distance. Although none of the B-25 pilots, including Doolittle, had ever taken off from a carrier before, all 16 aircraft launched safely between 08:20 and 09:19, though Doolittle's bomber was witnessed to have almost hit the water before pulling up at the last second. The B-25s then flew toward Japan, most in groups of two to four aircraft, before flying singly at wave-top level to avoid detection.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The aircraft began arriving over Japan about noon Tokyo time, six hours after launch, climbed to and bombed 10 military and industrial targets in Tokyo, two in Yokohama, and one each in Yokosuka, Nagoya, Kobe, and Osaka. Although some B-25s encountered light antiaircraft fire and a few enemy fighters (made up of Ki-45s and prototype Ki-61s, the latter being mistaken for Bf 109s) over Japan, no bomber was shot down. Only the B-25 of 1st Lt. Richard O. Joyce received any battle damage, minor hits from antiaircraft fire. B-25 No. 4, piloted by 1st Lt. Everett W. Holstrom, jettisoned its bombs before reaching its target when it came under attack by fighters after its gun turret malfunctioned.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Americans claimed to have shot down three Japanese fighters – one by the gunners of the "Whirling Dervish", piloted by 1st Lt. Harold Watson, and two by the gunners of the "Hari Kari-er", piloted by 1st Lt. Ross Greening. Many targets were strafed by the bombers' nose gunners. The subterfuge of the simulated gun barrels mounted in the tail cones was described afterwards by Doolittle as effective, in that no airplane was attacked directly from behind.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Fifteen of the 16 aircraft then proceeded southwest off the southeastern coast of Japan and across the East China Sea toward eastern China. One B-25, piloted by Captain Edward J. York, was extremely low on fuel, and headed instead for the Soviet Union rather than be forced to ditch in the middle of the East China Sea. Several fields in Zhejiang province were supposed to be ready to guide them in using homing beacons, then recover and refuel them for continuing on to Chongqing, the wartime Kuomintang capital. The primary base was at Zhuzhou, toward which all the aircraft navigated, but Halsey never sent the planned signal to alert them, apparently because of a possible threat to the task force.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The raiders faced several unforeseen challenges during their flight to China: night was approaching, the aircraft were running low on fuel, and the weather was rapidly deteriorating. None would have reached China if not for a tail wind as they came off the target, which increased their ground speed by for seven hours. The crews realized they would probably not be able to reach their intended bases in China, leaving them the option of either bailing out over eastern China or crash-landing along the Chinese coast.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: All 15 aircraft reached the Chinese coast after 13 hours of flight and crash-landed or the crews bailed out. One crewman, 20-year-old Corporal Leland D. Faktor, flight engineer/gunner with 1st Lt. Robert M. Gray, was killed during his bailout attempt over China, the only man in that crew to be lost. Two crews (10 men) were missing.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 16th aircraft, commanded by Capt. Edward York (eighth off—AC #40-2242) flew to the Soviet Union and landed beyond Vladivostok at Vozdvizhenka. As the USSR was not at war with Japan, and a Soviet-Japanese neutrality pact was officially in force, the Soviet government was officially unable to immediately repatriate any Allied personnel involved in hostilities, who entered Soviet territory. Furthermore, at the time, the Soviet Far East was vulnerable to military action by Japanese forces. Consequently, in accordance with international law, the crew members were interned, despite official US requests for their release, and the B-25 was impounded. York would later report that he and his crew had been treated well by the Soviet authorities. Several months later, they were relocated to Ashgabat (Ashkhabad), in what was then the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, from the Soviet-Iranian border. In mid-1943, they were allowed to cross the border into Allied-occupied Iran. The Americans presented themselves to a British consulate on 11 May 1943. A cover story was concocted that York had bribed a smuggler to assist them in escaping from Soviet custody. The fact that the "smuggling" had been staged by the NKVD was later confirmed by declassified Soviet archives.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Doolittle and his crew, after parachuting into China, received assistance from Chinese soldiers and civilians, as well as John Birch, an American missionary in China. As did the others who participated in the mission, Doolittle had to bail out, but he landed in a heap of dung (saving a previously injured ankle from breaking) in a paddy in China near Quzhou. The mission was the longest ever flown in combat by the B-25 Mitchell medium bomber, averaging about .


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Following the Doolittle Raid, most of the B-25 crews who had reached China eventually achieved safety with the help of Chinese civilians and soldiers.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Of the 16 planes and 80 airmen who participated in the raid, all either crash-landed, were ditched, or crashed after their crews bailed out, with the single exception of Capt. York and his crew, who landed in the Soviet Union. Despite the loss of these 15 aircraft, 69 airmen escaped capture or death, with only three killed in action. When the Chinese helped the Americans escape, the grateful Americans, in turn, gave them whatever they had on hand. The people who helped them paid dearly for sheltering the Americans. Eight Raiders were captured, but their fate was not fully known until 1946. Some of the men who crashed were aided by Patrick Cleary, the Irish Bishop of Nancheng. The Japanese troops retaliated by burning down the city.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The crews of two aircraft (10 men in total) were unaccounted for: those of 1st Lt. Dean E. Hallmark (sixth off) and 1st Lt. William G. Farrow (last off). On 15 August 1942, the United States learned from the Swiss Consulate General in Shanghai that eight of the missing crew members were prisoners of the Japanese at the city's police headquarters. Two of the missing crewmen, bombardier S/Sgt. William J. Dieter and flight engineer Sgt. Donald E. Fitzmaurice of Hallmark's crew, were found to have drowned when their B-25 crashed into the sea. Both of their remains were recovered after the war and were buried with military honors at Golden Gate National Cemetery.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The other eight were captured: 1st Lt. Dean E. Hallmark, 1st Lt. William G. Farrow, 1st Lt. Robert J. Meder, 1st Lt. Chase Nielsen, 1st Lt. Robert L. Hite, 2nd Lt. George Barr, Cpl. Harold A. Spatz, and Cpl. Jacob DeShazer. All eight captured in Jiangxi, tried and sentenced to death at a military trial in China, and then transported to Tokyo where the Army Ministry reviewed their case, with five of the sentences being commuted and the other three being executed (presumably also in Tokyo or nearby).


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The surviving captured airmen remained in military confinement on a starvation diet, their health rapidly deteriorating. In April 1943, they were moved to Nanking, where Meder died on 1 December 1943. The remaining men — Nielsen, Hite, Barr and DeShazer — eventually began receiving slightly better treatment and were given a copy of the Bible and a few other books. They were freed by American troops in August 1945. Four Japanese officers were tried for war crimes against the captured Doolittle Raiders, found guilty, and sentenced to hard labor, three for five years and one for nine years. Barr had been near death when liberated and remained behind in China recuperating until October, by which time he had begun to experience severe emotional problems. Untreated after transfer to Letterman Army Hospital and a military hospital in Clinton, Iowa, Barr became suicidal and was held virtually incommunicado until November, when Doolittle's personal intervention resulted in treatment that led to his recovery. DeShazer graduated from Seattle Pacific University in 1948 and returned to Japan as a missionary, where he served for over 30 years.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: When their remains were recovered after the war, Farrow, Hallmark, and Meder were buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. Spatz was buried with military honors at National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Total crew casualties: 3 KIA: 2 off the coast of China, 1 in China; 8 POW: 3 executed, 1 died in captivity, 4 repatriated. In addition, seven crew members (including all five members of Lawson's crew) received injuries serious enough to require medical treatment. Of the surviving prisoners, Barr died of heart failure in 1967, Nielsen in 2007, DeShazer on 15 March 2008, and the last, Hite, died 29 March 2015.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Immediately following the raid, Doolittle told his crew that he believed the loss of all 16 aircraft, coupled with the relatively minor damage to targets, had rendered the attack a failure, and that he expected a court-martial upon his return to the United States. Instead, the raid bolstered American morale. Doolittle was promoted two grades to brigadier general on 28 April while still in China, skipping the rank of colonel, and was presented with the Medal of Honor by Roosevelt upon his return to the United States in June. When General Doolittle toured the growing Eglin Field facility in July 1942 with commanding officer Col. Grandison Gardner, the local paper of record (the "Okaloosa News-Journal", Crestview, Florida), while reporting his presence, made no mention of his still-secret recent training at Eglin. He went on to command the Twelfth Air Force in North Africa, the Fifteenth Air Force in the Mediterranean, and the Eighth Air Force in England during the next three years.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: All 80 Raiders were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, and those who were killed or wounded during the raid were awarded the Purple Heart. Every Doolittle Raider was also decorated by the Chinese government. In addition, Corporal David J. Thatcher (a flight engineer/gunner on Lawson's crew) and 1st Lt. Thomas R. White (flight surgeon/gunner with Smith) were awarded the Silver Star for helping the wounded crew members of Lt. Lawson's crew to evade Japanese troops in China. Finally, as Doolittle noted in his autobiography, he successfully insisted that all of the Raiders receive a promotion.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Twenty-eight of the crewmen remained in the China Burma India theater, including the entire crews of planes 4, 10, and 13, flying missions, most for more than a year; five were killed in action. Nineteen crew members flew combat missions in the Mediterranean theater after returning to the United States, four of whom were killed in action and four becoming prisoners of war. Nine crew members served in the European Theater of Operations; one was killed in action, and one, David M. "Davy" Jones, was shot down and became a POW in Stalag Luft III at Sagan, where he played a part in The Great Escape. Altogether, 12 of the survivors died in air crashes within 15 months of the raid. Two survivors were separated from the USAAF in 1944 due to the severity of their injuries.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 17th Bomb Group, from which the Doolittle Raiders had been recruited, received replacement crews and transferred to Barksdale Army Air Field in June 1942, where it converted to Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers. In November 1942, it deployed overseas to North Africa, where it operated in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations with the Twelfth Air Force for the remainder of the war.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: After the raid, the Japanese Imperial Army began the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign (also known as Operation Sei-go) to prevent these eastern coastal provinces of China from being used again for an attack on Japan and to take revenge on the Chinese people. An area of some was laid waste. "Like a swarm of locusts, they left behind nothing but destruction and chaos," eyewitness Father Wendelin Dunker wrote. The Japanese killed an estimated 10,000 Chinese civilians during their search for Doolittle's men. People who aided the airmen were tortured before they were killed. Father Dunker wrote of the destruction of the town of Ihwang: "They shot any man, woman, child, cow, hog, or just about anything that moved, They raped any woman from the ages of 10–65, and before burning the town they thoroughly looted it ... None of the humans shot were buried either ..." The Japanese entered Nancheng (Jiangxi), population 50,000 on June 11, "beginning a reign of terror so horrendous that missionaries would later dub it 'the Rape of Nancheng.' " evoking memories of the infamous Rape of Nanjing five years before. Less than a month later, the Japanese forces put what remained of the city to the torch. "This planned burning was carried on for three days," one Chinese newspaper reported, "and the city of Nancheng became charred earth."


title: Doolittle Raid

text: When Japanese troops moved out of the Zhejiang and Jiangxi areas in mid-August, they left behind a trail of devastation. Chinese estimates put the civilian death toll at 250,000. The Imperial Japanese Army had also spread cholera, typhoid, plague infected fleas and dysentery pathogens. The Japanese biological warfare Unit 731 brought almost 300 pounds of paratyphoid and anthrax to be left in contaminated food and contaminated wells with the withdrawal of the army from areas around Yushan, Kinhwa and Futsin. Around 1,700 Japanese troops died out of a total 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with disease when their biological weapons attack rebounded on their own forces.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Shunroku Hata, the commander of Japanese forces involved in the massacre of the 250,000 Chinese civilians, was sentenced in 1948 in part due to his "failure to prevent atrocities". He was given a life sentence but was paroled in 1954.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Admiral Nimitz attempted to commit "Enterprise" and "Hornet" to support USS "Lexington" and USS "Yorktown" against Japanese forces involved in Operation Mo. However, the close timing between the Doolittle Raid and the eventual Battle of the Coral Sea prevented "Enterprise" and "Hornet" from being able to take part in the battle in early May 1942.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Doolittle recounted in his autobiography that at the time he thought the mission was a failure and he would be demoted upon return to the US.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: This mission showed that a B-25 takeoff from a carrier was easier than previously thought, and night operations could be possible in the future. The Shuttle bombing (taking off and landing at different air bases) run was shown to be an effective carrier task force tactic since there was no need to wait for the returning aircraft.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The American pilots, instead of landing as planned, were forced to bail out due to a lack of ground lighting to provide guidance. Chinese airfield crews recounted that due to the unexpectedly early arrivals of the B-25s, homing beacon and runway torch lights were not on for fear of possible Japanese airstrikes as happened before. If Claire Lee Chennault had been informed of the mission specifics, the outcome might have been very much better for the Americans: Chennault had built an effective air surveillance net in China that would have been able to provide updated arrival information about the raiders to the airfield crews, and could have confirmed that there was no risk of Japanese airstrikes, allowing the landing lights to be lit at the time necessary to allow safe landings.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Chiang Kai-Shek awarded the raiders China's highest military decorations, and predicted (in his diary) that Japan would alter its goals and strategy as a result of the disgrace. Indeed, the raid was a shock to staff at Japanese Imperial General Headquarters. As a direct consequence, Japan attacked territories in China to prevent similar shuttle bombing runs. High command withdrew substantial air force resources from supporting offensive operations in order to defend the home islands. The Aleutian Islands campaign was launched to prevent the US from using the islands as bomber bases to attack Japan -- this required two carriers that otherwise would have been used for the Battle of Midway. Thus, the raid's most significant strategic accomplishment was that it compelled the Japanese high command into ordering a very inefficient disposition of their forces, and poor decision-making due to fear of attack, for the rest of the war.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Compared with the future devastating Boeing B-29 Superfortress attacks against Japan, the Doolittle raid did little material damage, and all of it was easily repaired. Preliminary reports stated 12 were killed and more than 100 were wounded. Eight primary and five secondary targets were struck. In Tokyo, the targets included an oil tank farm, a steel mill, and several power plants. In Yokosuka, at least one bomb from the B-25 piloted by 1st Lt. Edgar E. McElroy struck the nearly completed light carrier , delaying her launch until November. Six schools and an army hospital were also hit. Japanese officials reported the two aircraft whose crews were captured had struck their targets.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Allied ambassadors and staff in Tokyo were still interned until agreement was reached about their repatriation via the neutral port of Lourenço Marques in Portuguese East Africa in June–July 1942. When Joseph Grew (US) realized the low-flying planes overhead were American (not Japanese planes on maneuvers) he thought they may have flown from the Aleutian Islands. The Japanese press claimed that nine had been shot down, but there were no pictures of crashed planes. Embassy staff were "very happy and proud" and the British said that they "drank toasts all day to the American flyers". Sir Robert Craigie, GCMG, the interned British Ambassador to Japan who was under house arrest in Tokyo at the time, said that Japanese staff had been amused at the embassy's air raid precautions as the idea of an attack on Tokyo was "laughable" with the Allies in retreat, but the guards now showed "considerable excitement and perturbation." Several false alarms followed, and in poorer districts people rushed into the streets shouting and gesticulating, losing their normal "iron control" over their emotions and showing a "tendency to panic". The police guards on Allied and neutral missions were doubled to foil reprisal attacks; and the guard on the German mission was tripled.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Despite the minimal damage inflicted, American morale, still reeling from the attack on Pearl Harbor and Japan's subsequent territorial gains, soared when news of the raid was released. The Japanese press was told to describe the attack as a cruel, indiscriminate bombing against civilians, including women and children. After the war, the casualty count was 87 dead, 151 serious injuries, and more than 311 minor injuries; children were among those killed, and newspapers asked their parents to share their opinion on how the captured raiders should be treated.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Japanese Navy attempted to locate and pursue the American task force. The Second Fleet, its main striking force, was near Formosa, returning from the Indian Ocean Raid to refit and replace its air losses. Spearheaded by five aircraft carriers and its best naval aircraft and aircrews, the Second Fleet was immediately ordered to locate and destroy the U.S. carrier force, but failed to do so, due to the American fleet choosing to head back to Hawaii (had they stayed after all, they would've found themselves attacked by the carriers "Akagi", "Sōryū" and "Hiryū"). Nagumo and his staff on "Akagi" heard that an American force was near Japan but expected an attack on the next day. Mitsuo Fuchida and Shigeyoshi Miwa considered the "one-way" raid "excellent strategy", with the bombers evading Army fighters by flying "much lower than anticipated". Kuroshima said the raid "passed like a shiver over Japan" and Miwa criticised the Army for claiming to have shot down nine aircraft rather than "not even one".


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Imperial Japanese Navy also bore a special responsibility for allowing an American aircraft carrier force to approach the Japanese Home Islands in a manner similar to the IJN fleet to Hawaii in 1941, and permitting it to escape undamaged. The fact that medium, normally land-based bombers carried out the attack confused the IJN's high command. This confusion and the knowledge that Japan was now vulnerable to air attack strengthened Yamamoto's resolve to destroy the American carrier fleet, which was not present in the Pearl Harbor Attack, resulting in a decisive Japanese defeat at the Battle of Midway.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: After the raid the Americans were worried in April about the "still very badly undermanned west coast" and Chief of Staff George Marshall discussed a "possible attack by the Japanese upon our plants in San Diego and then a flight by those Japs down into Mexico after they have made their attack." So Secretary Stimson asked State to "touch base with their people south of the border", and Marshall flew to the West Coast on 22 May.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: An unusual consequence of the raid came after when—in the interests of secrecy—President Roosevelt answered a reporter's question by saying that the raid had been launched from "Shangri-La", the fictional faraway land of the James Hilton novel "Lost Horizon". The true details of the raid were revealed to the public one year later, in April 1943. The Navy, in 1944, commissioned the , with Doolittle's wife Josephine as the sponsor.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Doolittle Raiders held an annual reunion almost every year from the late 1940s to 2013. The high point of each reunion was a solemn, private ceremony in which the surviving Raiders performed a roll call, then toasted their fellow Raiders who had died during the previous year. Specially engraved silver goblets, one for each of the 80 Raiders, were used for this toast; the goblets of those who had died were inverted. Each Raider's name was engraved on his goblet both right side up and upside down. The Raiders drank a toast using a bottle of cognac that accompanied the goblets to each Raider reunion. In 2013, the remaining Raiders decided to hold their last public reunion at Fort Walton Beach, Florida, not far from Eglin Air Force Base, where they trained for the original mission. The bottle and the goblets had been maintained by the United States Air Force Academy on display in Arnold Hall, the cadet social center, until 2006. On 19 April 2006, these memorabilia were transferred to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: On 18 April 2013, a final reunion for the surviving Raiders was held at Eglin Air Force Base, with Robert Hite the only survivor unable to attend.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The "final toast to fallen comrades" by the surviving raiders took place at the NMUSAF on 9 November 2013, preceded by a B-25 flyover, and was attended by Richard Cole, Edward Saylor, and David Thatcher.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Seven other men, including Lt. Miller and raider historian Col. Carroll V. Glines, are considered honorary Raiders for their efforts for the mission.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Children of the Doolittle Raiders organization was founded on 18 April 2006, authorized by the Doolittle Raiders organization and the surviving members at the time. Descendants of the Doolittle Raiders organize fundraisers for a scholarship fund and continue to organize the Doolittle Raiders reunions. The 2019 reunion was held at Lt. Col. Richard E. Cole's memorial service.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Col. Bill Bower, the last surviving Doolittle raider aircraft commander, died on 10 January 2011 at age 93 in Boulder, Colorado.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Lt. Col. Edward Saylor, the then-enlisted engineer/gunner of aircraft No. 15 during the raid, died 28 January 2015 of natural causes at his home in Sumner, Washington, at the age of 94.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Lt. Col. Robert L. Hite, co-pilot of aircraft No. 16, died at a nursing home in Nashville, Tennessee, at the age of 95 on 29 March 2015. Hite was the last living prisoner of the Doolittle Raid.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: S/Sgt. David J. Thatcher, gunner of aircraft No. 7, died on 22 June 2016 in Missoula, Montana, at the age of 94.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: Lt Col. Richard E. Cole, Doolittle's copilot in aircraft No. 1, was the last surviving Doolittle Raider and the only one to live to an older age than Doolittle, who died in 1993 at age 96. Cole was the only Raider still alive when the wreckage of "Hornet" was found in late January 2019 by the research vessel at a depth of more than off the Solomon Islands. Cole died 9 April 2019, at the age of 103.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The most extensive display of Doolittle Raid memorabilia is at the National Museum of the United States Air Force (on Wright-Patterson Air Force Base) in Dayton, Ohio. The centerpiece is a like-new B-25, which is painted and marked as Doolittle's aircraft, "40-2344", (rebuilt by North American Aviation to B-25B configuration from an F-10D photo reconnaissance version of the B-25D). The bomber, which North American Aviation presented to the Raiders in 1958, rests on a reproduction of "Hornet"s flight deck. Several authentically dressed mannequins surround the aircraft, including representations of Doolittle, "Hornet" Captain Marc Mitscher, and groups of Army and Navy men loading the bomber's bombs and ammunition. Also exhibited are the silver goblets used by the Raiders at each of their annual reunions, pieces of flight clothing and personal equipment, a parachute used by one of the Raiders in his bailout over China, and group photographs of all 16 crews, and other items.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The last B-25 to be retired from the U.S. Air Force inventory is displayed at the Air Force Armament Museum at Eglin AFB, also in the markings of Gen. Doolittle's aircraft.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: A fragment of the wreckage of one of the aircraft, and the medals awarded to Doolittle, are on display at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 2006 Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor on Ford Island, Oahu, Hawaii, also has a 1942 exhibit in which the centerpiece is a restored B-25 in the markings of "The Ruptured Duck" used on the Doolittle Raid.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The San Marcos, Texas, chapter of the Commemorative Air Force has in its museum the armor plate from the pilot seat of the B-25 Doolittle flew in the raid.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The interchange of Edmund Highway (South Carolina 302) and Interstate 26 nearest the former Columbia Army Air Base is designated the Doolittle Raiders Interchange.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: In China, a memorial hall honoring the Doolittle Raiders and the Chinese who provided them with assistance in aftermath of the raid is located at the city of Jiangshan in Quzhou, Zhejiang.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: On 21 April 1992, in conjunction with other Department of Defense World War II 50th-Anniversary Commemorative Events, two B-25 Mitchell bombers, B-25J "Heavenly Body" and B-25J "In The Mood", were hoisted aboard . The bombers participated in a commemorative re-enactment of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo, taking off from "Ranger"s flight deck before more than 1,500 guests. The launch took place off the coast of San Diego. Four B-25s were approved by the US Navy for the reenactment with two selected. The other two participants were B-25J "Executive Sweet" and B-25J "Pacific Princess". Following the launch, eight B-25s flew up the coast where General Doolittle and his son John P. Doolittle watched as each B-25 came in for a low pass, dropping 250 red, white, and blue carnations into the surf, concluding the event.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: On 19 May 2014, the United States House of Representatives passed , to award the Doolittle Raiders a Congressional Gold Medal for "outstanding heroism, valor, skill, and service to the United States in conducting the bombings of Tokyo." The award ceremony took place at the Capitol Building on 15 April 2015 with retired Air Force Lieutenant General John Hudson, the Director of the National Museum of the Air Force, accepting the award on behalf of the Doolittle Raiders.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: In September 2016, the Northrop Grumman B-21 was formally named "Raider" in honor of the Doolittle Raiders. The last surviving Doolittle Raider, retired Lt Col Richard E. Cole, was present at the naming ceremony at the Air Force Association conference.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: A highly fictionalized film in 1943, "Destination Tokyo" starring Cary Grant, tangentially involved the raid, concentrating on the fictional submarine . The submarine's mission is to enter Tokyo Bay undetected and place a landing party ashore to obtain weather information vital to the upcoming Doolittle raid. The film suggests the raid did not launch until up-to-the-minute data were received. All the after-action reports indicated the raid launched without time for weather briefings because of the encounter with the picket ship.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: A 1944 film, "The Purple Heart", was a highly fictionalized account of the torture and execution of Doolittle Raid prisoners.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The Doolittle Raid was the subject of another 1944 feature film, "Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo", based on the book of the same title by Ted Lawson, who was seriously injured in a crash landing off the coast of China. Spencer Tracy played Doolittle and Van Johnson portrayed Lawson. Footage from the film was later used for the opening scenes of "Midway" and in the TV miniseries "War and Remembrance".


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 2001 film "Pearl Harbor" (with Alec Baldwin playing Doolittle) presented a heavily fictionalized version of the raid. The film used the retired World War II aircraft carrier in Corpus Christi, Texas, to stand in for a Japanese carrier, while the aircraft were launched from , standing in for "Hornet" from which the Doolittle Raid was launched. The film's portrayal of the planning of the raid, the air raid itself, and the raid's aftermath, is not historically accurate.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The VHS video "DeShazer" including film footage of Doolittle and the flight preparations, along with the B-25s launching, is the story of missionary Sergeant Jake DeShazer of B-25 No. 16 (the last to launch from "Hornet"). The video is based on "The Amazing Story of Sergeant Jacob De Shazer: The Doolittle Raider Who Turned Missionary" by C. Hoyt Watson. At the end of both the video and the book, DeShazer after the war meets Mitsuo Fuchida, the commander and lead pilot of the Pearl Harbor attack.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: "Doolittle's Raiders: A Final Toast", a documentary by Tim Gray and the World War II Foundation, released in 2015, has interviews with the few surviving members of the raid.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The 2018 film "The Chinese Widow" (aka "The Hidden Soldier" and "In Harm's Way") presented a heavily fictionalized version of the raid with Emile Hirsch playing a fictional Captain Jack Turner who was hidden from the Japanese in China by a Chinese widow and her daughter, after he parachutes from his B-25 near her village. Vincent Riotta played Jimmy Doolittle.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The raid is depicted in the 2019 film "Midway", with actor Aaron Eckhart portraying Jimmy Doolittle. Emperor Hirohito is seen being told to go to a shelter during this scene.


title: Doolittle Raid

text: The character of Harry Broderick in the 1979 television series "Salvage 1" (played by Andy Griffith), was a fictional veteran of the raid.


title: Nightbirde

text: Jane Kristen Marczewski (December 29, 1990 – February 19, 2022), known professionally as Nightbirde, was an American singer-songwriter.


title: Nightbirde

text: Previously having released two EPs and several singles, Nightbirde auditioned on "America's Got Talent" in 2021, where she received a Golden Buzzer for her original song "It's OK". However, she decided to withdraw from "AGT" before the quarterfinals, because of worsening health due to cancer. Marczewski died on February 19, 2022 after losing her battle to cancer. She was just 31 years old.


title: Nightbirde

text: Marczewski was born on December 29, 1990. She was originally from Zanesville, Ohio, and had three siblings. Marczewski started songwriting at age six, when she helped her mother finish the lyrics for a song. As a young Christian, she volunteered and participated in various church ministries.


title: Nightbirde

text: Marczewski was a 2009 graduate of Licking County Christian Academy, and graduated from Liberty University (in Lynchburg, Virginia) with a marketing communications degree.


title: Nightbirde

text: Marczewski uploaded her first songs, and gave her first live performance in 2011, while a student at Liberty University. She released a three-song EP in 2012, called "Lines", on which she sang and played acoustic guitar. In 2013, she released "Ocean & Sky", a six-song EP that she funded on Kickstarter.


title: Nightbirde

text: Remaining in Lynchburg after graduating, Marczewski was a popular performer locally. She returned to Ohio in 2014, and following her marriage, moved in 2015 to Nashville, Tennessee (where she later resumed performing under her married name, Jane Claudio, with her husband acting as her producer). Credited as Jane Marczewski-Claudio, she contributed music for the 2015 documentary film, "".


title: Nightbirde

text: Nightbirde adopted her professional stage name based on a recurring dream, in which birds sang outside her window at night in anticipation of the morning. She explained: "It felt so poetic that these birds were singing as if it were morning, and yet there was no sign of it yet, and that’s what I want to embody." When asked the meaning behind her name by a fan on Instagram, Nightbirde responded:


title: Nightbirde

text: Nightbirde's style, a mix of folk and pop, evolved into electropop. Her first single as Nightbirde was "Girl in a Bubble", released in March 2019, along with a music video. In April 2019, she opened for Tori Kelly at Liberty University. In August 2020, following her second cancer diagnosis and remission, she released "It's OK" (her most popular song).


title: Nightbirde

text: Nightbirde peaked at No. 3 on the "Billboard" "Emerging Artists" chart in June 2021. Her song "New Year's Eve (The Remix)" peaked at No. 14 on iTunes in December 2021. It also charted in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. In March 2022, Nightbirde's song "It's OK" appeared during an episode of "Good Trouble". Her 2021 song "Brave" was officially released posthumously as a single in April 2022. Her 2019 song "Fly" was officially released as a single by her family on July 4, 2022.


title: Nightbirde

text: In June 2021, Nightbirde performed during the 16th season auditions on "America's Got Talent". During her appearance, she offered two inspirational statements:


title: Nightbirde

text: In August 2021, before she could compete in the show's quarterfinal round, Nightbirde withdrew from the competition because of worsening health. Cowell encouraged her not to return to the competition, saying "You don't need the stress right now." She appeared via remote broadcast during the live quarterfinals of "AGT" to express gratitude, and gave an update about her health on August 11, 2021.


title: Nightbirde

text: In an interview with "Entertainment Tonight", Cowell said Nightbirde could have gone all the way and been crowned champion, if it had been possible. In July 2022, Cowell ranked his favorite Top 15 Golden Buzzer moments in "AGT" history during season 17, and Nightbirde placed first.


title: Nightbirde

text: Marczewski was married to musician Jeremy Claudio. The couple separated and divorced in 2020, after which she moved from Nashville to Long Beach, California (where she was baptized).


title: Nightbirde

text: Nightbirde sold merchandise on social media, and raised money for medical expenses via GoFundMe. She also wrote poetry and painted prior to her death. Frequently posting, the singer's final message and selfie to social media was on January 11, 2022.


title: Nightbirde

text: Marczewski was diagnosed with breast cancer in 2017, and declared cancer-free in July 2018. Her cancer recurred in 2019, and she was given three to six months to live, but she was again declared cancer-free in 2020. Prior to her "America's Got Talent" audition, Marczewski was told that the cancer had metastasized to her lungs, spine and liver. With only a 2% chance of survival, she gave health updates on CNN and social media. According to Nightbirde: "I have a two percent chance of survival, but two percent is not zero percent. Two percent is something, and I wish people knew how amazing it is."


title: Nightbirde

text: At the age of 31, Marczewski died from the disease on February 19, 2022. She was surrounded by family in her San Clemente residence. The "AGT" judges and host released condolences on social media. A celebration of life, which was livestreamed, was held at Cornerstone Church in Ohio on March 4, 2022.


title: Nightbirde

text: The Marczewski family created The Nightbirde Memorial Fund (nightbirdefoundation.org), a foundation that donates to cancer research, and will help support those unable to afford the treatment they need.


title: Nightbirde

text: "" honored Nightbirde at the end of the "Auditions 2" episode on February 28, 2022. A title card with a photo of her read: "In Memory of Jane 'Nightbirde' Marczewski".


title: Nightbirde

text: Inspired by Nightbirde, the Lebanese dance group Mayyas (who received a Golden Buzzer from Sofía Vergara) honored her during the audition episode of "AGT's season 17" on June 21, 2022. Nightbirde's song "It's OK" also played in the background, during the beginning and ending of their performance.


title: Nightbirde

text: An emotional tribute to Nightbirde was highlighted during an "America's Got Talent" special on July 5, 2022. Judge Simon Cowell and host Terry Crews featured their favorite Golden Buzzer winners, with Nightbirde being ranked the best moment (No. 1), on the retrospective episode.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams Grand Prix Engineering Limited, currently racing in Formula One as Williams Racing, is a British Formula One motor racing team and constructor. It was founded by former team owner Frank Williams and automotive engineer Patrick Head. The team was formed in after Frank Williams' earlier unsuccessful F1 operation: Frank Williams Racing Cars (which later became Wolf–Williams Racing in 1976). All of Williams F1 chassis are called "FW" then a number, the FW being the initials of team co-founder and original owner, Frank Williams.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The team's first race was the 1977 Spanish Grand Prix, where the new team ran a March chassis for Patrick Nève. Williams started manufacturing its own cars the following year, and Switzerland's Clay Regazzoni won Williams' first race at the 1979 British Grand Prix. At the 1997 British Grand Prix, Canadian Jacques Villeneuve scored the team's 100th race victory, making Williams one of only four teams in Formula One, alongside Ferrari, fellow British team McLaren, and Mercedes to win 100 races. Williams won nine Constructors' Championships between and . This stood as a record until Ferrari surpassed it in .


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Drivers for Williams have included Australia's Alan Jones; Finland's Keke Rosberg; Britain's Nigel Mansell, Damon Hill, David Coulthard and Jenson Button; Colombia's Juan Pablo Montoya; France's Alain Prost; Brazil's Nelson Piquet and Ayrton Senna; Italy's Riccardo Patrese; and Canada's Jacques Villeneuve. Each of these drivers, with the exception of Senna, Patrese, Coulthard, Montoya and Button, have won one Drivers' title with the team. Of those who have won the championship with Williams, only Jones, Rosberg and Villeneuve actually defended their title while still with the team. Piquet moved to Lotus after winning the championship, Mansell moved to the American-based Indy Cars after winning the championship, Prost retired from racing after his 4th World Championship in , while Hill moved to Arrows after winning in . No driver who has won a drivers' title with Williams has managed to again win a title with another team.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams have worked with many engine manufacturers, most successfully with Renault, winning five of their nine Constructors' titles with the French company. Along with Ferrari, McLaren, Benetton and Renault, Williams is one of a group of five teams that won every Constructors' Championship between 1979 and 2008 and every Drivers' Championship from 1984 to 2008.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams F1 also has business interests beyond Formula One racing. Based in Grove, Oxfordshire, England, Williams has established Williams Advanced Engineering and Williams Hybrid Power which take technology originally developed for Formula One and adapt it for commercial applications. In April 2014, Williams Hybrid Power were sold to GKN. Williams Advanced Engineering had a technology centre in Qatar until it was closed in 2014.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In May 2020, Williams announced they were seeking buyers for a portion of the team due to poor financial performance in 2019 and that they had terminated the contract of title sponsor ROKiT. On 21 August 2020, Williams was acquired by Dorilton Capital.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Frank and Claire Williams stepped down from their management roles on 6 September 2020, with the 2020 Italian Grand Prix being their last time in their respective positions.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Frank Williams started the current Williams team in 1977 after his previous outfit, Frank Williams Racing Cars, failed to achieve the success he desired. Despite the promise of a new owner, Canadian millionaire Walter Wolf, and the team's rebranding as Wolf–Williams Racing in , the cars were not competitive. Eventually, Williams left the rechristened Walter Wolf Racing and moved to Didcot to rebuild his team as "Williams Grand Prix Engineering". Frank recruited young engineer Patrick Head to work for the team, creating the "Williams–Head" partnership.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Reuters reported on 20 November 2009 that Williams and Patrick Head had sold a minority stake in the team to an investment company led by Austrian Toto Wolff who said that it was purely a commercial decision.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In February 2011, Williams F1 announced plans to raise capital through an initial public offering (IPO) on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (FWB) in March 2011, with Sir Frank Williams remaining the majority shareholder and team principal after the IPO.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In December 2017 Frank Williams owned 51.3% of the company, with 24.1% on the public marketplace, Brad Hollinger owning 11.7%, Patrick Head 9.3%, and 3.6% is held by an employee trust fund.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: On 21 August 2020, Williams was acquired by Dorilton Capital. They are intending to continue racing under the Williams name. With the acquisition, Claire Williams was offered the chance to stay on as a team principal but that offer was declined. The 2020 Italian Grand Prix in Monza was the last race where the Williams family led the team.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams entered a custom March 761 for the season. Lone driver Patrick Nève appeared at 11 races that year, starting with the . The new team failed to score a point, achieving a best finish of 7th at the .


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: For the season, Patrick Head designed his first Williams car: the FW06. Williams signed Australian Alan Jones, who had won the the previous season for a devastated Shadow team following the death of their lead driver, Tom Pryce. Jones's first race for the team was the where he qualified the lone Williams car in 14th position but retired after 36 laps with a fuel system failure. The team scored its first championship points two rounds later at the when Jones finished fourth. Williams managed their first podium position at the , where the Australian came second, some 20 seconds behind the Ferrari of future Williams driver Carlos Reutemann. Williams ended the season in ninth place in the Constructors' Championship, with a respectable 11 points, while Alan Jones finished 11th in the Drivers' Championship. Towards the end of 1978, Frank Williams recruited Frank Dernie to join Patrick Head in the design office.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Head designed the FW07 for the season with Frank Dernie picking up the aerodynamic development and skirt design. This was the team's first ground effect car, a technology first introduced by Colin Chapman and Team Lotus. Williams also obtained membership of the Formula One Constructors' Association (FOCA) which expressed a preference for teams to run two cars, so Jones was partnered by Swiss driver Clay Regazzoni. It was not until the seventh round of the championship, the , that they achieved a points-scoring position. Regazzoni came close to taking the team's first win but finished second, less than a second behind race winner Jody Scheckter. The next round at Dijon is remembered for the final lap battle between René Arnoux and Gilles Villeneuve, but also saw both cars finish in the points for the first time; Jones was fourth with Regazzoni sixth. The team's first win came at the  – their home Grand Prix – when Regazzoni finished almost 25 seconds ahead of anyone else.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Greater successes followed when Williams cars finished first and second at the next round in Hockenheim, Alan Jones two seconds ahead of Regazzoni. Jones then made it three wins in a row at the Österreichring, finishing half a minute ahead of Gilles Villeneuve's Ferrari. Three wins in a row became four wins two weeks later at Zandvoort, Alan Jones winning again by a comfortable margin over Jody Scheckter's Ferrari. Scheckter ended the Williams winning streak when he won Ferrari's home , Regazzoni finishing third behind both Ferraris. Alan Jones managed another win at the penultimate race at Montreal to cap off a great season.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams had greatly improved their Constructors' Championship position, finishing eight places higher than the previous year and scoring 59 more points. Alan Jones was the closest driver to the Ferrari duo of Villeneuve and 1979 champion Jody Scheckter; Jones scored 43 points, 17 behind Scheckter, while Jones's teammate, Regazzoni, was two places behind him with 32 points.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: During the 1980 season, Alan Jones partnered with the Argentine Carlos Reutemann. The team started well in the championship, with Jones winning the first round of the season in Argentina. Jones won four more races: Paul Ricard, Brands Hatch, Montreal and the final round at Watkins Glen. Jones became the first of seven Williams drivers to win the Drivers' Championship, 17 points ahead of Nelson Piquet's Brabham. Williams also won its first Constructors' Championship, scoring 120 points, almost twice as many as second-placed Ligier.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The duo won four races for the Williams team in the season. Alan Jones won at the first round at Long Beach and the final round at Las Vegas, while Carlos Reutemann won at the second round at Jacarepaguá and the fifth round at Zolder. Williams won the Constructors' title for the second year running, scoring 95 points, 34 points more than second-placed Brabham.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Alan Jones retired from Formula One (though he would come back a year later for a single race with the Arrows team). The Australian was replaced by Finnish driver, Keke Rosberg, who had not scored a single championship point the previous year. He won the Drivers' title that year despite winning only one race, the at Dijon-Prenois. Rosberg's teammate, Reutemann, finished in 15th place having quit Formula One after just two races of the new season. His seat was filled by Mario Andretti for the US Grand Prix West before Derek Daly took over for the rest of the year. The Williams team finished fourth in the Constructors' Championship that year, 16 points behind first-place Ferrari.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: By the end of the season, Frank Williams realised that to compete at the top levels of Formula One he needed the support of a major manufacturer, such as Renault or BMW who could supply his team with a turbocharged engine.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Frank Williams looked towards Honda, which was developing its own turbocharged V6 engine with the Spirit team. A deal between Honda and Williams was finally settled early in 1983 and the team used the engines for the 1984 season. Until then, for the season, Williams continued to use the Ford engine except for the last race of the year in South Africa where Keke Rosberg scored an encouraging fifth place. The team finished fourth in the Constructors' Championship, scoring 36 points, including a win for Rosberg at the .


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: For the season, Head designed the ungainly FW09. Keke Rosberg won the Dallas Grand Prix and managed to get second at the opening race in Brazil. Rosberg's teammate, Jacques Laffite, came 14th in the Drivers' Championship with five points. The team finished sixth with 25.5 points, with Rosberg eighth in the Drivers' Championship.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In , Head designed the FW10, the team's first chassis to employ the carbon-fibre composite technology pioneered by the McLaren team. British driver Nigel Mansell joined the team to partner with Rosberg. The team scored four wins with Rosberg winning in Detroit and Adelaide, and Mansell taking the and the . Williams finished third in the Constructors' Championship, scoring 71 points.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: During qualifying for the at Silverstone, Rosberg lapped the ultra fast circuit in 1:05.591 for an average speed of , the fastest recorded lap in Formula One history to that point.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: From 1985 until the end of the 1993 season, Williams cars ran with the yellow, blue and white Canon livery.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In March 1986, Frank Williams faced the most serious challenge of his life. While returning to the airport at Nice, France, after pre-season testing at Paul Ricard, he was involved in a road accident that left him paralysed. He did not return to the pit lane for almost a year. Despite the lack of his trackside presence, the Williams team won nine Grands Prix and the Constructors' Championship and came close to winning the Drivers' Championship with Nigel Mansell, but the British driver's left-rear tyre blew at the , the final round of the season, while his fellow championship rival and teammate, Nelson Piquet made a pitstop shortly after Mansell's retirement as a precaution. This left Alain Prost to defend his title successfully, despite being in an inferior car.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The season brought the Williams-Honda partnership its first and only Drivers' Championship title in the hands of Nelson Piquet. Piquet won three races and scored 76 points – 73 after dropped scores (best eleven results counted) in relation to the Drivers' Championship. His teammate Mansell was in second place with six victories and 61 points for the season. The Williams team won the Constructors' Championship for the second year running, scoring 137 points, 61 points ahead of their nearest rivals, McLaren. Despite this success, Honda ended their partnership with Williams at the end of the year in favour of McLaren and continuing with Lotus.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Unable to make a deal with another major engine manufacturer, Williams used naturally aspirated Judd engines for the season. This left them with a significant performance deficit compared with their turbo-powered rivals. Piquet left Williams to join Lotus who had retained their Honda engines for the 1988 season, helped by having Satoru Nakajima as number 2 driver to Piquet. Williams brought in Italian Riccardo Patrese to replace Piquet. The team did not win a race that season and finished seventh in the Constructors' Championship, scoring 20 points. The highlights of the season were two second-places by Mansell, at the British and Spanish . When Mansell was forced to miss two races due to illness, he was replaced by Martin Brundle and then Jean-Louis Schlesser.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The team secured an engine supply from Renault in 1989. Renault engines subsequently powered Williams drivers to another four Drivers' and five Constructors' Championships up until Renault's departure from Formula One at the end of 1997. The combination of Renault's powerful engine and Adrian Newey's design expertise led to a particularly dominant period in the mid-1990s. Mansell had a record-breaking 1992 season, winning the title in record time and leading many races from pole to finish.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Some maintain that the Williams FW14B and FW15C were "the most technologically advanced cars that will ever race in Formula One".


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The Renault era started in , with Italian Riccardo Patrese and Belgian Thierry Boutsen at the helm of the two Williams cars. Boutsen replaced Mansell, who had signed on to be Gerhard Berger's teammate at Ferrari. The engine's first Grand Prix in Brazil was one that the team preferred to forget: Boutsen retired with an engine failure and Patrese with an alternator failure after leading, although Patrese did qualify second. The Williams Renault team managed to get back on track with Boutsen coming fourth in the next race at Imola, earning the team three points in their championship campaign. Two races later at the Mexican Grand Prix, the team managed to achieve their first podium with the Renault engine, as Patrese finished second, 15 seconds behind Ayrton Senna. The next race saw Patrese finish second again, having started from 14th on the grid, with Boutsen 6th. At the sixth round in Montreal, Williams not only scored their first win with the Renault engine but also their first one-two: Thierry Boutsen came first followed by Patrese, resulting in 15 points for Williams's championship campaign. Williams came second in the Constructors' Championship, scoring 77 points in total; 64 points behind McLaren. Patrese finished 3rd in the Drivers' Championship with 40 points, 41 points behind the 1989 world champion, Alain Prost. Boutsen finished 5th in the championship with 37 points after also winning in Australia. Boutsen's win in Australia gave Williams the distinction of having won the first and last Grands Prix of the 1980s.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In the season, Williams kept Patrese and Boutsen as the team's drivers. Although Patrese won the San Marino Grand Prix and Boutsen won pole position and the race at the Hungarian Grand Prix, the team scored 20 fewer points than the previous year and finished the Constructors' Championship two positions lower, in fourth. In the Drivers' Championship, Boutsen finished sixth with 34 points and Patrese seventh with 23 points.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Boutsen left Williams and joined Ligier at the start of the season. His replacement was a returning Nigel Mansell, who had spent the previous two seasons driving for Scuderia Ferrari. Williams also recruited future 1996 world champion, Damon Hill, as one of their new test drivers. Williams failed to finish in the first Grand Prix of the season at Phoenix, both drivers retiring with gearbox problems. Patrese got back on track for the team in the next Grand Prix at Interlagos, coming second behind McLaren's Ayrton Senna. The 1991 San Marino Grand Prix saw both cars retiring again: Mansell after a collision and Patrese with an electrical failure after 17 laps. The Grand Prix at Monaco saw Mansell finish in a points-scoring position, coming second, 18 seconds behind Ayrton Senna. At the next race, the Canadian Grand Prix in Montreal, Williams locked out the front row only for Patrese to drop back with gearbox problems and Mansell to retire from the lead on the final lap with an electrical fault. At the following race, in Mexico, Williams achieved a 1–2, Patrese finishing ahead of Mansell to score 16 points for the Williams team. Williams then ran a streak of victories, with Mansell winning the French Grand Prix, five seconds ahead of Alain Prost's Ferrari. Mansell then won again at the British Grand Prix; it had been four years since a Briton had won the Grand Prix, Mansell having won it in 1987. Three consecutive victories became four when Mansell won again in Germany, with Patrese about 10 seconds behind him in second place. Senna ended Williams's run of victories by winning in Hungary, finishing five seconds ahead of Mansell. Mansell later won the Italian Grand Prix and the Spanish Grand Prix, while Patrese won the Portuguese Grand Prix after Mansell's race was ruined by a botched pitstop in which only three wheel nuts were fitted. Williams finished second in the Constructors' Championship, scoring 125 points in total, 14 points behind McLaren. Mansell finished second in the Drivers' Championship with 72 points, 24 points behind Senna.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams took a step up for the season, keeping their driver line-up of Patrese and Mansell. Mansell dominated the first round in South Africa, qualifying in pole position and winning the race by 24 seconds from his teammate, Patrese. Nigel Mansell won the next four rounds for Williams, at Mexico City, Interlagos, Catalunya and Imola, Patrese coming second in all but one (the Spanish Grand Prix at Catalunya, where he retired after spinning off). Mansell's five victories in the opening five races was a new record in Formula One. Senna won the next race in Monaco, ahead of both Williams cars, which finished second and third. In the next race, in Canada, both Williams cars retired: Mansell spun off on entering the final corner (he claimed that Senna pushed him off) and Patrese had a gearbox failure. Mansell went on to record four more Grand Prix wins, including at the British Grand Prix. (In the final round, in Adelaide, the two Williams cars again retired, Mansell after Senna violently crashed into the back of him, and Patrese with electrical problems.) Williams won the Constructors' Championship with 164 points, 65 points more than second-place McLaren. Mansell became World Champion, scoring 108 points, with Patrese finishing second with 56 points. Placing first in nine races, Mansell had set a new record for the most wins by a single driver in one year.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Despite this, there looked to be significant upheaval at Williams for 1993. Alain Prost ended his year-long sabbatical from competition following his 1991 firing by Scuderia Ferrari, and Williams was interested in bringing him in. At the same time Ayrton Senna’s contract with McLaren was ending, as was the team's engine contract with Honda, and he had long expressed a desire to pilot one of the Williams machines. Patrese decided to leave the team in the midst of this, joining Michael Schumacher at Benetton. Prost would eventually come to terms, and this would cause a domino effect that reached beyond F1 and into the PPG IndyCar Series as well.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Mansell and Prost had been teammates at Ferrari in 1990, and friction between the two drivers almost led to Mansell retiring from driving altogether after the season. Thus, Mansell had no desire to race with Prost as his teammate again and decided to take his driving acumen elsewhere. As it so happened, A seat was opening up at Newman/Haas Racing in the IndyCar Series as Michael Andretti, the 1991 series champion, was joining the Formula One World Championship for 1993 replacing Gerhard Berger at McLaren. Mansell, thus, signed to drive for Newman/Haas alongside Michael's father Mario Andretti.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: As noted above, McLaren was also losing its Honda engine supply at the end of the 1992 season. Senna had been hoping the team would be able to get a supply of engines from Renault, and when they were not able to convince Renault to do so Senna decided to approach the Williams organisation with an offer to drive in Patrese's old ride and do so without collecting a salary. However, as part of the terms of the contract he signed with Williams, Prost was given power of veto over whom the team would employ as his teammate. He refused to drive alongside Senna again, since he still had issues with him stemming from their time together at McLaren. Senna, who criticized Prost for the decision, would eventually return to McLaren for one final year driving Ford-powered machines, doing so on a race-to-race basis for the entire season. Meanwhile, Williams promoted Damon Hill to replace Patrese in their other entry.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The Williams FW15C was an extremely dominant car, with active suspension and traction control systems beyond anything available to the other teams. Prost won on his debut for the team in South Africa and, like Mansell, dominated the weekend, taking pole position and finishing a minute ahead of Senna, who was second. The next Grand Prix in Brazil saw Prost collide with Christian Fittipaldi's Minardi in the rain on lap 29, while Hill went on to his first podium finish: second, 16 seconds behind Senna. Prost won three of the next four Grands Prix for Williams, Senna winning the other race. Prost and Hill later scored a 1–2 in France: the only 1–2 of the season for Williams. Prost won the next two Grands Prix at Silverstone and Hockenheim. Hill proved competitive especially in the second half of the season. Mechanical problems cost Hill leads in Britain and Germany, but he went on to win the next three Grands Prix at Hungary, Belgium and Italy which moved him to second in the standings, as well as giving him a chance of taking the Drivers' title. After Italy, Williams would not win a Grand Prix for the rest of the season, as a young Michael Schumacher won the following race in Portugal, and Senna took Japan and Australia to overtake Hill in the points. Williams retained their Constructors' title, 84 points ahead of second-placed McLaren. Prost clinched the Drivers' Championship in Portugal and finished the season 26 points ahead of second-placed Senna.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Based on his victory in the 1992 World Championship, Mansell would have been issued car number 1 for the 1993 season, and his teammate issued number 2. However, Mansell's move to the IndyCar series meant that number 1 was not issued; instead, the team was issued the number 0, which was placed on Hill's car, while Prost was issued number 2.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: During the season, Williams used FW16 (developed during the pre-season) and FW16B (with shorter sidepods and optimised for the revised floor regulations which were introduced during the season).


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: After Canon left the team Williams signed a contract with tobacco company Rothmans International for , and their namesake brand became its primary sponsor from 1994 to .


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Unlike in the 1992 offseason, Williams was able to sign Ayrton Senna. The previously mentioned veto power written into Alain Prost's contract was only good for the 1993 season, and thus Senna was free to join Williams for 1994 if he so desired. Now that he was free and clear to do so without any sort of interference, and that McLaren was going through further issues with engine suppliers, Senna finally was able to fulfil his desire to drive for the two-time defending F1 championship team. Prost decided to go out on top, as shortly after Senna signed he announced his retirement from motorsports.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Given this was the same team that had won the previous two World Championships with vastly superior cars, Senna was a natural and presumptive pre-season title favourite, with second-year driver Damon Hill intended to play the supporting role. Between them, Prost, Senna, and Hill had won every race in 1993 but one, which was taken by Benetton's Michael Schumacher.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: As with 1993, Williams' cars were issued numbers 0 and 2, following Prost's victory in the 1993 championship and subsequent retirement. Hill retained the number 0, while Senna's car was issued number 2.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Pre-season testing showed the FW16 had speed but was difficult to drive. The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) had banned electronic driver's aids, such as active suspension, traction control and ABS, to make the sport more "human". It was these technological advancements that the Williams chassis of the previous years had been built around. With their removal in 1994, Williams had not been a good-handling car, as observed by other F1 drivers, having been seen to be very loose at the rear. Senna himself had made numerous comments that the Williams FW16 had quirks that needed to be ironed out. It was obvious that the FW16, after the regulation changes banning active suspension and traction control, exhibited none of the superiority of the FW15C and Williams FW14B cars that had preceded it. The surprise of testing was Benetton-Ford which was less powerful but more nimble than the Williams.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: The first four rounds were won by Michael Schumacher in the Benetton-Ford. Senna took pole in the first two races but failed to finish either of them. In the third race, the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix in Imola, Senna again took pole position, but was involved in a fatal crash at the second corner after completing six laps. The repercussions of Senna's fatal accident were severe for the team itself, as the Italian prosecutors tried to charge the team and Frank Williams with manslaughter, an episode which was not over until 2005. At the next race in Monaco, Damon Hill was the only Williams on the grid, as a mark of respect to Senna, and retired on the first lap. Since Senna's death, every Williams F1 car has carried a Senna 's' on its livery in his honour and to symbolise the team's ongoing support of the Instituto Ayrton Senna, but cars from 2022 onwards will not have the Senna S, with CEO Capito stating it was time to "move on".


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: At the next race in Spain, Williams brought in test driver David Coulthard as Hill's new teammate. Hill took the team's first victory of the season, by almost half a minute over Schumacher's Benetton, while Coulthard would retire due to an electrical problem. In Montreal, both Williams cars finished in the points for the first time that season, with Hill finishing second and Coulthard finishing fifth. In France, Nigel Mansell replaced Coulthard (in the first of four appearances), at the behest of Renault. At Silverstone, Damon Hill accomplished what had eluded his father, twice Formula One World Champion Graham Hill, by winning the British Grand Prix. Hill closed the points gap with Schumacher, who was disqualified from first at Spa after the Stewards found floorboard irregularities on his Benetton. He was banned for the next two races, and Hill capitalised on this with wins in Italy and a Williams 1–2 in Portugal.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: With three races left, 1992 champion Nigel Mansell returned from CART (where the season had concluded) to replace Coulthard for the remainder of the season. Mansell would get approximately £900,000 "per race", while Hill was paid £300,000 for the entire season, though Hill remained as lead driver.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Schumacher came back after his suspension for the European Grand Prix, which he won by about 25 seconds, to take a lead of 5 points into the penultimate round in Japan. The race in Japan was held in torrential rain, with Hill managing to win the restarted race, by three seconds on aggregate over Schumacher who finished second. Going into the final round at Adelaide, Schumacher led Hill by a single point. Mansell took pole for Williams but had a poor start which let Hill and Schumacher through to fight for the lead and the 1994 title. Midway through the race, Schumacher's perceived need for a low downforce setup cost him, as he lost control and clipped the outside wall at the 5th corner (out of sight of Hill). As Schumacher recovered, Hill came around the corner and attempted to overtake into the next corner. Schumacher turned in and the resulting contact (Schumacher in the wall and Hill retiring with bent suspension), meant Schumacher was the champion. This collision has been controversial. Some, such as Williams's Patrick Head, have suggested that this was a deliberate attempt by Schumacher to take Hill out of the race. Others, such as then BBC commentator Murray Walker, defended Schumacher, calling the accident a "racing incident". Meanwhile, Nigel Mansell won the last Grand Prix of his career here, driving the second Williams car.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams would end the season as Constructors' Champion for the third consecutive year, scoring 118 points, while Hill finished second in the Drivers' Championship with 91 points.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: In , Nigel Mansell was not retained, Williams favouring Coulthard over him to partner Hill. Schumacher, whose Benetton team had switched engine suppliers from Ford to Renault in the off-season, won the first round in Brazil, with Coulthard taking second. However, both were disqualified from the race after it was found that Elf supplied their teams with a type of fuel for which samples had not been provided to the FIA. Thus, Gerhard Berger and Ferrari were declared winners. Schumacher and Coulthard had their positions reinstated after appeal, though Benetton and Williams were not awarded their Constructors' points. Hill won the next two races in Argentina and San Marino and would later win races at The Hungaroring and in Adelaide. Hill won two laps ahead of the field at Adelaide in one of F1's most dominating victories. Coulthard recorded his only 1995 win for the Williams team at Estoril, before moving to McLaren.


title: Williams Grand Prix Engineering

text: Williams's champion streak was ended by Benetton, who elected to switch engine suppliers from Ford to Renault, the same as Williams. As such, Benetton outscored Williams by 29 points in the Constructors' Championship. Damon Hill placed second in the Drivers' Championship, 33 points behind Benetton's Michael Schumacher.