title: Russian ruble

text: In January 2014, President Putin said there should be a sound balance on the ruble exchange rate; that the Central Bank only regulated the national currency exchange rate when it went beyond the upper or lower limits of the floating exchange rate; and that the freer the Russian national currency is, the better it is, adding that this would make the economy react more effectively and timely to processes taking place in it.


title: Russian ruble

text: The first Russian ruble (RUR) introduced in January 1992 depreciated significantly versus the US dollar from US$1 = 125 RUR to around US$1 = 6,000 RUR (or 6 RUB) when it was redenominated in January 1998. The new ruble then depreciated rapidly in its first year to US$1 = 20 RUB before stabilizing at around US$1 = 30 RUB from 2001 to 2013.


title: Russian ruble

text: The financial crisis in Russia in 2014–2016 was the result of the collapse of the Russian ruble beginning in the second half of 2014. A decline in confidence in the Russian economy caused investors to sell off their Russian assets, which led to a decline in the value of the Russian ruble and sparked fears of a Russian financial crisis. The lack of confidence in the Russian economy stemmed from at least two major sources. The first is the fall in the price of oil in 2014. Crude oil, a major export of Russia, declined in price by nearly 50% between its yearly high in June 2014 and 16 December 2014. The second was the result of international economic sanctions imposed on Russia following Russia's annexation of Crimea and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine.


title: Russian ruble

text: The crisis affected the Russian economy, both consumers and companies, and regional financial markets, as well as Putin's ambitions regarding the Eurasian Economic Union. The Russian stock market in particular experienced large declines, with a 30% drop in the RTS Index from the beginning of December through 16 December 2014. From July 2014 to February 2015 the ruble fell dramatically against the U.S. dollar. A 6.5 percentage point interest rate rise to 17 percent failed to prevent the currency hitting record lows in a "perfect storm" of low oil prices, looming recession and Western sanctions over the Ukraine crisis.


title: Russian ruble

text: Russia faced steep economic sanctions due to the invasion of Ukraine in early 2022. In response to the military campaign, several countries imposed strict economic sanctions on the Russian economy. This led to a 32 percent drop in the value of the ruble, which traded at an exchange rate of 120 rubles per dollar in March 2022. On 23 March 2022, President Putin announced that Russia would only accept payments for Russian gas exports from “unfriendly countries” in rubles. This, along with several other actions to control capital flow, coinciding with soaring commodity prices led to the ruble rallying to a record high in May 2022 that economists feel is unlikely to last. However, the ruble continued to rally in June 2022, hitting its highest point (51 rubles to the dollar) for the past seven years at the end of the month.


title: Matcha

text: The traditional Japanese tea ceremony centers on the preparation, serving and drinking of matcha as hot tea, and embodies a meditative spirituality. In modern times, matcha is also used to flavor and dye foods, such as "mochi" and "soba" noodles, green tea ice cream, matcha lattes and a variety of Japanese "wagashi" confectionery.


title: Matcha

text: Matcha used in ceremonies is referred to as ceremonial-grade, meaning that the powder is of a high enough quality to be used in the tea ceremony. Lower-quality matcha is referred to as culinary-grade, but no standard industry definition or requirements exist for matcha.


title: Matcha

text: Blends of matcha are given poetic names known as "chamei" ("tea names") either by the producing plantation, shop, or creator of the blend, or by the grand master of a particular tea tradition. When a blend is named by the grand master of a tea ceremony lineage, it becomes known as the master's "konomi".


title: Matcha

text: In China during the Tang dynasty (618–907), tea leaves were steamed and formed into tea bricks for storage and trade. The tea was prepared by roasting and pulverizing the tea, decocting the resulting tea powder in hot water, and then adding salt. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), the method of making powdered tea from steam-prepared dried tea leaves and preparing the beverage by whipping the tea powder and hot water together in a bowl became popular.


title: Matcha

text: Preparation and consumption of powdered tea was formed into a ritual by Chan Buddhists. The earliest extant Chan monastic code, titled "Chanyuan Qinggui" ("Rules of Purity for the Chan Monastery", 1103), describes in detail the etiquette for tea ceremonies.


title: Matcha

text: Zen Buddhism and methods of preparing powdered tea were brought to Japan by Eisai in 1191. In Japan, it became an important item at Zen monasteries, and from the 14th through the 16th centuries, it was highly appreciated by members of the upper echelons of society.


title: Matcha

text: Matcha is made from shade-grown tea leaves that also are used to make "gyokuro". The preparation of matcha starts several weeks before harvest and may last up to 20 days, when the tea bushes are covered to prevent direct sunlight. This slows down growth, stimulates an increase in chlorophyll levels, turns the leaves a darker shade of green, and causes the production of amino acids, in particular theanine. After harvesting, if the leaves are rolled up before drying as in the production of "sencha" (煎茶), the result will be "gyokuro" (jade dew) tea. If the leaves are laid out flat to dry, however, they will crumble somewhat and become known as "tencha" (). Then, "tencha" may be deveined, destemmed, and stone-ground to the fine, bright green, talc-like powder known as "matcha".


title: Matcha

text: Grinding the leaves is a slow process because the mill stones must not get too warm, lest the aroma of the leaves be altered. Up to one hour may be needed to grind 30 grams of matcha.


title: Matcha

text: The flavour of matcha is dominated by its amino acids. The highest grades of "matcha" have a more intense sweetness and deeper flavour than the standard or coarser grades of tea harvested later in the year.


title: Matcha

text: "Tencha" refers to green tea leaves that have not yet been ground into fine powder as "matcha", as the leaves are instead left to dry rather than be kneaded. Since the leaves' cell walls are still intact, brewing tencha tea results in a pale green brew, which has a more mellow taste compared to other green tea extracts, and only the highest grade of "tencha" leaves can brew to its fullest flavor. "Tencha" leaves are half the weight of other tea leaves such as "sencha" and "gyokuro" so most "tencha" brews require double the number of leaves. About an hour is needed to grind 40 to 70 g of "tencha" leaves into matcha, and matcha does not retain its freshness as long as "tencha" in powder form because powder begins to oxidize. Drinking and brewing "tencha" is traditionally prohibited by the Japanese tea ceremony.


title: Matcha

text: Commercial considerations, especially outside Japan, have increasingly seen matcha marketed according to "grades", indicating quality.


title: Matcha

text: Of the following terms "ceremonial grade" is not recognised in Japan but "food grade" or "culinary grade" are.


title: Matcha

text: In general, matcha is expensive compared to other forms of green tea, although its price depends on its quality. Higher grades are pricier due to the production methods and younger leaves used, and thus they have a more delicate flavour, and are more suited to be enjoyed as tea.


title: Matcha

text: Like other forms of green tea, all grades of matcha have the potential health benefits and risks associated with the "Camellia sinensis" plant (the human clinical evidence is still limited), while the nutrient content varies depending on climate, season, horticultural practices, plant variety, manufacturing methods and the age of the leaf, i.e., the position of the leaf on the harvested shoot. Catechin concentration is highly dependent on leaf age (the leaf bud and the first leaf are richest in epigallocatechin gallate), but catechin levels also vary greatly between plant varieties and whether the plants are grown in shade.


title: Matcha

text: Chemical compositions of various grades of matcha were studied, with the results showing that the contents of caffeine, free amino acids, theanine, and vitamin C decreased with the decreasing price of matcha.


title: Matcha

text: Another study examined the chemical components of "tencha" (from which matcha is made), and showed that higher grade teas contained greater amounts of total amino acids, theanine, and other individual amino acids. On the other hand, the high grade teas contained lower amounts of total catechins than lower grade teas (epigallocatechin (EGC) and epicatechin (EC) contents were greater in lower grade teas, while those of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and epicatechin gallate (ECG) did not seem to correlate with tea grade), with the conclusion that the EGCG/EGC ratio reflected the quality of matcha more effectively than the EGC or total catechin contents. The relationship between the grade of "tencha" and caffeine contents seemed low. The chlorophyll contents were greater in the higher grade teas with a few exceptions, likely related to the strong shading used to cultivate high quality "tencha".


title: Matcha

text: The study also examined the chemical components of ceremonial grade matcha, industrial grade matcha (referring to powdered teas used in the food industry and cooking, and labelled matcha), and other powdered green tea samples (like "sencha" and "gyokuro"). The prices of industrial matcha were ＞600 Yen/100 g, and the prices of ceremonial matcha were ＞3,000 Yen/100 g. On the other hand, prices of powdered green tea were ＜600 Yen/100 g. The prices ranged from 8,100 Yen/100 g (ceremonial grade) to 170 Yen/100 g (powdered "sencha"). Samples of matcha for tea ceremonies were characterized by high contents of theanine (＞1.8 g/100 g), and high ratios of EGCG/EGC (＞3.2 g/100 g). On the other hand, for the industrial grade matcha samples and powdered green teas, the theanine contents and EGCG/EGC ratios were ＜1.7 g/100 g and ＜3.3 g/100 g, respectively. The contents of chlorophyll of matcha for tea ceremonies were ＞250 mg/100 g, and of most of the other samples were ＜260 mg/100 g. Although no difference was found between the theanine contents and EGCG/EGC ratios of industrial grade matcha and powdered green teas, the chlorophyll contents in industrial grade matcha tended to be higher than those of powdered green tea.


title: Matcha

text: Where leaves destined for "tencha "are picked on the tea bush is vital for different grades of matcha. The young developing leaves on the top of the plant, that are soft and supple, are used for higher grades of matcha, resulting in a finer texture and flavour. For the lower grades, older more developed leaves are used, giving them a sandy texture and slightly bitter flavour.


title: Matcha

text: Traditionally, "sencha" leaves are dried outside in the shade and are never exposed to direct sunlight; however, now drying has mostly moved indoors. Quality matcha is vibrantly green as a result of this treatment.


title: Matcha

text: Without the correct equipment and technique, matcha can become "burnt" and suffer degraded quality. Typically, in Japan, it is stone-ground to a fine powder through the use of specially designed granite stone mills.


title: Matcha

text: Oxidation is also a factor in determining grade. Matcha exposed to oxygen may easily become compromised. Oxidized matcha has a distinctive hay-like smell, and a dull brownish-green colour.


title: Matcha

text: Prior to use, the matcha is often forced through a sieve to break up clumps. Special sieves are available for this purpose, which are usually stainless steel and combine a fine wire-mesh sieve and a temporary storage container. A special wooden spatula is used to force the tea through the sieve, or a small, smooth stone may be placed on top of the sieve and the device shaken gently.


title: Matcha

text: If the sieved matcha is to be served at a Japanese tea ceremony, then it will be placed into a small tea caddy known as a chaki. Otherwise, it can be scooped directly from the sieve into a chawan.


title: Matcha

text: About 2–4 grams of matcha is placed into the bowl, traditionally using a bamboo scoop called a "chashaku", and then about 60–80 ml of hot water are added.


title: Matcha

text: While other fine Japanese teas such as gyokuro are prepared using water cooled as low as 40 °C, in Japan, matcha is commonly prepared with water just below the boiling point although temperatures as low as 70–85 °C or 158–185 °F are similarly recommended.


title: Matcha

text: "Usucha", or thin tea, is prepared with about 1.75 g (amounting to heaped "chashaku" scoop, or about half a teaspoon) of "matcha" and about of hot water per serving, which can be whisked to produce froth or not, according to the drinker's preference (or to the traditions of the particular school of tea). "Usucha" creates a lighter and slightly more bitter tea.


title: Matcha

text: "Koicha", or thick tea, requires significantly more "matcha" (usually about doubling the powder and halving the water): about 3.75 g (amounting to 3 heaped "chashaku" scoops, or about one teaspoon) of "matcha" and 40 ml (1.3 fl oz) of hot water per serving, or as many as 6 teaspoons to cups of water. Because the resulting mixture is significantly thicker (with a similar consistency to liquid honey), blending it requires a slower, stirring motion that does not produce foam. "Koicha" is normally made with more expensive matcha from older tea trees (exceeding 30 years), thus producing a milder and sweeter tea than "usucha". It is served almost exclusively as part of Japanese tea ceremonies.


title: Matcha

text: The mixture of water and tea powder is whisked to a uniform consistency using a bamboo whisk known as a "chasen". No lumps should be left in the liquid, and no ground tea should remain on the sides of the bowl. Because matcha may be bitter, it is traditionally served with a small "wagashi" sweet (intended to be consumed before drinking), but without added milk or sugar. It is usually considered that 40 g of matcha provides for 20 bowls of "usucha" or 10 bowls of "koicha":


title: Matcha

text: It is used in "castella", "manjū", and "monaka"; as a topping for shaved ice ("kakigōri"); mixed with milk and sugar as a drink; and mixed with salt and used to flavour tempura in a mixture known as "matcha-jio". It is also used as flavouring in many Western-style chocolates, candy, and desserts, such as cakes and pastries, including Swiss rolls and cheesecake, cookies, pudding, mousse, and green tea ice cream. Matcha frozen yogurt is sold in shops and can be made at home using Greek yogurt. The Japanese snacks Pocky and Kit Kats have matcha-flavoured versions. It may also be mixed into other forms of tea. For example, it is added to "genmaicha" to form "matcha-iri genmaicha" (literally, roasted brown rice and green tea with added matcha).


title: Matcha

text: The use of "matcha" in modern drinks has also spread to North American cafés, such as Starbucks, which introduced "green tea lattes" and other matcha-flavoured drinks after they became successful in their Japanese store locations. As in Japan, it has become integrated into lattes, iced drinks, milkshakes, and smoothies.


title: Matcha

text: As matcha is a concentrated form of green tea, it has been reputed by enthusiasts for centuries that "matcha" possesses stronger health benefits associated with green tea. Caffeine is more concentrated in matcha, but the main matcha constituent expected to have a stress-reducing effect is theanine. Theanine is the most abundant amino acid in green tea, and together with succinic acid, gallic acid and theogallin is what gives "matcha" its umami flavor. Compared to traditional green tea, the production of" matcha "requires the tea leaves to be protected from sunlight. Shading results in an increase in caffeine, total free amino acids, including theanine, but also reduces the accumulation of flavonoids (catechins) in leaves.


title: Matcha

text: Theanine's stress-reducing effects were tested at Japan's University of Shizuoka, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, where studies show that laboratory mice that consumed more than 33 mg/kg of matcha had significantly suppressed adrenal hypertrophy, a symptom that shows sensitivity to stress. The School of Pharmaceutical Sciences also tested the stress-reducing effects on university students and confirmed that students who ingested 3 grams of matcha in 500 ml of room-temperature water had reduced anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory or STAI), than students who consumed placebo.


title: Jahangir

text: Nur-ud-Din Muhammad Salim (30 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), known by his imperial name Jahangir (; ), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until he died in 1627. He was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti.


title: Jahangir

text: Prince Salim was the third son born to Akbar and his favourite Queen Consort, Mariam-uz-Zamani in Fatehpur Sikri on 30 August 1569. He had two elder half-brothers, Hassan Mirza and Hussain Mirza, born as twins to his father in 1564, both of whom died in infancy. Since these children had died in infancy, Akbar sought the blessing of holy men for an heir-apparent to his empire.


title: Jahangir

text: When Akbar was informed of the news that his chief Hindu wife was expecting a child, an order was passed for the establishment of a royal palace in Sikri near the lodgings of Shaikh Salim Chisti, where the Empress could enjoy the repose being in the vicinity of the revered saint. Mariam was shifted to the palace established there and during her pregnancy, Akbar himself used to travel to Sikri and used to spend half of his time in Sikri and another half in Agra. When Mariam-uz-Zamani was near her confinement, she was shifted to the humble dwelling of Shaikh Salim by Akbar where she gave birth to Prince Salim. He was named after Shaikh Salim given the faith of Akbar in the efficacy of the prayers of the holy man. Akbar, overjoyed with the news of his heir-apparent, ordered a great feast on the occasion of his birth and ordered the release of criminals with the great offence. Throughout the empire, largesses were bestowed over common people, and he set himself ready to visit Sikri immediately. However, he was advised by his courtiers to delay his visit to Sikri on the account of the astrological belief in Hindustan of a father not seeing the face of his long-awaited son immediately after his birth. He, therefore, delayed his visit and visited Sikri to meet his wife and son after forty-one days after his birth.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir's foster mother was the daughter of the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti, and his foster brother was Qutubuddin Koka(originally Sheikh Kubhu), the grandson of Chishti.


title: Jahangir

text: Salim started his learning at the age of five. On this occasion, a big feast was thrown by Emperor Akbar, ceremonially initiating his son into education. His first tutor was Qutb-ud-din. After some time he was inaugurated into strategic reasoning and military warfare by several tutors. His maternal uncle, Bhagwant Das was supposedly one of his tutors on the subject of warfare tactics. Salim grew up fluent in Persian and premodern Hindi, with a "respectable" knowledge of Turkic, the Mughal ancestral language.


title: Jahangir

text: He succeeded the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death. Salim ascended to the throne with the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi, and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36. Jahangir, soon after, had to fend off his own son, Prince Khusrau Mirza, when the latter attempted to claim the throne based on Akbar's will to become his next heir. Khusrau Mirza was defeated in 1606 and confined in the fort of Agra. Jahangir considered his third son, Prince Khurram (reign name Shah Jahan), his favourite. As punishment, Khusrau Mirza was handed over to his younger brother and was partially blinded and killed. In 1622, Jahangir sent his son, Prince Khurram, to fight against the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. After his victory, Khurram turned against his father and made a bid for power. Khurram murdered his blind older brother, Khusrau Mirza, in order to smoothen his own path to the throne. As with the insurrection of his eldest son, Khusrau, Jahangir was able to defeat the challenge from within his family and retain power.


title: Jahangir

text: The East India Company persuaded King James to send Sir Thomas Roe as a royal envoy to the Agra court of Jahangir. Roe resided at Agra for three years, until 1619. At the Mughal court, Roe allegedly became a favourite of Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner; certainly he arrived with gifts of "many crates of red wine" and explained to him ""What beer was? How was it made?"".


title: Jahangir

text: The immediate result of the mission was to obtain permission and protection for an East India Company factory at Surat. While no major trading privileges were conceded by Jahingir, "Roe's mission was the beginning of a Mughal-Company relationship that would develop into something approaching a partnership and see the EIC gradually drawn into the Mughal nexus".


title: Jahangir

text: While Roe's detailed journals are a valuable source of information on Jahangir's reign, the Emperor did not return the favour, with no mention of Roe in his own voluminous diaries.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1623, Emperor Jahangir sent his "tahwildar", Khan Alam, to Safavid Persia, accompanied by 800 sepoys, scribes and scholars, along with ten howdahs well decorated in gold and silver, in order to negotiate peace with Abbas I of Persia after a brief conflict in the region around Kandahar. Khan Alam soon returned with valuable gifts and groups of "Mir Shikar" (Hunt Masters) from both Safavid Persia and the Khanates of Central Asia.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1626, Jahangir began to contemplate an alliance between the Ottomans, Mughals and Uzbeks against the Safavids, who had defeated the Mughals at Kandahar. He even wrote a letter to the Ottoman Sultan, Murad IV. Jahangir's ambition did not materialise however, due to his death in 1627.


title: Jahangir

text: Salim's first and chief wife was the daughter of his maternal uncle Raja Bhagwant Das, Shah Begum, to whom he was betrothed in his tender years. His Mansab was raised to Twelve Thousand, in 1585, at the time of his marriage to Shah Begum. Nizamuddin remarks that she was considered to be the best and most suitable princess as the first wife of Prince Salim. Abul Fazl in Akbarnama illustrates her as a "jewel of chastity" and describes her as an extremely beautiful woman whose purity adorned her high extraction and was endowed with remarkable beauty and graces.


title: Jahangir

text: The marriage with Man Bai took place on 24 February 1585 in her native town Amer which was also the native town of his mother, Mariam-uz-Zamani. Akbar alongside several other nobles of the court personally visited Amer and followed this marriage. A lavish ceremony took place and the bride's palanquin was carried by Akbar and Salim for some distance in her honor. She became one of his favorite wives. Jahangir notes that he was extremely fond of her and designated her as his chief consort in the royal harem in his princely days. Jahangir also records his attachment and affection for her and makes notes of her unwavering devotion towards him. Jahangir honored her with the title "Shah Begum" after she gave birth to Khusrau Mirza, the eldest son of Jahangir.


title: Jahangir

text: One of his early favorite wives was a Rajput princess, Manavati bai, daughter of Raja Udai Singh Rathore of Marwar. The marriage was solemnized on 11 January 1586 at the bride's residence. Jahangir named her Jagat Gosain and she gave birth to Prince Khurram, the future Shah Jahan, who was Jahangir's successor to the throne.


title: Jahangir

text: On 26 June 1586, he married a daughter of Raja Rai Singh, Maharaja of Bikaner. In July 1586, he married Malika Shikar Begum, daughter of Abu Sa'id Khan Chagatai. Also in 1586, he married Sahib-i-Jamal Begum, daughter of Khwaja Hassan of Herat, a cousin of Zain Khan Koka.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1587, he married Malika Jahan Begum, daughter of Bhim Singh, Maharaja of Jaisalmer. He also married the daughter of Raja Darya Malbhas.


title: Jahangir

text: In October 1590, he married Zohra Begum, daughter of Mirza Sanjar Hazara. He married Karamsi, daughter of Raja Kesho Das Rathore of Merta. On 11 January 1592, he married Kanwal Rani, daughter of Ali Sher Khan, by his wife, Gul Khatun. In October 1592, he married a daughter of Husain Chak of Kashmir. In January/March 1593, he married Nur un-Nisa Begum, daughter of Ibrahim Husain Mirza, by his wife, Gulrukh Begum, daughter of Kamran Mirza. In September 1593, he married a daughter of Ali Khan Faruqi, Raja of Khandesh. He also married a daughter of Abdullah Khan Baluch.


title: Jahangir

text: On 28 June 1596, he married Khas Mahal Begum, daughter of Zain Khan Koka, Subadar of Kabul, and Lahore. This marriage was initially opposed by Akbar as he did not approve of the marriage of cousins to the same man however seeing the melancholy of Salim being refused to marry her, Akbar approved of this union. She became one of his chief consorts after her marriage.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1608, he married Saliha Banu Begum, daughter of Qasim Khan, a senior member of the Imperial Household. She became one of his chief consorts and was designated the title of Padshah Begum and for most of the reign of Jahangir retained this title. After her death, this title was passed to Nur Jahan.


title: Jahangir

text: On 17 June 1608, he married Koka Kumari Begum, eldest daughter of Jagat Singh, Yuvraj of Amber. This marriage was held at the palace of Jahangir's mother, Mariam-uz-Zamani. On 11 January 1610, he married the daughter of Ram Chand Bundela.


title: Jahangir

text: At some point, he had also married a daughter of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, son of Emperor Humayun. She was also one of the chief consorts of Jahangir.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nissa (better known by her subsequent title of Nur Jahan) on 25 May 1611. She was the widow of Sher Afgan. Mehr-un-Nissa became his most favorite wife after their marriage and was one of the chief consorts of Jahangir. She was witty, intelligent, and beautiful, which was what attracted Jahangir to her. Before being awarded the title of Nur Jahan ('Light of the World'), she was called Nur Mahal ('Light of the Palace'). After the death of Saliha Bano Begum in 1620, she was designated the title of Padshah Begum and held it until the death of Jahangir in 1627. Her abilities are said to range from fashion designing to building architectural monuments.


title: Jahangir

text: In the year 1594, Jahangir was dispatched by his father, the Emperor Akbar, alongside Asaf Khan, also known as Mirza Jafar Beg and Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, to defeat the renegade Vir Singh Deo of Bundela and to capture the city of Orchha, which was considered the centre of the revolt. Jahangir arrived with a force of 12,000 after many ferocious encounters and finally subdued the Bundela and ordered Vir Singh Deo to surrender. After tremendous casualties and the start of negotiations between the two, Vir Singh Deo handed over 5000 Bundela infantry and 1000 cavalry, but he feared Mughal retaliation and remained a fugitive until his death. The victorious Jahangir, at 26 years of age, ordered the completion of the Jahangir Mahal a famous Mughal citadel in Orchha to commemorate and honour his victory.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir then gathered his forces under the command of Ali Kuli Khan and fought Lakshmi Narayan of Koch Bihar. Lakshmi Narayan then accepted the Mughals as his suzerains and was given the title "Nazir", later establishing a garrison at Atharokotha.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1613, Jahangir issued a sanguinary order for the extirpation of the race of the Kolis who were notorious robbers and plunders living in the most inaccessible parts of Gujarat. A large number of them Koli chiefs slaughtered and the rest hunted to their mountains and deserts. 169 heads of such Koli chiefs killed in battle by Nurulla Ibrahim, commander of 'Bollodo'.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1613, the Portuguese seized the Mughal ship "Rahimi", which had set out from Surat on its way with a large cargo of 100,000 rupees and Pilgrims, who were on their way to Mecca and Medina in order to attend the annual Hajj. The "Rahimi" was owned by Mariam-uz-Zamani, mother of Jahangir and Akbar's favourite consort. She was bestowed the title of 'Mallika-e-Hindustan' (Queen of Hindustan) by Akbar and was subsequently referred as same during Jahangir's reign. The "Rahimi" was the largest Indian ship sailing in the Red Sea and was known to the Europeans as the "great pilgrimage ship". When the Portuguese officially refused to return the ship and the passengers, the outcry at the Mughal court was unusually severe. The outrage was compounded by the fact that the owner and the patron of the ship was none other than the revered mother of the current emperor. Jahangir himself was outraged and ordered the seizure of the Portuguese town Daman. He ordered the apprehension of all Portuguese within the Mughal Empire; he further confiscated churches that belonged to the Jesuits. This episode is considered to be an example of the struggle for wealth that would later ensue and lead to colonisation of the Indian sub-continent.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar. The campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that they were made to submit with great loss of life and property.


title: Jahangir

text: In 1608, Jahangir posted Islam Khan I to subdue the rebel Musa Khan, the Masnad-e Ala of the Baro-Bhuyan confederacy in Bengal, who was able to imprison him. Jahangir also captured Kangra Fort in 1615, whose rulers came under mughal vassalship during the reign of Akbar. Consequently, a siege was laid and the fort was taken in 1620, which "resulted in the submission of the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas in the region." The district of Kishtwar, in the state of Kashmir, was also conquered.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir was trying to restore his health by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but decided to return to Lahore because of a severe cold.


title: Jahangir

text: On the journey from Kashmir to Lahore, Jahangir died near Bhimber in 1627. To embalm and preserve his body, the entrails were removed; these were buried inside Baghsar Fort near Bhimber in Kashmir. The body was then conveyed by palanquin to Lahore and was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city. The elegant mausoleum is today a popular tourist attraction site.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram, who took the regnal name Shah Jahan. (Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram)


title: Jahangir

text: Sir Thomas Roe was England's first ambassador to the Mughal court. Relations with England turned tense in 1617 when Roe warned Jahangir that if the young and charismatic Prince Shah Jahan, newly instated as the Subedar of Gujarat, turned the English out of the province, ""then he must expect we would do our justice upon the seas"". Shah Jahan chose to seal an official Firman allowing the English to trade in Gujarat in the year 1618.


title: Jahangir

text: Many contemporary chroniclers were not sure how to describe Jahangir's personal belief structure. Roe labelled him an atheist, and although most others shied away from that term, they did not feel as though they could call him an orthodox Sunni. Roe believed Jahangir's religion to be of his own making, "for he envies [the Prophet] Muhammad, and wisely sees no reason why he should not be as great a prophet as he and therefore professed himself so... he hath found many disciples that flatter or follow him." At this time, one of those disciples happened to be the current English ambassador, though his initiation into Jahangir's inner circle was devoid of religious significance for Roe, as he did not understand the full extent of what he was doing. Jahangir hung "a picture of himself set in gold hanging at a wire gold chain" around Roe's neck. Roe thought it a "special favour, for all the great men that wear the King's image (which none may do but to whom it is given) receive no other than a medal of gold as big as six pence."


title: Jahangir

text: Had Roe intentionally converted, it would have caused quite a scandal in London. But since there was no intent, there was no resultant problem. Such disciples were an elite group of imperial servants, with one of them being promoted to Chief Justice. However, it is not clear that any of those who became disciples renounced their previous religion, so it is probable to see this as a way in which the emperor strengthened the bond between himself and his nobles. Despite Roe's somewhat casual use of the term 'atheist', he could not quite put his finger on Jahangir's real beliefs. Roe lamented that the emperor was either "the most impossible man in the world to be converted, or the most easy; for he loves to hear, and hath so little religion yet, that he can well abide to have any derided."


title: Jahangir

text: This should not imply that the multi-confessional state appealed to all, or that all Muslims were happy with the situation in India. In a book written on statecraft for Jahangir, the author advised him to direct "all his energies to understanding the counsel of the sages and to comprehending the intimations of the 'ulama.'" At the start of his regime many staunch Sunnis were hopeful, because he seemed less tolerant of other faiths than his father had been. At the time of his accession and the elimination of Abu'l Fazl, his father's chief minister and the architect of his eclectic religious stance, a powerful group of orthodox noblemen had gained increased power in the Mughal court. This included nobles especially like Shaykh Farid, Jahangir's trusted Mir Bakhshi, who held firmly the citadel of orthodoxy in Muslim India.


title: Jahangir

text: Most notorious was the execution of the Sikh Guru Arjan Dev, whom Jahangir had had killed in prison. His lands were confiscated and his sons imprisoned as Jahangir suspected him of helping Khusrau's rebellion. It is unclear whether Jahangir even understood what a Sikh was, referring to Guru Arjan as a Hindu, who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners... for three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop warm." The trigger for Guru Arjan's execution was his support for Jahangir's rebel son Khusrau Mirza, yet it is clear from Jahangir's own memoirs that he disliked Guru Arjan before then: "many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain affair or bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam."


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir also moved swiftly to persecute Jains. One of his court historians states, “One day at Ahmadabad it was reported that many of the infidel and superstitious sect of the Seoras [Jains] of Gujarat had made several very great and splendid temples, and having placed in them their false gods, had managed to secure a large degree of respect for themselves and that the women who went for worship in those temples were polluted by them and other people. The Emperor Jahangir ordered them banished from the country, and their temples to be demolished.”


title: Jahangir

text: In another story narrated by Jahangir himself in his memoir, Jahangir visited Pushkar and was shocked to find a temple of a boar like deity. He was quite taken-aback. "The worthless religion of the Hindus is this," he claimed and ordered his men to destroy the idol. He also heard about a jogi doing mysterious things and he ordered his men to evict him and have the place destroyed.


title: Jahangir

text: According to Richard M Eaton, Emperor Jahangir issued many edicts admonishing his nobles not to convert religion of anybody by force, but the issuance of such orders also suggests that such conversions must have occurred during his rule in some measure. He continued the Mughals tradition of being scrupulously secular in outlook. Stability, loyalty, and revenue was the main focus, not the religious change among their subjects.


title: Jahangir

text: There are instances of Jahangir open to multi-religious influences. Jahangir used to visit a Hindu ascetic, Jadrup Gosain. In his memoirs, he writes how the ascetic made a great impression on him due to his knowledge of Vedanta and his austere life. According to Dr. Faizan Mustafa, Jahangir also used to abstain from non-vegetarian food during the 12 days of the Jain Paryushan festival out of respect for his Jain subjects.


title: Jahangir

text: Muqarrab Khan sent to Jahangir "a European curtain (tapestry) the like of which in beauty no other work of the Frank [European] painters has ever been seen." One of his audience halls was "adorned with European screens." Christian themes attracted Jahangir, and even merited a mention in the Tuzuk. One of his slaves gave him a piece of ivory into which had been carved four scenes. In the last scene "there is a tree, below which the figure of the revered (hazrat) Jesus is shown. One person has placed his head at Jesus' feet, and an old man is conversing with Jesus and four others are standing by." Though Jahangir believed it to be the work of the slave who presented it to him, Sayyid Ahmad and Henry Beveridge suggest that it was of European origin and possibly showed the Transfiguration. Wherever it came from, and whatever it represented, it was clear that a European style had come to influence Mughal art, otherwise the slave would not have claimed it as his own design, nor would he have been believed by Jahangir.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture. In his autobiography, the Jahangirnama, Jahangir recorded events that occurred during his reign, descriptions of flora and fauna that he encountered, and other aspects of daily life, and commissioned court painters such as Ustad Mansur to paint detailed pieces that would accompany his vivid prose. For example, in 1619, he put pen to paper in awe of a royal falcon delivered to his court from the ruler of Iran: “What can I write of the beauty of this bird's colour? It had black markings, and every feather on its wings, back, and sides was extremely beautiful,” and then recorded his command that Ustad Mansur paint a portrait of it after it perished. Jahangir bound and displayed much of the art that he commissioned in elaborate albums of hundreds of images, sometimes organized around a theme such as zoology.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir himself was far from modest in his autobiography when he stated his prowess at being able to determine the artist of any portrait by simply looking at a painting. As he said:


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir took his connoisseurship of art very seriously. He also preserved paintings from Emperor Akbar's period. An excellent example of this is the painting done by Ustad Mansur of Musician Naubat Khan, son in law of legendary Tansen. In addition to their aesthetic qualities, paintings created under his reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing scholars with fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created.


title: Jahangir

text: In the foreword to W. M. Thackston's translation of the Jahangirnama, Milo Cleveland Beach explains that Jahangir ruled during a time of considerably stable political control, and had the opportunity to order artists to create art to accompany his memoirs that were “in response to the emperor's current enthusiasms”. He used his wealth and his luxury of free time to chronicle, in detail, the lush natural world that the Mughal Empire encompassed. At times, he would have artists travel with him for this purpose; when Jahangir was in Rahimabad, he had his painters on hand to capture the appearance of a specific tiger that he shot and killed, because he found it to be particularly beautiful.


title: Jahangir

text: The Jesuits had brought with them various books, engravings, and paintings and, when they saw the delight Akbar held for them, sent for more and more of the same to be given to the Mughals. They felt the Mughals were on the "verge of conversion", a notion which proved to be very false. Instead, both Akbar and Jahangir studied this artwork very closely and replicated and adapted it, adopting much of the early iconographic features and later the pictorial realism for which Renaissance art was known. Jahangir was notable for his pride in the ability of his court painters. A classic example of this is described in Sir Thomas Roe's diaries, in which the Emperor had his painters copy a European miniature several times creating a total of five miniatures. Jahangir then challenged Roe to pick out the original from the copies, a feat Sir Thomas Roe could not do, to the delight of Jahangir.


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir was also revolutionary in his adaptation of European styles. A collection at the British Museum in London contains seventy-four drawings of Indian portraits dating from the time of Jahangir, including a portrait of the emperor himself. These portraits are a unique example of art during Jahangir's reign because faces were not drawn in full, including the shoulders as well as the head as these drawings are.‘’


title: Jahangir

text: Jahangir is widely considered to have been a weak and incapable ruler. Orientalist Henry Beveridge (editor of the "Tuzk-e-Jahangiri") compares Jahangir to the Roman emperor Claudius, for both were "weak men... in their wrong places as rulers... [and had] Jahangir been head of a Natural History Museum... [he] would have been [a] better and happier man." Further he notes, "He made no addition to the imperial territories, but on the contrary, diminished them by losing Qandahar to the Persians. But possibly his peaceful temper, or his laziness, was an advantage, for it saved much bloodshed. His greatest fault as a king was his subservience to his wife, Nur-Jahan, and the consequent quarrel with his son, Shah Jahan, who was the ablest and best of his male children". Sir William Hawkins, who visited Jahangir's court in 1609, said: "In such short that what this man's father, called Ecber Padasha [Badshah Akbar], got of the Deccans, this king, Selim Sha [Jahangir] beginneth to lose." Italian writer and traveller, Niccolao Manucci, who worked under Jahangir's grandson, Dara Shikoh, began his discussion of Jahangir by saying: "It is a truth tested by experience that sons dissipate what their fathers gained in the sweat of their brow."


title: Jahangir

text: According to John F. Richards, Jahangir's frequent withdrawal to a private sphere of life was partly reflective of his indolence, brought on by his addiction to a considerable daily dosage of wine and opium.


title: The Usos

text: The Usos (born August 22, 1985) are an American professional wrestling tag team composed of twin brothers Joshua Samuel Fatu and Jonathan Solofa Fatu, who are known professionally by their respective ring names Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso. They are both currently signed to WWE, where they perform on the SmackDown brand and are the current Undisputed WWE Tag Team Champions, holding both the Raw Tag Team Championship in their third reign and the SmackDown Tag Team Championship in their fifth reign, which is the longest reign for the latter at + days and the longest tag team title reign in WWE history. They are also part of a stable called The Bloodline.


title: The Usos

text: Trained since childhood by their father, WWE Hall of Famer Rikishi, the team debuted in WWE's developmental brand Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) in 2009, where they became FCW Florida Tag Team Champions. Widely regarded as one of the greatest tag teams in WWE history, they were moved to the main roster the following year, and have gone on to be overall eight-time tag team champions in WWE, capturing the WWE (Raw) Tag Team Championship three times and winning the Slammy Award for Tag Team of the Year in both 2014 and 2015. In 2017, they won the SmackDown Tag Team Championship on three occasions, followed by a fourth reign in 2019 and a fifth reign in 2021. They are the first team to win both the Raw and SmackDown Tag Team Championships and the only team to hold them simultaneously.


title: The Usos

text: The Usos are members of the renowned Anoaʻi family of Samoan wrestlers, which also includes their father Rikishi, uncle Umaga, their father's cousins the late WWE Hall of Famer Yokozuna, Roman Reigns, and through a blood brotherhood between their great-grandfather Reverend Amituana'i Anoa'i and Peter Maivia, The Rock. The pair were previously managed by their cousin Tamina Snuka and Jimmy's wife, Naomi.


title: The Usos

text: Joshua Samuel Fatu (Josh) and Jonathan Solofa Fatu (Jon) were born in San Francisco, California on August 22, 1985 (Jonathan is the older twin by 9 minutes), the sons of Talisua Fuavai and professional wrestler Solofa Fatu Jr. The Fatu brothers are of Samoan descent. As the sons of WWE Hall of Famer Solofa Fatu Jr. (Rikishi), they are also part of the Anoaʻi family; they are first cousins once-removed from current and former WWE performers Afa Anoa'i Jr. The brothers attended Escambia High School in Pensacola, Florida, where they played competitive football. They continued their football careers at University of West Alabama, where they both played linebacker. Jonathan played one season (2003), while Joshua played from 2003 to 2005.


title: The Usos

text: Jimmy Uso (Jonathan Fatu) appeared at the Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) television tapings on November 5, 2009, accompanying Donny Marlow to the ring. Jimmy also appeared in a dark match prior to the FCW television tapings on November 19, defeating Titus O'Neil.


title: The Usos

text: The Fatu Brothers began 2010 by defeating The Rotundo Brothers (Duke and Bo) on January 14. In a clash of the generational wrestlers on February 18, The Rotundo Brothers teamed up with Wes Brisco to defeat The Usos and Donny Marlow. They continued their association with Marlow at the television tapings on February 25, when he accompanied them to ringside for a victory against Titus O'Neil and Big E Langston. In March they were joined by Sarona Snuka, who began acting as their manager and on March 13, The Usos defeated The Fortunate Sons (Joe Hennig and Brett DiBiase) to win the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship. They made their first title defense at the March 18 television tapings by defeating The Dudebusters (Trent Baretta and Caylen Croft) to retain. They went on to successfully defend the championship against Percy Watson and Darren Young, Hunico and Tito Nieves, Skip Sheffield and Darren Young, and The Dudebusters, who they defeated by disqualification when Tamina pulled the referee out of the ring to stop him from counting the pinfall. On June 3, The Usos lost the Florida Tag Team Championship to "Los Aviadores" (Hunico and Dos Equis).


title: The Usos

text: On the May 24, 2010, episode of "Raw", The Usos and Tamina made their debut as heels by attacking the Unified WWE Tag Team Champions, The Hart Dynasty (Tyson Kidd, David Hart Smith, and Natalya). The following week, Raw General Manager Bret Hart stated that he had signed them to contracts. That night, the trio cut a promo, stating that they were looking for respect for their families. They were interrupted and attacked by The Hart Dynasty, who were seeking revenge for the surprise attack the previous week. The Usos attempted to attack The Hart Dynasty again on the June 7 episode of "Raw", but The Harts were ready and gained the upper hand. The Usos made their in-ring debut for the brand on the June 17 episode of "Superstars", defeating Goldust and Mark Henry. Three days later they made their pay-per-view debut by losing to The Hart Dynasty in a six-person mixed tag team match at Fatal 4-Way. The Usos were scheduled to face The Hart Dynasty on the June 28 episode of "Raw", but the match never started as The Usos instead attacked The Harts when they were entering the ring. The Usos defeated The Hart Dynasty for the first time in a six-person mixed tag team match on the July 12 episode of "Raw" when Jey pinned Smith. The Usos challenged The Harts for the Unified Tag Team Championship at the Money in the Bank pay-per-view, but were unsuccessful. On the July 26 episode of "Raw", Jey Uso went against Randy Orton in his first singles match on the brand in a losing effort. They received another shot for the Tag Team Championship at Night of Champions in a Tag Team Turmoil match, where they eliminated both The Hart Dynasty and the team of Vladimir Kozlov and Santino Marella before being eliminated by Mark Henry and Evan Bourne. On the December 6 episode of "Raw", The Usos were in a fatal four-way tag match and were eliminated, but Tamina stayed in the corner of Marella and Kozlov upon their winning of the WWE Tag Team Championship; as a result, she turned face and left The Usos.


title: The Usos

text: On April 26, 2011, both Usos were drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2011 Supplemental Draft. On the June 2 episode of "Superstars", The Usos turned face when they competed against The Corre (Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater) in a losing effort. Throughout June 2011, The Usos continuous to complete victories with Gabriel and Slater in tag team matches, while managing to defeat them in two six-man tag matches while partnering once with Ezekiel Jackson and once with Trent Barreta. The Usos began performing the Siva Tau, a traditional Samoan war dance, as part of their ring entrance, using the dance to display their strength and energize themselves. They performed this entrance until they turned heel in 2016. On the July 29 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos challenged David Otunga and Michael McGillicutty for the WWE Tag Team Titles, but were defeated.


title: The Usos

text: The Usos then began appearing on the fifth season of NXT in September 2011, by delivering post-match attacks on the team of Darren Young and JTG. The Usos then went on to defeat Young and JTG on the September 27 episode of "NXT Redemption". However, just like how The Usos debuted on NXT, they were attacked after their win by another debuting tag team, Curt Hawkins and Tyler Reks, and The Usos were defeated by Hawkins and Reks the next week. In the following months and into 2012, The Usos exchanged wins with Hawkins and Reks on NXT, while continually losing to Primo and Epico on SmackDown. They also feuded with JTG, who had become Tamina's boyfriend. In March 2012, The Usos began a feud with Darren Young and Titus O'Neil, after they mocked The Usos' pre-match Siva Tau. Although The Usos beat Young and O'Neil in tag team matches, they were continually defeated in singles matches. On the final episode of the fifth season of "NXT" on June 13, The Usos defeated Johnny Curtis and Michael McGillicutty.


title: The Usos

text: The Usos then started a feud with The Ascension (Conor O'Brian and Kenneth Cameron) on the August 15 episode of "NXT", with a match between the two tag teams ending in the Ascension being disqualified; the Ascension then conducted a post-match attack on The Usos. On the August 29 episode of "NXT", The Usos called out the Ascension, but the Ascension ambushed The Usos and again delivered a beatdown. On the September 5 episode of "NXT", the Ascension defeated The Usos. The Usos then teamed with Richie Steamboat to lose to The Ascension and Kassius Ohno on the October 17 episode of "NXT". The Usos' feud with the Ascension was cut short when Cameron was released from WWE.


title: The Usos

text: At WrestleMania XXVIII, The Usos unsuccessfully challenged for the WWE Tag Team Championship in a triple threat dark match against champions Primo and Epico and Tyson Kidd and Justin Gabriel when the defending champions retained their titles. At No Way Out, The Usos competed with Primo and Epico, Justin Gabriel and Tyson Kidd, and The Prime Time Players in a Fatal-4-Way Tag Team match to determine the Number 1 contenders for the WWE Tag Team Champions and were unsuccessful. On the July 16 episode of Raw, The Usos made an appearance dancing with their father, Rikishi, after Rikishi made a "Blast from the Past" return defeating Heath Slater. On the September 7 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos were unsuccessful in winning a Triple Threat Tag Team match for No# 1 contendership for the WWE Tag Team titles against The Prime Time Players, and Primo and Epico.


title: The Usos

text: On the June 3 episode of "Raw", The Usos began to use face paint similar to their deceased uncle Eddie Fatu, also known as Umaga, as a means of further highlighting their Samoan culture. During the following months, they competed for The Shield's WWE Tag Team Championship. At Money in the Bank The Usos challenged Rollins and Reigns for the titles, but were unsuccessful and participated in a Triple threat tag team match against the team of Cody Rhodes and Goldust and The Shield at the Hell in a Cell pay per view, which they failed to win.


title: The Usos

text: The Usos were involved in the traditional Survivor Series elimination match at Survivor Series, teaming with Rey Mysterio, Cody Rhodes and Goldust in a losing effort against The Real Americans and The Shield. After a brief feud against The Wyatt Family, at the beginning of 2014, The Usos would go on a winning streak and began to demand a Tag Team Championship match from The New Age Outlaws. They received a tag title shot at the Elimination Chamber PPV against the Outlaws but were once again unsuccessful, but they won the titles on the March 3 episode of "Raw". On the WrestleMania XXX pre-show, The Usos successfully defended their titles in a Fatal Four Way Elimination match against Ryback and Curtis Axel, The Real Americans, and Los Matadores. The Usos then resumed a rivalry with The Wyatt Family, successfully retaining the championships against Harper and Rowan at Money in the Bank and Battleground. The Usos then dropped the titles to Goldust and Stardust at Night of Champions, ending their reign at 202 days.


title: The Usos

text: On the December 29 edition of "Raw", The Usos recaptured the titles from The Miz and Damien Mizdow after feuding with them over Naomi's entertainment opportunities. However, they lost the titles at Fastlane against Tyson Kidd and Cesaro. Despite getting a rematch the next night on "Raw", The Usos did not regain the titles due to Natalya interfering for a DQ win. At the March 9 "SmackDown" tapings, Jey Uso suffered a legitimate shoulder injury. On the WrestleMania 31 pre-show, they competed in the fatal-four-way tag team match in which they lost and Jey further injuring his shoulder.


title: The Usos

text: After Jey Uso suffered an anterior shoulder dislocation on the left arm, he remained off WWE television for about six months. On the April 18 episode of "Main Event", Jimmy Uso defeated Xavier Woods. Jimmy performed commentary while Jey was out with the injury. On the May 12 episode of "Main Event", Jimmy Uso teamed with Zack Ryder to face Luke Harper and Erick Rowan in a losing effort. Jimmy Uso returned to action on the September 10 episode of "SmackDown", teaming with Roman Reigns and Dean Ambrose in a six-man tag team against The New Day (Big E, Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods). They won via disqualification after Jimmy was attacked by The Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Braun Strowman and Luke Harper).


title: The Usos

text: Jey Uso returned on the November 2 episode of "Raw" alongside his brother Jimmy as a surprise return to team up with their cousin Roman Reigns, Dean Ambrose and Ryback against Seth Rollins, Kevin Owens and The New Day in a Survivor Series elimination tag team match, The Usos along with Reigns, Ambrose and Ryback were victorious in the match. On the November 30 episode of "Raw", The Usos competed in a tag team #1 contenders match against Lucha Dragons, which ended in a double disqualification when The New Day attacked both teams. Later that night, Stephanie McMahon told The Usos that they would be inserted to the tag team championship match at the pay-per-view if Roman Reigns defeated Sheamus during the main event of the show in 5 minutes and 15 seconds, which he won by disqualification. At TLC, The Usos competed in a losing effort. The Usos won a Slammy Award on the December 21 episode of "Raw" for "Tag Team of the year".


title: The Usos

text: At the Royal Rumble, The Usos unsuccessfully challenged The New Day for the WWE Tag Team Championship. In February, The Usos entered a feud with Dudley Boyz after The Dudley Boyz put The Usos through tables after defeating The New Day and Mark Henry in an 8-man Tag team Tables match. On the WrestleMania 32 kickoff show, The Usos defeated The Dudley Boyz, but the next night on "Raw", they were defeated by the Dudleys in tables match. On the April 11 episode of "Raw", The Usos defeated The Social Outcasts in the first round of a tag team tournament. Following the match, they were attacked by Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. The following week on "Raw", The Usos lost to The Vaudevillains in the semi-final round. On the May 2 episode of "Raw", The Usos and Roman Reigns were defeated by AJ Styles, Gallows and Anderson in a six-man tag team match when Styles pinned Jey Uso. At Extreme Rules, The Usos were defeated by Gallows and Anderson in a Texas Tornado match. Later that night, they helped Roman Reigns retain his title in the main event.


title: The Usos

text: On July 19, at the 2016 WWE draft, The Usos were drafted to SmackDown working on both the Battleground and SummerSlam pre-shows. Then, they entered an 8 tag team tournament to determine the inaugural holders of the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship. On the September 6 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos turned heel for the first time since 2011 when they attacked American Alpha after losing to them in 28 seconds in the semi-finals. At Backlash, The Usos defeated the Hype Bros before facing Heath Slater and Rhyno in the tournament finals, but were defeated. The Usos faced the new champions at No Mercy, where they were defeated again. As part of their heel turn, they began a street-like, thuggish gimmick. The Usos participated in a 5–on–5 Survivor Series Tag Team Elimination match at Survivor Series, where they lost to Cesaro and Sheamus of Team Raw. The Usos would reignite their feud with American Alpha following the Elimination Chamber after they attacked American Alpha.


title: The Usos

text: On the March 21, 2017 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos defeated American Alpha to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship, becoming the first team to have won both the Raw (formerly WWE Tag Team Championship) and SmackDown Tag Team Championship. On the April 12 episode of "SmackDown Live", The Usos were successful in their first title defense by defeating American Alpha in a rematch, ending the feud. They retained the titles at Backlash against Breezango (Tyler Breeze and Fandango) and Money in the Bank against The New Day, but lost them at Battleground to The New Day, ending their 124-day reign. On August 20 at the SummerSlam pre-show, The Usos defeated The New Day to recapture the titles. Their reign ended on the September 12 edition of "SmackDown Live" after they lost to The New Day in a Sin City Street Fight, but regained at Hell in a Cell. On the October 10 episode of "SmackDown Live", The Usos claimed that they had respect for The New Day, turning into fan favorites again.


title: The Usos

text: At Survivor Series, they defeated Raw Tag Team Champions Cesaro and Sheamus in an interbrand Champion vs Champion match. At Clash of Champions, The Usos retained the title in a Fatal 4-way tag team match against Chad Gable and Shelton Benjamin, The New Day (Big E and Kofi Kingston) and Rusev and Aiden English. At Royal Rumble, The Usos defended the title against Gable and Benjamin in a 2 out of 3 falls match, winning 2–0 to retain the title. They would renew their rivalry with the New Day, culminating in a title match at Fastlane, which would end in a no-contest due to interference from the Bludgeon Brothers. At WrestleMania 34, The Usos wrestled on the main card of WrestleMania for the first time, where they defended the titles against The New Day and The Bludgeon Brothers in a triple threat tag team match, but The Usos dropped the belts to The Bludgeon Brothers after Harper pinned Kofi Kingston. This ended their reign at 182 days, setting a record for the longest SmackDown Tag Team Championship reign. On the "SmackDown" after WrestleMania, The Usos would defeat the New Day to earn a rematch against the Bludgeon Brothers for the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship at the Greatest Royal Rumble. At the event on April 27, The Usos were defeated when Rowan pinned Jey Uso.


title: The Usos

text: On the May 22 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos attempted to earn another title match at Money in the Bank, but were defeated by Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson. Following the loss, The Usos began failing to earn numerous title opportunities, including a tag team match against a returning Team Hell No (Daniel Bryan and Kane) on the July 3 episode of "SmackDown" and losing in the first round of a number one contender's tournament to The Bar (Cesaro and Sheamus) on the July 31 episode of "SmackDown". After months of treading in the division, the Usos began to build momentum, starting with Survivor Series, where they, as Team SmackDown's captains, emerged from the 10-on-10 Survivor Series match as the sole survivors, giving SmackDown their only win over Raw. They would go on to challenge The Bar for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship in a triple threat match, which also included the New Day at , but failed to capture the titles.


title: The Usos

text: On the January 29, 2019 episode of "SmackDown", they defeated The Bar, The New Day and new SmackDown tag team Heavy Machinery (Otis and Tucker) to get a SmackDown Tag Team Championship match at Elimination Chamber, where they defeated Shane McMahon and The Miz, winning the titles for a record fourth time. On the March 25 "SmackDown", the Usos were a part of a tag-team gauntlet match in which they forfeited to former longtime rivals the New Day as a show of respect and to help Kofi Kingston earn a WWE Championship match at WrestleMania. As a storyline punishment for their deed, they were scheduled to defend the titles against The Bar, Aleister Black and Ricochet, and Shinsuke Nakamura and Rusev in a Fatal 4-Way at WrestleMania 35, where they would retain. Two days later, on the April 9 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos lost the titles to Hardy Boyz.


title: The Usos

text: As part of the 2019 WWE Superstar Shake-up, The Usos were drafted to the Raw brand. They entered a feud with The Revival (Dash Wilder and Scott Dawson) on "Raw", while also entering a feud with Daniel Bryan and Rowan on "SmackDown", thanks to WWE's new Wild Card Rule. On the May 7 episode of "SmackDown Live", they failed to regain the SmackDown Tag Team Championship from Bryan and Rowan. At Money in the Bank, they defeated Bryan and Rowan in a non-title match. They proceed their feud with The Revival, where the two team would be trading wins with one another. On the June 10 episode of "Raw", both The Usos and The Revival competed in a triple threat match for the Raw Tag Team Championship against champions Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder, which The Revival won. At Extreme Rules, The Usos challenged The Revival for the titles, where they were unsuccessful. Following Jimmy's arrest for DUI, the duo would be off television for the remainder of the calendar year.


title: The Usos

text: On the January 3, 2020 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos returned with a new short hair look and once again as part of the SmackDown brand, aiding Roman Reigns from an attack by King Corbin and Dolph Ziggler. The Usos then challenged for the SmackDown Tag Team Championship at Elimination Chamber and WrestleMania 36, where they were unsuccessful again. During the match at WrestleMania, Jimmy suffered a legitimate knee injury, putting him out of in-ring action indefinitely.


title: The Usos

text: On the September 4 episode of SmackDown, after Big E was attacked and injured in storyline, Jey took Big E's place in a fatal-four-way match against Matt Riddle, King Corbin, and Sheamus where the winner would earn a Universal Championship match at Clash of Champions against Roman Reigns, who turned heel recently. Jey won by pinning Riddle to earn the first singles championship opportunity of his career. He was defeated at Clash of Champions and then a received a rematch at Hell in a Cell but lost again. After Hell in a Cell, Jey aligned with Roman Reigns, thus turning heel in the process. On the April 9, 2021 special WrestleMania edition of "SmackDown", Jey won the Andre the Giant Memorial Battle Royal. This marked Jey's first major singles accolade in WWE.


title: The Usos

text: After Jimmy returned from injury on the May 7 episode of "SmackDown", there was initial strife between The Usos and Reigns before they all reconciled and formed a faction. During the Money in the Bank Kickoff pre-show on July 18, The Usos were successful in capturing their fifth SmackDown Tag Team Championship from The Mysterios (Rey and Dominik). At SummerSlam, The Usos would defeat The Mysterios in a rematch to retain the titles. On January 16, 2022, they broke their previous record of 182 days as longest reigning SmackDown Tag Team Champions. At WrestleMania 38, The Usos defeated Shinsuke Nakamura and Rick Boogs to retain their championship. At WrestleMania Backlash, The Usos and Reigns defeated RK-Bro (Randy Orton and Riddle) and Drew McIntyre in a six-man tag team match. On the May 20 episode of "SmackDown", they, with outside interference from Reigns, defeated RK-Bro to win the Raw Tag Team Championship, becoming the Undisputed WWE Tag Team Champions. This gave The Usos their third reign as Raw Tag Team Champions (and first reign with the title since 2014) and made them the only team to hold the Raw and SmackDown titles simultaneously. At Money in the Bank, The Usos retained their undisputed title against The Street Profits in controversial fashion, with The Usos winning by pinfall despite Montez Ford's shoulder being off the mat. A rematch between the teams was scheduled for SummerSlam with a special guest referee, later revealed to be Jeff Jarrett. On July 18, The Usos surpassed the 365-day mark as SmackDown Tag Team Champions, becoming the first team to hold the titles for a continuous reign of one full year. At SummerSlam, The Usos successfully retained against The Street Profits. At Crown Jewel on November 5, The Usos successfully retained the titles against The Brawling Brutes. On the November 11 episode of "SmackDown", they retained their championships against The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods), thus ensuring that they would become the longest reigning male tag team champions on WWE's main roster, a record previously set by The New Day at 483 days. On November 14, 2022, The Usos officially broke The New Day's record for main roster tag team championships, and then on November 28, they broke Gallus' record of 497 days with the NXT UK Tag Team Championship to become the longest reigning male tag team champions in WWE history, regardless of championship or roster status. At Survivor Series WarGames on November 26, The Usos along with The Bloodline defeated The Brawling Brutes, Drew McIntyre and Kevin Owens in a WarGames match.


title: The Usos

text: The pair starred in the first episode of "Outside the Ring", where they cooked a traditional Samoan barbecue.


title: The Usos

text: Together, The Usos made their video game debut in "WWE '13" as downloadable content. The Usos were not in "WWE 2K14" but returned in "WWE 2K15", and have continued to appear in "WWE 2K16", "WWE 2K17", "WWE 2K18", "WWE 2K19", "WWE 2K20", and WWE 2K22. They also appeared uncredited in "Countdown" with Dolph Ziggler, Roman Reigns, and Big Show, as well as the animated film "", which they play a role as Usobots, remaining in the same role.


title: The Usos

text: Jimmy is regularly featured in the reality television series "Total Divas" due to his marriage with Total Divas star Naomi. Jey has also made brief appearances. Jimmy has also appeared in his wife's music video for her song "Dance All Night", which was put on WWE's YouTube channel.


title: The Usos

text: The brothers are regularly featured on Xavier Woods' YouTube channel "UpUpDownDown", where Jimmy goes by the nickname 'Uce' and Jey goes by the nickname 'Jucey'. In May 2019, Jimmy unsuccessfully challenged Kofi Kingston in a game of "ClayFighter" for Kingston's UpUpDownDown Championship. A month later, Jey challenged Kingston for the title in a game of "Tetris", where Jey defeated Kingston to win the championship. Jimmy would then defeat Jey in a two-out-of-three game of "The King of Fighters XIV" to win the championship. He lost the title to Samoa Joe in a game of "World Heroes".


title: The Usos

text: After being named the number one contender for the WWE Universal Championship in September 2020, Jey Uso was featured on an episode of the WWE Network mini documentary series "WWE Chronicle".


title: The Usos

text: The Fatu brothers are of Samoan descent. As the sons of WWE Hall of Famer Solofa Fatu Jr. (Rikishi), they are also part of the Anoaʻi family; they are first cousins once-removed from current and former WWE performers Afa Anoa'i Jr. (Manu), Samula Anoaʻi (Samu), the late Matt Anoaʻi (Rosey), Joe Anoaʻi (Roman Reigns), Sean Maluta, the late WWE Hall of Famer Rodney Anoaʻi (Yokozuna), and Lance Anoa'i, as well as Jacob Fatu who currently performs for Major League Wrestling (MLW) but has never performed in WWE. They are also the nephews of Sam Fatu (The Tonga Kid), the late Eddie Fatu (Umaga), Afa Anoa'i and Sika Anoa'i. Their brother, Joseph "Sefa" Fatu, also performs in WWE under the ring name Solo Sikoa; he has performed in NXT 2.0 and made his main roster debut on SmackDown on September 9, 2022. They are also related through a blood brotherhood between their great-grandfather Reverend Amituana'i Anoa'i, Pita (Peter) Maivia, James (Jimmy) Snuka, James Reiher-Snuka (Deuce) Sarona Snuka Polamalu (Tamina), and Dwayne Johnson (The Rock). Their stage name "uso" means "brother" in the Samoan language. From 2011 to 2016, they performed the Samoan Siva Tau before their matches.


title: The Usos

text: Jonathan married fellow wrestler and longtime girlfriend Trinity McCray (Naomi) on January 16, 2014. She is also the stepmother of Jonathan's two children, Jayla and Jaidan.


title: The Usos

text: Jonathan Fatu was arrested on September 29, 2011, in Hillsborough County, Florida and charged with DUI. A police officer observed Fatu at around 3 A.M. EST driving the wrong way down a one way street. The officer pulled Fatu over and gave him a field sobriety test, which Fatu failed. Fatu was also given a breathalyzer and blew a .18, twice the legal limit in the state of Florida. Fatu was convicted and sentenced to probation. On March 13, 2013, Fatu was arrested for violating his probation by driving with a suspended license.


title: The Usos

text: Joshua Fatu was arrested in January 2018 for DWI in Hidalgo County, Texas after performing at a WWE live event held at Hidalgo's Payne Arena. He was released the same day after posting a $500 personal recognizance bond.


title: The Usos

text: On February 14, 2019, Jonathan Fatu was arrested in Detroit, Michigan following a dispute with police officers when he, Joshua, and Trinity Fatu's Dodge Journey rental vehicle were pulled over when driving the wrong way on a one-way street. Police claim that when they approached the vehicle, they could smell alcohol from the inside. Officers then requested Trinity, the driver, to exit the SUV so that they could speak with her. Officers then claimed that Jonathan Fatu, Trinity's spouse, exited the vehicle while officers were speaking to Trinity and removed his shirt, then proceeded to walk towards the officers, prompting one of the officers to pull out his taser. The situation was quickly calmed down, however, and Fatu was placed under arrest and charged with disorderly conduct and obstruction of justice. In March 2019, it was revealed that Fatu's attorney struck a plea deal with prosecutors, and as per the condition of the agreement, Fatu pleaded no contest to interfering with a government employee and he was ordered to pay a $450 fine.


title: The Usos

text: In the early morning hours of July 25, 2019, Jonathan Fatu was again arrested, this time near Pensacola, Florida, and was charged with DUI. He was taken into custody and booked into the Escambia County corrections center at approximately 3:00 A.M. EST. Fatu was later released from custody on $1,000 bond and was due to appear in court on August 15. Fatu was found not guilty by an Escambia county jury on the DUI charge after a trial that concluded on December 18, 2019.


title: The Usos

text: On July 5, 2021, Jonathan Fatu was arrested after being pulled over at approximately 10:35 PM in Pensacola. Officers claim Fatu ran a red light after they clocked him going 50 MPH in a 35 MPH zone. They administered a breathalyzer and Fatu's BAC came back at .202 and .205, well above Florida's legal limit of .08. Fatu was booked on a misdemeanor DUI charge along with citations for speeding and running a red light. Bond was set at $500.


title: Light

text: Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 terahertz, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths).


title: Light

text: In physics, the term "light" may refer more broadly to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light. The primary properties of light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum and polarization. Its speed in a vacuum, 299 792 458 metres a second (m/s), is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary particles called photons that represents the quanta of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as both waves and particles. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.


title: Light

text: The main source of natural light on Earth is the Sun. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps. With the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight.


title: Light

text: Generally, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is classified by wavelength into radio waves, microwaves, infrared, the visible spectrum that we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The designation "radiation" excludes static electric, magnetic and near fields.


title: Light

text: The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.


title: Light

text: EMR in the visible light region consists of quanta (called photons) that are at the lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause a lasting molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule retinal in the human retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision.


title: Light

text: There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by means of quantum-absorption. Infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by the infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it.


title: Light

text: Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light.


title: Light

text: Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420–680 nm to as broadly as 380–800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1,050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310–313 nm.


title: Light

text: Plant growth is also affected by the colour spectrum of light, a process known as photomorphogenesis.


title: Light

text: The speed of light in a vacuum is defined to be exactly 299 792 458 m/s (approx. 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum.


title: Light

text: Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit. However, its size was not known at that time. If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227 000 000 m/s.


title: Light

text: Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313 000 000 m/s.


title: Light

text: Léon Foucault carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298 000 000 m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mount Wilson to Mount San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299 796 000 m/s.


title: Light

text: The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary matter, is less than in vacuum. For example, the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum.


title: Light

text: Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge. However, the popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light.


title: Light

text: The study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed optics. The observation and study of optical phenomena such as rainbows and the aurora borealis offer many clues as to the nature of light.


title: Light

text: Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through a surface between one transparent material and another. It is described by Snell's Law:


title: Light

text: where θ is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the first medium, θ is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium and n and n are the indices of refraction, "n" = 1 in a vacuum and "n" > 1 in a transparent substance.


title: Light

text: When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as refraction.


title: Light

text: The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change the apparent size of images. Magnifying glasses, spectacles, contact lenses, microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation.


title: Light

text: There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.


title: Light

text: The peak of the black-body spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).


title: Light

text: Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "emission lines" in the spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor lamps, etc.) and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser.


title: Light

text: Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation. Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence. In living things, this process is called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies produce light by this means and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake.


title: Light

text: Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as fluorescence. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence. Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example. This mechanism is used in cathode-ray tube television sets and computer monitors.


title: Light

text: When the concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include:


title: Light

text: Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units: radiometry consists of measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while photometry measures light with wavelength weighted with respect to a standardized model of human brightness perception. Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify Illumination (lighting) intended for human use.


title: Light

text: The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that they take into account how the human eye responds to light. The cone cells in the human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum and the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm. Therefore, two sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m) of visible light do not necessarily appear equally bright. The photometry units are designed to take this into account and therefore are a better representation of how "bright" a light appears to be than raw intensity. They relate to raw power by a quantity called luminous efficacy and are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings. The illumination measured by a photocell sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human eye and without filters which may be costly, photocells and charge-coupled devices (CCD) tend to respond to some infrared, ultraviolet or both.


title: Light

text: Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path, a phenomenon which can be deduced by Maxwell's equations, but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by "c", the speed of light. Due to the magnitude of "c", the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects. For example, a one-milliwatt laser pointer exerts a force of about 3.3 piconewtons on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a U.S. penny with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers. However, in nanometre-scale applications such as nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more significant and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits is an active area of research. At larger scales, light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a windmill. The possibility of making solar sails that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation.


title: Light

text: Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer, in which the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against friction) "is" directly caused by light pressure.


title: Light

text: As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief."


title: Light

text: Usually light momentum is aligned with its direction of motion. However, for example in evanescent waves momentum is transverse to direction of propagation.


title: Light

text: In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from a source such as the sun.


title: Light

text: In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote "Optica", in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. If the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem.


title: Light

text: In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists, wrote that "The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." (from "On the nature of the Universe"). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted. Ptolemy (c. second century) wrote about the refraction of light in his book "Optics".


title: Light

text: In ancient India, the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the early centuries AD developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements ("tanmatra") out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.


title: Light

text: On the other hand, the Vaisheshika school gives an atomic theory of the physical world on the non-atomic ground of ether, space and time. (See "Indian atomism".) The basic atoms are those of earth ("prthivi"), water ("pani"), fire ("agni") and air ("vayu") Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of "tejas" (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the "tejas" atoms.


title: Light

text: The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the fifth century and Dharmakirti in the seventh century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy.


title: Light

text: René Descartes (1596–1650) held that light was a mechanical property of the luminous body, rejecting the "forms" of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo as well as the "species" of Bacon, Grosseteste and Kepler. In 1637 he published a theory of the refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descartes was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media.


title: Light

text: Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the transmitting medium, Descartes's theory of light is regarded as the start of modern physical optics.


title: Light

text: Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age and preferred his view to Descartes's theory of the "plenum". He stated in his "Hypothesis of Light" of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the diffraction of light (which had been observed by Francesco Grimaldi) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the aether.


title: Light

text: Newton's theory could be used to predict the reflection of light, but could only explain refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his "Opticks" of 1704. His reputation helped the particle theory of light to hold sway during the 18th century. The particle theory of light led Laplace to argue that a body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other words, it would become what is now called a black hole. Laplace withdrew his suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct). A translation of Newton's essay on light appears in "The large scale structure of space-time", by Stephen Hawking and George F. R. Ellis.


title: Light

text: The fact that light could be polarized was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory. Étienne-Louis Malus in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization. Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time the polarization was considered as the proof of the particle theory.


title: Light

text: To explain the origin of colours, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) developed a "pulse theory" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work "Micrographia" ("Observation IX"). In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations could be perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678 and published it in his "Treatise on Light" in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the luminiferous aether. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.


title: Light

text: The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young). Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler. He argued in "Nova theoria lucis et colorum" (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816 André-Marie Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave.


title: Light

text: Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light and presented it to the Académie des Sciences in 1817. Siméon Denis Poisson added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favor of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained by the wave theory of light if and only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.


title: Light

text: The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical substance luminiferous aether proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson–Morley experiment.


title: Light

text: Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite. At that time, the speed of light could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was Léon Foucault, in 1850. His result supported the wave theory and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned, only to partly re-emerge in the 20th century.


title: Light

text: In 1845, Michael Faraday discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light is rotated when the light rays travel along the magnetic field direction in the presence of a transparent dielectric, an effect now known as Faraday rotation. This was the first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism. In 1846 he speculated that light might be some form of disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines. Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether.