title: Studio 54

text: On several occasions, would-be guests attacked the doormen after being denied admission, and several guests pulled out guns when they were rejected. The club's security guards often cleared out trash cans within a several-block radius because of high concerns over violence. Some notables were denied admission. For instance, the president of Cyprus was once rejected because the doormen thought he was the president of New York City's Cypress Hills Cemetery. When one of Saudi king Khalid's sons was rejected, the Saudi embassy to the United States wrote Rubell a letter, asking that Khalid's son not be rejected again. The band Chic wrote a song in 1978, "Le Freak", after being refused entry to the club on New Year's Eve 1977, despite having been invited by Grace Jones. Even club members were not guaranteed entry. In June 1978, the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs (DCA) mandated that Rubell and Schrager stop selling memberships and refund existing members. The club failed to refund all memberships immediately, and Schrager claimed that November that only 40 members had applied for refunds.


title: Studio 54

text: The club generally opened at 10 p.m., with crowds peaking at midnight; the bar closed at 4 a.m., and the rest of the club stayed open until 6 a.m.. According to Rubell, the vast majority of the club's guests were not celebrities but, rather, members of the public who just wanted to dance. "The Washington Post" wrote in November 1977 that the club attracted "a mix of punks, hairdressers, socialites, and suburbanites", while "The New York Times" said the club was "tolerant of errant squares". Andy Warhol, a regular guest of Studio 54, said the club was "a dictatorship on the door but a democracy on the dance floor". Studio 54 enforced a photography ban to protect guests' privacy, but some images were still published, including a widely circulated image of Canadian first lady Margaret Trudeau without her underwear.


title: Studio 54

text: Many guests used club drugs, and they often engaged in open sexual activity on the club's balcony and in private basement rooms. The "Journal" characterized most of the women guests as "beneficiaries of a fabulously lucky genetic selection" and that the men guests generally had an "aura of self-esteem born in the knowledge that one can successfully choose among the select". Celebrity appearances, which were almost guaranteed, were frequently showcased in New York City's daily newspapers and in gossip columns. The nightclub was also frequented by many gay celebrities, leading Anthony Haden-Guest wrote that the club became "one of the single most effective showcases for newly visible gay clout". By 1978, there was a private dance floor behind a movable scrim on the main dance floor, as well as a VIP room in the basement, which could only be accessed by a hidden stairway.


title: Studio 54

text: The club also hosted private parties that, at a minimum, cost tens of thousands of dollars. The invitations to the parties were extravagant, using such materials as "Cupid's arrows, inflatable hearts, [or] jars of confetti". Among the events at Studio 54 was a New Year's Eve party hosted by event planner Robert Isabell, who dumped four tons of glitter onto the floor, creating a four-inch layer that could be found in attendees' clothing and homes several months later. The organizers of a Valentine's Day party in 1979 imported 3,000 Dutch tulips, transported of sod from Bermuda, and rented eight antique sculptures that each cost $17,000. Other events at the club included fundraisers for local politicians, as well as a Halloween party hosted by the staff of "People" magazine. Studio 54 was also a filming location for several music videos, such as those for several songs in Musique's album "Keep On Jumpin'".


title: Studio 54

text: Schrager did not have a liquor license when the club opened, despite having applied to the NYSLA for such a license. Instead, the nightclub applied for a "caterers' permit" every day; these permits were intended for weddings or political events, but they technically allowed the venue to serve alcohol. The club also did not have a certificate of occupancy or a public assembly license, prompting tipsters to complain to several federal agencies. On May 21, 1977, the NYSLA raided the nightclub for selling liquor without a license. The club reopened the next night, serving fruit juice and soda instead of liquor. Studio 54 continued serving non-alcoholic drinks exclusively until a justice for the New York Supreme Court, the state's trial-level court, ordered the NYSLA to grant Studio 54 a liquor license that October. The NYSLA's chairman complied with the Supreme Court ruling but objected to it, claiming that the judge had been influenced by Studio 54's upscale clientele. The New York Court of Appeals upheld the Supreme Court's decision in June 1978.


title: Studio 54

text: Schrager also applied for a cabaret license from the DCA, which did not grant Studio 54 a permanent cabaret license for more than a year. A contributing factor was that the city government only employed three cabaret inspectors, who could not validate all of the city's cabaret licenses in a timely manner. Additionally, the DCA rarely fined unlicensed cabarets more than $25. At the beginning of June 1978, DCA officials said the cabaret application had not been approved because of multiple violations of fire codes, though the New York City Fire Department refused to provide further details about these violations. The DCA could also deny a permanent license because of unresolved consumer complaints, such as those concerning Studio 54's annual memberships. The DCA refused to renew Studio 54's temporary cabaret license in August 1978 because Schrager and Rubell had not refunded all of the memberships.


title: Studio 54

text: Also in August 1978, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) sued Rubell and Schrager, alleging that the co-owners had failed to pay licensing fees for six performances that ASCAP had staged at Studio 54 earlier that year. Studio 54 ultimately paid ASCAP for a license in November 1978. The National Labor Relations Board was also investigating the club by February 1979 after some workers alleged that the club had engaged in "unfair labor practices".


title: Studio 54

text: In December 1978, a tipster called the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), alleging that Rubell and Schrager were skimming profits. The tip came from a disgruntled ex-employee, who also alleged that cocaine was illegally being stored in the basement. Shortly after, IRS agents raided Studio 54 and arrested Rubell and Schrager. The club continued to operate the night of the raid. A federal grand jury indicted Rubell and Schrager on charges of tax evasion in June 1979, observing that the two men had skimmed $2.5 million, or as much as 60 percent of Studio 54's receipts over the past two years. In an unsuccessful attempt to lessen the charges against the club's co-owners, Schrager's lawyer Mitchell Rogovin alleged that Hamilton Jordan, chief of staff to U.S. president Jimmy Carter, had used cocaine in the club's basement. In anticipation of increasing interest in rock music, Rubell and Schrager spent $1.2 million to renovate Studio 54 in late 1979. They installed a grand chandelier and a fly system above the stage, as well as removing seats from the balcony.


title: Studio 54

text: Rubell and Schrager ultimately pleaded guilty to tax evasion in November 1979, after "New York" magazine published a cover story describing the "party favors" that the two men gave to their friends. In exchange, federal prosecutors agreed not to charge the men with obstruction of justice and conspiracy. By then, the club was in danger of losing its liquor license after the owners had pleaded guilty to tax evasion, as the NYSLA did not give liquor licenses to convicted felons. Rubell and Schrager were each sentenced to three and a half years in prison in January 1980. The two men attended a final party on the night of February 2–3, 1980, with Diana Ross and Liza Minnelli singing for numerous guests. Rubell and Schrager began serving their sentences two days afterward. Ultimately, Rubell and Schrager were paroled after a year, and Schrager received a presidential pardon decades later.


title: Studio 54

text: The NYSLA unanimously voted not to renew Studio 54's liquor license on February 28, 1980, citing Rubell's and Schrager's criminal convictions, although the club was allowed to continue operating. The club lost its liquor license on February 29, and the club started serving fruit punch the next day. Studio 54's lawyers also announced that they would create a board of directors to operate the club. The third co-owner, Jack Dushey, had received a $10,000 fine and had been sentenced to five years of unsupervised probation after being convicted of conspiracy charges in March 1980. By the end of that month, Rubell was considering selling the club, despite having promised just two months prior that he would never sell Studio 54. Among those who expressed interest in the club were restaurateur Mark Fleischman, television host Dick Clark, and record executive Neil Bogart. The club closed down at the end of that March, as the revocation of the liquor license had caused a sharp decrease in business. Early the next month, Fleischman agreed to buy an option that would allow him to purchase the club for $5 million.


title: Studio 54

text: After announcing his plan to take over Studio 54, Fleischman said he would host live shows there and obtain a liquor license from the NYSLA. Studio 54 remained shuttered through the rest of the year, in large part because Rubell and Schrager continued to file legal objections against the NYSLA's revocation of the club's liquor license. The authority would not issue a liquor license as long as the club was involved in active litigation. Mike Stone Productions leased the club from Rubell and Schrager in early 1981, and the club started hosting private events again, albeit without alcoholic drinks and only on Friday and Saturday nights. Rubell's company sold the building to Philip Pilevsky for $1.15 million in cash in August 1981, leasing back space from Pilevsky. Fleischman applied for a liquor license from the NYSLA, which agreed to grant the license on the condition that Rubell and Schrager not be involved in any way. Fleischman also repainted the interior and removed the original club's light fixtures, and he paid the New York state government $250,000 in back taxes.


title: Studio 54

text: Studio 54 officially reopened to the public on September 15, 1981. Fleischman and his partner Jeffrey London mailed out 12,000 invitations for Studio 54's reopening, which were delivered on 25-watt silver lightbulbs. Jim Fouratt and Rudolf Pieper were hired as Studio 54's new managers. Initially, the club hosted "Modern Classix nights" during Wednesdays and Sundays, while it hosted disco music for the remainder of the week. There was also a 32-track recording studio in the basement, which was used for recording promotional videos and rock concerts. Notable figures associated with the second iteration of Studio 54 included doorman Haoui Montaug, as well as Paul Heyman, who was a photographer, producer, and promoter at the club. A notable guest during this time was Drew Barrymore, who was nine years old when her mother took her to Studio 54. Within three months of the club's reopening, Fleischman had ousted Fouratt and Pieper, who opened the Danceteria nightclub.


title: Studio 54

text: In 1982, social activist Jerry Rubin started hosting "Business Networking Salons", a networking event for businesspeople, at the club on Wednesday nights. Prospective guests would only be admitted if they had a business card; the networking events quickly became popular, often attracting 1,500 guests. For other events, Studio 54 implemented an invitation system, which enabled its operators to restrict some events to select guests without turning them away at the door. The club's mailing list had 200,000 names by 1984. Frank Cashman acquired the $3 million lien on the club in late 1984. The same year, Studio 54 also hosted special musical performances, starting with a series of concerts by Julie Budd. Meanwhile, the club was gradually losing long-time regulars to competing discotheques, including the Palladium, which Rubell and Schrager had opened after being released from prison. The club also faced several lawsuits from disgruntled high-profile guests, such as football player Mark Gastineau and a basketball player.


title: Studio 54

text: Fleischman filed for bankruptcy in November 1985; he had planned to spend $250,000 on renovations to attract guests. The club closed in April 1986 because it could not obtain liability insurance, in part because Studio 54 was losing so many of the lawsuits in which it was involved. Subsequently, Shalom Weiss took over Studio 54. The nightclub tended to attract a young and racially mixed clientele who were frequently involved in fights, prompting complaints from local residents. City officials revoked the club's cabaret license for two years in January 1989 after finding that the club's patrons frequently used cocaine illegally. The officials alleged that Studio 54 employees not only encouraged illegal drug use but also used cocaine themselves. In addition, the club admitted guests as young as 13 and had falsely advertised itself as selling alcoholic beverages.


title: Studio 54

text: Studio 54 was dilapidated by the late 1980s; the walls had peeling paint, while the auditorium's dome had been concealed by a dropped ceiling. Neil Cohen and John Scher, owners of the Ritz nightclub, leased the space from Philip Pilevsky for 25 years in 1989. They spent $2 million to restore the theater, adding fixed seating at orchestra level and installing production equipment above the stage. Cohen and Scher anticipated that the club could fit 3,000 people, including standees, although the theater only had about 1,800 seats. The Ritz relocated from the East Village to Studio 54 on April 5, 1989. According to "The New York Times", the new Ritz was more popular than the old location because both the orchestra and balcony had "excellent sound and sightlines". The Ritz was primarily a rock club, but it also hosted performances of pop music and salsa music. The Ritz was one of the most active nightclubs in the United States, with about 150 shows annually, until its promoters started booking fewer shows in mid-1991. Despite declining profits in 1992, the club's owners were planning to add a 250-seat side room next to the auditorium.


title: Studio 54

text: CAT Entertainment acquired Scher's interest in the Ritz in December 1992, and CAT was itself acquired by Cabaret Royale Corporation the next year. In July 1993, the Ritz announced it would close down and reopen as a topless bar. CAT Entertainment spent $3 million renovating the theater, including the stage area. CAT also resurrected both the nightclub and the Studio 54 trademark, which had never been properly registered by any of the prior owners or operators. John Neilson took over the venue with plans to reopen it as an uptown location of the Stringfellows nightclub. The remodeled nightclub opened in January 1994 and was operated as "Cabaret Royale at Studio 54". Most of the old theater's architectural detail had been covered up by then.


title: Studio 54

text: Meanwhile, the Bank of Tokyo had previously granted a mortgage on the theater and the adjacent office building to Pilevsky, which it foreclosed upon in June 1994. Later that month, the theater and building were auctioned off. CBS, the Manhattan Theatre Club, and Viacom were among those that showed interest in acquiring the theater and building. Allied Partners, run by the Hadar family, ultimately acquired the properties for $5.5 million. Allied then renovated the office building. Cabaret Royale closed in January 1995, and Allied announced plans to convert the space into a virtual reality gaming venue at a cost of $10 million. In anticipation of Studio 54's conversion, the nightclub hosted a final party on May 23, 1996, featuring disco star Gloria Gaynor and performers such as Crystal Waters and RuPaul. The virtual-reality complex was never built because of a lack of demand, and the club's space was instead rented out for private events.


title: Studio 54

text: Since 1998, the nonprofit Roundabout Theatre Company has operated Studio 54 as a Broadway theater, branded as Roundabout Theatre at Studio 54. It is one of Roundabout's three Broadway theaters, the others being the American Airlines Theatre and the Stephen Sondheim Theatre.


title: Studio 54

text: In July 1998, the collapse of a construction hoist at 4 Times Square blocked access to the Henry Miller Theatre (now Stephen Sondheim Theatre) on 43rd Street, where the nonprofit Roundabout Theatre Company's successful revival of the Broadway musical "Cabaret" was playing. Roundabout quickly began searching for alternative venues and, in September 1998, decided to move the production to Studio 54. The old nightclub required extensive renovations and was not air-conditioned, but Roundabout's artistic director Todd Haimes considered it the "only viable option" for the theatre company. "Cabaret" producer Sam Mendes had considered Studio 54's dilapidated condition to be an ideal setting for the production, just as the Henry Miller had been. Roundabout spent over $1 million converting the former nightclub into a 950-seat theater, buying old seats from the Imperial Theatre and installing them in the mezzanine. "Cabaret" moved to Studio 54 in November 1998, doubling the production's capacity.


title: Studio 54

text: Richard Hadar announced in early 1999 that he would operate a nightclub within the theater, which would still host performances of "Cabaret" during the day. By 2001, Roundabout was negotiating to buy Studio 54 from the Hadar family, which would allow the theatre company to own a Broadway theater for the first time. Early the next year, the Hadar family agreed to sell the theater for around $25 million. To fund the purchase, Roundabout would receive up to $32 million in tax-exempt bonds and $9 million from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs (DCA). Roundabout finalized its purchase in July 2003, paying $22.5 million, of which $6.75 million came from the DCA and $17.7 million came from tax-exempt bonds. Allied continued to own the office space above the theater.


title: Studio 54

text: Roundabout planned to use Studio 54 to host larger productions that could not be staged at the American Airlines Theatre. Haimes also wanted to renovate the theater, including expanding the orchestra pit and replacing the rigging system. After "Cabaret" closed in January 2004, Roundabout staged several shows a year at both theaters, and Studio 54 hosted a mixture of musicals and plays. The Stephen Sondheim and John Weidman musical "Assassins" was Roundabout's first new production at Studio 54, opening in April 2004. A revival of another musical by the same team, "Pacific Overtures", opened that December. Following these two productions, Broadway historian Louis Botto wrote that Studio 54 "had finally fully been welcomed into the Broadway family nearly 80 years after Fortune Gallo first dreamed of it".


title: Studio 54

text: Roundabout completed some renovations in 2005, which involved installing raked seating and an exhibit in the promenade. The theater hosted a revival of Tennessee Williams's "A Streetcar Named Desire" in April 2005. For the 2005–2006 season, Studio 54 staged Eugene O'Neill's "A Touch of the Poet" and Bertolt Brecht's "The Threepenny Opera". The theater then hosted the plays "The Apple Tree" and "110 in the Shade" in the 2006–2007 season; "The Ritz" and "Sunday in the Park with George" in the 2007–2008 season; and "Pal Joey" and "Waiting for Godot" in the 2008–2009 season. For the 2009–2010 season, the theater presented Carrie Fisher's solo performance "Wishful Drinking", as well as and James Lapine and Stephen Sondheim's revue "Sondheim on Sondheim".


title: Studio 54

text: During the 2010–2011 season, Studio 54 hosted "Brief Encounter" (an adaptation of two Noël Coward works), as well as the musical "The People in the Picture". Studio 54 was supposed to host a revival of Bob Fosse's musical "Dancin'" during the 2011–2012 season, but this was ultimately canceled, and the theater was instead closed for renovations. The theater's next production was the play "Harvey", which opened in June 2012. This was followed in November by "The Mystery of Edwin Drood", the theater's only production for the 2012–2013 season. Roundabout booked a revival of "Cabaret" for the 2013–2014 season, although the theater remained dark for a year. "Cabaret" opened in April 2014, initially for a 24-week engagement, but the show was so popular that it ran for a year. The play "An Act of God" opened at Studio 54 in May 2015, being the theater's only production during the 2014–2015 season.


title: Studio 54

text: The theater then returned to presenting two productions per season. Studio 54 hosted the play "Thérèse Raquin" and a revival of the musical "She Loves Me" during the 2015–2016 season, followed by the musical "Holiday Inn" and the play "Sweat" during the 2016–2017 season. Next, the theater hosted John Leguizamo's solo show "Latin History for Morons" and an American Sign Language revival of "Children of a Lesser God" in 2017–2018. The theater staged "The Lifespan of a Fact" and "Kiss Me, Kate" for the 2018–2019 season. Studio 54 hosted Adam Rapp's play "The Sound Inside", which opened in October 2019. Studio 54 was supposed to host the musical "Caroline, or Change" during the 2019–2020 season. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Studio 54 closed on March 12, 2020, a day before previews of "Caroline, or Change" were supposed to start. That show's opening had originally been delayed to early 2021, but it was pushed further due to the extension of COVID-19 restrictions.


title: Studio 54

text: Studio 54 reopened on October 8, 2021, with previews of "Caroline, or Change", which officially opened later that month. This was followed in April 2022 by the play "The Minutes". The Sharr White play "Pictures from Home" is scheduled to open at Studio 54 in February 2023.


title: Studio 54

text: By the late 1970s, the original nightclub had spurred the creation of Studio 54-themed jeans, a record label, an album, and a Japanese club. "Architectural Digest" magazine described Studio 54 as "the nightclub where the velvet rope was born", its impact evident long after the venue had been converted back to a theater. "GQ" magazine wrote in 2020: "When you want to designate a particular brand of louche elegance on a night-time scene, Studio 54 is the natural first port of comparative call."


title: Studio 54

text: The nightclub has been the subject of several works of popular media. The original Studio 54 was featured in the 1998 drama film "54". "Studio 54", a 98-minute documentary by Matt Tyrnauer released in 2018, includes unpublished footage of the club and interviews with Ian Schrager. Additionally, the fourth season of the television series "American Crime Story", announced in 2021, focuses on the club during the 1970s. Several books have also been written about the nightclub. The writer Anthony Haden-Guest published a book about Studio 54 and the disco subculture in 1997, and Mark Fleischman published his memoir "Inside Studio 54" in October 2017. Schrager also published a book in 2018, "Studio 54", with images of the club.


title: Studio 54

text: Studio 54 has also had an influence on disco music. Casablanca Records released a compilation album of disco music, "A Night at Studio 54", in 1979; it peaked at No. 21 on the Billboard 200 album chart and sold close to a million copies. In 2011, Sirius XM launched Studio 54 Radio, a satellite radio station featuring classic disco and dance tracks from the 1970s to the 2000s. In 2020, it expanded into a music imprint including a record label, Studio 54 Music, which works with Sirius XM on Studio 54 Radio. The label's first release, "Night Magic Vol. 1", is a four-track compilation EP of disco anthems from the club's prime days, revised by musicians from both the original scene and the modern dance music era. Studio 54 also inspired the name and overall concept of singer-songwriter Dua Lipa's 2020 concert series "Studio 2054".


title: Studio 54

text: The club has been featured in several exhibitions. These include an exhibit of Studio 54 photographs, which Haden-Guest presented at the WhiteBox art gallery in 2015. as well a Brooklyn Museum exhibition entitled Night Magic, which premiered in 2020. In addition, multiple Studio 54-themed collections from fashion and cosmetics brands, including Calvin Klein, Michael Kors and NARS Cosmetics, were released in 2019. The collections took inspiration from the club's glamorous heyday and showcased the iconic "54" logo.


title: Studio 54

text: Several venues have been likened to Studio 54. Fiorucci, an Italian fashion shop formerly located on East 59th Street, became known in the late 1970s as the "daytime Studio 54". The Mutiny Hotel in Miami, Florida, was described in a PBS NewsHour interview as "kind of the closest thing to Miami's Studio 54" in the late 1970s. The nightclub also inspired the creation of a Studio 54-themed nightclub at the MGM Grand Las Vegas hotel and casino in 1997; that club operated until 2012.


title: Studio 54

text: Before Rubell died in 1989, he saved "every single item" that he collected from the nightclub, such as the reservation book, invitation cards, and drink tickets. More than 400 of these items were sold at an auction in West Palm Beach, Florida, in January 2013, attracting hundreds of buyers. The auction yielded $316,680; the most expensive item was a $52,800 Andy Warhol sculpture.


title: Studio 54

text: The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started considering protecting Studio 54 as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC commenced a wide-ranging effort to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters in 1987, and the commission considered designating Studio 54's interior as a landmark. Ultimately, although the LPC protected 28 Broadway theaters as landmarks, Studio 54 was not one of them.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Geraldine Leigh Chaplin (born July 31, 1944) is an American actress. She is the daughter of Charlie Chaplin, the first of eight children with his fourth wife, Oona O'Neill. After beginnings in dance and modeling, she turned her attention to acting, and made her English-language acting debut (and came to prominence in what would be a Golden Globe-nominated role) in her portrayal of Tonya in David Lean's "Doctor Zhivago" (1965). She made her Broadway acting debut in Lillian Hellman's "The Little Foxes" in 1967, and played the role of ancient Egyptian Queen Nefertiti in Raúl Araiza's "Nefertiti and Akhenaton" (1973) alongside famous Egyptian actor Salah Zulfikar. Chaplin received her second Golden Globe nomination for Robert Altman's "Nashville" (1975). She received a BAFTA nomination for her role in "Welcome to L.A." (1976). She played her grandmother Hannah Chaplin in the biopic "Chaplin" (1992) for which she received her third Golden Globe nomination.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin has appeared in a wide variety of critically recognized Spanish and French films. She starred in "Les Uns et les Autres" (1981), "Life Is a Bed of Roses" (1983) and the Jacques Rivette experimental films "Noroît" (1976) and "Love on the Ground" (1984). She was the partner of director Carlos Saura for 12 years until 1979, starring in his films "Ana and the Wolves" (1973), "Cría Cuervos" (1976), "Elisa, vida mía" (1977), and "Mamá cumple cien años" (1979). She was awarded a Goya Award for her role in "En la ciudad sin límites" (2002), and was nominated again for "The Orphanage" (2007). Her contribution to Spanish cinema culminated in her being awarded the gold medal by the Spanish Academy of Cinematographic Arts and Sciences in 2006. In 2018, she starred in "Red Land (Rosso Istria)", Italian movie by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno based on Norma Cossetto and the foibe massacres. In 2019, she played the Duchess of Windsor in season 3 of the Netflix period drama series "The Crown".


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Geraldine Leigh Chaplin was born on July 31, 1944, in Santa Monica, California, the fourth child of actor and filmmaker Charlie Chaplin, and the first child of his fourth wife, Oona O'Neill, whom he married in 1943. Charlie Chaplin was 55 when Geraldine Chaplin was born and Oona was 19 years old. Geraldine was the first of their eight children. Her paternal grandparents were English Charles Chaplin Sr. and Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill), and her maternal grandparents were Nobel- and Pulitzer-Prize-winning American playwright Eugene O'Neill and English-born writer Agnes Boulton.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: When Geraldine was eight years old, her father took the family on vacation to Britain and Europe. Two days after the family set sail, the U.S. Attorney General James P. McGranery signed an order refusing Chaplin permission to re-enter the country. Chaplin's father moved the family to Switzerland. She attended boarding school there, where she became fluent in French and Spanish. Also in this time period, Geraldine appeared in her father's film "Limelight" (1952).


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: At 17 years of age, she decided to forgo college to pursue dance instead, and studied ballet for two years in England, including a period in 1961 at the Royal Ballet School. She then danced professionally for a year in Paris. Although a good dancer, she felt she had not trained from an early enough age to excel at it and so gave up ballet. She said, "I didn't leave ballet, ballet left me". It was a great disappointment to her.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Geraldine then found work as a fashion model in Paris. She was then discovered by David Lean. It would be many years before she could bring herself to see a ballet performance.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: When her dream of becoming a ballet dancer ended, Chaplin followed her father into what was to become a prolific acting career. She came to prominence in the role of Tonya in David Lean's "Doctor Zhivago" (1965). David Lean chose her to play the main character's wife, for which she received a Golden Globe Award nomination in the category, "Most Promising Female Newcomer." In an interview to publicize the film, she explained, "Because of my name, the right doors opened."


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In 1967, she made her Broadway debut in Lillian Hellman's "The Little Foxes". Her performance was praised by Clive Barnes in a "New York Times" review, where he noted that Chaplin "acts with spirit and force… with a magnificently raw-voiced sincerity" giving a performance of "surprising power."


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In the same year, she also began what would become a significant collaboration, starring in Spanish film director Carlos Saura's psychological thriller "Peppermint Frappé" (1967).


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin then appeared in "The Three Musketeers" (1973), and "Nefertiti y Aquenatos" (1973) of Raúl Araiza in which she played the role of ancient Egyptian queen Nefertiti alongside Egyptian movie star Salah Zulfikar, as well as the sequel, "The Four Musketeers" (1974). Chaplin was cast as the obnoxious BBC reporter Opal in Robert Altman's "Nashville" (1975), for which she received her second Golden Globe nomination, for Best Supporting Actress. She went on to star in the Altman films "Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson" (1976), and then "A Wedding" (1978), doing "Roseland" (1977) in between.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin later occasionally co-wrote scripts for and starred in several later Saura films—for these, receiving her greatest critical success—such as "Ana and the Wolves" (1973), "Cría Cuervos" (1976), "Elisa, vida mía" (1977) and "Mamá cumple cien años" (1979). "Cría Cuervos" won the Special Jury Prize Award at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival. Critic Vincent Canby praised Chaplin's "superb" performance.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin starred in several films produced by Altman and directed by Alan Rudolph, with a BAFTA-nominated role in "Welcome to L.A." (1976), in which she played a housewife addicted to cab rides. She received critical acclaim for her role in "Remember My Name" (1978), in which she played Anthony Perkins' murderous estranged wife.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In an interview with "The New York Times" in 1977, Chaplin cited that her career was going more successfully in Europe than in the United States. She complained that "I only seem to work with Altman here ... I don't have any offers in this country, none. Not even an interesting script to read. The only person who ever asks me is Altman—and James Ivory."


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In the 1980s, Chaplin starred in several French-language roles, including Claude Lelouch's "Les Uns et les Autres" (1981), Alain Resnais' "Life Is a Bed of Roses" (1983), Jacques Rivette's experimental "Love on the Ground" (1984), and then the American film, "I Want to Go Home" (1989).


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In the biographical film about her father, "Chaplin" (1992), she played her grandmother Hannah Chaplin, for which she was nominated for her third Golden Globe Award. Soon after, she was directed by Martin Scorsese in "The Age of Innocence" (1993), and appeared in Franco Zeffirelli's version of "Jane Eyre" (1996).


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin received a Goya Mejor Actriz de Reparto for her role in Spanish-Argentine thriller "En la ciudad sin límites" ("In the City Without Limits", 2002). Other notable Spanish films she collaborated with and appeared in Pedro Almodóvar's "Talk to Her" (2002), and Juan Antonio Bayona's "The Orphanage" (2007), for which she received a second Goya Award nomination. She also starred in the Catalan drama, "The Mosquito Net" (2010), for which she was awarded the Crystal Globe.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In 2006 Chaplin was awarded the gold medal by the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España—the Spanish Academy of Cinematographic Arts and Sciences—for her contribution to Spanish cinema.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In "Americano", she appeared with Salma Hayek, and featured with Jane Fonda in "All Together" (both 2011). She reunited with Juan Antonio Bayona for the films "The Impossible" (2012), "A Monster Calls" (2016) and "" (2018). Chaplin received the Best Actress Award at the Havana Film Festival for her role in the Dominican Republic film "Sand Dollars" (2014).


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In 2018, she starred in "Red Land (Rosso Istria)", an Italian movie by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno based on Norma Cossetto and the foibe massacres.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin's son, Shane Saura Chaplin, was born in 1974. His father is Spanish film director Carlos Saura, who directed several films Chaplin appeared in.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: Chaplin's daughter, Oona, is now an actress in British and Spanish films. Chaplin married her father, Chilean cinematographer Patricio Castilla, in 2006.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: In 1978, the Chaplin family were the victims of a failed extortion plot by kidnappers who had stolen the body of Charlie Chaplin. Geraldine Chaplin negotiated with the kidnappers, who had also threatened her infant son.


title: Geraldine Chaplin

text: , Chaplin has maintained a home in Miami. She also was spending time in residences between Madrid and Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland (the latter near the former long-time home of her parents).


title: Velociraptor

text: Velociraptor (; ) is a genus of small dromaeosaurid dinosaur that lived in Asia during the Late Cretaceous epoch, about 75 million to 71 million years ago. Two species are currently recognized, although others have been assigned in the past. The type species is V. mongoliensis; fossils of this species have been discovered in the Djadochta Formation, Mongolia. A second species, V. osmolskae, was named in 2008 for skull material from the Bayan Mandahu Formation, China.


title: Velociraptor

text: Smaller than other dromaeosaurids like "Deinonychus" and "Achillobator", "Velociraptor" was about long with a body mass between . It nevertheless shared many of the same anatomical features. It was a bipedal, feathered carnivore with a long tail and an enlarged sickle-shaped claw on each hindfoot, which is thought to have been used to tackle and restrain prey. "Velociraptor" can be distinguished from other dromaeosaurids by its long and low skull, with an upturned snout.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Velociraptor" (commonly referred to as "raptor") is one of the dinosaur genera most familiar to the general public due to its prominent role in the "Jurassic Park" films. In real life, however, "Velociraptor" was roughly the size of a turkey, considerably smaller than the approximately tall and reptiles seen in the novels and films (which were based on members of the related genus "Deinonychus"). Today, "Velociraptor" is well known to paleontologists, with over a dozen described fossil skeletons, the most of any dromaeosaurid. One particularly famous specimen preserves a "Velociraptor" locked in combat with a "Protoceratops".


title: Velociraptor

text: During an American Museum of Natural History expedition to the Flaming Cliffs (Bayn Dzak or Bayanzag) of the Djadochta Formation, Gobi Desert, on 11 August 1923, Peter Kaisen discovered the first "Velociraptor" fossil known to science—a crushed but complete skull, associated with one of the raptorial second toe claws (AMNH 6515). In 1924, museum president Henry Fairfield Osborn designated the skull and claw (which he assumed to come from the hand) as the type specimen of his new genus, "Velociraptor". This name is derived from the Latin words "velox" ('swift') and "raptor" ('robber' or 'plunderer') and refers to the animal's cursorial nature and carnivorous diet. Osborn named the type species "V. mongoliensis" after its country of origin. Earlier that year, Osborn had informally mentioned the animal in a popular press article, under the name "Ovoraptor djadochtari" (not to be confused with the similarly named "Oviraptor"), eventually changed into "V. mongoliensis" during its formal description.


title: Velociraptor

text: While North American teams were shut out of communist Mongolia during the Cold War, expeditions by Soviet and Polish scientists, in collaboration with Mongolian colleagues, recovered several more specimens of "Velociraptor". The most famous is part of the "Fighting Dinosaurs" specimen (MPC-D 100/25; formerly IGM, GIN, or GI SPS), discovered by a Polish-Mongolian team in 1971. The fossil preserves a "Velociraptor" in battle against a "Protoceratops". It is considered a national treasure of Mongolia, and in 2000 it was loaned to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City for a temporary exhibition.


title: Velociraptor

text: Between 1988 and 1990, a joint Chinese-Canadian team discovered "Velociraptor" remains in northern China. American scientists returned to Mongolia in 1990, and a joint Mongolian-American expedition to the Gobi, led by the American Museum of Natural History and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, turned up several well-preserved skeletons. One such specimen, MPC-D 100/980, was nicknamed "Ichabodcraniosaurus" by Norell's team because the fairly complete specimen was found without its skull (an allusion to the Washington Irving character Ichabod Crane). While Norell and Makovicky provisionally considered it a specimen of "Velociraptor mongoliensis", it was named as a new species "Shri devi" in 2021.


title: Velociraptor

text: Maxillae and a lacrimal (the main tooth-bearing bones of the upper jaw, and the bone that forms the anterior margin of the eye socket, respectively) recovered from the Bayan Mandahu Formation in 1999 by the Sino-Belgian Dinosaur Expeditions were found to pertain to "Velociraptor", but not to the type species "V. mongoliensis". Pascal Godefroit and colleagues named these bones "V. osmolskae" (for Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska) in 2008. However, the 2013 study noted that while "the elongate shape of the maxilla in "V. osmolskae" is similar to that of "V. mongoliensis"," phylogenetic analysis found it to be closer to "Linheraptor", making the genus paraphyletic; thus, "V. osmolskae" might not actually belong to the genus "Velociraptor" and requires reassessment.


title: Velociraptor

text: Paleontologists Mark A. Norell and Peter J. Makovicky in 1997 described new and abundantly preserved specimens of "V. mongoliensis", namely MPC-D 100/985 collected from the Tugrik Shireh locality in 1993, and MPC-D 100/986 collected in 1993 from the Chimney Buttes locality. The team briefly mentioned another specimen, MPC-D 100/982, which by the time of this publication remained undescribed. In 1999 Norell and Makovicky provided more insights into the anatomy of "Velociraptor" with additional specimens. Among these, MPC-D 100/982 was partially described and figured, and referred to "V. mongoliensis" mainly based on cranial similarities with the holotype skull, although they stated that differences were present between the pelvic region of this specimen and other "Velociraptor" specimens. This relatively well-preserved specimen including the skull was discovered and collected in 1995 at the Bayn Dzak locality (more especifically at the "Volcano" sub-locality). Martin Kundrát in a 2004 abstract compared the neurocranium of MPC-D 100/982 to another "Velociraptor" specimen, MPC-D 100/976. He concluded that the overall morphology of the former was more derived (advanced) than the latter, suggesting that they could represent distinct taxa.


title: Velociraptor

text: Mark J. Powers in his 2020 master thesis fully described MPC-D 100/982, which he concluded to represent a new and third species of "Velociraptor". This species, which he named ""V. vadarostrum"", was stated to mainly differ from other "Velociraptor" species in having a shallow maxilla morphology. Powers and colleagues also in 2020 used morphometric analyses to compare several dromaeosaurid maxillae, and found the maxilla of MPC-D 100/982 to strongly differ from specimens referred to "Velociraptor". They indicated that this specimen, based on these results, represents a different species. In 2021 Powers with team used Principal Component Analysis to separate dromaeosaurid maxillae, most notably finding that MPC-D 100/982 falls outside the instraspecific variability of "V. mongoliensis", arguing for a distinct species. They considered that both "V. mongoliensis" and this new species were ecologically separated based on their skull anatomy. The team in another 2021 abstract reinforced again the species-level separation, noting that additional differences can be found in the hindlimbs.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Velociraptor" was a small to medium-sized dromaeosaurid, with adults measuring between long, approximately high at the hips, and weighing about .


title: Velociraptor

text: Prominent quill knobs—attachment site of "wing" feathers and direct indicator of a feather covering—have been reported from the ulna of a single "Velociraptor" specimen (IGM 100/981), which represents an animal of estimated long and in weight. The spacing of 6 preserved knobs suggests that 8 additional knobs may have been present, giving a total of 14 quill knobs that developed large secondaries ("wing" feathers stemming from the forearm). However, the specimen number has been corrected to IGM 100/3503 and its referral to "Velociraptor" may require reevaluation, pending further study. Nevertheless, there is strong phylogenetic evidence from other dromaeosaurid relatives that indicates the presence of feathers in "Velociraptor", including dromaeosaurids such as "Microraptor" or "Zhenyuanlong".


title: Velociraptor

text: The skull of "Velociraptor" was rather elongated and grew up to long. It was uniquely up-curved at the snout region, concave on the upper surface, and convex on the lower surface. The snout, which occupied about 60% of the entire skull length, was notably narrow and mainly formed by the nasal, premaxilla, and maxilla bones. The was the anteriormost bone in the skull, and it was longer than taller. While its posterior end joined the nasal, the main body of the premaxilla touched the maxilla. The was nearly triangular in shape and the largest element of the snout. On its center or main body, there was a depression developing a small oval to circular-shaped hole, called maxillary fenestra. Though in front of this fenestra were two small openings, referred to as promaxillary fenestrae. The posterior border of the maxilla formed (predominantly) the antorbital fenestra, one of the several large holes in the skull. Both premaxilla and maxilla had several alveoli (tooth sockets) on their bottom surfaces. Above the maxilla and making contact with the premaxilla, there was the bone. It was a thin/narrow and elongated bone contributing to the top surface of the snout. Together, both premaxilla and nasal bones gave form to the naris or narial fenestra (nostril opening), which was relatively large and circular. The posterior end of the nasal was joined by the frontal and lacrimal bones.


title: Velociraptor

text: The back or anterior region of the skull was built by the frontal, lacrimal, postorbital, jugal, parietal, quadrate, and quadratojugal bones. The was large element, having a vaguely rectangular shape when seen from above. On its posterior end, this bone was in contact with the , and such elements were the main bodies of the skull roof. The was a T-shaped bone and its main body was thin and delicated. Its lower end meet the (often called cheek bone), which was a large, sub-triangular-shaped element. Its lower border was notably straight/horizontal. The was located just above the jugal: a stocky and strongly T-shaped bone. As a whole, the orbit or orbital fenestra (eye socket)—formed by the lacrimal, jugal, frontal, and postorbital—was large and near circular in shape, being longer than taller. When seen from above, a pair of large and markedly rounded holes were present near the rear of the skull (the temporal fenestrae), whose main components were the postorbital and squamosal. Behind the jugal, an inverted T-shaped bone (also seen in other dromaeosaurids), known as the , was developed. While the upper end of the quadratojugal joined the , an irregularly-shaped element, its inner side meet the . The latter was of great importance for the articulation with the lower jaw. The posteriormost bone was the and its projection the occipital condyle: a rounded and bulbous protuberance that meet the first vertebra of the neck.


title: Velociraptor

text: The lower jaw of "Velociraptor" comprised mainly the dentary, splenial, angular, surangular, and articular bones. The was a very long, weakly curved, and narrow element that developed several alveoli on its top surface. On its posterior end, it meet the . It had a small hole near its posterior end, called surangular foramen or fenestra. Both bones were the largest elements of the lower jaw of "Velociraptor", contributing to virtually its entire length. Below them were the smaller and , closely articulated to each other. The , located on the inner side of the surangular, was a small element that joined the quadrate of the upper skull, enabling the articulation with the lower jaw. An elongated, near oval-shaped hole was developed in the center of the lower jaw (the mandibular fenestra), and it was produced by the joint of the dentary, surangular, and angular bones.


title: Velociraptor

text: The teeth of "Velociraptor" were fairly homodont (equal in shape) and had several denticles (serrations), each more strongly serrated on the back edge than the front. The premaxilla had 4 alveoli (meaning that 4 teeth were developed), and the maxilla had 11 alveoli. At the dentary, between 14-15 alveoli were present. All teeth present at the premaxilla were poorly curved, and the two first teeth were the longest, with the second having a characteristic large size. The maxillary teeth were more slender, recurved, and most notably, the lower end was strongly more serrated than the upper one.


title: Velociraptor

text: The arm of "Velociraptor" was formed by the humerus (upper arm bone), radius and ulna (forearm bones), and manus (hand). "Velociraptor", like other dromaeosaurids, had a large manus with three elongated digits (fingers), which ended up in strongly curved unguals (claw bones) that were similar in construction and flexibility to the wing bones of modern birds. The second digit was the longest of the three digits present, while the first was shortest. The structure of the carpal (wrist) bones prevented pronation of the wrist and forced the manus to be held with the palmar surface facing inward (medially), not downward. The pes (foot) anatomy of "Velociraptor" consisted of the metatarsus—a large element composed of three metatarsals of which the first one was extremely reduced in size—and four digits that developed large unguals. The first digit, as in other theropods, was a small dewclaw. The second digit, for which "Velociraptor" is most famous, was highly modified and held retracted off the ground, which caused "Velociraptor" and other dromaeosaurids to walk on only their third and fourth digits. It bore a relatively large, sickle-shaped claw, typical of dromaeosaurid and troodontid dinosaurs. This enlarged claw, which could grow to over long around its outer edge, was most likely a predatory device used to restrain struggling prey.


title: Velociraptor

text: As in other dromaeosaurs, "Velociraptor" tails had prezygapophyses (long bony projections) on the upper surfaces of the vertebrae, as well as ossified tendons underneath. The prezygapophyses began on the tenth tail (caudal) vertebra and extended forward to brace four to ten additional vertebrae, depending on position in the tail. These were once thought to fully stiffen the tail, forcing the entire tail to act as a single rod-like unit. However, at least one specimen has preserved a series of intact tail vertebrae curved sideways into an "S"-shape, suggesting that there was considerably more horizontal flexibility than once thought.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Velociraptor" is a member of the group Eudromaeosauria, a derived sub-group of the larger family Dromaeosauridae. It is often placed within its own subfamily, Velociraptorinae. In phylogenetic taxonomy, Velociraptorinae is usually defined as "all dromaeosaurs more closely related to "Velociraptor" than to "Dromaeosaurus"." However, dromaeosaurid classification is highly variable. Originally, the subfamily Velociraptorinae was erected solely to contain "Velociraptor". Other analyses have often included other genera, usually "Deinonychus" and "Saurornitholestes", and more recently "Tsaagan". Several studies published during the 2010s, including expanded versions of the analyses that found support for Velociraptorinae, have failed to resolve it as a distinct group, but rather have suggested it is a paraphyletic grade which gave rise to the Dromaeosaurinae.


title: Velociraptor

text: When first described in 1924, "Velociraptor" was placed in the family Megalosauridae, as was the case with most carnivorous dinosaurs at the time (Megalosauridae, like "Megalosaurus", functioned as a sort of 'wastebin' taxon, where many unrelated species were grouped together). As dinosaur discoveries multiplied, "Velociraptor" was later recognized as a dromaeosaurid. All dromaeosaurids have also been referred to the family Archaeopterygidae by at least one author (which would, in effect, make "Velociraptor" a flightless bird). In the past, other dromaeosaurid species, including "Deinonychus antirrhopus" and "Saurornitholestes langstoni", have sometimes been classified in the genus "Velociraptor". Since "Velociraptor" was the first to be named, these species were renamed "Velociraptor antirrhopus" and "V. langstoni". As of 2008, the only currently recognized species of "Velociraptor" are "V. mongoliensis" and "V. osmolskae". However, several studies have found ""V."" "osmolskae" to be distantly related to "V. mongoliensis".


title: Velociraptor

text: Below are the results for the Eudromaeosauria phylogeny based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by James G. Napoli and team in 2021 during the description of "Kuru", showing the position of "Velociraptor":


title: Velociraptor

text: In 2007 Alan H. Turner and colleagues reported the presence of six quill knobs in the ulna of a referred "Velociraptor" specimen (IGM 100/981) from the Ukhaa Tolgod locality of the Djadochta Formation. Turner and colleagues interpreted the presence of feathers on "Velociraptor" as evidence against the idea that the larger, flightless maniraptorans lost their feathers secondarily due to larger body size. Furthermore, they noted that quill knobs are almost never found in flightless bird species today, and that their presence in "Velociraptor" (presumed to have been flightless due to its relatively large size and short forelimbs) is evidence that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids could fly, making "Velociraptor" and other large members of this family secondarily flightless, though it is possible the large wing feathers inferred in the ancestors of "Velociraptor" had a purpose other than flight. The feathers of the flightless "Velociraptor" may have been used for display, for covering their nests while brooding, or for added speed and thrust when running up inclined slopes. Because of the presence of another dromaeosaurid in Ukhaa Tolgod, "Tsaagan", Napoli and team have noted that the referral of this specimen to "Velociraptor" is currently subject to rexamination.


title: Velociraptor

text: Examinations of the endocranium of "Velociraptor" indicate that it was able to detect and hear a wide range of sound frequencies (2,368–3,965 Hz) and could track prey with ease as a result. The endocranium examinations also further cemented the theory that the dromaeosaur was an agile, swift predator. Fossil evidence suggesting "Velociraptor" scavenged also indicates that it was an opportunistic and actively predatory animal, feeding on carrion during times of drought or famine, if in poor health, or depending on the animal's age.


title: Velociraptor

text: In 2020, Powers and colleagues re-examined the maxillae of several eudromaeosaur taxa concluding that most Asian and North American eudromaeosaurs were separated by snout morphology and ecological strategies. They found the maxilla to be a reliable reference when inferring the shape of the premaxilla and overall snout. For instance, most Asian species have elongated snouts based on the maxilla (namely velociraptorines), indicating a selective feeding in "Velociraptor" and relatives, such as picking up small, fast prey. In contrast, most North American eudromaeosaurs, mostly dromaeosaurines, feature a robust and deep maxillar morphology. However, the large dromaeosurine "Achillobator" is a unique exception to Asian taxa with its deep maxilla.


title: Velociraptor

text: The "Fighting Dinosaurs" specimen, found in 1971, preserves a "Velociraptor mongoliensis" and "Protoceratops andrewsi" in combat and provides direct evidence of predatory behavior. When originally reported, it was hypothesized that the two animals drowned. However, as the animals were preserved in ancient sand dune deposits, it is now thought that the animals were buried in sand, either from a collapsing dune or in a sandstorm. Burial must have been extremely fast, judging from the lifelike poses in which the animals were preserved. Parts of the "Protoceratops" are missing, which has been seen as evidence of scavenging by other animals. Comparisons between the scleral rings of "Velociraptor", "Protoceratops", and modern birds and reptiles indicates that "Velociraptor" may have been nocturnal, while "Protoceratops" may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day during short intervals, suggesting that the fight may have occurred at twilight or during low-light conditions.


title: Velociraptor

text: The distinctive claw, on the second digit of dromaeosaurids, has traditionally been depicted as a slashing weapon; its assumed use being to cut and disembowel prey. In the "Fighting Dinosaurs" specimen, the "Velociraptor" lies underneath, with one of its sickle claws apparently embedded in the throat of its prey, while the beak of "Protoceratops" is clamped down upon the right forelimb of its attacker. This suggests "Velociraptor" may have used its sickle claw to pierce vital organs of the throat, such as the jugular vein, carotid artery, or trachea (windpipe), rather than slashing the abdomen. The inside edge of the claw was rounded and not unusually sharp, which may have precluded any sort of cutting or slashing action, although only the bony core of the claw is preserved. The thick abdominal wall of skin and muscle of large prey species would have been difficult to slash without a specialized cutting surface. The slashing hypothesis was tested during a 2005 BBC documentary, "The Truth About Killer Dinosaurs". The producers of the program created an artificial "Velociraptor" leg with a sickle claw and used a pork belly to simulate the dinosaur's prey. Though the sickle claw did penetrate the abdominal wall, it was unable to tear it open, indicating that the claw was not used to disembowel prey.


title: Velociraptor

text: Remains of "Deinonychus", a closely related dromaeosaurid, have commonly been found in aggregations of several individuals. "Deinonychus" has also been found in association with the large ornithopod "Tenontosaurus", which has been cited as evidence of cooperative (pack) hunting. However, the only solid evidence for social behavior of any kind among dromaeosaurids comes from a Chinese trackway which shows six individuals of a large species moving as a group. Although many isolated fossils of "Velociraptor" have been found in Mongolia, none were closely associated with other individuals. Therefore, while "Velociraptor" is commonly depicted as a pack hunter, as in "Jurassic Park", there is only limited fossil evidence to support this theory for dromaeosaurids in general and none specific to "Velociraptor" itself. Dromeosaur footprints in China suggest that a few other raptor genera may have hunted in packs, but there have been no conclusive examples of pack behavior found.


title: Velociraptor

text: In 2011, Denver Fowler and colleagues suggested a new method by which dromaeosaurs like "Velociraptor" and similar dromaeosaurs may have captured and restrained prey. This model, known as the "raptor prey restraint" (RPR) model of predation, proposes that dromaeosaurs killed their prey in a manner very similar to extant accipitrid birds of prey: by leaping onto their quarry, pinning it under their body weight, and gripping it tightly with the large, sickle-shaped claws. These researchers proposed that, like accipitrids, the dromaeosaur would then begin to feed on the animal while it was still alive, and prey death would eventually result from blood loss and organ failure. This proposal is based primarily on comparisons between the morphology and proportions of the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs to several groups of extant birds of prey with known predatory behaviors. Fowler found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs most closely resemble those of eagles and hawks, especially in terms of having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of grasping motion. The short metatarsus and foot strength, however, would have been more similar to that of owls. The RPR method of predation would be consistent with other aspects of "Velociraptor"s anatomy, such as their unusual jaw and arm morphology. The arms, which could exert a lot of force but were likely covered in long feathers, may have been used as flapping stabilizers for balance while atop a struggling prey animal, along with the stiff counterbalancing tail. The jaws, thought by Fowler and colleagues to be comparatively weak, would have been useful for row saw motion bites like the modern day Komodo dragon, which also has a weak bite, to finish off its prey if the kicks weren't powerful enough. These predatory adaptations working together may also have implications for the origin of flapping in paravians.


title: Velociraptor

text: In 2010, Hone and colleagues published a paper on their 2008 discovery of shed teeth of what they believed to be a "Velociraptor" near a tooth-marked jaw bone of what they believed to be a "Protoceratops" in the Bayan Mandahu Formation. The authors concluded that the find represented "late-stage carcass consumption by "Velociraptor"" as the predator would have eaten other parts of a freshly killed "Protoceratops" before biting in the jaw area. The evidence was seen as supporting the inference from the "Fighting Dinosaurs" fossil that "Protoceratops" was part of the diet of "Velociraptor". In 2012, Hone and colleagues published a paper that described a "Velociraptor" specimen with a long bone of an azhdarchid pterosaur in its gut. This was interpreted as showing scavenging behaviour.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Velociraptor" was warm-blooded to some degree, as it required a significant amount of energy to hunt. Modern animals that possess feathery or furry coats, like "Velociraptor" did, tend to be warm-blooded, since these coverings function as insulation. However, bone growth rates in dromaeosaurids and some early birds suggest a more moderate metabolism, compared with most modern warm-blooded mammals and birds. The kiwi is similar to dromaeosaurids in anatomy, feather type, bone structure and even the narrow anatomy of the nasal passages (usually a key indicator of metabolism). The kiwi is a highly active, if specialized, flightless bird, with a stable body temperature and a fairly low resting metabolic rate, making it a good model for the metabolism of primitive birds and dromaeosaurids.


title: Velociraptor

text: Norell with colleagues in 1995 reported one "V. mongoliensis" skull bearing two parallel rows of small punctures on its frontal bones that, upon closer examination, match the spacing and size of "Velociraptor" teeth. They suggested that the wound was likely inflicted by another "Velociraptor" during a fight between the species. Because its bone structure shows no sign of healing near the bite wounds and the overall specimen was not scavenged, this individual was likely killed by this fatal wound. In 2001 Molnar and team noted that this specimen is MPC-D 100/976 hailing from the Tugrik Shireh locality, which has also yielded the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen.


title: Velociraptor

text: In 2012 David Hone and team reported another injured "Velociraptor" specimen (MPC-D 100/54, roughly a sub-adult individual) found with the bones of an azhdarchid pterosaur within its stomach cavity, was carrying or recovering from an injury sustained to one broken rib. From evidence on the pterosaur bones, which were devoid of pitting or deformations from digestion, the "Velociraptor" died shortly after, possibly from the earlier injury. Nevertheless, the team noted that this broken ribs shows signs of bone healing.


title: Velociraptor

text: In both Bayan Mandahu and Djadochta formations many of the same genera were present, though they varied at the species level. These differences in species composition may be due a natural barrier separating the two formations, which are relatively close to each other geographically. However, given the lack of any known barrier which would cause the specific faunal compositions found in these areas, it is more likely that those differences indicate a slight time difference.


title: Velociraptor

text: "V. osmolskae" lived alongside the ankylosaurid "Pinacosaurus mephistocephalus"; alvarezsaurid "Linhenykus"; closely related dromaeosaurid "Linheraptor"; oviraptorids "Machairasaurus" and "Wulatelong"; protoceratopsids "Bagaceratops" and "Protoceratops hellenikorhinus"; and troodontids "Linhevenator", "Papiliovenator", and "Philovenator". Sediments across the formation indicate a similar depositional environment to that of the Djadochta Formation.


title: Velociraptor

text: Known specimens of "Velociraptor mongoliensis" have been recovered from the Djadochta Formation (also spelled Djadokhta), in the Mongolian province of Ömnögovi. This geological formation is estimated to date back to the Campanian stage (between 75 million and 71 million years ago) of the Late Cretaceous epoch. The abundant sediments—sands, sandstones, or caliche—of the Djadochta Formation were deposited by eolian (wind) processes in arid settings with fields of sand dunes and only intermittent streams, as indicated by very sparse fluvial (river-deposited) sedimentation, under a semi-arid climate.


title: Velociraptor

text: The Djadochta Formation is separated into a lower Bayn Dzak Member and upper Turgrugyin Member. "V. mongoliensis" is known from both members, represented by numerous specimens. The Bayn Dzak Member (mainly Bayn Dzak locality) has yielded the oviraptorid "Oviraptor"; ankylosaurid "Pinacosaurus grangeri"; protoceratopsid "Protoceratops andrewsi"; and troodontid "Saurornithoides". The younger Turgrugyin Member (mainly Tugriken Shireh locality) has produced the bird "Elsornis"; dromaeosaurid "Mahakala": ornithomimid "Aepyornithomimus"; and protoceratopsid "Protoceratops andrewsi".


title: Velociraptor

text: "V. mongoliensis" has been found at many of the most famous and prolific Djadochta localities. The type specimen was discovered at the Flaming Cliffs site (sublocality of the larger Bayn Dzak locality/region), while the "Fighting Dinosaurs" were found at the Tugrik Shire locality (also known as Tugrugeen Shireh and many other spellings). The latter is notorious for its exceptional "in situ" fossil preservation. Based on deposits (such as structureless sandstones), it has been concluded that a large number of specimens were buried alive during powerful sand-bearing events, common to the these paleoenvironments.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Velociraptor" is commonly perceived as a vicious and cunning killer thanks to their portrayal in the 1990 novel "Jurassic Park" by Michael Crichton and its 1993 film adaptation, directed by Steven Spielberg. The "raptors" portrayed in "Jurassic Park" were actually modeled after the closely related dromaeosaurid "Deinonychus". Paleontologists in both the novel and film excavate a skeleton in Montana, far from the central Asian range of "Velociraptor" but characteristic of the "Deinonychus" range. Crichton met with the discoverer of "Deinonychus", John Ostrom, several times at Yale University to discuss details of the animal's possible range of behaviors and appearance. Crichton at one point apologetically told Ostrom that he had decided to use the name "Velociraptor" in place of "Deinonychus" because the former name was "more dramatic." According to Ostrom, Crichton stated that the "Velociraptor" of the novel was based on "Deinonychus" in almost every detail, and that only the name had been changed. The "Jurassic Park" film-makers also requested all of Ostrom's published papers on "Deinonychus" during production. They portrayed the animals with the size, proportions, and snout shape of "Deinonychus" rather than "Velociraptor".


title: Velociraptor

text: Production on "Jurassic Park" began before the discovery of the large dromaeosaurid "Utahraptor" was made public in 1991, but as Jody Duncan wrote about this discovery: "Later, after we had designed and built the raptor, there was a discovery of a raptor skeleton in Utah, which they labeled 'super-slasher.' They had uncovered the largest Velociraptor to date and it measured five-and-a-half-feet tall, just like ours. So we designed it, we built it, and then they discovered it. That still boggles my mind." Spielberg's name was briefly considered for naming of the new dinosaur in exchange for funding of field work, but no agreement was reached.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Jurassic Park" and its sequel "" were released before the discovery that dromaeosaurs had feathers, so the "Velociraptor" in both films were depicted as scaled and featherless. For "Jurassic Park III," the male "Velociraptor" was given quill-like structures along the back of the head and neck, but these structures do not resemble the feathers that "Velociraptor" would have had in reality due to reasons of continuity. The "Jurassic World" sequel trilogy ignored the feathers of "Velociraptor", adhering to the designs from "Jurassic Park". However, the dromaeosaur "Pyroraptor" was feathered for "Jurassic World Dominion", along with other changes such as stiffening the tail to account for ossified tendons and de-pronating the hands.


title: Tom Kenny

text: Thomas James Kenny (born July 13, 1962) is an American actor and comedian. He is known for voicing the titular character in "SpongeBob SquarePants" and associated media. Kenny has voiced many other characters, including Heffer Wolfe in "Rocko's Modern Life", the Ice King in "Adventure Time", the Narrator and Mayor in "The Powerpuff Girls", Carl Chryniszzswics in "Johnny Bravo", Dog in "CatDog", Hank and Jeremy in "Talking Tom and Friends", and Spyro from the "Spyro" video game series. His live-action work includes the comedy variety shows "The Edge" and "Mr. Show". Kenny has won two Daytime Emmy Awards and two Annie Awards for his voice work as SpongeBob SquarePants and the Ice King. He often collaborates with his wife and fellow voice artist Jill Talley, who plays Karen on "SpongeBob SquarePants".


title: Tom Kenny

text: Kenny was born and raised in Syracuse, New York, to Theresa Bridget (Donigan) and Paul Austin Kenny. As a young child, in the late 1960s and the 1970s, he loved drawing and collecting record albums. He met Bobcat Goldthwait in first grade and they became lifelong friends. In their mid-teens, they saw an ad for an open-mic night at Skaneateles that featured comedian Barry Crimmins with the moniker "Bear Cat". He and Goldthwait went to the event, and performed under the monikers Tomcat and Bobcat, respectively, as a tribute to Crimmins, after which Goldthwait used Bobcat as his stage name. Describing Kenny's stand-up routines, Goldthwait said, "Tom would get up there and talk about his therapist and he didn't even have a therapist, he just loved Woody Allen."


title: Tom Kenny

text: Kenny went to Bishop Grimes Junior/Senior High School, a Catholic high school. After college, he performed stand-up comedy around the country for about eight years before he moved on to other venues.


title: Tom Kenny

text: Kenny has acted in many films and TV shows, debuting in "How I Got into College" (1989) and later appeared in films such as "Shakes the Clown" (1991) and "" (2004). On television, he would host the "Music News" segments of "Friday Night Videos" in the early 1990s. He appeared in sketch comedy shows "The Edge" which aired on Fox from 1992 to 1993, and "Mr. Show" which aired on HBO from 1995 to 1998, both roles in the show were as a regular cast member. He appears in the live-action segments of "SpongeBob SquarePants" as Patchy the Pirate, appeared on "" on the , "Uncle Howee" as Uncle Howee, a high-energy kids' show host with strange powers.


title: Tom Kenny

text: Kenny said that he voices "a lot of sweet yellow characters for some reason." He described SpongeBob's voice as in between that of a child and an adult, stating "Think a Stan Laurel, Jerry Lewis kind of child-man. Kind of like a Munchkin but not quite, kind of like a kid, but not in a Charlie Brown child's voice on the TV shows."


title: Tom Kenny

text: Joe Murray auditioned Kenny for voice acting roles for "Rocko's Modern Life" in a casting call in Los Angeles, California. On one occasion, the producers required Kenny to fill the role of Charlie Adler, who was absent. He voices Cupid for the Nickelodeon show "The Fairly OddParents".


title: Tom Kenny

text: Joe Murray chose Kenny for several roles on another of his projects, "Camp Lazlo" as Scoutmaster Lumpus and Slinkman, because Murray, after seeing Kenny's previous work for "Rocko's Modern Life", felt that Kenny "adds writing to his roles" and "brings so much".


title: Tom Kenny

text: He voiced Dog in "CatDog", as well as the voice of Cliff. He voices many characters in "The Powerpuff Girls", including the Mayor, the Narrator, Mitch Mitchelson, Snake and Little Arturo from the Gangreen Gang, Rainbow the Clown, etc. He voiced Eduardo and various other characters in "Foster's Home For Imaginary Friends", Dr. Two-Brains in the PBS Kids show, "WordGirl", and the villains Knightbrace, the Common Cold and Mr. Wink in "Codename Kids Next Door".


title: Tom Kenny

text: He plays a number of roles in the "Transformers Animated" TV show. A few of the characters he voices in this series are Starscream and his clones, Isaac Sumdac and Waspinator. Kenny also voiced several characters on the animated show "Xiaolin Showdown", as well as the Autobots and Wheelie in the live-action "Transformers" film series. On "Dilbert", Kenny voiced Ratbert, Asok, Dilbert's shower, and some minor characters. He played Mr. Hal Gibson in the animated kids show "Super Robot Monkey Team Hyper Force GO!".


title: Tom Kenny

text: In 2009, Kenny became a regular cast voice in the Fox comedy series "Sit Down, Shut Up". He voices Muhammad Sabeeh "Happy" Fa-ach Nuabar, the secretive custodian who is plotting a terrorist attack, as well as Happy's interpreter. The series premiered on April 19, 2009. Kenan Thompson, Kristin Chenoweth, Jason Bateman, Nick Kroll, Cheri Oteri, Henry Winkler, Will Arnett, and Will Forte are the other main cast members.


title: Tom Kenny

text: He plays the Ice King and Magic Man on "Adventure Time". In 2011, Kenny took over the role of Rabbit from Ken Sansom in "Winnie the Pooh". From 2012 to 2014, Kenny voiced Woody Johnson on Comedy Central's "Brickleberry". He voiced various characters in the Cartoon Network programme "Mixels", Sumo in the Cartoon Network programme "Clarence", Daddo in "Henry Hugglemonster", Dr. Otto Octavius on "The Ultimate Spider-Man", and Leo Callisto in "Miles from Tomorrowland".


title: Tom Kenny

text: He has also provided voices in television advertisements for Best Buy (as an elf for a Christmas spot), Experian (as a talking modem alongside DC Douglas), and Talking Hank in the YouTube web series "Talking Tom and Friends".


title: Tom Kenny

text: In video games, Kenny is best known as the voice of Spyro the Dragon, having replaced previous voice actor Carlos Alazraqui. He first voiced Spyro in "", and continued to voice the character up until "", where he was replaced by Jess Harnell. He also voiced another character in the series, Sgt. James Byrd, in "". He reprised both roles in "Spyro Reignited Trilogy", a collection of modern remakes of the original Spyro trilogy.


title: Tom Kenny

text: Kenny was a guest star on HarmonQuest as both himself and his "in-game character" Legnahcra the maître d' of Virtuous Harmony.


title: Tom Kenny

text: While working on the animated series "Rocko's Modern Life", Kenny met marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg. After the cancellation of "Rocko's Modern Life" in 1996, Hillenburg began developing his own concept for an ocean-themed series, building off of his background in marine science. Hillenburg said that he wanted to base the show on his favorite animal, the sea sponge, "because it's a funny animal, a strange one." To voice this character, Hillenburg approached Kenny in 1997.


title: Tom Kenny

text: The series, titled "SpongeBob SquarePants", premiered on Nickelodeon on May 1, 1999. It soon became a commercial success. Kenny plays various other characters on the show, including the live-action character Patchy the Pirate and the voices of Gary the Snail, the French Narrator (a parody of Jacques Cousteau), and SpongeBob's father (Harold SquarePants). In 2010, Kenny received the Annie Award for "Voice Acting in a Television Production" for his role as SpongeBob in "SpongeBob's Truth or Square" (season 6, episode 23–24). He also voiced SpongeBob in the sequel film released on February 6, 2015. In 2018 and 2020, he received the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program.


title: Tom Kenny

text: Kenny first met his wife Jill Talley in 1992 while working on "The Edge". The two have collaborated on many productions together, including "SpongeBob SquarePants" (in which Talley voices Karen Plankton). They also both appeared in the music video for "Tonight, Tonight" by The Smashing Pumpkins. They have two children, Mack (born 1998) and Nora (born 2003). The Kennys live in Studio City, California.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk is a high-altitude, remotely-piloted surveillance aircraft of the 1990s–2020s. It was initially designed by Ryan Aeronautical (now part of Northrop Grumman), and known as Tier II+ during development. The RQ-4 provides a broad overview and systematic surveillance using high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) sensors with long loiter times over target areas. It can survey as much as of terrain per day, an area the size of South Korea or Iceland.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Global Hawk is operated by the United States Air Force (USAF). It is used as a high-altitude long endurance (HALE) platform covering the spectrum of intelligence collection capability to support forces in worldwide military operations. According to the USAF, the superior surveillance capabilities of the aircraft allow more precise weapons targeting and better protection of friendly forces.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Cost overruns led to the original plan to acquire 63 aircraft being cut to 45, and to a 2013 proposal to mothball the 21 Block 30 signals intelligence variants. The initial flyaway cost of each of the first 10 aircraft was US$10 million in 1994. By 2001, this had risen to US$60.9 million, and then to $131.4 million (flyaway cost) in 2013. The U.S. Navy has developed the Global Hawk into the MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance platform. As of 2022, the U.S. Air Force plans to retire its Global Hawks in 2027.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: In the 1990s, the Air Force was developing uncrewed aerial intelligence platforms. One was the stealthy Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar; another was the Global Hawk. Due to budget cuts, only one of the programs could survive. It was decided to proceed with the Global Hawk for its range and payload rather than go with the stealth Dark Star.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Global Hawk took its first flight on 28 February 1998. The first seven aircraft were built under the Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration (ACTD) program, sponsored by DARPA, in order to evaluate the design and demonstrate its capabilities. Demand for the RQ-4's abilities was high in the Middle East; thus, the prototype aircraft were actively operated by the USAF in the War in Afghanistan. In an unusual move, the aircraft entered initial low-rate production while still in engineering and manufacturing development. Nine production Block 10 aircraft, sometimes referred to as RQ-4A, were produced; of these, two were sold to the US Navy and an additional two were deployed to Iraq to support operations there. The final Block 10 aircraft was delivered on 26 June 2006.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: To increase the aircraft's capabilities, the airframe was redesigned, with the nose section and wings being stretched. The modified aircraft, designated RQ-4B Block 20, can carry up to 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of internal payload. These changes were introduced with the first Block 20 aircraft, the 17th Global Hawk produced, which was rolled out in a ceremony on 25 August 2006. First flight of the Block 20 from the USAF Plant 42 in Palmdale, California to Edwards Air Force Base took place on 1 March 2007. Developmental testing of Block 20 took place in 2008.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The United States Navy took delivery of two of the Block 10 aircraft to evaluate their maritime surveillance capabilities, designated N-1 (BuNo 166509) and N-2 (BuNo 166510). The initial navalised example was tested at Edwards Air Force Base briefly, before moving to Naval Air Station Patuxent River in March 2006 for the Global Hawk Maritime Demonstration (GHMD) program, operated by Navy squadron VX-20.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: In July 2006, the GHMD aircraft flew in the Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC exercise) for the first time. Although it was in the vicinity of Hawaii, the aircraft was operated from NBVC Point Mugu, requiring flights of approximately each way to the area. Four flights were performed, resulting in over 24 hours of persistent maritime surveillance coordinated with the aircraft carrier and amphibious warfare ship . For the GHMD program, the Global Hawk was tasked with maintaining maritime situational awareness, contact tracking, and imagery support of exercise operations. Images were transmitted to NAS Patuxent River for processing and then forwarded to the fleet off Hawaii.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Northrop Grumman entered a RQ-4B variant in the US Navy's Broad Area Maritime Surveillance (BAMS) UAV competition. On 22 April 2008, it was announced that Northrop Grumman's "RQ-4N" had won and that the Navy had awarded a US$1.16 billion contract. In September 2010, the RQ-4N was officially designated the "MQ-4C".


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Navy MQ-4C differs from the Air Force RQ-4 mainly in its wing. While the Global Hawk remains at high altitude to conduct surveillance, the Triton climbs to to see a wide area and can drop to to get further identification of a target. The Triton's wings are specially designed to take the stresses of rapidly decreasing altitude. Though similar in appearance to the Global Hawk's wings, the Triton's internal wing structure is much stronger and has additional features including anti-icing capabilities and impact and lightning strike protection.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: On 17 June 2022, the Navy brought its last deployed RQ-4A BAMS-D back from the Middle East, ending what started as a six-month experiment but turned into a 13-year deployment. The Navy had acquired five Block 10 RQ-4As and since 2009 at least one had been kept on rotation in the Persian Gulf region. The aircraft accrued over 42,500 flight hours in 2,069 missions; one was lost in an accident and another was shot down by Iran. The BAMS-D was replaced in Navy service with the MQ-4C.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Development cost overruns placed the Global Hawk at risk of cancellation. In mid-2006, per-unit costs were 25% over baseline estimates, caused by both the need to correct design deficiencies as well as to increase its capabilities. This caused concern over a possible congressional termination of the program if its national security benefits could not be justified. However, in June 2006, the program was restructured. Completion of an operational assessment report by the USAF was delayed from 2005 to 2007 due to manufacturing and development delays. The operational assessment report was released in March 2007 and production of the 54 air vehicles planned was extended by two years to 2015.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: In February 2011, the USAF reduced its planned purchase of RQ-4 Block 40 aircraft from 22 to 11 in order to cut costs. In June 2011, the U.S. Defense Department's Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) found the RQ-4B "not operationally effective" due to reliability issues. In June 2011, the Global Hawk was certified by the Secretary of Defense as critical to national security following a breach of the Nunn-McCurdy Amendment; the Secretary stated: "The Global Hawk is essential to national security; there are no alternatives to Global Hawk which provide acceptable capability at less cost; Global Hawk costs $220M less per year than the Lockheed U-2 to operate on a comparable mission; the U-2 cannot simultaneously carry the same sensors as the Global Hawk; and if funding must be reduced, Global Hawk has a higher priority over other programs."


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: On 26 January 2012, the Pentagon announced plans to end Global Hawk Block 30 procurement as the type was found to be more expensive to operate and with less capable sensors than the existing U-2. Plans to increase procurement of the Block 40 variant were also announced. The Air Force's fiscal year 2013 budget request said it had resolved to divest itself of the Block 30 variant; however, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013 mandated operations of the Block 30 fleet through the end of 2014. The USAF plans to procure 45 RQ-4B Global Hawks as of 2013. Before retiring in 2014, ACC commander, General Mike Hostage said of the U-2's replacement by the drone that "The combatant commanders are going to suffer for eight years and the best they’re going to get is 90 percent".


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: During 2010–2013, costs of flying the RQ-4 fell by more than 50%. In 2010, the cost per flight hour was $40,600, with contractor logistic support making up $25,000 per flight hour of this figure. By mid-2013, cost per flight hour dropped to $18,900, contractor logistic support having dropped to $11,000 per flight hour. This was in part due to higher usage, spreading logistics and support costs over a higher number of flight hours.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The German Air Force ("Luftwaffe") ordered a variant of the RQ-4B, to be equipped with a customized sensor suite, designated "EuroHawk". The aircraft was based on the RQ-4B Block 20/30/40 and was to be equipped with an EADS-built signals intelligence (SIGINT) package; it was intended to fulfill Germany's requirement to replace their aging Dassault-Breguet Atlantique electronic surveillance aircraft of the "Marineflieger" (German Naval Air Arm). The EADS sensor package is composed of six wing-mounted pods; reportedly these sensor pods could potentially be used on other platforms, including crewed aircraft.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The EuroHawk was officially rolled out on 8 October 2009 and its first flight took place on 29 June 2010. It underwent several months of flight testing at Edwards Air Force Base. On 21 July 2011, the first EuroHawk arrived in Manching, Germany; after which it was scheduled to receive its SIGINT sensor package and undergo further testing and pilot training until the first quarter of 2012. The Luftwaffe planned to station the type with "Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 51" ("Reconnaissance wing 51"). In 2011 the German Ministry of Defence was aware of difficulties with the certification for use within the European airspace. During flight trials, problems with the EuroHawk's flight control system were found; the German certification process was also complicated by Northrop Grumman refusing to share technical data on the aircraft with which to perform evaluations.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: On 13 May 2013, German media reported that the EuroHawk would not be certifiable under ICAO rules without an anti-collision system; thus preventing any operations within European airspace or the airspace of any ICAO member. The additional cost of certification was reported to be more than €600 million (US$780 million). On 15 May 2013, the German government announced the immediate termination of the program, attributing the cancellation to the certification issue. Reportedly, the additional cost to develop the EuroHawk to the standards needed for certification may not have guaranteed final approval for certification.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: German defense minister Thomas de Maizière stated EuroHawk was "very important" for Germany in 2012, then referred to the project as being "a horror without end" in his 2013 statement to the Bundestag. The total cost of the project before it was canceled was €562 million. Northrop Grumman and EADS have described reports of flight control problems and high costs for certification as "inaccurate"; they have stated their intention to provide an affordable plan to complete the first EuroHawk's flight testing and produce the remaining four aircraft.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: On 8 August 2013, the EuroHawk set an endurance record by flying continuously in European airspace for 25.3 hours, reaching an altitude of . It was the longest flight by an unrefueled UAS weighing more than in European skies. On 5 October 2014, German Minister of Defence Ursula von der Leyen was reportedly considering reactivating the EuroHawk program to test its reconnaissance abilities over a long period at altitudes of up to . Attempting to test the recon system on Airbus aircraft and an Israeli drone as alternate platforms had proven unsuccessful.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Bundeswehr would use it to detect, decrypt, and potentially interfere with enemy communications signals. If tests prove successful, a carrier would be purchased, likely "similar" to the U.S. Global Hawk. Germany is considering installing the EuroHawk's SIGINT payloads onto the U.S. Navy MQ-4C Triton Global Hawk derivative, as the electronic and communications intelligence sensors would be more difficult to place on other substitute aircraft. It already has icing and lightning-strike protection, and was built with certification over civilian airspace in mind, meeting the STANAG 4671 requirements that had ended the EuroHawk program.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: As of March 2021, Germany plans to put the single RQ-4E aircraft on display in the Bundeswehr Military History Museum by 2022.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: In January 2014, President Obama signed a budget that included a $10 million study on adapting the U-2's superior sensors for the RQ-4. In April 2015, Northrop Grumman reportedly installed the U-2's Optical Bar Camera (OBC) and Senior Year Electro-Optical Reconnaissance System (SYERS-2B/C) sensors onto the RQ-4 using a Universal Payload Adapter (UPA). Successful testing indicated that all RQ-4s could be similarly retrofitted.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: On 14 July 2015, Northrop Grumman and the USAF signed an agreement to demonstrate an RQ-4B fitted with the U-2's OBC and SYERS-2C sensors. Two Global Hawks are to be fitted with the UPA, involving the installation of 17 payload adapter fixtures and a new payload bay cover, as well as software and mission system changes for each sensor. The UPA can support of sensors and will create a canoe-shaped sensor bay on the fuselage's underside.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Northrop Grumman also expects to receive a contract to integrate the UTC Aerospace Systems MS-177 multispectral sensor used on the Northrop Grumman E-8C JSTARS onto the RQ-4. The MS-177 will replace the SYERS-2 and includes modernized optronics and a gimbaled rotation device to increase field of view by 20 percent. The RQ-4B flew with the SYERS-2 on 18 February 2016.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Raytheon developed the AN/ALR-89 self-protection suite consisting of the AN/AVR-3 laser warning receiver, AN/APR-49 radar warning receiver, and jamming system, along with the ALE-50 towed decoy for the Global Hawk.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Although the Global Hawk is being retired from combat use, the Department of Defense's Test Resource Management Center (TRMC) is acquiring them to support the SkyRange program to test hypersonic missiles by 2024. Tests are currently monitored by ships, but it can take a ship 21 days to be positioned and outfitted for use, limiting flights to about a dozen airborne demonstrations a year. By using unmanned aircraft to track hypersonic systems, faster availability and deployment could support a test rate of up to one per week. To perform this new mission, the Global Hawk is retrofitted into the Range Hawk, which involves configuring it to look up rather than down by repositioning onboard avionics and installing new sensors and instrumentation suites to track an overhead hypersonic vehicle. The program will use four Block 20 and 20 Block 30 airframes retired from USAF service.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Global Hawk UAV system comprises the RQ-4 air vehicle, which is outfitted with various equipment such as sensor packages and communication systems; and a ground element consisting of a Launch and Recovery Element (LRE), and a Mission Control Element (MCE) with ground communications equipment. Each RQ-4 air vehicle is powered by an Allison Rolls-Royce AE3007H turbofan engine with thrust, and carries a payload of . The fuselage uses aluminum, semi-monocoque construction with a V-tail; the wings are made of composite materials.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: There have been several iterations of the Global Hawk with different features and capabilities. The first version to be used operationally was the RQ-4A Block 10, which performed imagery intelligence (IMINT) with a payload of a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) with electro-optical (EO) and infrared (IR) sensors. Seven A-model Block 10s were delivered and all were retired by 2011. The RQ-4B Block 20 was the first of the B-model Global Hawks, which has a greater payload and employs upgraded SAR and EO/IR sensors. Four Block 20s were converted into communications relays with the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) payload.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The RQ-4B Block 30 is capable of multi-intelligence (multi-INT) collecting with SAR and EO/IR sensors along with the Airborne Signals Intelligence Payload (ASIP), a wide-spectrum SIGINT sensor. The RQ-4B Block 40 is equipped with the multi-platform radar technology insertion program (MP-RTIP) active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, which provides SAR and moving target indication (MTI) data for wide-area surveillance of stationary and moving targets.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Since the RQ-4 is capable of conducting sorties lasting up to 30 hours long, scheduled maintenance has to be performed sooner than on other aircraft with less endurance. However, since it flies at higher altitudes than normal aircraft, it experiences less wear during flight.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: Either the EO or the IR sensors can operate simultaneously with the SAR. Each sensor provides wide area search imagery and a high-resolution spot mode. The SAR has a ground moving target indicator (GMTI) mode, which can provide a text message providing the moving target's position and velocity. Both SAR and EO/IR imagery are transmitted from the aircraft to the MCE as individual frames, and reassembled during ground processing. An onboard inertial navigation system, supplemented by Global Positioning System updates, comprises the navigational suite.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Global Hawk is capable of operating autonomously and "untethered". A military satellite system (X Band Satellite Communication) is used for sending data from the aircraft to the MCE. The common data link can also be used for direct down link of imagery when the UAV is within line-of-sight of compatible ground stations. For dense flight areas the autonomous navigation is switched off and the RQ-4 is remote controlled via the satellite link by pilots on the ground who are supplied with the same instrument data and who carry the same responsibilities as pilots in crewed planes.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The ground segment consists of a Mission Control Element (MCE) and Launch and Recovery Element (LRE), provided by Raytheon. The MCE is used for mission planning, command and control, and image processing and dissemination; an LRE for controlling launch and recovery; and associated ground support equipment. The LRE provides precision Differential GPS corrections for navigational accuracy during takeoff and landings, while precision coded GPS supplemented with an inertial navigation system is used during mission execution. By having separable elements in the ground segment, the MCE and the LRE can operate in geographically separate locations, and the MCE can be deployed with the supported command's primary exploitation site. Both ground segments are contained in military shelters with external antennas for line-of-sight and satellite communications with the air vehicles.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: The Global Hawk carries the Hughes Integrated Surveillance & Reconnaissance (HISAR) sensor system. HISAR is a lower-cost derivative of the ASARS-2 package that Hughes developed for the U-2. It is also fitted to the US Army's de Havilland Canada RC-7B Airborne Reconnaissance Low Multifunction (ARLM) crewed aircraft, and is being sold on the international market. HISAR integrates a SAR-MTI system, along with an optical and a thermography imager.


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: All three sensors are controlled and their outputs filtered by a common processor and transmitted in real time at up to 50 Mbit/s to a ground station. The SAR-MTI system operates in the X band in various operational modes; such as the wide-area MTI mode with a radius of , combined SAR-MTI strip mode provides resolution over wide sections, and a SAR spot mode providing resolution over .


title: Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

text: In July 2006, the USAF began testing the Global Hawk Block 30 upgrades in the Benefield Anechoic Facility at Edwards AFB. Upgrades include the Advanced Signals Intelligence Payload, an extremely sensitive SIGINT processor. and a specialist AESA radar system, the Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program, or MP-RTIP. In 2010, Northrop disclosed the sensor capabilities of the new Block 40 aircraft, including the MP-RTIP radar, emphasising surveillance over reconnaissance.