title: Hoover Dam

text: Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931. Shortly afterward, work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall. In March 1932, work began on lining the tunnels with concrete. First the base, or invert, was poured. Gantry cranes, running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete. The sidewalls were poured next. Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls. Finally, using pneumatic guns, the overheads were filled in. The concrete lining is thick, reducing the finished tunnel diameter to . The river was diverted into the two Arizona tunnels on November 13, 1932; the Nevada tunnels were kept in reserve for high water. This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Following the completion of the dam, the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs. The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels. The inner diversion tunnels were plugged at approximately one-third of their length, beyond which they now carry steel pipes connecting the intake towers to the power plant and outlet works. The inner tunnels' outlets are equipped with gates that can be closed to drain the tunnels for maintenance.


title: Hoover Dam

text: To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river's diversion, two cofferdams were constructed. Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932, even though the river had not yet been diverted. The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river's flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work, and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself. The upper cofferdam was high, and thick at its base, thicker than the dam itself. It contained of material.


title: Hoover Dam

text: When the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water, excavation for the dam foundation began. For the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached. Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933. During this excavation, approximately of material was removed. Since the dam was an arch-gravity type, the side-walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake. Therefore, the side-walls were also excavated to reach virgin rock, as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage. Shovels for the excavation came from the Marion Power Shovel Company.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The men who removed this rock were called "high scalers". While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes, the high-scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite. Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site; the high scalers' work thus helped ensure worker safety. One high scaler was able to save a life in a more direct manner: when a government inspector lost his grip on a safety line and began tumbling down a slope towards almost certain death, a high scaler was able to intercept him and pull him into the air. The construction site had become a magnet for tourists. The high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers. The high scalers received considerable media attention, with one worker dubbed the "Human Pendulum" for swinging co-workers (and, at other times, cases of dynamite) across the canyon. To protect themselves against falling objects, some high scalers dipped cloth hats in tar and allowed them to harden. When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws, they sustained no skull damage. Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called "hard boiled hats" (later "hard hats") and strongly encouraged their use.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The cleared, underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout, forming a grout curtain. Holes were driven into the walls and base of the canyon, as deep as into the rock, and any cavities encountered were to be filled with grout. This was done to stabilize the rock, to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock, and to limit "uplift"—upward pressure from water seeping under the dam. The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour. When they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill, they moved on without resolving the problem. A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled. After the dam was completed and the lake began to fill, large numbers of significant leaks caused the Bureau of Reclamation to examine the situation. It found that the work had been incompletely done, and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon's geology. New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock. It took nine years (1938–47) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6, 1933, 18 months ahead of schedule. Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures, the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam were to be built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would take 125 years to cool, and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble. Instead, the ground where the dam would rise was marked with rectangles, and concrete blocks in columns were poured, some as large as and high. Each five-foot form contained a set of steel pipes; cool river water would be poured through the pipes, followed by ice-cold water from a refrigeration plant. When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting, the pipes were filled with grout. Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns, which were grooved to increase the strength of the joints.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets and almost 7 feet in diameter; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design. These buckets, which weighed when full, were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side, and were delivered to the site in special railcars. The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column. As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam (from pea-sized gravel to stones), it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column. When the bottom of the bucket opened up, disgorging of concrete, a team of men worked it throughout the form. Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day, each bucket deepened the concrete in a form by only , and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body.


title: Hoover Dam

text: A total of of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29, 1935. In addition, were used in the power plant and other works. More than of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete. Overall, there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two-lane highway from San Francisco to New York. Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995; they showed that "Hoover Dam's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength" and the dam is composed of a "durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete". Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali–silica reaction (ASR), as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate, unlike that at downstream Parker Dam, where ASR has caused measurable deterioration.


title: Hoover Dam

text: With most work finished on the dam itself (the powerhouse remained uncompleted), a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30, 1935, to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The morning of the dedication, it was moved forward three hours from 2 p.m. Pacific time to 11 a.m.; this was done because Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes had reserved a radio slot for the President for 2 p.m. but officials did not realize until the day of the ceremony that the slot was for 2 p.m. Eastern Time. Despite the change in the ceremony time, and temperatures of , 10,000 people were present for the President's speech, in which he avoided mentioning the name of former President Hoover, who was not invited to the ceremony. To mark the occasion, a three-cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Department—bearing the name "Boulder Dam", the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947. After the ceremony, Roosevelt made the first visit by any American president to Las Vegas.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Most work had been completed by the dedication, and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935 and early 1936 to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government. The parties came to an agreement and on March 1, 1936, Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government. Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item, a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels, as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation.


title: Hoover Dam

text: There were 112 deaths reported as associated with the construction of the dam. The first was Bureau of Reclamation employee Harold Connelly who died on May 15, 1921, after falling from a barge while surveying the Colorado River for an ideal spot for the dam. Surveyor John Gregory ("J.G.") Tierney, who drowned on December 20, 1922, in a flash flood while looking for an ideal spot for the dam was the second person. The official list's final death occurred on December 20, 1935, when Patrick Tierney, electrician's helper and the son of J.G. Tierney, fell from one of the two Arizona-side intake towers. Included in the fatality list are three workers who took their own lives on site, one in 1932 and two in 1933. Of the 112 fatalities, 91 were Six Companies employees, three were Bureau of Reclamation employees, and one was a visitor to the site; the remainder were employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Ninety-six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site. Not included in the official number of fatalities were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia. Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning (brought on by the use of gasoline-fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels), and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims. The site's diversion tunnels frequently reached , enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases. A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia and were not included in the above total; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning. No deaths of non-workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The initial plans for the facade of the dam, the power plant, the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam. The Bureau of Reclamation, more concerned with the dam's functionality, adorned it with a Gothic-inspired balustrade and eagle statues. This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale, so Los Angeles-based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann, then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation, was brought in to redesign the exteriors. Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project. He designed sculpted turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona—both states are in different time zones, but since Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, the clocks display the same time for more than half the year.


title: Hoover Dam

text: At Kaufmann's request, Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam. True's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region. Although some were initially opposed to these designs, True was given the go-ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist. With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology, True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings, textiles, baskets and ceramics. The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain, lightning, water, clouds, and local animals—lizards, serpents, birds—and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas. In these works, which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam, True also reflected on the machinery of the operation, making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern.


title: Hoover Dam

text: With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers, True also devised for the pipes and machinery an innovative color-coding which was implemented throughout all BOR projects. True's consulting artist job lasted through 1942; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker, Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants. True's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in "The New Yorker", part of which read, "lose the spark, and justify the dream; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme".


title: Hoover Dam

text: Complementing Kaufmann and True's work, sculptor Oskar J. W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam. His works include the monument of dedication plaza, a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas-reliefs on the elevator towers. In his words, Hansen wanted his work to express "the immutable calm of intellectual resolution, and the enormous power of trained physical strength, equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment", because "[t]he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring." Hansen's dedication plaza, on the Nevada abutment, contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a "star map". The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt's dedication of the dam. This is intended to help future astronomers, if necessary, calculate the exact date of dedication. The bronze figures, dubbed "Winged Figures of the Republic", were both formed in a continuous pour. To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface, they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted. Hansen's bas-relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam: flood control, navigation, irrigation, water storage, and power. The bas-relief on the Arizona elevator depicts, in his words, "the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant."


title: Hoover Dam

text: Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments. The excavation of this U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933. Filling of Lake Mead began February 1, 1935, even before the last of the concrete was poured that May. The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30, 1935; a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures. To make the powerhouse roof bombproof, it was constructed of layers of concrete, rock, and steel with a total thickness of about , topped with layers of sand and tar.


title: Hoover Dam

text: In the latter half of 1936, water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation, and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine-generators, all on the Nevada side, began operating. In March 1937, one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August. By September 1939, four more generators were operating, and the dam's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world. The final generator was not placed in service until 1961, bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1,345 megawatts at the time. Original plans called for 16 large generators, eight on each side of the river, but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17. The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality, before the dam's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines, it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse. The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head (water pressure) of as the water reaches a speed of about . The entire flow of the Colorado River usually passes through the turbines. The spillways and outlet works (jet-flow gates) are rarely used. The jet-flow gates, located in concrete structures above the river and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level, may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions, but have never done so, and in practice are used only to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance. Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993, the total gross power rating for the plant, including two 2.4 megawatt Pelton turbine-generators that power Hoover Dam's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts. The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies. The maximum net generation was 10.348 TWh in 1984, and the minimum since 1940 was 2.648 TWh in 1956. The average power generated was 4.2 TWh/year for 1947–2008. In 2015, the dam generated 3.6 TWh.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The amount of electricity generated by Hoover Dam has been decreasing along with the falling water level in Lake Mead due to the prolonged drought since year 2000 and high demand for the Colorado River's water. By 2014 its generating capacity was downrated by 23% to 1592 MW and was providing power only during periods of peak demand. Lake Mead fell to a new record low elevation of on July 1, 2016, before beginning to rebound slowly. Under its original design, the dam would no longer be able to generate power once the water level fell below , which might have occurred in 2017 had water restrictions not been enforced. To lower the minimum power pool elevation from , five wide-head turbines, designed to work efficiently with less flow, were installed. Water levels were maintained at over in 2018 and 2019, but fell to a new record low of on June 10, 2021 and were projected to fall below by the end of 2021.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam. Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self-sustaining: proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50-year construction loan, and those revenues also finance the multimillion-dollar yearly maintenance budget. Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses. Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals. The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All-American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam. In total, water from Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona, Nevada, and California and supplies the irrigation of over of land.


title: Hoover Dam

text: In 2018, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) proposed a $3 billion pumped-storage hydroelectricity project—a "battery" of sorts—that would use wind and solar power to recirculate water back up to Lake Mead from a pumping station downriver.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Electricity from the dam's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty-year contract, authorized by Congress in 1934, which ran from 1937 to 1987. In 1984, Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations to southern California, Arizona, and Nevada from the dam from 1987 to 2017. The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison; in 1987, the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control. In 2011, Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067, after setting aside 5% of Hoover Dam's power for sale to Native American tribes, electric cooperatives, and other entities. The new arrangement began on October 1, 2017.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated under the contracts ending in 2017 was allocated as follows:


title: Hoover Dam

text: The dam is protected against over-topping by two spillways. The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment, running roughly parallel to the canyon walls. The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side-flow weir with each spillway containing four and steel-drum gates. Each gate weighs and can be operated manually or automatically. Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions. The gates cannot entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but can maintain an extra of lake level.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Water flowing over the spillways falls dramatically into , spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels, and reentering the main river channel below the dam. This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges. Each spillway's capacity of was empirically verified in post-construction tests in 1941.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The large spillway tunnels have only been used twice, for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983. Both times, when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used, engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock. The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert (or base), which caused cavitation, a phenomenon in fast-flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force. In response to this finding, the tunnels were patched with special heavy-duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror-smooth. The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets, which both slow the water and decrease the spillway's effective capacity, in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage. The 1983 damage, also due to cavitation, led to the installation of aerators in the spillways. Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked, in principle.


title: Hoover Dam

text: There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam, which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93. In the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks, authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited. Pending the completion of the bypass, restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam. Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi-trailer trucks, buses carrying luggage, and enclosed-box trucks over long were not allowed on the dam at all, and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163/68. The four-lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19, 2010. It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge, the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge, downstream from the dam.


title: Hoover Dam

text: With the opening of the bypass, through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam; dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side.


title: Hoover Dam

text: Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion, but following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II, during which only authorized traffic, in convoys, was permitted. After the war, it reopened September 2, 1945, and by 1953, annual attendance had risen to 448,081. The dam closed on November 25, 1963, and March 31, 1969, days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower. In 1995, a new visitors' center was built, and the following year, visits exceeded one million for the first time. The dam closed again to the public on September 11, 2001; modified tours were resumed in December and a new "Discovery Tour" was added the following year. Today, nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation. Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure's being inaccessible to tourists. As a result, few of True's decorations can now be seen by visitors. Visitors can only purchase tickets on-site and have the options of a guided tour of the whole facility or only the power plant area. The only self-guided tour option is for the visitor center itself, where visitors can view various exhibits and enjoy a 360-degree view of the dam.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta. The construction of the dam has been implicated in causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem. For six years after the construction of the dam, while Lake Mead filled, virtually no water reached the mouth of the river. The delta's estuary, which once had a freshwater-saltwater mixing zone stretching south of the river's mouth, was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river's mouth.


title: Hoover Dam

text: The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam. The dam eliminated the natural flooding, threatening many species adapted to the flooding, including both plants and animals. The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam. Four species of fish native to the Colorado River, the Bonytail chub, Colorado pikeminnow, Humpback chub, and Razorback sucker, are listed as endangered.


title: Hoover Dam

text: During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928, the press generally referred to the dam as "Boulder Dam" or as "Boulder Canyon Dam", even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon. The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 (BCPA) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam. The BCPA merely allows the government to "construct, operate, and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon".


title: Hoover Dam

text: When Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17, 1930, he named the dam "Hoover Dam", citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents, though none had been so honored during their terms of office. Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was "the great engineer whose vision and persistence ... has done so much to make <nowiki>[the dam]</nowiki> possible". One writer complained in response that "the Great Engineer had quickly drained, ditched, and dammed the country."


title: Hoover Dam

text: After Hoover's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration, Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13, 1933, that the dam be referred to as Boulder Dam. Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president, that Congress had never ratified his choice, and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam. Unknown to the general public, Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name "Hoover Dam" in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam. The official status this conferred to the name "Hoover Dam" had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12, 1930, but was likewise ignored by Ickes.


title: Hoover Dam

text: When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30, 1935, he was determined, as he recorded in his diary, "to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam." At one point in the speech, he spoke the words "Boulder Dam" five times within thirty seconds. Further, he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person, it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson, a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation. Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam, and the Republican-leaning "Los Angeles Times", which at the time of Ickes' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign "HOOVER DAM", reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes, but having no greater success.


title: Hoover Dam

text: In the following years, the name "Boulder Dam" failed to fully take hold, with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed. Memories of the Great Depression faded, and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II. In 1947, a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name "Hoover Dam." Ickes, who was by then a private citizen, opposed the change, stating, "I didn't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with."


title: Hoover Dam

text: Hoover Dam was recognized as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1984. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, cited for its engineering innovations.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass Marsupialia. All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas. A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a pouch. Marsupials include opossums, Tasmanian devils, kangaroos, koalas, wombats, wallabies, bandicoots, and the extinct thylacine.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials represent the clade originating from the last common ancestor of extant metatherians, the group containing all mammals more closely related to marsupials than to placentals. They give birth to relatively undeveloped young that often reside in a pouch located on their mothers' abdomen for a certain amount of time. Close to 70% of the 334 extant species occur on the Australian continent (the mainland, Tasmania, New Guinea and nearby islands). The remaining 30% are found in the Americas—primarily in South America, thirteen in Central America, and one species, the Virginia opossum, in North America, north of Mexico.


title: Marsupial

text: The word "marsupial" comes from "marsupium", the technical term for the abdominal pouch. It, in turn, is borrowed from the Latin and ultimately from the ancient Greek , meaning "pouch".


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials are taxonomically identified as members of mammalian infraclass Marsupialia, first described as a family under the order Pollicata by German zoologist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger in his 1811 work "Prodromus Systematis Mammalium et Avium". However, James Rennie, author of "The Natural History of Monkeys, Opossums and Lemurs" (1838), pointed out that the placement of five different groups of mammals – monkeys, lemurs, tarsiers, aye-ayes and marsupials (with the exception of kangaroos, that were placed under the order Salientia) – under a single order (Pollicata) did not appear to have a strong justification. In 1816, French zoologist George Cuvier classified all marsupials under the order Marsupialia. In 1997, researcher J. A. W. Kirsch and others accorded infraclass rank to Marsupialia.


title: Marsupial

text: Comprising over 300 extant species, several attempts have been made to accurately interpret the phylogenetic relationships among the different marsupial orders. Studies differ on whether Didelphimorphia or Paucituberculata is the sister group to all other marsupials. Though the order Microbiotheria (which has only one species, the monito del monte) is found in South America, morphological similarities suggest it is closely related to Australian marsupials. Molecular analyses in 2010 and 2011 identified Microbiotheria as the sister group to all Australian marsupials. However, the relations among the four Australidelphid orders are not as well understood. The cladogram below, depicting the relationships among the various marsupial orders, is based on a 2015 phylogenetic study.


title: Marsupial

text: DNA evidence supports a South American origin for marsupials, with Australian marsupials arising from a single Gondwanan migration of marsupials from South America, across Antarctica, to Australia. There are many small arboreal species in each group. The term "opossum" is used to refer to American species (though "possum" is a common abbreviation), while similar Australian species are properly called "possums".


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials have the typical characteristics of mammals—e.g., mammary glands, three middle ear bones, and true hair. There are, however, striking differences as well as a number of anatomical features that separate them from eutherians.


title: Marsupial

text: In addition to the front pouch, which contains multiple teats for the sustenance of their young, marsupials have other common structural features. Ossified patellae are absent in most modern marsupials (though a small number of exceptions are reported) and epipubic bones are present. Marsupials (and monotremes) also lack a gross communication (corpus callosum) between the right and left brain hemispheres.


title: Marsupial

text: The skull has peculiarities in comparison to placental mammals. In general, the skull is relatively small and tight. Holes ("foramen lacrimale") are located in the front of the orbit. The cheekbone is enlarged and extends farther to the rear. The angular extension ("processus angularis") of the lower jaw is bent toward the center. Another feature is the hard palate which, in contrast to the placental mammals' foramina, always have more openings. The teeth differ from that of placental mammals, so that all taxa except wombats have a different number of incisors in the upper and lower jaws. The early marsupials had a dental formula from , that is, per quadrant; they have five (maxillary) or four (mandibular) incisors, one canine, three premolars and four molars, for a total of 50 teeth. Some taxa, such as the opossum, have the original number of teeth. In other groups the number of teeth is reduced. The dental formula for Macropodidae (kangaroos and wallabies etc.) is 3/1 – (0 or 1)/0 – 2/2 – 4/4. Marsupials in many cases have 40 to 50 teeth, significantly more than placental mammals. The second set of teeth grows in only at the 3rd premolar site and back; all teeth more anterior to that erupt initially as permanent teeth.


title: Marsupial

text: Few general characteristics describe their skeleton. In addition to unique details in the construction of the ankle, epipubic bones ("ossa epubica") are observed projecting forward from the pubic bone of the pelvis. Since these are present in males and pouchless species, it is believed that they originally had nothing to do with reproduction, but served in the muscular approach to the movement of the hind limbs. This could be explained by an original feature of mammals, as these epipubic bones are also found in monotremes. Marsupial reproductive organs differ from the placental mammals. For them, the reproductive tract is doubled. The females have two uteri and two vaginas, and before birth, a birth canal forms between them, the median vagina. The males have a split or double penis lying in front of the scrotum.


title: Marsupial

text: A pouch is present in most, but not all, species. Many marsupials have a permanent bag, whereas in others the pouch develops during gestation, as with the shrew opossum, where the young are hidden only by skin folds or in the fur of the mother. The arrangement of the pouch is variable to allow the offspring to receive maximum protection. Locomotive kangaroos have a pouch opening at the front, while many others that walk or climb on all fours have the opening in the back. Usually, only females have a pouch, but the male water opossum has a pouch that is used to accommodate his genitalia while swimming or running.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials have adapted to many habitats, reflected in the wide variety in their build. The largest living marsupial, the red kangaroo, grows up to in height and in weight, but extinct genera, such as "Diprotodon", were significantly larger and heavier. The smallest members of this group are the marsupial mice, which often reach only in body length.


title: Marsupial

text: Some species resemble placental mammals and are examples of convergent evolution. This convergence is evident in both brain evolution and behaviour. The extinct "Thylacine" strongly resembled the placental wolf, hence one of its nicknames "Tasmanian wolf". The ability to glide evolved in both marsupials (as with sugar gliders) and some placental mammals (as with flying squirrels), which developed independently. Other groups such as the kangaroo, however, do not have clear placental counterparts, though they share similarities in lifestyle and ecological niches with ruminants.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials, along with monotremes (platypuses and echidnas), typically have lower body temperatures than similarly sized placental mammals (eutherians).


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials' reproductive systems differ markedly from those of placental mammals. During embryonic development, a choriovitelline placenta forms in all marsupials. In bandicoots, an additional chorioallantoic placenta forms, although it lacks the chorionic villi found in eutherian placentas.


title: Marsupial

text: The evolution of reproduction in marsupials, and speculation about the ancestral state of mammalian reproduction, have engaged discussion since the end of the 19th century. Both sexes possess a cloaca, which is connected to a urogenital sac used to store waste before expulsion. The bladder of marsupials functions as a site to concentrate urine and empties into the common urogenital sinus in both females and males.


title: Marsupial

text: Most male marsupials, except for macropods and marsupial moles, have a bifurcated penis, separated into two columns, so that the penis has two ends corresponding to the females' two vaginas. The penis is used only during copulation, and is separate from the urinary tract. It curves forward when erect, and when not erect, it is retracted into the body in an S-shaped curve. Neither marsupials nor monotremes possess a baculum. The shape of the glans penis varies among marsupial species.


title: Marsupial

text: The male thylacine had a pouch that acted as a protective sheath, covering his external reproductive organs while running through thick brush.


title: Marsupial

text: The shape of the urethral grooves of the males' genitalia is used to distinguish between "Monodelphis brevicaudata", "Monodelphis domestica", and "Monodelphis americana". The grooves form 2 separate channels that form the ventral and dorsal folds of the erectile tissue. Several species of dasyurid marsupials can also be distinguished by their penis morphology.


title: Marsupial

text: The only accessory sex glands marsupials possess are the prostate and bulbourethral glands. Male marsupials have 1-3 pairs of bulbourethral glands. There are no ampullae of vas deferens, seminal vesicles or coagulating glands. The prostate is proportionally larger in marsupials than in placental mammals. During the breeding season, the male tammar wallaby's prostate and bulbourethral gland enlarge. However, there does not appear to be any seasonal difference in the weight of the testes.


title: Marsupial

text: Female marsupials have two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteri, but both open externally through the same orifice. A third canal, the median vagina, is used for birth. This canal can be transitory or permanent. Some marsupial species are able to store sperm in the oviduct after mating.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials give birth at a very early stage of development; after birth, newborn marsupials crawl up the bodies of their mothers and attach themselves to a teat, which is located on the underside of the mother, either inside a pouch called the marsupium, or open to the environment. Mothers often lick their fur to leave a trail of scent for the newborn to follow to increase chances of making it into the marsupium. There they remain for a number of weeks, attached to the teat. The offspring are eventually able to leave the marsupium for short periods, returning to it for warmth, protection, and nourishment.


title: Marsupial

text: Prenatal development differs between marsupials and placental mammals. Key aspects of the first stages of placental mammal embryo development, such as the inner cell mass and the process of compaction, are not found in marsupials. The cleavage stages of marsupial development are very variable between groups and aspects of marsupial early development are not yet fully understood.


title: Marsupial

text: An early birth removes a developing marsupial from its mother's body much sooner than in placental mammals; thus marsupials have not developed a complex placenta to protect the embryo from its mother's immune system. Though early birth puts the tiny newborn marsupial at a greater environmental risk, it significantly reduces the dangers associated with long pregnancies, as there is no need to carry a large fetus to full term in bad seasons. Marsupials are extremely altricial animals, needing to be intensely cared for immediately following birth (cf. precocial).


title: Marsupial

text: Because newborn marsupials must climb up to their mother's teats, their front limbs and facial structures are much more developed than the rest of their bodies at the time of birth. This requirement has been argued to have resulted in the limited range of locomotor adaptations in marsupials compared to placentals. Marsupials must develop grasping forepaws during their early youth, making the evolutive transition from these limbs into hooves, wings, or flippers, as some groups of placental mammals have done, more difficult. However, several marsupials do possess atypical forelimb morphologies, such as the hooved forelimbs of the pig-footed bandicoot, suggesting that the range of forelimb specialization is not as limited as assumed.


title: Marsupial

text: An infant marsupial is known as a joey. Marsupials have a very short gestation period—usually around four to five weeks, but as low as 12 days for some species—and the joey is born in an essentially fetal state. The blind, furless, miniature newborn, the size of a jelly bean, crawls across its mother's fur to make its way into the pouch, where it latches onto a teat for food. It will not re-emerge for several months, during which time it is fully reliant on its mother's milk for essential nutrients, growth factors and immunological defence. After this period, the joey begins to spend increasing lengths of time out of the pouch, feeding and learning survival skills. However, it returns to the pouch to sleep, and if danger threatens, it will seek refuge in its mother's pouch for safety.


title: Marsupial

text: Joeys stay in the pouch for up to a year in some species, or until the next joey is born. A marsupial joey is unable to regulate its own body temperature and relies upon an external heat source. Until the joey is well furred and old enough to leave the pouch, a pouch temperature of must be constantly maintained.


title: Marsupial

text: Joeys are born with "oral shields". In species without pouches or with rudimentary pouches these are more developed than in forms with well-developed pouches, implying a role in maintaining the young attached to the mother's teat.


title: Marsupial

text: In Australasia, marsupials are found in Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea; throughout the Maluku Islands, Timor and Sulawesi to the west of New Guinea, and in the Bismarck Archipelago (including the Admiralty Islands) and Solomon Islands to the east of New Guinea.


title: Marsupial

text: In America, marsupials are found throughout South America, excluding the central/southern Andes and parts of Patagonia; and through Central America and south-central Mexico, with a single species (the Virginia opossum "Didelphis virginiana") widespread in the eastern United States and along the Pacific coast.


title: Marsupial

text: The first American marsupial (and marsupial in general) that a European encountered was the common opossum. Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, commander of the "Niña" on Christopher Columbus' first voyage in the late fifteenth century, collected a female opossum with young in her pouch off the South American coast. He presented them to the Spanish monarchs, though by then the young were lost and the female had died. The animal was noted for its strange pouch or "second belly", and how the offspring reached the pouch was a mystery.


title: Marsupial

text: On the other hand, it was the Portuguese who first described Australasian marsupials. António Galvão, a Portuguese administrator in Ternate (1536–40), wrote a detailed account of the northern common cuscus ("Phalanger orientalis"):


title: Marsupial

text: From the start of the 17th century more accounts of marsupials arrived. For instance, a 1606 record of an animal, killed on the southern coast of New Guinea, described it as "in the shape of a dog, smaller than a greyhound", with a snakelike "bare scaly tail" and hanging testicles. The meat tasted like venison, and the stomach contained ginger leaves. This description appears to closely resemble the dusky pademelon ("Thylogale brunii"), in which case this would be the earliest European record of a member of the kangaroo family (Macropodidae).


title: Marsupial

text: The relationships among the three extant divisions of mammals (monotremes, marsupials, and placentals) were long a matter of debate among taxonomists. Most morphological evidence comparing traits such as number and arrangement of teeth and structure of the reproductive and waste elimination systems as well as most genetic and molecular evidence favors a closer evolutionary relationship between the marsupials and placental mammals than either has with the monotremes.


title: Marsupial

text: The ancestors of marsupials, part of a larger group called metatherians, probably split from those of placental mammals (eutherians) during the mid-Jurassic period, though no fossil evidence of metatherians themselves are known from this time. From DNA and protein analyses, the time of divergence of the two lineages has been estimated to be around 100 to 120 mya. Fossil metatherians are distinguished from eutherians by the form of their teeth; metatherians possess four pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, whereas eutherian mammals (including true placentals) never have more than three pairs. Using this criterion, the earliest known metatherian was thought to be "Sinodelphys szalayi", which lived in China around 125 mya. However "Sinodelphys" was later reinterpreted as an early member of Eutheria. The unequivocal oldest known metatherians are now 110 million years old fossils from western North America. Metatherians were widespread in North America and Asia during the Late Cretaceous, but suffered a severe decline during the end-Cretaceous extinction event.


title: Marsupial

text: In 2022 a study provided strong evidence that the earliest known marsupial was "Deltatheridium" known from specimens from the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous in Mongolia. This study placed both "Deltatheridium" and "Pucadelphys" as sister taxa to the modern large American opossums.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials spread to South America from North America during the Paleocene, possibly via the Aves Ridge. Northern Hemisphere metatherians, which were of low morphological and species diversity compared to contemporary placental mammals, eventually became extinct during the Miocene epoch.


title: Marsupial

text: In South America, the opossums evolved and developed a strong presence, and the Paleogene also saw the evolution of shrew opossums (Paucituberculata) alongside non-marsupial metatherian predators such as the borhyaenids and the saber-toothed "Thylacosmilus". South American niches for mammalian carnivores were dominated by these marsupial and sparassodont metatherians, which seem to have competitively excluded South American placentals from evolving carnivory. While placental predators were absent, the metatherians did have to contend with avian (terror bird) and terrestrial crocodylomorph competition. Marsupials were excluded in turn from large herbivore niches in South America by the presence of native placental ungulates (now extinct) and xenarthrans (whose largest forms are also extinct). South America and Antarctica remained connected until 35 mya, as shown by the unique fossils found there. North and South America were disconnected until about three million years ago, when the Isthmus of Panama formed. This led to the Great American Interchange. Sparassodonts disappeared for unclear reasons – again, this has classically assumed as competition from carnivoran placentals, but the last sparassodonts co-existed with a few small carnivorans like procyonids and canines, and disappeared long before the arrival of macropredatory forms like felines, while didelphimorphs (opossums) invaded Central America, with the Virginia opossum reaching as far north as Canada.


title: Marsupial

text: Marsupials reached Australia via Antarctica during the Early Eocene, around 50 mya, shortly after Australia had split off. This suggests a single dispersion event of just one species, most likely a relative to South America's monito del monte (a microbiothere, the only New World australidelphian). This progenitor may have rafted across the widening, but still narrow, gap between Australia and Antarctica. The journey must not have been easy; South American ungulate and xenarthran remains have been found in Antarctica, but these groups did not reach Australia.


title: Marsupial

text: In Australia, marsupials radiated into the wide variety seen today, including not only omnivorous and carnivorous forms such as were present in South America, but also into large herbivores. Modern marsupials appear to have reached the islands of New Guinea and Sulawesi relatively recently via Australia. A 2010 analysis of retroposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of a variety of marsupials has confirmed all living marsupials have South American ancestors. The branching sequence of marsupial orders indicated by the study puts Didelphimorphia in the most basal position, followed by Paucituberculata, then Microbiotheria, and ending with the radiation of Australian marsupials. This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America, and reached Australia after Microbiotheria split off.


title: Marsupial

text: In Australia, terrestrial placental mammals disappeared early in the Cenozoic (their most recent known fossils being 55 million-year-old teeth resembling those of condylarths) for reasons that are not clear, allowing marsupials to dominate the Australian ecosystem. Extant native Australian terrestrial placental mammals (such as hopping mice) are relatively recent immigrants, arriving via island hopping from Southeast Asia.


title: Marsupial

text: Genetic analysis suggests a divergence date between the marsupials and the placentals at . The ancestral number of chromosomes has been estimated to be 2n = 14.


title: Marsupial

text: A new hypothesis suggests that South American microbiotheres resulted from a back-dispersal from eastern Gondwana due to new cranial and post-cranial marsupial fossils from the "Djarthia murgonensis" from the early Eocene Tingamarra Local Fauna in Australia that indicate the "Djarthia murgonensis" is the most plesiomorphic, the oldest unequivocal australidelphian, and may be the ancestral morphotype of the Australian marsupial radiation.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin, sold under the brand names Zithromax (in oral form) and Azasite (as an eye drop), is an antibiotic medication used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. This includes middle ear infections, strep throat, pneumonia, traveler's diarrhea, and certain other intestinal infections. Along with other medications, it may also be used for malaria. It can be taken by mouth or intravenously.


title: Azithromycin

text: Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and upset stomach. An allergic reaction, such as anaphylaxis, QT prolongation, or a type of diarrhea caused by "Clostridium difficile" is possible. No harm has been found with its use during pregnancy. Its safety during breastfeeding is not confirmed, but it is likely safe. Azithromycin is an azalide, a type of macrolide antibiotic. It works by decreasing the production of protein, thereby stopping bacterial growth.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin was discovered in 1980 by the Yugoslav pharmaceutical company Pliva and approved for medical use under the brand name Sumamed in 1988. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies it as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication and is sold under many trade names worldwide. In 2020, it was the 68th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 10million prescriptions.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin has relatively broad but shallow antibacterial activity. It inhibits some Gram-positive bacteria, some Gram-negative bacteria, and many atypical bacteria.


title: Azithromycin

text: A strain of gonorrhea reported to be highly resistant to azithromycin was found in the population in 2015. "Neisseria gonorrhoeae" is normally susceptible to azithromycin, but the drug is not widely used as monotherapy due to a low barrier to resistance development. Extensive use of azithromycin has resulted in growing Streptococcus pneumoniae resistance.


title: Azithromycin

text: No harm has been found with use during pregnancy. However, there are no adequate well-controlled studies in pregnant women.


title: Azithromycin

text: The safety of the medication during breastfeeding is unclear. It was reported that because only low levels are found in breast milk and the medication has also been used in young children, it is unlikely that breastfed infants would have adverse effects. Nevertheless, it is recommended that the drug be used with caution during breastfeeding.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin appears to be effective in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through its suppression of inflammatory processes. And potentially useful in asthma and sinusitis via this mechanism. Azithromycin is believed to produce its effects through suppressing certain immune responses that may contribute to inflammation of the airways.


title: Azithromycin

text: Most common adverse effects are diarrhea (5%), nausea (3%), abdominal pain (3%), and vomiting. Fewer than 1% of people stop taking the drug due to side effects. Nervousness, skin reactions, and anaphylaxis have been reported. "Clostridium difficile" infection has been reported with use of azithromycin. Azithromycin does not affect the efficacy of birth control unlike some other antibiotics such as rifampin. Hearing loss has been reported.


title: Azithromycin

text: Occasionally, people have developed cholestatic hepatitis or delirium. Accidental intravenous overdose in an infant caused severe heart block, resulting in residual encephalopathy.


title: Azithromycin

text: In 2013 the FDA issued a warning that azithromycin "can cause abnormal changes in the electrical activity of the heart that may lead to a potentially fatal irregular heart rhythm." The FDA noted in the warning a 2012 study that found the drug may increase the risk of death, especially in those with heart problems, compared with those on other antibiotics such as amoxicillin or no antibiotic. The warning indicated people with preexisting conditions are at particular risk, such as those with QT interval prolongation, low blood levels of potassium or magnesium, a slower than normal heart rate, or those who use certain drugs to treat abnormal heart rhythms.


title: Azithromycin

text: It has been reported that azithromycin blocks autophagy and may predispose cystic fibrosis patients to mycobacterial infection.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin prevents bacteria from growing by interfering with their protein synthesis. It binds to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thus inhibiting translation of mRNA. Nucleic acid synthesis is not affected.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin is an acid-stable antibiotic, so it can be taken orally with no need of protection from gastric acids. It is readily absorbed, but absorption is greater on an empty stomach. Time to peak concentration (T) in adults is 2.1 to 3.2 hours for oral dosage forms. Due to its high concentration in phagocytes, azithromycin is actively transported to the site of infection. During active phagocytosis, large concentrations are released. The concentration of azithromycin in the tissues can be over 50 times higher than in plasma due to ion trapping and its high lipid solubility. Azithromycin's half-life allows a large single dose to be administered and yet maintain bacteriostatic levels in the infected tissue for several days.


title: Azithromycin

text: Following a single dose of 500 mg, the apparent terminal elimination half-life of azithromycin is 68 hours. Biliary excretion of azithromycin, predominantly unchanged, is a major route of elimination. Over the course of a week, about 6% of the administered dose appears as an unchanged drug in urine.


title: Azithromycin

text: A team of researchers at the pharmaceutical company Pliva in Zagreb, Croatia,—Gabrijela Kobrehel, Gorjana Radobolja-Lazarevski, and Zrinka Tamburašev, led by Slobodan Đokić—discovered azithromycin in 1980. The company Pliva patented it in 1981. In 1986, Pliva and Pfizer signed a licensing agreement, which gave Pfizer exclusive rights for the sale of azithromycin in Western Europe and the United States. Pliva put its azithromycin on the market in Central and Eastern Europe under the brand name Sumamed in 1988. Pfizer launched azithromycin under Pliva's license in other markets under the brand name Zithromax in 1991. Patent protection ended in 2005.


title: Azithromycin

text: Azithromycin is available as a generic medication. Azithromycin is commonly administered in film-coated tablet, capsule, oral suspension, intravenous injection, granules for suspension in sachet, and ophthalmic solution.


title: Azithromycin

text: In 2010, azithromycin was the most prescribed antibiotic for outpatients in the US, whereas in Sweden, where outpatient antibiotic use is a third as prevalent, macrolides are only on 3% of prescriptions. In 2017, azithromycin was the second most prescribed antibiotic for outpatients in the United States.


title: Azithromycin

text: It is sold under many trade names worldwide including 3-Micina, A Sai Qi, Abacten, Abbott, Acex, Acithroc, Actazith, Agitro, Ai Mi Qi, Amixef, Amizin, Amovin, An Mei Qin, Ao Li Ping, Apotex, Lebanon, Aratro, Aruzilina, Arzomicin, Arzomidol, Asizith, Asomin, Astidal, Astro, Athofix, Athxin, Atizor, Atromizin, Avalon, AZ, AZA, Azacid, Azadose, Azalid, Azalide, AzaSite, Azath, Azatril, Azatril, Azax, Azee, Azeecor, Azeeta, Azelide, Azeltin, Azenil, Azeptin, Azerkym, Azi, Aziact, Azibact, Azibactron, Azibay, Azibect, Azibest, Azibiot, Azibiotic, Azicare, Azicin, Azicine, Aziclass, Azicom, Azicure, Azid, Azidose, Azidraw, Azifam, Azifarm, Azifast, Azifine, Azigen, Azigram, Azigreat, Azikare, Azilide, Azilife, Azilip, Azilup, Azimac, Azimax, Azimed, Azimepha, Azimex, Azimit, Azimix, Azimon, Azimore, Azimycin, Azimycine, Azin, Azindamon, Azinew, Azinex, Azinif, Azinil, Azintra, Aziom, Azipar, Aziped, Aziphar, Azipin, Azipro, Aziprome, Aziquilab, Azirace, Aziram, Aziresp, Aziride, Azirol, Azirom, Azirox, Azirute, Azirutec, Aziset, Azisis, Azison, Azissel, Aziswift, Azit, Azita, Azitam, Azitex, Azith, Azithral, Azithrin, Azithro, Azithrobeta, Azithrocin, Azithrocine, Azithromax, Azithromed, Azithromicina, Azithromycin, Azithromycine, Azithromycinum, Azithrovid, Azitic, Azitive, Azitome, Azitrac, Azitral, Azitrax, Azitredil, Azitrex, Azitrim, Azitrin, Azitrix, Azitro, Azitrobac, Azitrocin, Azitroerre, Azitrogal, Azitrolabsa, Azitrolid, Azitrolit, Azitrom, Azitromac, Azitromax, Azitromek, Azitromicin, Azitromicina, Azitromycin, Azitromycine, Azitrona, Azitropharma, Azitroteg, Azitrox, Azitsa, Azitus, Azivar, Azivirus, Aziwill, Aziwok, Azix, Azizox, Azmycin, Azo, Azobat, Azocin, Azoget, Azoheim, Azoksin, Azom, Azomac, Azomax, Azomex, Azomycin, Azomyne, Azores, Azorox, Azostar, Azot, Azoxin, Azras, Azro, Azrocin, Azrolid, Azromax, Azrosin, Aztin, Aztrin, Aztro, Aztrogecin, Azvig, Azycin, Azycyna, Azydrop, Azypin, Azytact, Azytan, Azyter, Azyter, Azyth, Azywell, Azza, Ba Qi, Bactizith, Bactrazol, Bai Ke De Rui, Batif, Bazyt, Bezanin, Bin Qi, Binozyt, BinQi, Biocine, Biozit, Bo Kang, Canbiox, Cetaxim, Charyn, Chen Yu, Cinalid, Cinetrin, Clamelle, Clearsing, Corzi, Cozith, Cronopen, Curazith, Delzosin, Dentazit, Disithrom, Doromax, Doyle, Elzithro, Eniz, Epica, Ethrimax, Ezith, Fabodrox, Fabramicina, Feng Da Qi, Figothrom, Floctil, Flumax, Fu Qi-Hua Yuan, Fu Rui Xin, Fuqixing, Fuxin-Hai Xin Pharm, Geozif, Geozit, Gitro, Goldamycin, Gramac, Gramokil, Hemomicin, Hemomycin, I-Thro, Ilozin, Imexa, Inedol, Infectomycin, Iramicina, Itha, Jin Nuo, Jin Pai Qi, Jinbo, Jun Jie, Jun Wei Qing, Kai Qi, Kang Li Jian, Kang Qi, Katrozax, Ke Lin Da, Ke Yan Li, Koptin, Kuai Yu, L-Thro, Laz, Legar, Lg-Thral, Li Ke Si, Li Li Xing, Li Qi, Lin Bi, Lipuqi, Lipuxin, Lizhu Qile, Loromycin, Lu Jia Kang, Luo Bei Er, Luo Qi, Maazi, Macroazi, Macromax, Macrozit, Maczith, Makromicin, Maxmor, Mazit, Mazitrom, Medimacrol, Meithromax, Mezatrin, Ming Qi Xin, Misultina, Na Qi, Nadymax, Naxocina, Neblic, Nemezid, Neofarmiz, Nifostin, Nobaxin, Nokar, Novatrex, Novozithron, Novozitron, Nurox, Odaz, Odazyth, Onzet, Oranex, Oranex, Ordipha, Orobiotic, Pai Fen, Pai Fu, Paiqi, Pediazith, Portex, Pu He, Pu Le Qi, Pu Yang, Qi Gu Mei, Qi Mai Xing, Qi Nuo, Qi Tai, Qi Xian, Qili, Qiyue, Rarpezit, Razimax, Razithro, Rezan, Ribotrex, Ribozith, Ricilina, Rizcin, Romycin, Rothin (Rakaposhi), Rozalid, Rozith, Ru Shuang Qi, Rui Qi, Rui Qi Lin, Rulide, Sai Jin Sha, Sai Le Xin, Sai Qi, Selimax, Sheng Nuo Ling, Shu Luo Kang, Simpli-3, Sisocin, Sitrox, Sohomac, Stromac, Su Shuang, Sumamed, Sumamox, Tailite, Talcilina, Tanezox, Te Li Xin, Tetris, Texis, Thoraxx, Throin, Thromaxin, Tong Tai Qi Li, Topt, Toraseptol, Tremac, Trex, Tri Azit, Triamid, Tridosil, Trimelin, Tritab, Tromiatlas, Tromix, Trozamil, Trozin, Trozocina, Trulimax, Tuoqi, Udox, Ultreon, Ultreon, Vectocilina, Vinzam, Visag, Vizicin, Wei Li Qinga, Wei Lu De, Wei Zong, Weihong, Xerexomair, Xi Le Xin, Xi Mei, Xin Da Kang, Xin Pu Rui, Xithrone, Ya Rui, Yan Sha, Yanic, Yi Nuo Da, Yi Song, Yi Xina, Yin Pei Kang, Yong Qi, You Ni Ke, Yu Qi, Z-3, Z-PAK, Zady, Zaiqi, Zaret, Zarom, Zathrin, Zedbac, Zeemide, Zenith, Zentavion, Zetamac, Zetamax, Zeto, Zetron, Zevlen, Zibramax, Zicho, Zigilex, Zikti, Zimacrol, Zimax, Zimicina, Zindel, Zinfect, Zirom, Zisrocin, Zistic, Zit-Od, Zitab, Zitax, Zithrax, Zithrin, Zithro-Due, Zithrobest, Zithrodose, Zithrogen, Zithrokan, Zithrolide, Zithromax, Zithrome, Zithromed, Zithroplus, Zithrotel, Zithrox, Zithroxyn, Zithtec, Zitinn, Zitmac, Zitraval, Zitrax, Zitrex, Zitric, Zitrim, Zitrobid, Zitrobiotic, Zithrolect, Zitrocin, Zitrocin, Zitrogram, Zitrolab, Zitromax, Zitroneo, Zitrotek, Ziyoazi, Zmax, Zocin, Zomax, Zotax, Zycin, and Zythrocin.


title: Azithromycin

text: It is sold as a combination drug with cefixime as Anex-AZ, Azifine-C, Aziter-C, Brutacef-AZ, Cezee, Fixicom-AZ, Emtax-AZ, Olcefone-AZ, Starfix-AZ, Zeph-AZ, Zicin-CX, and Zifi-AZ.


title: Azithromycin

text: It is also sold as a combination drug with nimesulide as Zitroflam; in a combination with tinidazole and fluconazole as Trivafluc, and in a combination with ambroxol as Zathrin-AX, Laz-AX and Azro-AM.


title: Azithromycin

text: Despite early evidence showing azithromycin slowed down coronavirus multiplication in laboratory settings, further research indicates it to be ineffective as a treatment for COVID-19 in humans. After a large-scale trial showed no benefit of using azithromycin in treating COVID-19, the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) updated its guidance and no longer recommends the medication for COVID-19.


title: Madelyn Cline

text: Madelyn Renee Cline (born December 21, 1997) is an American actress and model. She starred as Sarah Cameron on the Netflix teen drama series "Outer Banks" (2020–present) and as Whiskey in Rian Johnson's mystery film (2022).


title: Madelyn Cline

text: Cline was born to real estate agent Pam and engineer Mark and was raised in Goose Creek, South Carolina, near Charleston. She briefly was enrolled in college at Coastal Carolina University, but dropped out and moved to Los Angeles to further pursue acting.


title: Madelyn Cline

text: Cline spent some of her early summers in New York City working on television commercials, some being for T-Mobile and Sunny D. She soon got to start with small roles such as Chloe in "Boy Erased" and Taylor Watts in "Vice Principals." She also had small recurring roles in "The Originals" and "Stranger Things."


title: Madelyn Cline

text: In 2018, Cline was cast as Sarah Cameron in "Outer Banks," the first season of which was released on April 15, 2020. Considered her breakout role, the show received positive reviews and a second season which premiered in July 2021. In September 2020, Cline and Chase Stokes starred in the music video for Kygo and Donna Summer's single "Hot Stuff." In June 2021, she joined the cast of "".


title: Madelyn Cline

text: In June 2020, Cline announced she was in a relationship with her "Outer Banks" co-star Chase Stokes. In October 2021, the couple split.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Michael Chandler (born April 24, 1986) is an American professional mixed martial artist. He currently competes in the Lightweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). A professional competitor since 2009, Chandler first gained notoriety when he began competing for Bellator MMA, an organization he fought for from 2010 through 2020. There, Chandler became a three-time Bellator Lightweight Champion and was the winner of the . As of November 2, 2021, he is #5 in the UFC lightweight rankings.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler was born and raised in High Ridge, Missouri, the second of four children to Michael Sr. and Betty Chandler. He is of German and Irish heritage. Chandler was on the honor roll every term in high school, received three letters in football, and finished as the runner–up at the MSHSAA State Championships as a senior in wrestling. He was voted the Most Valuable Wrestler during his senior season and was selected to the All-St. Louis Team.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Upon graduating from Northwest High School in 2004, Chandler enrolled at the University of Missouri without an athletic scholarship, walking onto the school's wrestling squad. While at Missouri, Chandler was a four-time NCAA Division I qualifier, collected 100 career wins, as well as earning fifth place at NCAA's as a senior, earning DI All-American honors. Chandler earned runner–up honors in the 2008 and 2009 Big 12 Championships and was awarded automatic bids to three of the four NCAA Championships he competed in. Chandler compiled a 31–15 record against Big 12 opponents and a 100–40 overall record in his four years as a starter. He majored in personal finance management services with a minor in real estate. He also built a close relationship with two–time Dan Hodge Trophy winner and eventual Bellator MMA World Champion Ben Askren and two–time All–American and eventual UFC Welterweight Champion Tyron Woodley.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Immediately after his wrestling career was over, Chandler began training mixed martial arts at Xtreme Couture. He opted out of competing as an amateur and in August 2009, Chandler made his professional MMA debut with a first-round TKO victory over Kyle Swadley.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler made his Strikeforce debut on November 20, 2009 at where he fought Richard Bouphanouvong, He won the bout via technical knockout in the second round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: His next fight in the promotion took place on May 15, 2010 at where he fought Sal Wood. He won the bout via submission in under a minute.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler made his Bellator debut on September 30, 2010, at Bellator 31, where he defeated Scott Stapp via technical knockout in the first round. The match was contested at a catchweight for Chandler to test himself for the lightweight division, all his previous bouts being in the welterweight division.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In his next Bellator appearance, Chandler competed on the Bellator 32 card on October 14, 2010, against Chris Page in a welterweight contest. He won the bout via submission in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In February 2011, it was announced that Chandler would be a part of the . In the opening round of the tournament, Chandler faced Marcin Held, at Bellator 36 on March 12, 2011. He won the contest via technical submission after choking Held unconscious with an arm-triangle choke. The win moved Chandler into the semi-finals.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler then faced Lloyd Woodard at Bellator 40 and won via unanimous decision to move onto the finals of the tournament.


title: Michael Chandler

text: The tournament final took place at Bellator 44 where Chandler faced Patricky Pitbull. He utilized his wrestling skills, repeatedly taking down Freire and controlling the fight. He defeated Freire via unanimous decision to win $100,000 and a shot at the Bellator Lightweight World Championship.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler was expected to compete against Eddie Alvarez for the Bellator Lightweight World Championship at Bellator 54 on October 15, 2011. However, Alvarez suffered an undisclosed injury forcing the bout to be postponed. The bout was then rescheduled to take place on November 19, 2011 at Bellator 58. Chandler defeated Eddie Alvarez via submission in the fourth round in an instant classic.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In his first fight after winning the title, Chandler faced Akihiro Gono in a non-title superfight at Bellator 67 on May 4, 2012. He won the match via technical knockout at just 56 seconds into the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler made the first defense of his title against Bellator Season Six Lightweight Tournament Winner Rick Hawn, on January 17, 2013 at Bellator 85. He won the bout via submission in the second round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler was set to make his second defense against Bellator Season Seven Lightweight Tournament Winner Dave Jansen June 19, 2013 at . However, on June 2, it was announced that Jansen had pulled out of the bout due to an injury and faced David Rickels at instead. He won the bout via knockout in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: A rematch with Eddie Alvarez took place on November 2, 2013 in the main event of Bellator 106. He lost the match by split decision in another classic.


title: Michael Chandler

text: A third fight with Alvarez was set up for the main event of Bellator 120 on May 17, 2014. However, a week before the bout, it was announced that Alvarez had suffered a concussion and was forced to pull out of the fight. Chandler instead faced Will Brooks for the interim lightweight title. He lost the back-and-forth bout by split decision.


title: Michael Chandler

text: With Bellator Lightweight Champion Eddie Alvarez leaving the promotion, Chandler faced Will Brooks in a rematch on November 15, 2014 at Bellator 131 for the vacant lightweight title. He lost the bout via technical knockout in the fourth round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler faced Derek Campos on June 19, 2015 at Bellator 138. After a dominant start on the feet, including a knockdown, he won the match via submission in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler rematched David Rickels on November 6, 2015 at Bellator 145. He won the bout via technical knockout in the second round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In May 2016, Bellator MMA president Scott Coker announced that Chandler would rematch Patricky Pitbull on June 17, 2016, at Bellator 157, now for the vacant Bellator Lightweight Championship. He regained the title after knocking Pitbull out in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In his first title defense, Chandler faced former UFC Lightweight Champion Benson Henderson on November 19, 2016 in the main event of Bellator 165. He won the back-and-forth bout via split decision.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In his second title defense, Chandler faced Brent Primus on June 24, 2017 at Bellator NYC. In the first round, the bout was temporarily halted by the referee to check on Chandler, whose left ankle was visibly injured. The bout was stopped in favor of Primus via technical knockout, earning him the Bellator Lightweight Championship.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Following the loss to Primus, Chandler remained out of action for the remainder of 2017. He made his return at Bellator 192 on January 20, 2018, against Goiti Yamauchi. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In a rematch, Chandler was expected to challenge Brent Primus for the Bellator Lightweight Championship on April 13, 2018 at Bellator 197. After Primus pulled out of the fight due to injury, Chandler faced Brandon Girtz on the same card. He won the fight via technical submission in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In late June 2018, reports surfaced that Chandler's contract with Bellator would expire imminently, making him a free agent. On August 22, 2018, it was announced that Chandler had re-signed a new, exclusive multi-fight contract with Bellator MMA.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler's anticipated rematch with Brent Primus took place on December 14, 2018, at Bellator 212. Chandler dominated the majority of the fight by out-wrestling Primus, ultimately defeating him by unanimous decision and regaining the Bellator Lightweight World title in the process.


title: Michael Chandler

text: In the first defense of his new title, Chandler faced Patrício Pitbull on May 11, 2019 in the main event of Bellator 221. He lost the fight via technical knockout in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: On October 25, 2019, it was announced that Chandler would return to cage to rematch Benson Henderson at on December 29, 2019. However, Henderson was forced to withdraw from the bout citing an injury and was replaced by Sidney Outlaw in an 160 pounds catchweight bout. He defeated Outlaw via knockout in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: A rematch with Benson Henderson was rescheduled to take place at Bellator 244 on June 6, 2020. However, the event was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and eventually took place on August 7, 2020 at Bellator 243. He won the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: On September 17, 2020, it was announced that Chandler had signed a contract with the UFC and served as a backup for a title bout between Khabib Nurmagomedov and Justin Gaethje at UFC 254.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler made his promotional debut against Dan Hooker at UFC 257 on January 24, 2021. He won the fight via technical knockout in the first round. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night " award.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler faced long–time veteran Charles Oliveira for the vacant UFC Lightweight Championship, following former champion Khabib Nurmagomedov's retirement, while headlining UFC 262 on May 15, 2021. Although he managed to drop Oliveira in the first, Chandler lost the fight via technical knockout early in the second round.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler faced former UFC Interim Lightweight Champion Justin Gaethje at UFC 268 on November 6, 2021. After a back-and-forth fight, Chandler lost the bout via unanimous decision. This bout earned the "Fight of the Night" award. The bout was also regarded as the "Fight of the Year" by the UFC and various mixed martial arts media outlets.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler faced former UFC Interim Lightweight Champion Tony Ferguson on on May 7, 2022 at UFC 274. He won the fight in the second round after knocking out Ferguson with a front kick. The win earned Chandler his second "Performance of the Night" bonus award. It also earned him the second place Crypto.com ""Fan Bonus of the Night"" award.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler faced Dustin Poirier on November 12, 2022, at UFC 281. He lost the fight via a rear-naked choke submission in the third round. This fight earned him the "Fight of the Night" award.


title: Michael Chandler

text: Chandler started dating Brie Willett in 2013 after emailing for almost two years. Subsequently, they got married in 2014. The couple adopted a son, Hap, in 2017. In April 2022, their second adopted son Ace was born.


title: Trollface

text: Trollface or Troll Face is a rage comic meme image of a character wearing a mischievous smile, used to symbolise internet trolls and trolling. It is one of the oldest and most widely known rage comic faces.


title: Trollface

text: Trollface was drawn in Microsoft Paint on September 19, 2008, by Carlos Ramirez, an 18-year-old Oakland college student. The image was published on Ramirez's DeviantArt page, "Whynne", as part of a rage comic titled "Trolls," about the pointless nature of trolling. Ramirez posted the image to the imageboard website 4chan and other users started to share it. In the following months, Ramirez's drawing quickly gained traction on 4chan as the universal emoticon of an internet troll and a versatile rage comic character. From 4chan, Trollface spread to Reddit and Urban Dictionary in 2009, eventually reaching other internet image-sharing sites like Imgur and Facebook.


title: Trollface

text: Trollface shows a troll, someone who annoys others on the internet for their own amusement. The original comic by Ramirez mocked trolls; however, the image is widely used by trolls. Trollface has been described as the internet equivalent of the children's taunt "nyah nyah nyah nyah nyah nyah" or sticking one's tongue out. The image is often accompanied by phrases such as "Problem?" or "You mad, bro?".


title: Trollface

text: On April 8, 2015, Kotaku ran an in-depth interview article with Ramirez about his now-iconic rage comic character. In the article, Ramirez estimated that since registering "Trolls" with the United States Copyright Office on July 27, 2010, he had earned more than $100,000 in licensing fees and other payouts associated with Trollface, including from licensing for shirts emblazoned with the face being sold by the retail chain Hot Topic, with monthly revenues reaching as high as $15,000 at its peak.


title: Trollface

text: In addition, Ramirez also offered a backstory behind the removal of the video game "Meme Run" for Wii U for copyright infringement for including Trollface as the main character. Trollface is protected by copyright, but is not trademarked.


title: Trollface

text: Trollface was described by "La Tercera" as "the father of memes". A bust of Trollface was exhibited at the Mexico City museum "Museo del Meme".


title: Trollface

text: In March 2012, a viral video showed a banner emblazoned with Trollface and the word "Problem?" being used by fans of the Turkish Second League football team Eskişehirspor to protest a rule change.


title: Trollface

text: In the "Black Mirror" episode "Shut Up and Dance", the blackmailers send Trollface photographs after they leak the victims' secrets in spite of their compliance.


title: Trollface

text: In February 2021, Rebecca Black released a remix of her 2011 song "Friday" to celebrate its 10th anniversary, with the song's music video featuring several rage comic characters, including Trollface.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The New York metropolitan area, also commonly referred to as the Tri-State area, is the largest metropolitan area in the world by urban landmass, at , and one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. The vast metropolitan area includes New York City, Long Island, the Mid and Lower Hudson Valley in the State of New York; the six largest cities in New Jersey: Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, Lakewood, and Edison, and their vicinities; and six of the seven largest cities in Connecticut: Bridgeport, Stamford, New Haven, Waterbury, Norwalk, and Danbury, and the vicinities of these cities. The New York metropolitan area comprises the geographic and demographic hub of the larger Northeast megalopolis.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The New York metropolitan area is the most populous in the United States, as defined by both the Metropolitan Statistical Area (20.1 million residents in 2020) and the Combined Statistical Area (23.6 million residents in 2020). The metropolitan area is home to approximately 6% of the United States' population. It is the tenth largest urban agglomeration in the world. The New York metropolitan area continues to be the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States, having the largest foreign-born population of any metropolitan region in the world. The MSA covers , while the CSA area is , encompassing an ethnically and geographically diverse region. The New York metropolitan area's population is larger than that of the state of New York, and the metropolitan airspace accommodated over 130 million passengers in 2016.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: As the hub of multiple industries, including finance, health care, pharmaceuticals, and life sciences, international trade, publishing, real estate, education, fashion, entertainment, tourism, law, and manufacturing, the New York metropolitan area estimated to produce a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of $2.1 trillion as of 2022, representing the largest metropolitan economy worldwide; and if the New York metropolitan area were an independent sovereign state, it would constitute the eighth-largest economy in the world. It is the most prominent financial, diplomatic, and media hub in the world.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: According to "Forbes", in 2014, the New York metropolitan area was home to eight of the top ten ZIP codes in the United States by median housing price, with six in Manhattan alone. The New York metropolitan area also contains five of the top ten richest places in America, according to Bloomberg. These are Scarsdale, New York; Short Hills, New Jersey; Old Greenwich, Connecticut; Bronxville, New York; and Darien, Connecticut. The New York metropolitan region's higher education network comprises hundreds of colleges and universities, including New York University and three Ivy League universities: Columbia, Princeton, and Yale.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The counties and county groupings constituting the New York metropolitan area are listed below, with 2010 census figures:


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The U.S. Office of Management and Budget utilizes two definitions of the area: the metropolitan statistical area (MSA) and the combined statistical area (CSA). The MSA definition is titled the "New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA Metropolitan Statistical Area", and includes a population of 20.3 million people by 2017 Census estimates, roughly 1 in 16 Americans and nearly 7 million more than the second-place Los Angeles metropolitan area in the United States. The MSA is further subdivided into four metropolitan divisions. The 23-county MSA includes 10 counties in New York State (coextensive with the five boroughs of New York, the two remaining counties of Long Island, and three counties in the Lower Hudson Valley); 12 counties in Northern and Central New Jersey; and one county in northeastern Pennsylvania. The largest urbanized area in the United States is at the heart of the metropolitan area, the "New York–Newark, NY–NJ–CT Urbanized Area" (which had a land area of 3,450 square miles in 2010 according to the 2010 census). The New York state portion of the metropolitan area (the Five Boroughs, the lower Hudson Valley, and Long Island) accounts for over 65 percent of the state's population.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Combined statistical areas (CSAs) group together adjacent core-based statistical areas with a high degree of economic interconnection. The New York–Newark, NY–NJ–CT–PA Combined Statistical Area had an estimated population of 23.7 million as of 2014. About one out of every fifteen Americans resides in this region, which includes eight additional counties in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. This area, less the Pennsylvania portion, is often referred to as the "tri-state area" and less commonly the "tri-state region". The New York City television designated market area (DMA) includes Pike County, Pennsylvania, which is also included in the CSA.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: In addition to the New York–Newark–Jersey City, NY–NJ–PA metropolitan statistical areas (MSA), the following core-based statistical areas are also included in the New York–Newark, NY–NJ–CT–PA CSA:


title: New York metropolitan area

text: All eight subregions are often further subdivided. For instance, Long Island can be divided into its South and North Shores (usually when speaking about Nassau County and western Suffolk County) and the East End. The Hudson Valley and Connecticut are sometimes grouped together and referred to as the Northern Suburbs, largely because of the shared usage of the Metro-North Railroad system.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The geographical, cultural, and economic center of the metropolitan area is New York City, the most populous city in the United States and has been described as the capital of the world. The city consists of five boroughs, each of which is coterminous with a county of New York State. The five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. With a Census-estimated population of 8,550,405 in 2015 (8,491,079 in 2014), distributed over a land area of just , New York is the most densely populated major city in the United States. A global power city, New York City exerts a significant impact upon commerce, finance, health care and life sciences, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and entertainment, its fast pace defining the term "New York minute". Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy. New York is a global city and has been described as the cultural, financial, entertainment, and media capital of the world, as well as the world's most economically powerful city.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Long Island, the most populous island in the United States, is located just off the northeast coast of the United States and is a region wholly included within both the U.S. state of New York and the New York metropolitan area. Extending 118 miles east-northeast of Roosevelt Island, Manhattan from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties: Kings and Queens (these form the New York boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, respectively) to the west; then Nassau and Suffolk to the east. However, most people in the New York metropolitan area (even those living in Queens and Brooklyn) colloquially use the term "Long Island" (or "The Island") exclusively to refer to the Nassau-Suffolk county area collectively, which is mainly suburban in character. North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which are the U.S. states of Connecticut and Rhode Island.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: With a population of 8,063,232 enumerated at the 2020 U.S. Census, constituting nearly 40% of New York State's population, the majority of New York City residents, 58.4% as of 2020, live on Long Island, namely the estimated 4,896,398 residents living in the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens. Long Island is the most populated island in any U.S. state or territory, and the 17th-most populous island in the world (ahead of Ireland, Jamaica, and Hokkaidō). Its population density is . If Long Island geographically constituted an independent metropolitan statistical area, it would rank fourth most populous in the United States; while if it were a U.S. state, Long Island would rank 13th in population and first in population density. Queens is the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world. The Town of Hempstead in Nassau County, with an estimated population of 770,367 in 2016, is the most populous municipality in the New York metropolitan area outside of New York City.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Long Island is also the 17th most populous island in the world, but is more prominently known for recreation, boating, and miles of public beaches, including numerous town, county, and state parks, as well as Fire Island National Seashore and wealthy and expensive coastal residential enclaves. Along the north shore, the Gold Coast of Long Island, featured in the film "The Great Gatsby", is an upscale section of Nassau and western Suffolk counties that once featured many lavish mansions built and inhabited by wealthy business tycoons in the earlier years of the 20th century, of which only a few remain preserved as historic sites. The East End of Long Island (known as the "Twin Forks" because of its physical shape) boasts open spaces for farmland and wineries. The South Fork, in particular, comprises numerous towns and villages known collectively as "The Hamptons" and has an international reputation as a "playground for the rich and famous", with some of the wealthiest communities in the United States. In 2015, according to "Business Insider", the 11962 zip code encompassing Sagaponack, within Southampton, was listed as the most expensive in the U.S. by real estate-listings site Property Shark, with a median home sale price of $5,125,000.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: During the summer season, many celebrities and the wealthy visit or reside in mansions and waterfront homes, while others spend weekends enjoying the beaches, gardens, bars, restaurants, and nightclubs.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Long Island is served by a network of parkways and expressways, with the Long Island Expressway, Northern State Parkway, and Southern State Parkway being major east–west routes across significant portions of the island. Commuter rail access is provided by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) Long Island Rail Road, one of the largest commuter railroads in the United States. Air travel needs are served by several airports. Within Queens, the island is home to John F. Kennedy International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, two of the three major airline hubs serving the New York area (with Newark Liberty International Airport being the third; all three major airports are operated by The Port Authority of New York & New Jersey). Long Island MacArthur Airport (serving commercial airlines) and Farmingdale/Republic Airport (private and commuter flights) are both located in Suffolk County.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Known for its hilly terrain, picturesque settings, and quaint small towns and villages, the Lower Hudson Valley is centered around the Hudson River north of New York City and lies within New York State. Westchester and Putnam counties are located on the eastern side of the river, and Rockland and Orange counties are located on the western side of the river. Westchester and Rockland counties are connected by the heavily trafficked New Tappan Zee Bridge, as well as by the Bear Mountain Bridge near their northern ends. Several branches of the MTA Metro-North Railroad serve the region's rail commuters. Southern Westchester County contains more densely populated areas and includes the cities of Yonkers, Mount Vernon, New Rochelle, and White Plains. Although many of the suburban communities of Westchester are known for their affluence and expense (some examples: Bronxville, Scarsdale, Chappaqua, Armonk, Katonah, and Briarcliff Manor), the Lower Hudson Valley as a whole is one of the fastest-growing areas in the metropolitan area because of high housing costs in New York and the inner suburbs.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Historically, the valley was home to many factories, including paper mills, but a significant number have closed. After years of lingering pollution, cleanup efforts to improve the Hudson River water quality are currently planned and will be supervised by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The Mid-Hudson Valley region of the State of New York is midway between New York City and the state capital of Albany. The area includes the counties of Dutchess, Ulster, and Sullivan, as well as the northern portions of Orange County, with the region's main cities being Poughkeepsie, Newburgh, Kingston, and Beacon. The Walkway over the Hudson, is the second longest pedestrian footbridge in the world. It crosses the Hudson River connecting Poughkeepsie and Highland. The 13 mile-long Dutchess Rail Trail stretches from Hopewell Junction to the beginning of the Walkway over the Hudson in Poughkeepsie. The area is home to the Wappingers Central School District, which the second-largest school district in the state of New York. The Newburgh Waterfront in the City of Newburgh is home to many high-end restaurants.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: U.S. Route 9, I-84, and the Taconic State Parkway all run through Dutchess County. Metro-North Railroad train station, New Hamburg, is located in the Town of Poughkeepsie and runs from Poughkeepsie to Grand Central Terminal in New York City.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Northern New Jersey, also known colloquially as "North Jersey", is typically defined as comprising the following counties:


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The New Jersey State Department of Tourism splits North Jersey into the urban Gateway Region and the more rural Skylands Region. Northern New Jersey is home to four of the largest cities of that state: Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, and Elizabeth.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The region is geographically diverse with wetlands, mountains, and valleys throughout the area. It has a large network of expressways and public transportation rail services, mostly operated by New Jersey Transit. Northern New Jersey also contains the second busiest airport in the New York metropolitan area, Newark Liberty International Airport.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Although it is a suburban and rural region of New York, much of the Gateway Region is highly urbanized. The entirety of Hudson County, eastern Essex County, southern Passaic County as well as Elizabeth in Union County are all densely populated areas.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Central Jersey is the middle portion of the state of New Jersey. Municipalities including Trenton (the state capital of New Jersey and the only U.S. state capital within the New York metropolitan area) and Princeton (home to Princeton University) are located in this subregion, as is a significant portion of the Jersey Shore.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Fairfield, New Haven, and Litchfield counties in western Connecticut (like the state in general) are known for affluence. Large businesses are scattered throughout the area, mostly in Fairfield County. The land is flat along the coast with low hills eventually giving way to larger hills such as The Berkshires further inland, to the Massachusetts border. Most of the largest cities in the state are in New Haven County (home to Yale University) and Fairfield County.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Candlewood Lake is the largest recreational lake in the New York metropolitan area. The lake is located within the Greater Danbury region, and is home to many second homes of New York City residents.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Pike County is located in northeastern Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 57,369. Its county seat is Milford. Part of the Pocono Mountains region lies within Pike County, which has ranked among the fastest-growing counties of Pennsylvania.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: The following is a list of "principal cities" and their respective population estimates from the 2010 U.S. Census Bureau publication. Principal cities are generally those where there is a greater number of jobs than employed residents.


title: New York metropolitan area

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, New York City, western (and parts of eastern) Long Island, and the Jersey Shore experience a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"), and New York is thus the northernmost major city on the North American continent with this climate type.