title: Pegasus (spyware)

text: In the aftermath of the news, critics asserted that Apple's bug-bounty program, which rewards people for finding flaws in its software, might not have offered sufficient rewards to prevent exploits being sold on the black market, rather than being reported back to Apple. Russell Brandom of "The Verge" commented that the reward offered in Apple's bug-bounty program maxes out at $200,000, "just a fraction of the millions that are regularly spent for iOS exploits on the black market". He goes on to ask why Apple doesn't "spend its way out of security vulnerabilities?", but also writes that "as soon as [the Pegasus] vulnerabilities were reported, Apple patched them—but there are plenty of other bugs left. While spyware companies see an exploit purchase as a one-time payout for years of access, Apple's bounty has to be paid out every time a new vulnerability pops up."


title: Pegasus (spyware)

text: Brandom also wrote; "The same researchers participating in Apple's bug bounty could make more money selling the same finds to an exploit broker." He concluded the article by writing; "It's hard to say how much damage might have been caused if Mansoor had clicked on the spyware link... The hope is that, when the next researcher finds the next bug, that thought matters more than the money."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Naftali Bennett (, Transliterated: , ; born 25 March 1972) is an Israeli politician who served as the 13th prime minister of Israel from 13 June 2021 to 30 June 2022, and as the 3rd Alternate Prime Minister of Israel from 1 July to 8 November 2022. Bennett served as the leader of the New Right party from 2018 to 2022, having previously led The Jewish Home party between 2012 and 2018.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Born and raised in Haifa, the son of immigrants from the United States, Bennett served in the Sayeret Matkal and Maglan special forces units of the Israel Defense Forces, commanding many combat operations, and subsequently became a software entrepreneur. In 1999, he co-founded and co-owned the US company Cyota. The company was sold in 2005 for $145 million. He has also served as CEO of Soluto, an Israeli cloud computing service, sold in 2013 for a reported $100–130 million.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett entered politics in 2006, serving as Chief of Staff for Benjamin Netanyahu until 2008. From 2010 to 2012, he was the director of the Yesha Council. In 2011, together with Ayelet Shaked, he co-founded the My Israel extra-parliamentary movement. In 2012, Bennett was elected as the party leader of The Jewish Home. In the 2013 Knesset election, the first contested by The Jewish Home under Bennett's leadership, the party won 12 seats out of 120. He served under Prime Minister Netanyahu as Minister of Economy and Religious Services from 2013 to 2015, before being appointed as Minister of Education in 2015. In December 2018, Bennett defected from The Jewish Home to form the New Right, a member of the Yamina alliance. After he lost his Knesset seat in the April 2019 Knesset election, he was dismissed by Netanyahu as Education Minister in June 2019. He regained his seat in the September 2019 Knesset election and was appointed Minister of Defense, before leaving the position the following year.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In 2020, Bennett succeeded Shaked to become the leader of the Yamina alliance. On 2 June 2021, Bennett agreed to a rotation government with Yair Lapid, whereby Bennett would serve as Israel's Prime Minister until 2023, after which Lapid would assume the role until 2025. Bennett was sworn in on 13 June 2021. On 20 June 2022, Bennett announced he would call for a vote to dissolve the Knesset and step down as prime minister shortly after its dissolution, to be succeeded by Lapid. On 29 June, he announced that he would not seek re-election to the chamber in the next election that have been scheduled for later in the year. Lapid succeeded him as Prime Minister on 1 July 2022, while Bennett succeeded Lapid as the Alternate Prime Minister. He also served as the Minister of Community Affairs. He announced his resignation as alternative prime minister on 6 November, which became effective on 8 November.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett was born in Haifa, Israel, on 25 March 1972. He is the youngest of three sons born to Jim and Myrna (née Lefko) Bennett, American-Jewish immigrants who moved to Israel from San Francisco in July 1967. Both his parents were from Ashkenazi Jewish backgrounds. His father's ancestors were from Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands. Bennett's paternal great-great-great-grandfather Julius Salomonson was from Łobżenica, Poland, and arrived in San Francisco in 1851 during the California Gold Rush. His mother's ancestors lived in Russia and Poland, and her parents immigrated to the United States prior to World War II. They later moved to Israel, joining their daughter's family there, and settled on Vitkin Street in Haifa, close to where Bennett and his brothers grew up. Some of his mother's family members who remained in Poland were murdered in the Holocaust.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett's parents were raised in non-Orthodox Jewish homes and were progressive activists during the 1960s. His father was arrested while taking part in an anti-racism sit-in protest in 1964. They later began to observe Modern Orthodox Judaism and embraced right-wing Israeli politics. After moving to Israel in 1967, they volunteered for a few months at kibbutz Dafna, where they studied the Hebrew language, then settled in the Ahuza neighborhood of Haifa. Jim Bennett found a job in the Technion, working for its fundraising team, and became a successful real estate broker turned real estate entrepreneur. Myrna Bennett was the deputy director general of the Association of Americans and Canadians in Israel's northern region.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In the summer of 1973, when Bennett was one year old, the family returned to San Francisco at the urging of his mother. With the outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, Jim Bennett returned to Israel to fight in the Israel Defense Forces, serving in an artillery unit on the Golan Heights front. Following the war, the rest of the family returned to Israel at his request as he was held in reserve duty for months after the war. Bennett's parents ultimately decided to stay permanently in Israel.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In 1976, when Bennett was four years old, the family moved to Montreal for two years as part of his father's job. Upon returning to Haifa, Bennett began attending Carmel elementary school. When he was in second grade, the family moved to Teaneck, New Jersey for two years, again as part of his father's job. While living in New Jersey, Bennett attended Yavneh Academy. The family returned to Haifa when Bennett was ten.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett has two brothers; they are Asher, a former Israeli Navy submarine officer and businessman based in the United Kingdom, and Daniel, an accountant for Zim Integrated Shipping Services. Bennett attended Yavne Yeshiva High School in Haifa, and became a youth leader ("madrich") with the religious Zionist youth organization Bnei Akiva.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett was drafted into the Israel Defense Forces in 1990. He served in the elite Sayeret Matkal commando unit, and after his regular service was selected for officer training. He was given a choice of remaining in Sayeret Matkal but as a regular operator rather than a commander or transferring to the Maglan commando unit to receive a command position, and chose to transfer to Maglan. He became a company commander in the Maglan unit.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett was discharged from active service after six years but continued to serve in the reserves and attained the rank of major. During the time that Bennett was living in the United States and building his career as a software entrepreneur, he repeatedly traveled to Israel to do reserve duty. Bennett served during the First Intifada and in the Israeli security zone in Lebanon during the 1982–2000 South Lebanon conflict. He commanded many operations. Among other missions, he served as an officer in Operation Grapes of Wrath.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: After his regular IDF service, Bennett received a law degree from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. During the Second Intifada, he participated in Operation Defensive Shield.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: He was called up as a reservist in the Maglan special forces unit during the 2006 Lebanon War and participated in a search and destroy mission behind enemy lines, operating against Hezbollah rocket launchers.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: One of Bennett's actions as a commando officer became highly controversial. During Operation Grapes of Wrath, while leading a force of 67 Maglan soldiers operating in southern Lebanon, Bennett radioed for support after his unit came under mortar fire. The IDF launched an artillery barrage to cover his force, and the shelling hit a United Nations compound in which civilians were taking refuge, an incident that became known as the Qana massacre. A total of 106 Lebanese civilians were killed.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: The incident resulted in a wave of international condemnation, and the subsequent diplomatic pressure caused Israel to end Operation Grapes of Wrath sooner than planned. Journalist Yigal Sarna, writing in Israeli national tabloid "Yedioth Ahronoth", argued that Bennett displayed "poor judgement" during the operation. Sarna wrote that "Bennett led a force of 67 combat troops into Lebanon. At a certain point, he decided to ignore orders and change operational plans, without coordinating these moves with his superiors, who in his mind were cowardly, and not steadfast enough. Near the village of Kfar Kana, Bennett's troops were caught in an ambush."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Citing a "senior army figure", journalist Raviv Drucker said that Bennett's radio call for support after his unit came under fire was "hysterical" and contributed to the loss of life which occurred. Bennett responded: "I have now been subjected to an attack claiming that I am 'responsible for the massacre in Kfar Kana.' Heroism will not be investigated. Keep looking in the archives. My military file is available for viewing, and it's waiting for you." Former members of Bennett's unit wrote a letter defending him, saying: "Naftali ... led many successful operations that led to the elimination of Hezbollah terrorists deep in enemy territory." Other officers involved in the operation, including one who was Bennett's deputy during the Qana incident, also denied that he had changed plans without consulting his superiors.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett moved to the Upper East Side of Manhattan in 2000 to build a career as a software entrepreneur. In 1999, he co-founded Cyota, an anti-fraud software company, and served as its CEO. The company was sold in 2005 to RSA Security for $145 million, making Bennett a multimillionaire. A stipulation of the deal allowed the Israeli arm of Cyota to remain intact. As a result, 400 Israelis are employed at the company's Israeli offices in Beersheba and Herzliya.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett served as the CEO of Soluto, a technology company providing cloud-based service that enables remote support for personal computers and mobile devices in 2009, at a time when he and partner Lior Golan were engaged in raising funds for myriad Israeli technology startup companies. Soluto had hitherto raised $20 million from investors, including venture capital funds Giza Venture Capital, Proxima Ventures, Bessemer Venture Partners, Index Ventures, Michael Arrington's CrunchFund, and Eric Schmidt's Innovation Endeavors and Initial Capital. The sale of Soluto for a reported $100–130 million to the American company Asurion was finalized in October 2013.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In June 2021, "Forbes Israel" reported that Bennett is expected to make $5 million from his investment in the American fintech company Payoneer. Bennett invested several hundred thousand dollars in the company before entering politics. Payoneer is set to list on the Nasdaq stock exchange with a $3.3 billion valuation after reaching a SPAC merger with FTAC Olympus Acquisition Corp in February 2021.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: From 2010 to 2012, Bennett served as the director of the Yesha Council. In April 2011, together with Ayelet Shaked, he co-founded My Israel, which claims to have 94,000 Israeli members. In April 2012, he founded a movement named Yisraelim ("Israelis"). The movement's main goals include increasing Zionism among centre-right supporters, increasing dialogue between the religious and secular communities, and promoting "The Israel Stability Initiative."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett was elected the leader of The Jewish Home party in 2012. He was reelected as the party's leader in 2015 and 2017.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Following his election to the Knesset, and before he could take his seat, Bennett had to renounce his U.S. citizenship, which he held as the son of American parents. He was appointed Minister of Economy and Minister of Religious Services in March 2013. In April 2013, he was also appointed Minister of Jerusalem and Diaspora Affairs.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: After being reelected in the 2015 Knesset election, Bennett was appointed Minister of Education and retained the Diaspora Affairs portfolio in the new government. In May 2015, Netanyahu split the Ministry of Jerusalem and Diaspora Affairs, initially taking back the Jerusalem Affairs portfolio for himself. He later appointed Ze'ev Elkin to the role of Jerusalem Affairs Minister. As Minister of Education, Bennett issued an official order prohibiting school principals from inviting members of Breaking the Silence and other organizations that denounce Israel's military conduct in the West Bank.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In October 2015, Bennett resigned from the Knesset in order to allow Shuli Mualem to take his seat. His resignation took place under the Norwegian Law, which allowed ministers to resign their seats when in the cabinet but return to the Knesset if they leave the government. He returned to the Knesset on 6 December after Avi Wortzman opted to vacate his seat, having temporarily had to resign as a minister in order to do so.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Following Avigdor Lieberman's resignation as Defense Minister in November 2018, Bennett announced that he was seeking the position for himself. On 16 November 2018, a Likud party spokesman announced that Netanyahu had rejected Bennett's request and that Netanyahu himself would take the position instead. It was then announced that Bennett's Jewish Home party would no longer be affiliated with Netanyahu's government. On 19 November, Bennett reneged on his pledge to withdraw from Netanyahu's coalition.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In December 2018, Bennett was among the Jewish Home MKs to leave the party and form the breakaway New Right party. In the April 2019 Knesset election, New Right narrowly failed to cross the electoral threshold; as a result, Bennett did not gain a seat in the 21st Knesset. In June 2019, he left the government after Netanyahu dismissed Bennett from his positions as Education and Diaspora Affairs Minister.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: After the Knesset dissolved and a second election in 2019 was called for September, the New Right formed an electoral alliance with the Jewish Home and National Union-Tkuma, named the United Right which was later renamed Yamina, and was led by Ayelet Shaked. The list won seven seats in the election, and Bennett regained his Knesset seat. In November 2019, Bennett rejoined Netanyahu's government as Minister of Defense. After briefly dissolving, the Yamina alliance was reunified in January 2020 ahead of the 2020 Knesset election, with Bennett succeeding Ayelet Shaked as the new leader of the alliance. Yamina won six seats in that election.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In May 2020, with negotiations to form a new government between Netanyahu and Benny Gantz, leader of the centrist Blue and White alliance, Yamina announced that it would go into the opposition, ending Bennett's tenure as Defense Minister. The day before, Rafi Peretz, the leader of The Jewish Home, had split from the alliance, and would be named as the Minister of Jerusalem in the thirty-fifth government of Israel. On 17 May, Bennett met with Gantz, who also succeeded him as Defense Minister, and declared that Yamina was now a "head held high" member of the opposition. Tkuma, which rebranded as the Religious Zionist Party on 7 January 2021, split from Yamina on 20 January. In spite of this, Yamina won seven seats in the 2021 Knesset election in March.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: On 9 May 2021, it was reported that Bennett and Leader of the Opposition and Yesh Atid leader Yair Lapid had made major headway in coalition talks for forming a new Israeli government which would oust Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. On 30 May, Bennett announced that he would serve as prime minister in a rotation government until August 2023, at which point Lapid would take over as prime minister until 2025. Bennett was sworn in on 13 June, ending Netanyahu's 12-year tenure in office. He is Israel's first kippah-wearing prime minister.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: On the fast of 9th of Av, 2021, as hundreds of Jews went to mourn on the temple mount, where it was forbidden for them to pray, Bennett wrote: "The Jewish people twice had a Jewish state on the Land of Israel, and both times we did not succeed to complete the eighth decade as an independent state, because of internal wars and baseless hatred ... At the time of the Roman siege on Jerusalem, the nation was divided, each group entrenched itself in its own position, and burned the food stores of the others, as part of the internal power struggle, so the Romans had a much easier task. The bitter end we all know, and until today every year on this date we mourn the awful destruction which a people with a little more baseless love, restraint, and listening, could have saved us from."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: At the time of Bennett's assumption of office, the COVID-19 pandemic in Israel had somewhat subsided, with a low national infection rate and with 55% of the Israeli population having received two or more COVID-19 vaccines. Within ten days of his assumption of office, Israel underwent an outbreak of the Delta variant. In response, Bennett encouraged renewed social distancing, and the vaccination of all children aged twelve and above. In addition, he reached a deal with Pfizer to provide previously purchased vaccines before their intended delivery date to ensure the accessibility of the vaccine, and to provide additional vaccines in case a second booster shot becomes necessary. Following the variant's continued spread, a second booster shot and third overall shot was approved by the government on 1 August 2021 for all individuals aged 60 or older, which was expanded on 29 August to all adults.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Israel experienced a surge in COVID cases beginning in late November 2021. By December, the first cases of the Omicron variant were being reported in the country, the government responded by restricting air travel to the country and encouraging the vaccination of children and teenagers. On 2 January 2022, following an additional surge in late December, a third booster shot, and a fourth overall shot, was approved by the government for all individuals aged 60 or older. Cases grew at a steady pace through January and began to decrease, stabilizing again in March before continuing to fall. Israel ended its mask mandate in late April.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: King Mohammed VI of Morocco sent a special congratulatory letter to Prime Minister Bennett upon his taking office. Bennett responded that he would "work to reinforce Israeli-Moroccan relations in all areas". Israel and Morocco restored diplomatic relations on 10 December 2020, as part of the Israel–Morocco normalization agreement involving the United States, which at the same time recognized Morocco's sovereignty over the disputed territory of Western Sahara. In August 2021, the two parties agreed to enter formal diplomatic relations, and to open embassies in Tel Aviv and Marrakesh respectively.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: That month, Bennett made his first visit to the United States, where he met Secretary of State Antony Blinken, Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin, and AIPAC CEO Howard Kohr. He subsequently met President Joe Biden on 27 August 2021. In this meeting, Bennett described Israel's strategy against Iran as "a death by a thousand cuts" or "lingchi".


title: Naftali Bennett

text: On 27 September, Bennett addressed the general assembly of the United Nations in his first speech there. He talked about fighting the COVID-19 pandemic and combatting political polarization. In addition, Bennett denounced Iran's alleged state-sponsored terrorism, which he argued brought harm not only to Israel but also to many countries in the Middle East. He warned of Iran's efforts to acquire nuclear weapons, stating that Israel would not allow it.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: On 12 December, he visited the United Arab Emirates in the first visit of the country by an Israeli Prime Minister, meeting with then crown prince of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, Mohamed bin Zayed. On 14 February 2022 he visited Manama, marking the first time an Israeli Prime Minister officially visited Bahrain.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: On 5 March 2022, Bennett met with Russian President Vladimir Putin in order to discuss the Russian invasion of Ukraine in a meeting coordinated with the United States, France, and Germany. The Kremlin stated that Bennett had offered to mediate between Putin and Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy. Bennett then flew on the same day to Germany to brief German chancellor Olaf Scholz, updated French President Macron by telephone, and spoke with Zelenskyy twice in the evening, but few details were disclosed publicly. According to "Al Monitor", the meetings were instigated by Scholz who made a lightning visit to Israel on 3 March and held a long one-on-one meeting, which resulted in the mediation idea. Natan Sharansky, former head of the Jewish Agency, criticised Bennett, saying he was afraid to call out Putin by name for war crimes, and said Israel should provide defensive arms to Ukraine. Bennett later faced criticism for putting himself forward as neutral mediator amid global condemnation of Putin, while refusing requests from Ukraine for military equipment.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett's positions have been described as "ultra-nationalist", and Bennett describes himself, and has been described, as "more right wing" than Netanyahu. He had also been labeled a "pragmatist" and an "opportunist". He opposes the creation of a Palestinian state, and supports cutting taxes.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In February 2012, Bennett published a plan to manage the Israeli–Palestinian conflict called "The Israel Stability Initiative." The plan was based in part on elements of earlier initiatives, such as "Peace on Earth" by Adi Mintz and the "Elon Peace Plan" by Binyamin Elon. It relied on statements of Netanyahu and Likud party ministers in favor of unilateral annexation of the West Bank. Bennett opposed the creation of a Palestinian state, saying: "I will do everything in my power to make sure they never get a state."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In January 2013, Bennett suggested a tripartition of the Palestinian territories, whereby Israel would unilaterally annex Area C, authority over the Gaza Strip would be transferred to Egypt, and Area A and Area B would remain with the Palestinian National Authority, but under the security umbrella of the Israel Defense Forces and Shin Bet to "ensure quiet, suppress Palestinian terrorism, and prevent Hamas from taking over the territory." Area C constituted 62% of the area, and approximately 365,000 people lived in Israeli settlements. Palestinians who lived in this area would be offered Israeli citizenship or permanent residency status (between 48,000, according to Bennett, and 150,000, according to other surveys).


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Finally, Israel would invest in creating roads so Palestinians could travel between Areas A and B without checkpoints, and invest in infrastructure and joint industrial zones, because "[p]eace grows from below — through people, and people in daily life." Bennett also resisted immigration of Palestinian refugees now living outside the West Bank, or the connection between the Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip and the West Bank. In 2011, he stated that there were about 50 factories in the West Bank industrial region where Israelis and Palestinians work together, and cited this as one workable approach to finding peace between the two sides.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In June 2013, Bennett suggested that Israel must learn to live with the Palestinian problem without a "surgical action" of separation to two states: "I have a friend who's got shrapnel in his rear end, and he's been told that it can be removed surgically, but it would leave him disabled ... . So he decided to live with it. There are situations where insisting on perfection can lead to more trouble than it's worth." Bennett's "Shrapnel in the butt" quickly became widely known as representing his view of the Palestinian problem.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In response to Israel's release of Palestinian prisoners in 2013, Bennett said that Palestinian terrorists should be shot, allegedly adding: "I already killed lots of Arabs in my life, and there is absolutely no problem with that." Bennett was widely condemned for these words, although he denied saying them, claiming he said merely that "terrorists should be killed if they pose an immediate life threat to our soldiers when in action." In January 2013, Bennett said: "There is not going to be a Palestinian state within the tiny land of Israel [referring to the area from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea]. It's just not going to happen. A Palestinian state would be a disaster for the next 200 years."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In December 2014, a group of academics who opposed the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement and members of The Third Narrative, a Labor Zionist organization, called on the U.S. and E.U. to impose sanctions on Bennett and three other Israelis "who lead efforts to insure permanent Israeli occupation of the West Bank and to annex all or parts of it unilaterally in violation of international law." The academics, who called themselves Scholars for Israel and Palestine (SIP) and claimed to be "pro-Israel, pro-Palestine, pro-peace", asked the U.S. and EU to freeze Bennett's foreign assets and impose visa restrictions. Bennett was chosen as a target for proposed sanctions because of his work in opposing the 2010 settlement freeze while he was director of the Yesha Council, actively supporting annexation of over 60% of the West Bank, and "pressing strongly for a policy of creeping annexation."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: In October 2016, Bennett said: "On the matter of the Land of Israel, we have to move from holding action to a decision. We have to mark the dream, and the dream is that Judea and Samaria will be part of the sovereign State of Israel. We have to act today, and we must give our lives. We can't keep marking the Land of Israel as a tactical target and a Palestinian state as the strategic target." In November 2016, Bennett said that the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States gave him hope that the two-state solution would no longer be considered viable, claiming: "The era of the Palestinian state is over."


title: Naftali Bennett

text: According to Israeli journalist Anshel Pfeffer, those who have worked with Bennett have privately said that much of his rhetoric is for electioneering purposes, and he is in fact more moderate than believed. In spite of his expressed right-wing views against a Palestinian state, while engaged in coalition negotiations for a unity government with Yair Lapid and other party leaders following the 2021 Knesset election, during which he was offered the prime ministership, Bennett agreed to a policy of not annexing any territory in the West Bank and to not build any new settlements while serving as prime minister in a potential unity government.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett believes in less government regulation of the private sector and that private businesses are the engine of economic growth. He favors social support of vulnerable populations such as the elderly and disabled. Bennett has said Israel needs to break the monopoly of the tycoons, the major labor unions, and the Ministry of Defense, which in his opinion are strangling Israel's economy. He believes the key to reducing disparities is equality of opportunity and investment in education in the periphery, to give tools to populations of weaker economic backgrounds. By doing so, Bennett believes weaker populations in Israel will be given the opportunity to succeed professionally and financially. He supports the provision of land to veterans in the periphery, in the Negev, and the Galilee, to promote a national solution to the problem of "affordable housing" and a more equitable distribution of the population in Israel. He has also pledged to remove heavy bureaucratic challenges to small and medium-sized Israeli businesses.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: As Economy Minister, Bennett oversaw a new strategy by Israel to increase trade with emerging markets around the world and reduce trade with the European Union, so as to diversify its foreign trade. The two main reasons for this shift are to take advantage of opportunities in emerging markets and to avert the threat of possible EU sanctions on Israel over the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Bennett acknowledged that he was seeking to reduce Israel's economic dependence on the EU to reduce its influence on Israel. According to the "Financial Times", Bennett is the primary architect of this economic pivot. Under his leadership, the Economy Ministry began opening new trade attaché offices in Asia, Africa, and South America, and also began closing some trade offices in Europe and consolidating others with offices in neighboring countries. As part of this process, Bennett opened negotiations with Russia and China on free trade agreements, oversaw continuing negotiations with India for a free trade agreement, and led economic delegations to China and India. While attending the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2013 in Bali, Indonesia, Bennett held talks with delegations from some unspecified countries on the possibility of future free trade agreements.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett implemented reforms to lower Israel's high food prices. Under his oversight, import duties and barriers were reduced, and mechanisms were set up to ensure more competition in the Israeli food industry. These reforms have been credited with a decline in Israeli food prices that began in April 2014 and continued throughout the rest of the year and into 2015. According to a "Haaretz" editorial, a fall in global commodity prices and dire financial straits among many Israeli consumers prompted the decline, not the reforms. Bennett has led a push to integrate Haredi men, many of whom are unemployed, into the workforce. According to Bennett, their integration into the workforce will greatly bolster economic growth. Under his "voucher plan", the Ministry of the Economy issues vouchers for hundreds of vocational schools that will allow Haredi men to avoid mandatory military service, at least temporarily, in exchange for enrolling in a vocational school to learn a trade. Bennett also wants to increase employment rate among Israeli-Arab women. In October 2021, Bennett's administration approved plans to spend billions of dollars to improve conditions for Israel's Arab minority.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: An adherent of Orthodox Judaism, Bennett opposes the implementation of same-sex marriage in Israel, "just as we don't recognize milk and meat together as kosher", but has expressed support for equivalent rights such as tax breaks for same-sex couples. Following the murder of a 16-year-old girl at the Jerusalem gay pride parade in 2015, Bennett, who was Education Minister at the time, instructed the Education Ministry to prepare programs to prevent future attacks on the LGBTQ community, saying: "We are responding to this attack with actions and not just talk." While Bennett has voiced support for LGBTQ rights, saying "they deserve all of the civil rights", he stated in late 2020 that he had no plans to push for policy changes to help LGBTQ people.


title: Naftali Bennett

text: Bennett's wife, Gilat, is a professional pastry chef. She was secular, but following her husband she now observes the Sabbath and kashrut. The couple have four children and live in Ra'anana, a city north of Tel Aviv. Their eldest son Yonatan is named after Yonatan Netanyahu, and their youngest son David Emmanuel is named after Emmanuel Moreno, who was a comrade of Bennett's in the special forces. Bennett adheres to Modern Orthodox Judaism.


title: WeCrashed

text: WeCrashed is an American drama streaming television miniseries that premiered on Apple TV+ on March 18, 2022. The series stars Jared Leto and Anne Hathaway as Adam and Rebekah Neumann, the real-life married couple at the heart of WeWork, a coworking space company whose valuation reached $47 billion in 2019 before crashing as a result of financial revelations. The series is based on the podcast "WeCrashed: The Rise and Fall of WeWork" by Wondery.


title: WeCrashed

text: "WeCrashed: The Rise and Fall of WeWork", a six-part podcast, is the basis for the series. "WeCrashed: The Director’s Cut" podcast is a remake of the podcast, with David Brown by Wondery.


title: WeCrashed

text: After Lee Eisenberg signed a multi-year overall deal with Apple, it was reported that a drama series based on the story of WeWork was in development in February 2020. It was announced in December 2020 that Apple TV+ had put the series into development, with Jared Leto in negotiations to star. Damien Chazelle was initially supposed to direct and produce, but was sidetracked by his film "Babylon" and dropped out. He was replaced by John Requa and Glenn Ficarra. Lee Eisenberg and Drew Crevello were set to create and write the series. The series was given an eight-episode series order the next month, with Leto confirmed to star alongside Anne Hathaway; both will serve as executive producers. In April 2021, Kyle Marvin was cast in a lead role, portraying Miguel McKelvey, another co-founder of WeWork. In July 2021, America Ferrera was added to the cast. In August 2021, O. T. Fagbenle was added to the cast in recurring capacity. In December 2021, Theo Stockman was added to the cast in recurring role, with Anthony Edwards noted as being cast in February 2022.


title: WeCrashed

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 70% approval rating based on 20 critic reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "The pacing can be frustrating, but "WeCrashed" still works thanks to its compelling central relationship and Anne Hathaway's knockout performance." On Metacritic, the series has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 10 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: WeCrashed

text: Naomi Fry in "The New Yorker" called the show "genuinely funny", but complained that the business scenes, which become more frequent toward the end of the show, lack dramatic stakes. She did praise Leto's performance, saying "I don’t think I've ever seen a better impression of an Israeli's accent and mannerisms done by a non-Israeli". A number of reviewers criticized the series for not exploring the deeper issues raised by the WeWork story, such as "how thin the line in Silicon Valley can be between visionary and fraudster", or how Neumann's success came in part because he managed "to tap into a specifically millennial sense of longing for meaning and community".


title: WeCrashed

text: "WeCrashed" contains a mix of real and fictional characters and events, although the fictional elements tend to have a basis in reality. For example, the character Elishia Kennedy is fictional but largely based on SoulCycle co-founder Julie Rice. The episode "Summer Camp" involves Rebekah Neumann making an onstage comment at a 2014 "Summer Camp" event that antagonizes many of the female employees, leading to a session in which they vent their frustrations at her. In reality, she did make the comment, but at a 2018 Summer Camp, and there was no corresponding discussion session afterwards, although many of the sentiments expressed had been stated publicly or privately by female employees at various times.


title: WeCrashed

text: "Bloomberg News" reporter Ellen Huet felt the show was inaccurate in portraying WeWork co-founder Miguel McKelvey as "a clueless punchline", when in reality "many former employees saw him as a key architect of the company culture".


title: Lucid dream

text: A lucid dream is a type of dream in which the dreamer becomes aware that they are dreaming while dreaming. During a lucid dream, the dreamer may gain some amount of control over the dream characters, narrative, or environment; however, this is not actually necessary for a dream to be described as lucid. Lucid dreaming has been studied and reported for many years. Prominent figures from ancient to modern times have been fascinated by lucid dreams and have sought ways to better understand their causes and purpose.


title: Lucid dream

text: Many different theories have emerged as a result of scientific research on the subject and have even been shown in pop culture. Further developments in psychological research have pointed to ways in which this form of dreaming may be utilized as a form of sleep therapy.


title: Lucid dream

text: The term "lucid dream" was coined by Dutch author and psychiatrist Frederik van Eeden in his 1913 article "A Study of Dreams", though descriptions of dreamers being aware that they are dreaming predate the article. Van Eeden studied his own dreams between January 20, 1898 and December 26, 1912, recording the ones he deemed most important in a dream diary. 352 of these dreams are categorized as lucid.


title: Lucid dream

text: Van Eeden created names for seven different types of dreams he experienced based on the data he collected:


title: Lucid dream

text: He said the seventh type, lucid dreaming, is "the most interesting and worthy of the most careful observation and study."


title: Lucid dream

text: Paul Tholey laid the epistemological basis for the research of lucid dreams, proposing seven different conditions of clarity that a dream must fulfill in order to be defined as a lucid dream:


title: Lucid dream

text: Later, in 1992, a study by Deirdre Barrett examined whether lucid dreams contained four "corollaries" of lucidity:


title: Lucid dream

text: Subsequently, Stephen LaBerge studied the prevalence of being able to control the dream scenario among lucid dreams, and found that while dream control and dream awareness are correlated, neither requires the other. LaBerge found dreams that exhibit one clearly without the capacity for the other; also, in some dreams where the dreamer is lucid and aware they could exercise control, they choose simply to observe.


title: Lucid dream

text: The practice of lucid dreaming, as in cultivating the dreamer's ability to be aware that they are dreaming, is central to both the ancient Indian Hindu practice of Yoga nidra and the Tibetan Buddhist practice of dream Yoga. The cultivation of such awareness was a common practice among early Buddhists.


title: Lucid dream

text: Early references to the phenomenon are also found in ancient Greek writing. For example, the philosopher Aristotle wrote: "often when one is asleep, there is something in consciousness which declares that what then presents itself is but a dream". Meanwhile, the physician Galen of Pergamon used lucid dreams as a form of therapy. In addition, a letter written by Saint Augustine of Hippo in 415 AD tells the story of a dreamer, Doctor Gennadius, and refers to lucid dreaming.


title: Lucid dream

text: Philosopher and physician Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682) was fascinated by dreams and described his own ability to lucid dream in his "Religio Medici", stating: "...yet in one dream I can compose a whole Comedy, behold the action, apprehend the jests and laugh my self awake at the conceits thereof".


title: Lucid dream

text: Samuel Pepys in his diary entry for 15 August 1665 records a dream, stating: "I had my Lady Castlemayne in my arms and was admitted to use all the dalliance I desired with her, and then dreamt that this could not be awake, but that it was only a dream".


title: Lucid dream

text: In 1867, the French sinologist Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys anonymously published "Les Rêves et Les Moyens de Les Diriger; Observations Pratiques" ('Dreams and the ways to direct them; practical observations'), in which he describes his own experiences of lucid dreaming, and proposes that it is possible for anyone to learn to dream consciously.


title: Lucid dream

text: In 1913, Dutch psychiatrist and writer Frederik (Willem) van Eeden (1860–1932) coined the term 'lucid dream' in an article entitled "A Study of Dreams".


title: Lucid dream

text: Some have suggested that the term is a misnomer because Van Eeden was referring to a phenomenon more specific than a lucid dream. Van Eeden intended the term lucid to denote "having insight", as in the phrase "a lucid interval" applied to someone in temporary remission from a psychosis, rather than as a reference to the perceptual quality of the experience, which may or may not be clear and vivid.


title: Lucid dream

text: In 1968, Celia Green analyzed the main characteristics of such dreams, reviewing previously published literature on the subject and incorporating new data from participants of her own. She concluded that lucid dreams were a category of experience quite distinct from ordinary dreams and said they were associated with rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep). Green was also the first to link lucid dreams to the phenomenon of false awakenings.


title: Lucid dream

text: In 1975, Dr Keith Hearne had the idea to exploit the nature of Rapid Eye Movements (REM) to allow a dreamer to send a message directly from dreams to the waking world. Working with an experienced lucid dreamer (Alan Worsley), he eventually succeeded in recording (via the use of an electrooculogram or EOG) a pre-defined set of eye movements signalled from within Worsley's lucid dream. This occurred at around 8 am on the morning of April 12, 1975. Hearne's EOG experiment was formally recognized through publication in the journal for The Society for Psychical Research. Lucid dreaming was subsequently researched by asking dreamers to perform pre-determined physical responses while experiencing a dream, including eye movement signals.


title: Lucid dream

text: In 1980, Stephen LaBerge at Stanford University developed such techniques as part of his doctoral dissertation. In 1985, LaBerge performed a pilot study that showed that time perception while counting during a lucid dream is about the same as during waking life. Lucid dreamers counted out ten seconds while dreaming, signaling the start and the end of the count with a pre-arranged eye signal measured with electrooculogram recording. LaBerge's results were confirmed by German researchers D. Erlacher and M. Schredl in 2004.


title: Lucid dream

text: In a further study by Stephen LaBerge, four subjects were compared either singing while dreaming or counting while dreaming. LaBerge found that the right hemisphere was more active during singing and the left hemisphere was more active during counting.


title: Lucid dream

text: Neuroscientist J. Allan Hobson has hypothesized what might be occurring in the brain while lucid. The first step to lucid dreaming is recognizing one is dreaming. This recognition might occur in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is one of the few areas deactivated during REM sleep and where working memory occurs. Once this area is activated and the recognition of dreaming occurs, the dreamer must be cautious to let the dream continue but be conscious enough to remember that it is a dream. While maintaining this balance, the amygdala and parahippocampal cortex might be less intensely activated. To continue the intensity of the dream hallucinations, it is expected the pons and the parieto-occipital junction stay active.


title: Lucid dream

text: Using electroencephalography (EEG) and other polysomnographical measurements, LaBerge and others have shown that lucid dreams begin in the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage of sleep. LaBerge also proposes that there are higher amounts of beta-1 frequency band (13–19 Hz) brain wave activity experienced by lucid dreamers, hence there is an increased amount of activity in the parietal lobes making lucid dreaming a conscious process.


title: Lucid dream

text: Paul Tholey, a German Gestalt psychologist and a professor of psychology and sports science, originally studied dreams in order to resolve the question of whether one dreams in colour or black and white. In his phenomenological research, he outlined an epistemological frame using critical realism. Tholey instructed his subjects to continuously suspect waking life to be a dream, in order that such a habit would manifest itself during dreams. He called this technique for inducing lucid dreams the "Reflexionstechnik" (reflection technique). Subjects learned to have such lucid dreams; they observed their dream content and reported it soon after awakening. Tholey could examine the cognitive abilities of dream figures. Nine trained lucid dreamers were directed to set other dream figures arithmetic and verbal tasks during lucid dreaming. Dream figures who agreed to perform the tasks proved more successful in verbal than in arithmetic tasks. Tholey discussed his scientific results with Stephen LaBerge, who has a similar approach.


title: Lucid dream

text: A study was conducted by Stephen LaBerge and other scientists to see if it were possible to attain the ability to lucid dream through a drug. In 2018, galantamine was given to 121 patients in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, the only one of its kind. Some participants found as much as a 42 percent increase in their ability to lucid dream, compared to self-reports from the past six months, and ten people experienced a lucid dream for the first time. It is theorized that galantamine allows acetylcholine to build up, leading to greater recollection and awareness during dreaming.


title: Lucid dream

text: Teams of cognitive scientists established real-time two-way communication with people undergoing a lucid dream. During dreaming they were able to consciously communicate with experimenters via eye movements or facial muscle signals, were able to comprehend complex questions and use working memory. Such interactive lucid dreaming could be a new approach for the scientific exploration of the dream state and could have applications for learning and creativity.<ref name="10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.026"> Available under CC BY 4.0 .</ref>


title: Lucid dream

text: Other researchers suggest that lucid dreaming is not a state of sleep, but of brief wakefulness, or "micro-awakening". Experiments by Stephen LaBerge used "perception of the outside world" as a criterion for wakefulness while studying lucid dreamers, and their sleep state was corroborated with physiological measurements. LaBerge's subjects experienced their lucid dream while in a state of REM, which critics felt may mean that the subjects are fully awake. J Allen Hobson responded that lucid dreaming must be a state of both waking and dreaming.


title: Lucid dream

text: Philosopher Norman Malcolm has argued against the possibility of checking the accuracy of dream reports, pointing out that "the only criterion of the truth of a statement that someone has had a certain dream is, essentially, his saying so."


title: Lucid dream

text: In 2016, a meta-analytic study by David Saunders and colleagues on 34 lucid dreaming studies, taken from a period of 50 years, demonstrated that 55% of a pooled sample of 24,282 people claimed to have experienced lucid dreams at least once or more in their lifetime. Furthermore, for those that stated they did experience lucid dreams, approximately 23% reported to experience them on a regular basis, as often as once a month or more. In a 2004 study on lucid dream frequency and personality, a moderate correlation between nightmare frequency and frequency of lucid dreaming was demonstrated. Some lucid dreamers also reported that nightmares are a trigger for dream lucidity. Previous studies have reported that lucid dreaming is more common among adolescents than adults.


title: Lucid dream

text: A 2015 study by Julian Mutz and Amir-Homayoun Javadi showed that people who had practiced meditation for a long time tended to have more lucid dreams. The authors claimed that "Lucid dreaming is a hybrid state of consciousness with features of both waking and dreaming" in a review they published in Neuroscience of Consciousness in 2017.


title: Lucid dream

text: Mutz and Javadi found that during lucid dreaming, there is an increase in activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the bilateral frontopolar prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, the inferior parietal lobules, and the supramarginal gyrus. All are brain functions related to higher cognitive functions including working memory, planning, and self-consciousness. The researchers also found that during a lucid dream, "levels of self-determination" were similar to those that people experienced during states of wakefulness. They also found that lucid dreamers can only control limited aspects of their dream at once.


title: Lucid dream

text: Mutz and Javadi also have stated that by studying lucid dreaming further, scientists could learn more about various types of consciousness, which happen to be less easy to separate and research at other times.


title: Lucid dream

text: It has been suggested that those who suffer from nightmares could benefit from the ability to be aware they are indeed dreaming. A pilot study performed in 2006 showed that lucid dreaming therapy treatment was successful in reducing nightmare frequency. This treatment consisted of exposure to the idea, mastery of the technique, and lucidity exercises. It was not clear what aspects of the treatment were responsible for the success of overcoming nightmares, though the treatment as a whole was said to be successful.


title: Lucid dream

text: Australian psychologist Milan Colic has explored the application of principles from narrative therapy to clients' lucid dreams, to reduce the impact not only of nightmares during sleep but also depression, self-mutilation, and other problems in waking life. Colic found that therapeutic conversations could reduce the distressing content of dreams, while understandings about life—and even characters—from lucid dreams could be applied to their lives with marked therapeutic benefits.


title: Lucid dream

text: Psychotherapists have applied lucid dreaming as a part of therapy. Studies have shown that, by inducing a lucid dream, recurrent nightmares can be alleviated. It is unclear whether this alleviation is due to lucidity or the ability to alter the dream itself. A 2006 study performed by Victor Spoormaker and Van den Bout evaluated the validity of lucid dreaming treatment (LDT) in chronic nightmare sufferers. LDT is composed of exposure, mastery and lucidity exercises. Results of lucid dreaming treatment revealed that the nightmare frequency of the treatment groups had decreased. In another study, Spoormaker, Van den Bout, and Meijer (2003) investigated lucid dreaming treatment for nightmares by testing eight subjects who received a one-hour individual session, which consisted of lucid dreaming exercises. The results of the study revealed that the nightmare frequency had decreased and the sleep quality had slightly increased.


title: Lucid dream

text: Holzinger, Klösch, and Saletu managed a psychotherapy study under the working name of ‘Cognition during dreaming—a therapeutic intervention in nightmares’, which included 40 subjects, men and women, 18–50 years old, whose life quality was significantly altered by nightmares. The test subjects were administered Gestalt group therapy and 24 of them were also taught to enter the state of lucid dreaming by Holzinger. This was purposefully taught in order to change the course of their nightmares. The subjects then reported the diminishment of their nightmare prevalence from 2–3 times a week to 2–3 times per month.


title: Lucid dream

text: In her book "The Committee of Sleep", Deirdre Barrett describes how some experienced lucid dreamers have learned to remember specific practical goals such as artists looking for inspiration seeking a show of their own work once they become lucid or computer programmers looking for a screen with their desired code. However, most of these dreamers had many experiences of failing to recall waking objectives before gaining this level of control.


title: Lucid dream

text: "Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming" by Stephen LaBerge and Howard Rheingold (1990) discusses creativity within dreams and lucid dreams, including testimonials from a number of people who claim they have used the practice of lucid dreaming to help them solve a number of creative issues, from an aspiring parent thinking of potential baby names to a surgeon practicing surgical techniques. The authors discuss how creativity in dreams could stem from "conscious access to the contents of our unconscious minds"; access to "tacit knowledge"—the things we know but can't explain, or things we know but are unaware that we know.


title: Lucid dream

text: "The Dreams Behind the Music" book by Craig Webb (2016) details lucid dreams of a number of musical artists, including how they are able not just to hear, but also compose, mix, arrange, practice, and perform music while conscious within their dreams.


title: Lucid dream

text: Though lucid dreaming can be beneficial to a number of aspects of life, some risks have been suggested. Those who have never had a lucid dream may not understand what is happening when they experience it for the first time. This could cause those individuals to feel a variety of different emotions as they are going through a completely new psychological experience. Feelings of stress, worry, or confusion could arise. On the other hand, the feeling of empowerment could also come up as they realize that they are now in control of their dreams. Individuals who experience lucid dreams regularly could begin to feel isolated from others due to the fact that they have different experiences when it comes to dreaming. Someone struggling with certain mental illnesses could find it hard to be able to tell the difference between reality and the actual dream (psychosis).


title: Lucid dream

text: A very small percentage of people may experience sleep paralysis, which is something that can sometimes be confused with lucid dreaming. Although from the outside, both of these seem to be quite similar, there are a few distinct differences that can help differentiate them. A person usually experiences sleep paralysis when they partially wake up in REM atonia, a state in which said person is partially paralyzed and cannot move their limbs. When in sleep paralysis, people may also experience hallucinations. Although said hallucinations cannot cause physical damage, they may still be frightening. There are three common types of hallucinations: an intruder in the same room, a crushing feeling on one's chest or back, and a feeling of flying or levitating. About 7.6% of the general population have experienced sleep paralysis at least once. Exiting sleep paralysis to a waking state can be achieved by intently focusing on a part of the body, such as a finger, and wiggling it, continuing the action of moving to then the hand, the arm, and so on, until the person is fully awake.


title: Lucid dream

text: Long-term risks with lucid dreaming have not been extensively studied, although many people have been lucid dreaming for many years without any adverse effects.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Aditi Rao Hydari is an Indian actress who works mainly in Hindi and Tamil film industry. She made her film debut with the Malayalam film "Prajapathi" in 2006. She went on to have major to minor supporting roles in several Hindi films, including the musical romantic drama, "Rockstar" (2011), the horror-thriller "Murder 3" (2013), the thriller "Wazir" (2016), and the historical period film "Padmaavat" (2018).


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: She also starred several South Indian films including Mani Ratnam's "Kaatru Veliyidai" (2017) and "Sufiyum Sujatayum" (2020).


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Aditi Rao Hydari was born in Hyderabad to Ehsaan Hydari and his wife Vidya Rao, an acclaimed classical singer popular for thumri and dadra genres of music. Her father, who died in 2013, was a Sulaimani Bohra Muslim while her mother, who is a Hindu by birth, is a practicing Buddhist and a Chitrapur Saraswat from Mangalore who is half-Telugu. Hydari is thus of mixed lineage: Bohra, Chitrapur Saraswat and Telugu.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari belongs to two royal lineages, that of sir Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari (related to the Tyabji family) and Raja J. Rameshwar Rao of erstwhile Raja of Wanaparthy family. She is the great-granddaughter of Akbar Hydari, former Prime Minister of Hyderabad state (colonial India) and the grandniece of Muhammad Saleh Akbar Hydari, former Governor of Assam. Aditi is the granddaughter of Raja J Rameshwar Rao, who headed the administration of Wanaparthi state during colonial India, and Shanta Rameshwar Rao, a much respected educationalist in the city of Hyderabad, the founder of Vidyaranya school and the chairperson of the publishing house Orient Blackswan. Filmmaker Kiran Rao, the former wife of actor Aamir Khan, is her maternal first cousin.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari's parents separated when she was two years old. Her mother moved from Hyderabad to New Delhi and managed her family business from there. While her father remarried and did not have children, her mother remained single. Hydari spent her childhood in both Hyderabad and New Delhi. She started learning Bharatanatyam at age six and became a disciple of acclaimed dancer Leela Samson. She was educated at A Krishnamurthy Foundation India School and graduated from Lady Shri Ram College, University of Delhi.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari uses both of her parents' surnames. She explained, "I wanted to keep both, as my mom has brought me up, but my father is also a part of me. Hydari is a rare name so I kept both Rao and Hydari."


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari began her career as a Bharatanatyam dancer, having become interested in the art form following her association with Leela Samson from the age of 11. She worked as a part of Samson's dance group, Spanda, teaching students and travelling through India and abroad to perform in stage events. In early 2004, Hydari completed work on her first acting project titled "Sringaram," where she portrayed the lead role of a devadasi, a temple dancer of the 19th century. The Tamil film was directed by Sharada Ramanathan and produced by Padmini Ravi, a noted bharatanatyam dancer. Hydari was offered the role after Ramanathan saw her dance performance at a conference, and was also impressed with her "vulnerable and fresh face" and her resemblance to dancer Shobana. After being screened at numerous international film festivals throughout 2005 and 2006, the film received critical acclaim upon being shown in India and fetched several accolades, including three National Film Awards. "Sringaram" had a limited theatrical release in October 2007, but won positive reviews, with one critic noting that "the film has brilliant acting from the lead, Aditi Rao".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Her first film to have a theatrical release, however, was the Malayalam film "Prajapathi" (2006), in which she starred alongside Mammootty. She had been recommended to director Ranjith for the role by actress Suhasini, and was selected after the director managed to get in contact with her through Madhu Ambat, who was the cinematographer of "Sringaram". Hydari portrayed an orphan girl who falls in love with the character played by Mammootty, but her role was considered minimal, with a critic from Rediff stating she "has nothing to do with the overall plot". In 2009, she was cast by Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra in his Hindi drama film, "Delhi-6", where she portrayed a supporting role of an unmarried woman living in a community where spinsterhood was frowned upon. Featuring in an ensemble cast alongside Abhishek Bachchan and Sonam Kapoor, Hydari was selected by Mehra after he was impressed with her performance in "Sringaram".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: In 2011, Hydari appeared in a role opposite Arunoday Singh in Sudhir Mishra's romantic drama "Yeh Saali Zindagi". Portraying the wife of a former convict, the film garnered publicity prior to release for the sensuous scenes between Hydari and Singh. Post-release, Hydari received acclaim for her performance by winning the Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress and subsequently received much larger public attention. She later portrayed a supporting role alongside Ranbir Kapoor in Imtiaz Ali's "Rockstar" (2011). Hydari initially had met Ali to discuss the leading female role of a Kashmiri girl, but he chose to cast newcomer Nargis Fakhri instead. Ali subsequently contacted her again after two months and signed her to play a supporting role of an impulsive television reporter, who follows the character played by Kapoor. Several of Hydari's scenes in the film were trimmed before its theatrical release, much like her appearance in "Delhi-6", and a critic noted her role "suffers due to an undeveloped characterization".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari made a public statement that she wanted to appear in lead roles, rather than portray secondary characters, and subsequently, she was cast in her first lead role in a Hindi film through "London, Paris, New York" (2012) opposite Ali Zafar. Directed by Anu Menon, the film narrated the tale of a couple who connect with each other in unlikely circumstances in three different cities – London, Paris and New York City. With the film, she made her singing debut by singing two of the songs from the soundtrack. Hydari won predominantly positive reviews for her role of Lalitha, with a reviewer from Sify.com stating Hydari "makes the transition from side actress to leading lady and is instantly impressive", adding she is a "good performer with a striking screen presence" and that "she's likely to go places". Likewise, reviewers from The Hindu and NDTV called her performance "beautiful and in control of her character" and "a delight to watch", respectively. During the period, she also sung the Hindi version of the song "We Are Family" for the Hollywood animation film "".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: In 2013, she became a part of Mahesh Bhatt's "Murder" franchise, when she was cast as Roshni, opposite Randeep Hooda, in Vishesh Bhatt's directorial film "Murder 3". Hydari stated she was keen to do a film which would show the "mysterious and sensual side" to her, away from the several "innocent" roles she had done prior to "Murder 3". She received positive reviews for her performance, Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama wrote "Aditi and Sara are show-stoppers" and that "both deliver knockout performances", while Roshni Devi of Koimoi stated that "Aditi's performance is pillar for the film." Hydari then starred alongside Akshay Kumar and Shiv Panditt in the action film "Boss" (2013) directed by Anthony D'Souza. Describing her role as one of a "quintessential Hindi movie heroine", she revealed that she signed the film owing to Akshay Kumar's popularity and that it was important to be a part of a film which would have a "wide reach". The film received mixed responses from critics but was a box office success. In 2014, Hydari appeared in two guest roles – as a royal princess in the comedy drama "Khoobsurat" and then as a dancer in the Marathi period drama, "Rama Madhav", at the request of choreographer Saroj Khan. She was next seen in the comedy drama, "Guddu Rangeela" (2015) by Subhash Kapoor, which had an average performance at the box office. For her performance, a reviewer from Rediff wrote Hydari "is perfectly cast as a bright-eyed girl who knows more than she lets on, and the actress looks luminous".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: In 2016, Hydari starred alongside Amitabh Bachchan and Farhan Akhtar in Bejoy Nambiar's crime thriller film "Wazir". The film tells the story of two unusual friends, a chess grandmaster who uses a wheelchair, played by Bachchan, and a grief-stricken ATS officer, played by Akhtar. Hydari played the love interest of Akhtar's character. The film released on 8 January 2016 to mostly positive reviews and had the box office collection of around . Hydari also garnered praise for her performance. Gayatri Gauri in her review for "Firstpost" called Hydari's performance a "welcome change from glamorous heroines we usually see on screen." Abhijit Bhaduri of "The Times of India" said that despite the lack of focus on her character, she did justice to her part by "conveying stuff with her eyes." Ananya Bhattacharya of "India Today" gave Hydari the highest praise saying that she "brings vulnerability to her Ruhana" added that she "has to her credit several strong sequences."


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari next starred in Abhishek Kapoor's romantic drama film "Fitoor", along with Tabu, Aditya Roy Kapur and Katrina Kaif. The film based on Charles Dickens' novel "Great Expectations", had Hydari play the role of the younger Miss Havisham (later played by Tabu). The film was released on 12 February 2016 to mixed reviews and underperformed at the box-office. However, Hydari garnered praise for her performance. Sarita Tanwar of "Daily News and Analysis" in her review wrote: "Aditi Rao Hydari does full justice to the part of young Begum", and Surabhi Redkar of Koimoi deemed her "stunning". Her third film of 2016, "The Legend of Michael Mishra" had a poor response from critics, with the critic from The Times of India noting "Aditi Rao Hydari's good looks is the only good thing about this amateurish attempt, masquerading as a feature film, aimed for adults."


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari's first project of 2017, "Kaatru Veliyidai", marked her first collaboration with director Mani Ratnam and second film in Tamil Cinema. She played the role of Leela Abraham, a doctor based in Kargil during the 1999 war, who has a tumultuous and abusive relationship with a fighter pilot, played by Karthi. Upon release, "Kaatru Veliyidai" garnered mixed reviews; though critics predominantly praised the performance of Hydari along with A. R. Rahman's music and Ravi Varman's cinematography. She next appeared as the titular lead in Omung Kumar's "Bhoomi", with Sanjay Dutt.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari then played the role of Alauddin Khalji's first wife, Queen Mehrunisa, opposite Ranveer Singh in the epic film "Padmaavat" directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali. The film released on 25 January 2018 amidst numerous controversies and protests. "Padmaavat" received mixed reviews from critics but was a box office success. Hydari received much praise for her portrayal of Mehrunisa.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: 2018 also marked Aditi's second film with Mani Ratnam and third film in Tamil Cinema with "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam". She played Parvathi, one of the eight lead roles. She was paired with actor Arvind Swamy. Meanwhile, her other co-stars of "Chekka Chivantha Vaanam" included Vijay Sethupathi, Arun Vijay, Silambarasan, Jyothika and Dayana Erappa. The film had a worldwide release on 27 September 2018. She did her Tollywood debut with "Sammohanam" which was critically acclaimed directed by Mohan Krishna Indraganti. She was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu and SIIMA Award for Best Actress (Telugu). She won Best debut actress award at the Zee Cine Awards Telugu and Special jury award at TSR TV9 awards. Aditi Rao Hydari was also part of Telugu space thriller film "Antariksham 9000 KMPH". Hydari next starred in Sudhir Mishra's political thriller film "Daas Dev", which is an adaptation of Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay's 1917 novel "Devdas". She essayed the part of Chandramukhi in the film opposite Rahul Bhat.


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: In 2021, Aditi Rao Hydari's appeared in suspense film "The Girl On The Train", directed by Ribhu Dasgupta. The film starring Parineeti Chopra, Kirti Kulhari, Avinash Tiwary, and Sammy Jonas Heaney alongside her, is based on British author Paula Hawkins 2015 novel of the same name. Her next film the same year, was the Netflix film "Ajeeb Daastaans", for which she received positive reviews. She next played a cameo role of Young Sardar Kaur in "Sardar Ka Grandson". Her final film of the year was Telugu film "Maha Samudram".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: Hydari will next star in Vikramaditya Motwane's web series "Jubilee". She will also appear alongside Vijay Sethupathi and Arvind Swamy in the silent film "Gandhi Talks".


title: Aditi Rao Hydari

text: In 2004 and 2009, it was reported that she was married to Satyadeep Mishra, a former Indian lawyer and actor. The actress had declined to comment on her marital status in a 2012 interview but in a 2013 interview she mentioned that they were separated. Hydari had met Mishra at the age of 17 with whom she had her first serious relationship. She married him at the age of 21 but kept the marriage a secret when she debuted in Hindi cinema. Although separated, the two are close friends and have kept in touch over the years.


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness or color vision deficiency (CVD) is the decreased ability to see color or differences in color. It can impair tasks such as selecting ripe fruit, choosing clothing, and reading traffic lights. Color blindness may make some academic activities more difficult. However, issues are generally minor, and the colorblind automatically develop adaptations and coping mechanisms. People with total color blindness (achromatopsia) may also be uncomfortable in bright environments and have decreased visual acuity.


title: Color blindness

text: The most common cause of color blindness is an inherited problem or variation in the functionality of one or more of the three classes of cone cells in the retina, which mediate color vision. The most common form is caused by a genetic disorder called congenital red-green color blindness. Males are more likely to be color blind than females, because the genes responsible for the most common forms of color blindness are on the X chromosome. Non-color-blind females can carry genes for color blindness and pass them on to their children. Color blindness can also result from physical or chemical damage to the eye, the optic nerve, or parts of the brain. Screening for color blindness is typically done with the Ishihara color test.


title: Color blindness

text: There is no cure for color blindness. Diagnosis may allow an individual, or their parents/teachers to actively accommodate the condition. Special lenses such as "EnChroma" glasses or "X-chrom" contact lenses may help people with red–green color blindness at some color tasks, but they do not grant the wearer "normal color vision". Mobile apps can help people identify colors.


title: Color blindness

text: Red–green color blindness is the most common form, followed by blue–yellow color blindness and total color blindness. Red–green color blindness affects "up to" 1 in 12 males (8%) and 1 in 200 females (0.5%). The ability to see color also decreases in old age. In certain countries, color blindness may make people ineligible for certain jobs, such as those of aircraft pilots, train drivers, crane operators, and people in the armed forces. The effect of color blindness on artistic ability is controversial, but a number of famous artists are believed to have been color blind.


title: Color blindness

text: A colorblind subject will have decreased (or no) color discrimination along the red-green axis, blue-yellow axis, or both, though the vast majority of the colorblind are only affected on their red-green axis.


title: Color blindness

text: The first indication of colorblindness generally consists of a person using the wrong color for an object, such as when painting, or calling a color by the wrong name. The colors that are confused are very consistent among people with the same type of color blindness.


title: Color blindness

text: Confusion colors are pairs or groups of colors that will often be mistaken by the colorblind. Confusion colors for red-green color blindness include:


title: Color blindness

text: These colors of confusion are defined quantitatively by straight confusion lines plotted in CIEXYZ, usually plotted on the corresponding chromaticity diagram. The lines all intersect at a "copunctal point", which varies with the type of color blindness. Chromaticities along a confusion line will appear metameric to dichromats of that type. Anomalous trichromats of that type will see the Chromaticities as metameric if they are close enough, depending on the strength of their CVD. For two colors on a confusion line to be metameric, the Chromaticities first have to be made "isoluminant", i.e. to have the same Lightness. Note also that colors that may be isoluminant to the standard observer (typical trichromat) may not be isoluminant to a dichromat.


title: Color blindness

text: The following sections describe specific color tasks with which the colorblind typically have difficulty.


title: Color blindness

text: Colorblindness causes difficulty with the "connotative" color tasks associated with selecting or preparing food, for example:


title: Color blindness

text: Changes in skin color due to bruising, sunburn, rashes or even blushing are easily missed by those with red-green colorblindness. These discolorations are often linked to the blood oxygen saturation, which affects skin reflectance.


title: Color blindness

text: The colors of traffic lights can be difficult for the red-green colorblind. This includes distinguishing:


title: Color blindness

text: The main coping mechanism to overcome these challenges is to memorize the position of lights. The order of the common triplet traffic light is standardized as red-amber-green from top to bottom or left to right. Cases that deviate from this standard are rare. One such case is a traffic light in Tipperary Hill in Syracuse, New York, which is upside-down (green-amber-red top to bottom) due to the sentiments of its Irish American community. However, it has been criticized due to the potential hazard it poses for color-blind drivers.


title: Color blindness

text: Navigation lights in marine and aviation settings employ red and green lights to signal the relative position of other ships or aircraft. Railway signal lights also rely heavily on red-green-yellow colors. In both cases, these color combinations can be difficult for the red-green colorblind. Lantern Tests are a common means of simulating these light sources to determine not necessarily whether someone is colorblind, but whether they can functionally distinguish these specific signal colors. Those who cannot pass this test are generally completely restricted from working on aircraft, ships or rail.


title: Color blindness

text: Color analysis is the analysis of color in its use in fashion, to determine personal color combinations that are most aesthetically pleasing. Colors to combine can include clothing, accessories, makeup, hair color, skin color, eye color, etc. Color analysis involves many aesthetic and comparative color task that can be difficult for the color blind. Most colorblind individuals conservatively avoid brightly colored clothes to avoid combining colors that may be viewed as unaesthetic by people with normal color vision.


title: Color blindness

text: Inability to distinguish color does not necessarily preclude the ability to become a celebrated artist. The 20th century expressionist painter Clifton Pugh, three-time winner of Australia's Archibald Prize, on biographical, gene inheritance and other grounds has been identified as a protanope. 19th century French artist Charles Méryon became successful by concentrating on etching rather than painting after he was diagnosed as having a red–green deficiency. Jin Kim's red–green color blindness did not stop him from becoming first an animator and later a character designer with Walt Disney Animation Studios.


title: Color blindness

text: People with deuteranomaly are better at distinguishing shades of khaki, which may be advantageous when looking for predators, food, or camouflaged objects hidden among foliage. Dichromats tend to learn to use texture and shape clues and so may be able to penetrate camouflage that has been designed to deceive individuals with normal color vision.


title: Color blindness

text: Some tentative evidence finds that color blind people are better at penetrating certain color camouflages. Such findings may give an evolutionary reason for the high rate of red–green color blindness. There is also a study suggesting that people with some types of color blindness can distinguish colors that people with normal color vision are not able to distinguish. In World War II, color blind observers were used to penetrate camouflage.


title: Color blindness

text: In the presence of chromatic noise, the colorblind are more capable of seeing a luminous signal, as long as the chromatic noise appears metameric to them. This is the effect behind most "reverse" Pseudoisochromatic plates (e.g. ""hidden digit"" Ishihara plates) that are discernible to the colorblind, but unreadable to color normals.


title: Color blindness

text: Color codes are useful tools for designers to convey information. The interpretation of this information requires users to perform a variety of Color Tasks, usually comparative but also sometimes connotative or denotative. However, these tasks are often problematic for the colorblind when design of the color code has not followed best practices for accessibility. For example, one of the most ubiquitous connotative color codes is the "red means bad and green means good" or similar systems, based on the classic signal light colors. However, this color coding will almost always be undifferentiable to either Deutans or Protans and therefore should be avoided or supplemented with a parallel connotative system (symbols, smileys, etc.).


title: Color blindness

text: A common task for designers is to select a subset of colors ("qualitative" colormap) that are as mutually differentiable as possible (salient). For example, player pieces in a board game should be as different as possible.


title: Color blindness

text: Classic advice suggests using Brewer palettes, but several of these are "not" actually colorblind-accessible. A recent, free, powerful tool that checks color contrast of a group of colors is Adobe's Color Blind Safe Tool.


title: Color blindness

text: Unfortunately, the colors with the greatest contrast to the red-green colorblind tend to be colors of confusion to the blue-yellow colorblind, and vice versa. However, since red-green is much more prevalent than blue-yellow CVD, design should generally prioritize those users (Deutans, then Protans).


title: Color blindness

text: A common task for data visualization is to represent a color scale, or "sequential" colormap, often in the form of a heat map or choropleth. Several scales are designed with special consideration for the colorblind and are widespread in academia, including Cividis, Viridis and Parula (Matlab). These comprise a light-to-dark scale superimposed on a yellow-to-blue scale, making them monotonic and perceptually uniform to all forms of color vision.


title: Color blindness

text: Much terminology has existed and does exist for the classification of color blindness, but the typical classification for color blindness follows the von Kries classifications, which uses severity and affected cone for naming.


title: Color blindness

text: Based on clinical appearance, color blindness may be described as total or partial. Total color blindness (monochromacy) is much less common than partial color blindness. Partial colorblindness includes dichromacy and anomalous trichromacy, but is often clinically defined as mild, moderate or strong.


title: Color blindness

text: Monochromacy is often called "total color blindness" since there is no ability to see color. Although the term may refer to acquired disorders such as cerebral achromatopsia, it typically refers to congenital color vision disorders, namely rod monochromacy and blue cone monochromacy).


title: Color blindness

text: In cerebral achromatopsia, a person cannot perceive colors even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider these to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. They are forms of visual agnosia.


title: Color blindness

text: Monochromacy is the condition of possessing only a single channel for conveying information about color. Monochromats are unable to distinguish any colors and perceive only variations in brightness. Congenital monochromacy occurs in two primary forms:


title: Color blindness

text: Dichromats can match any color they see with some mixture of just two primary colors (in contrast to those with normal sight (trichromats) who can distinguish three primary colors). Dichromats usually know they have a color vision problem, and it can affect their daily lives. Dichromacy in humans includes protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia. Out of the male population, 2% have severe difficulties distinguishing between red, orange, yellow, and green. (Orange and yellow are different combinations of red and green light.) Colors in this range, which appear very different to a normal viewer, appear to a dichromat to be the same or a similar color. The terms protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia come from Greek, and respectively mean "inability to see ("anopia") with the first ("prot-"), second ("deuter-"), or third ("trit-") [cone]".


title: Color blindness

text: Anomalous trichromacy is the mildest type of color deficiency, but the severity ranges from almost dichromacy (strong) to almost normal trichromacy (mild). In fact, many mild anomalous trichromats have very little difficulty carrying out tasks that require normal color vision and some may not even be aware that they have a color vision deficiency. The types of anomalous trichromacy include protanomaly, deuteranomaly and tritanomaly. It is approximately three times more common than dichromacy. Anomalous trichromats exhibit trichromacy, but the color matches they make differ from normal trichromats. In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. This difference can be measured by an instrument called an Anomaloscope, where red and green lights are mixed by a subject to match a yellow light.


title: Color blindness

text: There are two major types of color blindness: difficulty distinguishing between red and green, and difficulty distinguishing between blue and yellow. These definitions are based on the phenotype of the partial colorblindness. Clinically, it is more common to use a genotypical definition, which describes which cone/opsin is affected.


title: Color blindness

text: Red-green color blindness includes protan and deutan CVD. Protan CVD is related to the L-cone and includes protanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and protanopia (dichromacy). Deutan CVD is related to the M-cone and includes deuteranomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and deuteranopia (dichromacy). The phenotype (visual experience) of deutans and protans is quite similar. Common colors of confusion include red/brown/green/yellow as well as blue/purple. Both forms are almost always symptomatic of congenital red-green color blindness, so affects males disproportionately more than females. This form of colorblindness is sometimes referred to as "daltonism" after John Dalton, who had red-green dichromacy. In some languages, "daltonism" is still used to describe red-green color blindness.


title: Color blindness

text: Blue-yellow color blindness includes tritan CVD. Tritan CVD is related to the S-cone and includes tritanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and tritanopia (dichromacy). Blue-yellow color blindness is much less common than red-green color blindness, and more often has acquired causes than genetic. Tritans have difficulty discerning between bluish and greenish hues. Tritans have a neutral point at 571 nm (yellowish).


title: Color blindness

text: The below table shows the cone complements for different types of human color vision, including those considered color blindness, normal color vision and 'superior' color vision. The cone complement contains the types of cones (or their opsins) expressed by an individual.


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness is any deviation of color vision from normal trichromatic color vision (often as defined by the standard observer) that produces a reduced gamut. Mechanisms for color blindness are related to the functionality of cone cells, and often to the expression of photopsins, the photopigments that 'catch' photons and thereby convert light into chemical signals.


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness is typically an inherited genetic disorder. The most common forms of colorblindness are associated with the Photopsin genes, but the mapping of the human genome has shown there are many causative mutations that don't directly affect the opsins. Mutations capable of causing color blindness originate from at least 19 different chromosomes and 56 different genes (as shown online at the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man [OMIM]).


title: Color blindness

text: By far the most common form of colorblindness is congenital red-green color blindness (Daltonism), which includes protanopia/protanomaly and deuteranopia/deuteranomaly. These conditions are mediated by the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes, respectively, both on the X chromosome. An 'affected' gene is either missing (as in Protanopia and Deuteranopia - Dichromacy) or is a chimeric gene (as in Protanomaly and Deuteranomaly).


title: Color blindness

text: Since the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes are on the X chromosome, they are sex-linked, and therefore affect males and females disproportionately. Because the colorblind 'affected' alleles are recessive, color blindness specifically follows X-linked recessive inheritance. Males have only one X chromosome (XY), and females have two (XX); Because the male only has one of each gene, if it is affected, the male will be colorblind. Because a female has two alleles of each gene (one on each chromosome), if only one gene is affected, the dominant normal alleles will "override" the affected, recessive allele and the female will have normal color vision. However, if the female has two mutated alleles, she will still be colorblind. This is why there is a disproportionate prevalence of colorblindness, with ~8% of males exhibiting colorblindness and ~0.5% of females.


title: Color blindness

text: Blue-yellow color blindness is a rarer form of colorblindness including tritanopia/tritanomaly. These conditions are mediated by the OPN1SW gene on Chromosome 7.


title: Color blindness

text: They can be congenital (from birth) or can commence in childhood or adulthood. They can be stationary, that is, remain the same throughout a person's lifetime, or progressive. As progressive phenotypes involve deterioration of the retina and other parts of the eye, many of the above forms of color blindness can progress to legal blindness, i.e. an acuity of 6/60 (20/200) or worse, and often leave a person with complete blindness.


title: Color blindness

text: Physical trauma can cause color blindness, either neurologically – brain trauma which produces swelling of the brain in the occipital lobe – or retinally, either acute (e.g. from laser exposure) or chronic (e.g. from ultraviolet light exposure).


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness may also present itself as a symptom of degenerative diseases of the eye, such as cataract and age-related macular degeneration, and as part of the retinal damage caused by diabetes. Vitamin A deficiency may also cause color blindness.


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness may be a side effect of prescription drug use. For example, red–green color blindness can be caused by ethambutol, a drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Blue-yellow color blindness can be caused by sildenafil, an active component of Viagra. Hydroxychloroquine can also lead to hydroxychloroquine retinopathy, which includes various color defects. Exposure to chemicals such as styrene or organic solvents can also lead to color vision defects.


title: Color blindness

text: Simple colored filters can also create mild color vision deficiencies. John Dalton's original hypothesis for his deuteranopia was actually that the vitreous humor of his eye was discolored:


title: Color blindness

text: An autopsy of his eye after his death in 1844 showed this to be definitively untrue, though other filters are possible. Actual physiological examples usually affect the blue-yellow opponent channel and are named Cyanopsia and Xanthopsia, and are most typically an effect of yellowing or removal of the lens.


title: Color blindness

text: The opponent channels can also be affected by the prevalence of certain cones in the retinal mosaic. The cones are not equally prevalent and not evenly distributed in the retina. When the number of one of these cone types is significantly reduced, this can also lead to or contribute to a color vision deficiency. This is one of the causes of tritanomaly.


title: Color blindness

text: The main method for diagnosing a color vision deficiency is in testing the color vision directly. The Ishihara color test is the test most often used to detect red–green deficiencies and most often recognized by the public. Some tests are clinical in nature, designed to be fast, simple, and effective at identifying broad categories of color blindness. Others focus on precision and are generally available only in academic settings.


title: Color blindness

text: While genetic testing cannot directly evaluate a subject's color vision (phenotype), most congenital color vision deficiencies are well-correlated with genotype. Therefore, the genotype can be directly evaluated and used to predict the phenotype. This is especially useful for progressive forms that do not have a strongly color deficient phenotype at a young age. However, it can also be used to sequence the L- and M-Opsins on the X-Chromosome, since the most common alleles of these two genes are known and have even been related to exact spectral sensitivities and peak wavelengths. A subject's color vision can therefore be classified through genetic testing, but this is just a prediction of the phenotype, since color vision can be affected by countless non-genetic factors such as your cone mosaic.


title: Color blindness

text: Despite much recent improvement in gene therapy for color blindness, there is currently no FDA approved treatment for any form of CVD, and otherwise no cure for CVD currently exists. Management of the condition by using lenses to alleviate symptoms or smartphone apps to aid with daily tasks is possible.


title: Color blindness

text: There are several kinds of lenses that an individual can wear that can increase their accuracy in some color related tasks. However, none of these will ""fix"" color blindness or grant the wearer normal color vision. There are three kinds of lenses:


title: Color blindness

text: Many mobile and computer applications have been developed to aid color blind individuals in completing color tasks:


title: Color blindness

text: In 2003, a cybernetic device called eyeborg was developed to allow the wearer to hear sounds representing different colors. Achromatopsic artist Neil Harbisson was the first to use such a device in early 2004; the eyeborg allowed him to start painting in color by memorizing the sound corresponding to each color. In 2012, at a TED Conference, Harbisson explained how he could now perceive colors outside the ability of human vision.


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness affects a large number of individuals, with protans and deutans being the most common types. In individuals with Northern European ancestry, as many as 8 percent of men and 0.4 percent of women experience congenital color deficiency. Interestingly, even Dalton's very first paper already arrived upon this 8% number:


title: Color blindness

text: During the 17th and 18th century, several philosophers hypothesized that not all individuals perceived colors in the same way:


title: Color blindness

text: The phenomenon only came to be scientifically studied in 1794, when English chemist John Dalton gave the first account of colour blindness in a paper to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, which was published in 1798 as "Extraordinary Facts relating to the Vision of Colours: With Observations". Genetic analysis of Dalton's preserved eyeball confirmed him as having deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death.


title: Color blindness

text: Influenced by Dalton, German writer J. W. von Goethe studied color vision abnormalities in 1798 by asking two young subjects to match pairs of colors.


title: Color blindness

text: In 1875, the Lagerlunda train crash in Sweden brought color blindness to the forefront. Following the crash, Professor Alarik Frithiof Holmgren, a physiologist, investigated and concluded that the color blindness of the engineer (who had died) had caused the crash. Professor Holmgren then created the first test for color vision using multicolored skeins of wool to detect color blindness and thereby exclude the colorblind from jobs in the transportation industry requiring color vision to interpret safety signals. However, there is a claim that there is no firm evidence that color deficiency did cause the collision, or that it might have not been the sole cause.


title: Color blindness

text: In 1920, Frederick William Edridge-Green devised an alternative theory of color vision and color blindness based on Newton's classification of 7 fundamental colors (ROYGBIV). Edridge-Green classified color vision based on how many distinct colors a subject could see in the spectrum. Normal subjects were termed "hexachromic" as they could not discern Indigo. Subjects with superior color vision, who could discern indigo, where "heptachromic". The colorblind were therefore "dichromic" (equivalent to dichromacy) or "tri-", "tetra-" or "pentachromic" (anomalous trichromacy).


title: Color blindness

text: In the United States, under federal anti-discrimination laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, color vision deficiencies have not been found to constitute a disability that triggers protection from workplace discrimination.


title: Color blindness

text: A Brazilian court ruled that people with color blindness are protected by the Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Person with Disabilities. At trial, it was decided that the carriers of color blindness have a right of access to wider knowledge, or the full enjoyment of their human condition.


title: Color blindness

text: Color blindness may make it difficult or impossible for a person to engage in certain occupations. Persons with color blindness may be legally or practically barred from occupations in which color perception is an essential part of the job ("e.g.," mixing paint colors), or in which color perception is important for safety ("e.g.," operating vehicles in response to color-coded signals). This occupational safety principle originates from the aftermath of the 1875 Lagerlunda train crash, which Alarik Frithiof Holmgren blamed on the color blindness of the engineer and created the first occupational screening test against the colorblind.


title: Color blindness

text: Color vision is important for occupations using telephone or computer networking cabling, as the individual wires inside the cables are color-coded using green, orange, brown, blue and white colors. Electronic wiring, transformers, resistors, and capacitors are color-coded as well, using black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray, white, silver, gold.


title: Color blindness

text: Red-green colorblindness can make it difficult to drive, primarily due to the inability to differentiate red-amber-green traffic lights. Protans are further disadvantaged due to the darkened perception of reds, which can make it more difficult to quickly recognize brake lights. In response, some countries have refused to grant driver's licenses to individuals with color blindness:


title: Color blindness

text: Although many aspects of aviation depend on color coding, only a few of them are critical enough to be interfered with by some milder types of color blindness. Some examples include color-gun signaling of aircraft that have lost radio communication, color-coded glide-path indications on runways, and the like. Some jurisdictions restrict the issuance of pilot credentials to persons with color blindness for this reason. Restrictions may be partial, allowing color-blind persons to obtain certification but with restrictions, or total, in which case color-blind persons are not permitted to obtain piloting credentials at all.