title: Carbohydrate

text: The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.


title: Carbohydrate

text: During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon, becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called anomers. In the "α anomer", the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (trans) of the ring from the CHOH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CHOH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the "β anomer".


title: Carbohydrate

text: Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature as it is the product of photosynthesis in plants) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate, cellulose, is a structural component of the cell wall of plants and many forms of algae. Ribose is a component of RNA. Deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Lyxose is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart. Ribulose and xylulose occur in the pentose phosphate pathway. Galactose, a component of milk sugar lactose, is found in galactolipids in plant cell membranes and in glycoproteins in many tissues. Mannose occurs in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Fructose, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion, and found in semen. Trehalose, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is CHO. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, "O"-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things:


title: Carbohydrate

text: Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose is "O"-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per gram for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit. Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other monosaccharides and disaccharides but glucose is often metabolized first. In "Escherichia coli", for example, the lac operon will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the "lac" operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see: Diauxie). Polysaccharides are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called dietary fiber. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits.


title: Carbohydrate

text: The Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of dietary energy from whole-grain carbohydrates. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). A 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term "complex carbohydrate" was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs publication "Dietary Goals for the United States" (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides).


title: Carbohydrate

text: In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) raise blood glucose rapidly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), raise blood sugar slowly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into "available carbohydrates", which are absorbed in the small intestine and "unavailable carbohydrates", which pass to the large intestine, where they are subject to fermentation by the gastrointestinal microbiota.


title: Carbohydrate

text: The USDA's "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010" call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from a balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from whole grain sources and the rest are from enriched.


title: Carbohydrate

text: The glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on blood glucose levels. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. A "meta-analysis, of moderate quality," included as adverse effects of the diet halitosis, headache and constipation.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that "when calorie intake is held constant [...] body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet." In the long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on calorie restriction, not the ratio of macronutrients in a diet. The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood insulin levels, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage", is not supported by clinical evidence. Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects cardiovascular health, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of cardiovascular disease risk.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional healthy diet in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes, but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with glycemic control. There is limited evidence to support routine use of low-carbohydrate dieting in managing type 1 diabetes. The American Diabetes Association recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.


title: Carbohydrate

text: An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the ketogenic diet – is established as a medical diet for treating epilepsy. Through celebrity endorsement during the early 21st century, it became a fad diet as a means of weight loss, but with risks of undesirable side effects, such as low energy levels and increased hunger, insomnia, nausea, and gastrointestinal discomfort.(scientific citation needed) The British Dietetic Association named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018".


title: Carbohydrate

text: Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose). Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree Wollemia nobilis in Rome, the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China, and straws from rice in California.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrate metabolism is the series of biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.


title: Carbohydrate

text: The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of energy, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP. Organisms capable of anaerobic and aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen (aerobic) to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Catabolism is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism: glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.


title: Carbohydrate

text: In glycolysis, oligo- and polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. A 2 ATP investment is required in the early steps of glycolysis to phosphorylate Glucose to Glucose 6-Phosphate (G6P) and Fructose 6-Phosphate (F6P) to Fructose 1,6-biphosphate (FBP), thereby pushing the reaction forward irreversibly. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present.


title: Carbohydrate

text: Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of the main organic reactions that involve carbohydrates are:


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The Sistine Chapel (; ; ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, in Vatican City and the official residence of the pope. Originally known as the "Cappella Magna" ('Great Chapel'), the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who had it built between 1473 and 1481. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today, it is the site of the papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescoes that decorate the interior, most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and "The Last Judgment", both by Michelangelo.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the "Life of Moses" and the "Life of Christ", offset by papal portraits above and "trompe-l'œil" drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization. In a different political climate, after the Sack of Rome, he returned and, between 1535 and 1541, painted "The Last Judgment" for Popes Clement VII and Paul III. The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: While known as the location of papal conclaves, the primary function of the Sistine Chapel is as the chapel of the Papal Chapel ("Cappella Pontificia"), one of the two bodies of the papal household, called until 1968 the "Papal Court" ("Pontificalis Aula"). At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, the Papal Chapel comprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet. Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in basilicas, in general St. Peter's, and were attended by large congregations. These included the Christmas Day and Easter masses, at which the Pope himself was the celebrant. The other 27 masses could be held in a smaller, less public space, for which the "Cappella Maggiore" was used before it was rebuilt on the same site as the Sistine Chapel.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The "Cappella Maggiore" derived its name, the Greater Chapel, from the fact that there was another chapel also in use by the Pope and his retinue for daily worship. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV, this was the Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, which had been decorated by Fra Angelico. The "Cappella Maggiore" is recorded as existing in 1368. According to a communication from Andreas of Trebizond to Pope Sixtus IV, by the time of its demolition to make way for the present chapel, the "Cappella Maggiore "was in a ruinous state with its walls leaning.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The present chapel, on the site of the "Cappella Maggiore", was designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it is named, and built under the supervision of Giovannino de Dolci between 1473 and 1481. The proportions of the present chapel appear to closely follow those of the original. After its completion, the chapel was decorated with frescoes by a number of the most famous artists of the High Renaissance, including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, and Michelangelo.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The first mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on 15 August 1483, the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The Sistine Chapel has maintained its function to the present day and continues to host the important services of the Papal Calendar, unless the Pope is travelling. There is a permanent choir, the Sistine Chapel Choir, for whom much original music has been written, the most famous piece being Gregorio Allegri's "Miserere".


title: Sistine Chapel

text: One of the functions of the Sistine Chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. On the occasion of a conclave, a chimney is installed in the roof of the chapel, from which smoke arises as a signal. If white smoke, which is created by burning the ballots of the election, appears, a new Pope has been elected. If no candidate receives the required two-thirds vote, the cardinals send up black smoke—created by burning the ballots along with wet straw and chemical additives—it means that no successful election has yet occurred.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The first papal conclave to be held on the Sistine Chapel was the conclave of 1492, which took place from 6 to 11 August of the same year and in which Pope Alexander VI, also known as Rodrigo Borja, was elected.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The conclave also provided for the cardinals a space in which they could hear mass, and in which they could eat, sleep, and pass time attended by servants. From 1455, conclaves have been held in the Vatican Palace; until the Great Schism, they were held in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Since 1996, John Paul II's Apostolic Constitution "Universi Dominici gregis" requires the cardinals to be lodged in the Domus Sanctae Marthae during a papal conclave, but to continue to vote in the Sistine Chapel.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Canopies for each cardinal-elector were once used during conclaves—a sign of equal dignity. After the new Pope accepts his election, he would give his new name; at this time, the other Cardinals would tug on a rope attached to their seats to lower their canopies. Until reforms instituted by Saint Pius X, the canopies were of different colours to designate which Cardinals had been appointed by which Pope. Paul VI abolished the canopies altogether, since, under his papacy, the population of the College of Cardinals had increased so much to the point that they would need to be seated in rows of two against the walls, making the canopies obstruct the view of the cardinals in the back row. In the wake of a conclave taking place to preserve the integrity of the marble floor on the Sistine Chapel, carpenters install a slightly elevated wooden floor alongside a wooden ramp in the entrance for those Cardinals who for one reason or another need to be transported in a wheelchair.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The chapel is a high rectangular building, for which absolute measurements are hard to ascertain, as available measurements are for the interior: long by wide.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Its exterior is unadorned by architectural or decorative details, as is common in many Italian churches of the Medieval and Renaissance eras. It has no exterior façade or exterior processional doorways, as the ingress has always been from internal rooms within the Apostolic Palace (Papal Palace), and the exterior can be seen only from nearby windows and light-wells in the palace. Subsidence and cracking of masonry such as must also have affected the Cappella Maggiore has necessitated the building of very large buttresses to brace the exterior walls. The accretion of other buildings has further altered the exterior appearance of the chapel.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The building is divided into three stories of which the lowest is a very tall basement level with several utilitarian windows and a doorway giving onto the exterior court. Internally, the basement is robustly vaulted to support the chapel. Above is the main space, the Sistine Chapel, the vaulted ceiling rising to . The building had six tall arched windows down each side and two at either end, several of which have been blocked. Above the vault is a third story with wardrooms for guards. At this level, an open projecting gangway was constructed, which encircled the building supported on an arcade springing from the walls. The gangway has been roofed as it was a continual source of water leaking into the vault of the chapel.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The general proportions of the chapel use the length as the unit of measurement. This has been divided by three to get the width and by two to get the height. Maintaining the ratio, there were six windows down each side and two at either end. Defined proportions were a feature of Renaissance architecture and reflected the growing interest in the Classical heritage of Rome.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The ceiling of the chapel is a flattened barrel vault springing from a course that encircles the walls at the level of the springing of the window arches. This barrel vault is cut transversely by smaller vaults over each window, which divide the barrel vault at its lowest level into a series of large pendentives rising from shallow pilasters between each window. The barrel vault was originally painted brilliant-blue and dotted with gold stars, to the design of Piermatteo Lauro de' Manfredi da Amelia. The pavement is in opus alexandrinum, a decorative style using marble and coloured stone in a pattern that reflects the earlier proportion in the division of the interior and also marks the processional way from the main door, used by the Pope on important occasions such as Palm Sunday.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: A screen or "transenna" in marble by Mino da Fiesole, Andrea Bregno, and Giovanni Dalmata divides the chapel into two parts. Originally these made equal space for the members of the Papal Chapel within the sanctuary near the altar and the pilgrims and townsfolk without. However, with growth in the number of those attending the Pope, the screen was moved giving a reduced area for the faithful laity. The "transenna" is surmounted by a row of ornate candlesticks, once gilt, and has a wooden door, where once there was an ornate door of gilded wrought iron. The sculptors of the "transenna" also provided the "cantoria" or projecting choir gallery.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The first stage in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel was the painting of the ceiling in blue, studded with gilt stars, and with decorative borders around the architectural details of the pendentives. This was entirely replaced when Michelangelo came to work on the ceiling in 1508.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Of the present scheme of frescos, the earliest part is that of the side walls. They are divided into three main tiers. The central tier of the walls has two cycles of paintings, which complement each other, "The Life of Moses" and "The Life of Christ". They were commissioned in 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV and executed by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Cosimo Rosselli and their workshops. They originally ran all round the walls, but have since been replaced on both end walls.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The project was perhaps supervised by Perugino, who arrived at the chapel prior to the Florentines. It is probable that the commission of Ghirlandaio, Botticelli and Roselli was part of a reconciliation project between Lorenzo de' Medici, the "de facto" ruler of Florence, and Pope Sixtus IV. The Florentines started to work in the Sistine Chapel in the spring of 1481.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Beneath the cycles of "The Life of Moses" and "The Life of Christ", the lower level of the walls is decorated with frescoed hangings in silver and gold. Above the narrative frescos, the upper tier is divided into two zones. At the lower level of the windows is a "Gallery of Popes" painted at the same time as the "Lives". Around the arched tops of the windows are areas known as the "lunettes" which contain the "Ancestors of Christ", painted by Michelangelo as part of the scheme for the ceiling.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The ceiling was commissioned by Pope Julius II and painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512. The commission was originally to paint the twelve apostles on the triangular pendentives which support the vault; however, Michelangelo demanded a free hand in the pictorial content of the scheme. He painted a series of nine pictures showing "God's Creation of the World", "God's Relationship with Mankind", and "Mankind's Fall from God's Grace". On the large pendentives he painted twelve Biblical and Classical men and women who prophesied that God would send Jesus Christ for the salvation of mankind, and around the upper parts of the windows, the "Ancestors of Christ".


title: Sistine Chapel

text: In 1515, Raphael was commissioned by Pope Leo X to design a series of ten tapestries to hang around the lower tier of the walls. The tapestries depict events from the "Life of St. Peter" [4 tapestries] the "Life of St. Paul" [6 Tapestries], the founders of the Christian Church in Rome, as described in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Work began in mid-1515. Due to their large size, manufacture of the hangings was carried out in Brussels, and took four years under the hands of the weavers in the shop of Pieter van Aelst. Raphael's tapestries were looted during the Sack of Rome in 1527 and were either burnt for their precious metal content or were scattered around Europe. In the late 20th century, a set was reassembled from several further sets that had been made after the first set, and displayed again in the Sistine Chapel in 1983. The tapestries continue in use at occasional ceremonies of particular importance. The full-size preparatory cartoons for seven of the ten tapestries are known as the Raphael Cartoons and are in London.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: At this point, the decorative scheme displayed a consistent iconographical pattern. The tier of Popes, which, in the scheme intended by Pope Julius, would have appeared immediately below the Twelve Apostles, would have emphasised the apostolic succession. It has been argued that the present scheme shows the two Biblical Testaments merged in order to reveal the Old predicting and framing the New, synthesizing, the logic of the Christian Bible.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: This was disrupted by a further commission to Michelangelo to decorate the wall above the altar with "The Last Judgment", 1537–1541. The painting of this scene necessitated the obliteration of two episodes from the "Lives", the "Nativity of Jesus" and the "Finding of Moses"; several of the "Popes" and two sets of "Ancestors".


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The southern wall is decorated with the "Stories of Moses", painted in 1481–1482. Starting from the altar, they include:


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 to repaint the vault, or ceiling, of the chapel. The work was completed between 1508 and late 1512. He painted the "Last Judgment" over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, on commission from Pope Paul III Farnese.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Michelangelo was intimidated by the scale of the commission, and made it known from the outset of Julius II's approach that he would prefer to decline. He felt he was more of a sculptor than a painter, and was suspicious that such a large-scale project was being offered to him by enemies as a set-up for an inevitable fall. For Michelangelo, the project was a distraction from the major marble sculpture that had preoccupied him for the previous few years.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The sources of Michelangelo's inspiration are not easily determined; both Joachite and Augustinian theologians were within the sphere of Julius' influence.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: To be able to reach the ceiling, Michelangelo needed a support; the first idea was by Julius' favoured architect Donato Bramante, who wanted to build for him a scaffold to be suspended in the air with ropes. However, Bramante did not successfully complete the task, and the structure he built was flawed. He had perforated the vault in order to lower strings to secure the scaffold. Michelangelo laughed when he saw the structure, and believed it would leave holes in the ceiling once the work was ended. He asked Bramante what was to happen when the painter reached the perforations, but the architect had no answer.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. Contrary to popular belief, he did not lie on this scaffolding while he painted, but painted from a standing position.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Michelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section, Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only twelve figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. After the work was finished, there were more than three hundred figures. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, and the Great Flood.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The painted area is about 40 m (131 ft) long by 13 m (43 ft) wide. This means that Michelangelo painted well over of frescoes.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: "The Last Judgement" was painted by Michelangelo from 1535 to 1541, between two important historic events: the Sack of Rome by mercenary forces of the Holy Roman Empire in 1527, and the Council of Trent which commenced in 1545. The work was designed on a grand scale, and spans the entire wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. The painting depicts the second coming of Christ on the Day of Judgment as described in the Revelation of John, Chapter 20. High on the wall is the heroic figure of Christ, with the saints clustered in groups around him. At the bottom left of the painting the dead are raised from their graves and ascend to be judged. To the right are those who are assigned to Hell and are dragged down by demons.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: "The Last Judgement" was an object of a bitter dispute between Cardinal Carafa and Michelangelo. Because he depicted naked figures, the artist was accused of immorality and obscenity. A censorship campaign (known as the "Fig-Leaf Campaign") was organized by Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua's ambassador) to remove the frescoes. From this campaign drew support for the more natural state of the figures. In response, phallic imagery began permeating throughout Vatican City, beginning the trend of the crude drawings in places such as in graffiti art in bathrooms, textbooks, and other public places to be easily found. This trend continues to the present day.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The Pope's Master of Ceremonies Biagio da Cesena said "it was most disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully, and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather for the public baths and taverns." In response Michelangelo worked da Cesena's semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld. It is said that when he complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain. Michelangelo also painted his own portrait, on the flayed skin held by St Bartholomew.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The genitalia in the fresco were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra, whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname "Il Braghettone" ("the breeches-painter").


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The Sistine Chapel's ceiling restoration began on 7 November 1984. When the restoration was completed, the chapel was re-opened to the public on 8 April 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe and removed the original intent of the artist.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The problem lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to that understanding. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in "buon fresco"; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, they believed Michelangelo did not work "a secco"; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, have taken a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and "lamp black", all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another: smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts, and painted definition by later restorers in an attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau's critical reading of the restoration data that have been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted "buon fresco" would remain.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The only reproduction of the Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted by Gary Bevans at English Martyrs' Catholic Church in Goring-by-Sea, Worthing, West Sussex, England. A full-size architectural and photographic replica of the entire building was commissioned by the Mexican Government and funded by private donors. It was on view at Mexico City from 1 June to 15 July 2016; it may then be exhibited at other Mexican cities and possibly elsewhere in the world. It took 2.6 million high definition photographs to reproduce the totality of the frescoes and tapestries. A video of the history of the chapel is shown to the visitors before entering the building; inside, a light-and-sound demonstration explains the content of each of the frescoes.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: Since the chapel's inception, the Sistine Chapel Choir has sung without the accompaniment of musical instruments as instruments were not permitted to be played inside the chapel. This was problematic as there was no way of giving the musical starting pitch to the choir. Instead of allowing an instrument to give the starting pitch, the solution was to allow the individual singing first to choose the starting pitch. This instruction was given after an apostolic visitation of the choir in 1630:


title: Sistine Chapel

text: "Quando si ha da cominciare a cantare ciascuno lasci cominciare it più vecchio, quale se non intonata bene dovere essere puntato con rigore."


title: Sistine Chapel

text: On February 19, 2014, Canadian violinist Rosemary Siemens became the first solo instrumentalist to perform at the Sistine Chapel. The historic performance was for an event entitled Spiritual Elevation as part of the where Siemens was a featured guest soloist alongside vocalist Mary Zilba and harpist Mark Edward Spencer. Siemens, Zilba, and Spencer performed a medley that included the hymns “Amazing Grace” and “Be Thou My Vision”. The historic performance took place in concert with the Continuo Arts Symphonic Chorus, led by conductor Candace Wicke. Siemens also joined the Continuo Arts Symphonic Chorus for a Requiem entitled "Requiem For My Mother”, composed by Stephen Edwards.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: On April 29, 2016, The Edge (U2) became the first rock artist to stage a contemporary music concert at the chapel as part of a conference on regenerative medicines entitled Cellular Horizons. The Edge performed “Walk On”, “Yahweh”, “Ordinary Love”, by U2 as well as a Leonard Cohen cover of “If It Be Your Will” backed by an Irish Choir.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: In 2017, Cecilia Bartoli became the first woman to perform alongside the all-male Sistine Chapel Choir. Bartoli performed Beata Viscera by Renaissance composer Perotin.


title: Sistine Chapel

text: The first ever live-streamed concert at the chapel took place on April 22, 2018, featuring a performance of Scottish composer James MacMillian’s version of the Stabat Mater by the British Choir group The Sixteen and chamber orchestra ensemble Britten Sinfonia. The concert was attended live by over three hundred people and streamed live over the website of Classic FM.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Extraction is a 2020 American action thriller film directed by Sam Hargrave (in his feature directorial debut) and written by Joe Russo, based on the graphic novel "Ciudad" by Ande Parks, Joe Russo, Anthony Russo, Fernando León González, and Eric Skillman. The film's cast features Chris Hemsworth, Rudhraksh Jaiswal, Randeep Hooda (his international film debut), Golshifteh Farahani, Pankaj Tripathi and David Harbour. The film is about an Australian black ops mercenary whose mission to save an Indian drug lord's kidnapped son in Dhaka, Bangladesh goes awry when he is double-crossed.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Netflix released "Extraction" on April 24, 2020. The film received praise for its performances and action sequences but was criticized for its screenplay. It became the most-watched original film in Netflix's history, according to Netflix, with a reported viewership of 99 million households in its first four weeks. A sequel is in development.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Ovi Mahajan – son of incarcerated Indian drug lord Ovi Mahajan. Sr – sneaks out of his house to visit a club with his friend. At the party, Ovi and his friend go to the garage to have a smoke, where they encounter corrupt police officers working for rival drug lord Amir Asif, who shoot Ovi's friend and kidnaps him. After discovering this, Saju Rav — a former Lt. Colonel in the Para special forces and Ovi's protector — visits Ovi's father in prison. Unwilling to pay the ransom or surrender his territories to Amir as it will hurt his prestige, Ovi's father orders Saju to retrieve his son, threatening to kill Saju's own son if he is unwilling to do so. Tyler Rake, a former Australian Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) operator turned black-market mercenary, is recruited by his handler Nik Khan to save Ovi from Dhaka, Bangladesh.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Tyler and Khan's team prepare to extract Ovi, with his father's men set to pay them once Ovi is recovered. Tyler saves Ovi, kills his captors, and takes him to the extraction point. Learning of Ovi's escape, Asif orders the head of the local police, Colonel Rashid, to initiate an immediate lockdown of Dhaka, securing all bridges and travel points out of the city. Ovi's father's men intentionally fail to transfer the funds as it is revealed that Ovi Sr's bank account has been frozen by the authorities, so he had no means to pay the mercenaries in the first place. Saju kills Tyler's teammates and tries to kill Tyler so he can save Ovi himself and cheat the mercenaries out of their payment. Khan arranges for a helicopter to extract Tyler outside the city and tells him to abandon Ovi since the contract has been nullified.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Tyler refuses to leave Ovi behind, haunted by memories of his own son, whom he abandoned after he couldn't stand seeing him suffer from lymphoma any longer. After escaping Saju and the corrupt Dhaka Metropolitan Police tactical units on Asif's payroll, Tyler fights off a gang of boys led by Farhad, a young criminal eager to impress Asif. Tyler calls his friend Gaspar, a retired squad-mate living in Dhaka, and he and Ovi lay low at Gaspar's home for the evening. Gaspar reveals Asif has placed a $10 million bounty on Ovi, which he offers to share if Tyler allows him to kill Ovi. Tyler refuses and fights Gaspar, who gains the upper hand but is fatally shot by Ovi with Gaspar's own gun. Tyler calls Saju and asks for his help, forcing them to team up to escape Dhaka.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Tyler draws attention away from a disguised Saju and Ovi as the two make their way through a bridge checkpoint, then follows to cover their escape. Khan and her remaining mercenaries approach from the opposite side of the bridge, as Asif watches from afar with binoculars. In the ensuing firefight, Saju is shot by Rashid, who is in turn shot by Khan. Wounded, Tyler instructs Ovi to run to Khan's waiting helicopter. As a badly wounded Tyler follows, he is shot in the neck by Farhad and, seeing Ovi is safe, falls into the river. Ovi, Khan, and the extraction team escape to Mumbai and safety. Eight months later, Khan encounters Asif in a restroom and promptly shoots him. Ovi jumps into his school's swimming pool to practice holding his breath, mirroring the scene where Tyler is introduced. He surfaces to see a blurred vision of a man, resembling Tyler, watching him.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: On August 31, 2018, it was announced that Sam Hargrave would direct "Dhaka" from a screenplay by Joe Russo. In addition, Chris Hemsworth was set to star in the film. In November 2018, the rest of the cast was set.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Production began in Ahmedabad and Mumbai in November 2018. Filming next took place in Ban Pong, Ratchaburi, Thailand.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: The cast stayed in Nakhon Pathom. Principal production ended in March 2019. The film's working title was initially "Dhaka" but was changed to "Out of the Fire", before the final title was revealed to be "Extraction" on February 19, 2020. The production in Bangladesh was handled by the same team that handled the production of "" shot in 2014 in Bangladesh.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Henry Jackman and Alex Belcher composed the film score and worked together in "21 Bridges" while the Russo Brothers produced the film. BMG has released the soundtrack. English indie rock band Alt-J's In Cold Blood (Baauer Remix) was used for the official trailer.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: "Extraction" was the top-streamed item in its debut weekend, then fell to sixth place (but third among films) in its second week. Netflix estimated the film would be watched by about 90 million households during its first month of release, the biggest premiere in the service's history. The film returned to the site's top-10 during the 4th of July weekend. In July 2020, Netflix revealed the film had in-fact been watched by 99 million households in its first four weeks of release, the most-ever for one of their original films. In November, "Variety" reported the film was the fourth-most watched straight-to-streaming title of 2020 up to that point.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: "Spectacular stunt work and an electric performance from Chris Hemsworth can't save "Extraction" from being dragged down by its aimless violence." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Rohan Naahar of the "Hindustan Times" praised the performances of Hemsworth and Hooda, and wrote: "Featuring one of the most stunning action scenes in recent memory... [the film] is breakneck and bonkers." "Entertainment Weekly"s Leah Greenblatt gave the film a "B" and wrote that it "mostly delivers what its swaggering trailer promises: international scenery; insidious villains; a taciturn, tree-trunk Aussie."


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Writing for "Rolling Stone", Peter Travers gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and said: "Aiming for the fight poetry of the "John Wick" franchise, "Extraction" comes closer to a series of stunts strung together to look like an ultraviolent video game (think "Manhunt 2") in which the avatars are played by actual humans."


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: "Extraction" was criticized by several outlets as having "white savior" elements. "Variety" called the film "a white-savior version of "Man on Fire"," while Screen Rant said that the film's "regressive white savior elements" drag it down. In an overall positive review, Scott Mendelson of "Forbes" wrote: "Look, let's get this out of the way. Yes, director Sam Hargrave and writer Joe Russo's "Extraction"... is an arguably 'problematic' white savior flick but it’s also a solid action-adventure".


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: "The Daily Star" expressed concern over the representation of Dhaka, calling the representation "bleak and inaccurate, but Dhaka nonetheless". "BBC Bangla" also noted many complaints online about the portrayal of Dhaka and Bangladesh in the film.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Marko Forker, Lynzi Grant, Craig Wentworth, and Olivier Sarda were nominated by the Visual Effects Society at the 19th Visual Effects Society Awards on April 6, 2021, in the category Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Photoreal Feature.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: In May 2020, it was reported Joe Russo had been hired to write a sequel to the film, with the intention of both Sam Hargrave and Chris Hemsworth returning. In December 2020, the Russo Brothers stated that beyond the sequel they hope to develop a series of films set within the world of "Extraction" to not only explore some of the characters that were introduced in the first film but to potentially launch a cinematic universe. In January 2021, it was rumored that the Russo brothers were also working on a origin story for Randeep Hooda's character Saju.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: Principal photography began on December 4, 2021 in Prague, Czech Republic. Filming for the sequel was slated to begin in Sydney, Australia in September 2021, but measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic moved production to Prague.


title: Extraction (2020 film)

text: In September 2021, Netflix released a teaser trailer for "Extraction 2", which revealed that Hemsworth will return as Tyler Rake.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: Colleen Hoover (born December 11, 1979) is an American author who primarily writes novels in the romance and young adult fiction genres. She is best known for her 2016 romance novel "It Ends with Us." Many of her works were self-published before being picked up by a publishing house. Hoover sold about 20 million books as of October 2022.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: Hoover was born on December 11, 1979, in Sulphur Springs, Texas, to Vannoy Fite and Eddie Fennell. She grew up in Saltillo, Texas, and graduated from Saltillo High School in 1998. She married Heath Hoover in 2000, and they have three sons. Hoover graduated from Texas A&M-Commerce with a degree in social work. She worked various social work and teaching jobs until starting her career as an author.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: In November 2011, Hoover began writing her debut novel, "Slammed", with no intention of getting published. She was inspired by a lyric, "decide what to be and go be it", from an Avett Brothers song, "Head Full of Doubt/Road Full of Promise," and incorporated Avett Brothers lyrics throughout the story. Hoover self-published "Slammed" in January 2012. Hoover states that she published the novel so her mother, who had just gotten an Amazon Kindle, could read it. A sequel, "Point of Retreat," was published in February 2012. After a few months, "Slammed" was reviewed and given 5 stars by book blogger Maryse Black, after which sales rapidly took off for Hoover's first two books. "Slammed" and "Point of Retreat" reached #8 and #18, respectively, on the "New York Times" Best Seller list in August of that year. Atria Books picked up the novels and republished them on August 10, 2012. A third book in the series, "This Girl", was published in April 2013. After the success of "Slammed", Hoover quit her job in the social work field to become a full-time writer.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: Hoover's novel "Hopeless" was self-published in December 2012. It follows a girl who was home-schooled all her life before going to public high school, reached #1 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list on January 20, and remained there for three weeks. It was the first self-published novel to ever top the list. A companion novel, "Losing Hope", was published that July.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: "Finding Cinderella" is a free novella that Hoover published in 2014. It features several of the same characters as in "Hopeless" and "Losing Hope". A paperback was released with several bonus features, such as a new epilogue and Hoover's own "Cinderella story". "Maybe Someday", published in March 2014, was the first novel of a small series about a boy and a girl who write music together and fall in love. Musician Griffin Peterson created a soundtrack to accompany the novel. Links in the e-book or a scannable QR code in the paperback led to a website where readers could listen to the music.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: "Never Never", a 2015 collaboration with Tarryn Fisher, was originally split into three parts and sold as three separate books, then later republished as one complete book.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: Hoover's novel "It Ends with Us" was published in 2016. Hoover described it as "the hardest book I've ever written." The novel concerns domestic violence and, according to Hoover, was written to advocate for domestic violence victims. The story was inspired by Hoover's experience as a child growing up in a household with domestic violence which carried through her adult life. The book's main character, Lily, experiences domestic violence at a young age witnessing her father's abuse towards her mother on top of experiencing it firsthand, then ends up in a violent relationship as an adult.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: In 2021, Hoover experienced a surge in popularity due to attention from the #BookTok community on TikTok. As a result, in January 2022 "It Ends with Us" was #1 on "The New York Times" best sellers list. As of 2019, the novel had sold over a million copies worldwide and been translated into over twenty languages.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: A sequel to "It Ends with Us" titled "It Starts with Us" was published on October 18, 2022, and published by Atria Books. Simon & Schuster released the details of the extensive marketing campaign for the novel, which became the publisher’s most pre-ordered book of all time.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: In October 2022, Simon & Schuster UK acquired two standalone novels by Hoover, to be published in 2024 and 2026.


title: Colleen Hoover

text: In 2022, Hoover held six of the top ten spots on the "New York Times" paperback fiction best seller list.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu ( ; ) was a Chinese military general, strategist, philosopher, and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period of 771 to 256 BCE. Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of "The Art of War", an influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and East Asian philosophy and military thinking. Sun Tzu is revered in Chinese and East Asian culture as a legendary historical and military figure. His birth name was Sun Wu () and he was known outside of his family by his courtesy name Changqing (). The name "Sun Tzu" by which he is more popularly known is an honorific which means "Master Sun".


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu's historicity is uncertain. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian and other traditional Chinese historians placed him as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BCE. Modern scholars accepting his historicity place the extant text of "The Art of War" in the later Warring States period of 475 to 221 BCE - based on its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare. Traditional accounts state that the general's descendant Sun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titled "The Art of War". Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians believed them identical, prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu's work has been praised and employed in East Asian warfare since its composition. During the twentieth century, "The Art of War" grew in popularity and saw practical use in the Western world as well. It remains influential in many contemporary competitive endeavors across the modern world beyond military strategy and warfare, including espionage,


title: Sun Tzu

text: The oldest available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" and Sima Qian's later "Records of the Grand Historian" ("Shiji") state that Sun Tzu was born in Qi. Both sources also agree that Sun Tzu was born in the late Spring and Autumn period and that he was active as a general and strategist, serving King Helü of Wu in the sixth century BCE, beginning around 512 BCE. Sun Tzu's victories then inspired him to write "The Art of War". "The Art of War" was one of the most widely read military treatises in the subsequent Warring States period, a time of constant war among seven ancient Chinese statesZhao, Qi, Qin, Chu, Han, Wei, and Yanwho fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China.


title: Sun Tzu

text: One of the better-known stories about Sun Tzu, taken from Sima Qian, illustrates Sun Tzu's temperament as follows: Before hiring Sun Tzu, the King of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skills by commanding him to train a harem of 180 concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, Sun Tzu said that the general, in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring that soldiers understood the commands given to them. Then, he reiterated the command, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu then ordered the execution of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. He explained that if the general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said that, once a general was appointed, it was his duty to carry out his mission, even if the king protested. After both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them. Afterward, both companies, now well aware of the costs of further frivolity, performed their maneuvers flawlessly.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sima Qian claimed that Sun Tzu later proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective (for example, at the Battle of Boju), that he had a successful military career, and that he wrote "The Art of War" based on his tested expertise. However, the "Zuozhuan", a historical text written centuries earlier than the "Shiji", provides a much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, but does not mention Sun Tzu at all.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Around the 12th century AD, some Chinese scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classic "Zuo zhuan", which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period. The name "Sun Wu" () does not appear in any text prior to the "Records of the Grand Historian", and may have been a made-up descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior"—the surname "Sun" can be glossed as the related term "fugitive" ("xùn" ), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" ("wǔ" ), which corresponds to Sun Tzu's role as the hero's "doppelgänger" in the story of Wu Zixu. The only historical battle attributed to Sun Tzu, the Battle of Boju, has no record of him fighting in that battle.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Skeptics cite possible historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in the text, and that the book was actually a compilation from different authors and military strategists. Attribution of the authorship of "The Art of War" varies among scholars and has included people and movements including Sun; Chu scholar Wu Zixu; an anonymous author; a school of theorists in Qi or Wu; Sun Bin; and others. Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sun Tzu" through a form of euhemerism. The name Sun Wu does appear in later sources such as the "Shiji" and the "Wu Yue Chunqiu", but were written centuries after Sun Tzu's era.


title: Sun Tzu

text: The use of the strips in other works however, such as "The Methods of the Sima" is considered proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority. According to Ralph Sawyer, it is very likely Sun Tzu did exist and not only served as a general but also wrote the core of the book that bears his name. It is argued that there is a disparity between the large-scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and the more primitive small-scale battles that many believe predominated in China during the 6th century BCE. Against this, Sawyer argues that the teachings of Sun Wu were probably taught to succeeding generations in his family or a small school of disciples, which eventually included Sun Bin. These descendants or students may have revised or expanded upon certain points in the original text.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Skeptics who identify issues with the traditionalist view point to possible anachronisms in "The Art of War" including terms, technology (such as anachronistic crossbows), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu. Additionally, there are no records of professional generals during the Spring and Autumn period; these are only extant from the Warring States period, so there is doubt as to Sun Tzu's rank and generalship. This caused much confusion as to when "The Art of War" was actually written. The first traditional view is that it was written in 512 BCE by the historical Sun Wu, active in the last years of the Spring and Autumn period (c. 722–481 BCE). A second view, held by scholars such as Samuel Griffith, places "The Art of War" during the middle to late Warring States period (c. 481–221 BCE). Finally, a third school claims that the slips were published in the last half of the 5th century BCE; this is based on how its adherents interpret the bamboo slips discovered at Yinque Shan in 1972 AD.


title: Sun Tzu

text: "The Art of War" is traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu. It presents a philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. It is accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since it was first published, translated, and distributed internationally.


title: Sun Tzu

text: There are numerous theories concerning when the text was completed and concerning the identity of the author or authors, but archeological recoveries show "The Art of War" had taken roughly its current form by at least the early Han period. Because it is impossible to prove definitively when the "Art of War" was completed before this date, the differing theories concerning the work's author or authors and date of completion are unlikely to be completely resolved. Some modern scholars believe that it contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications from later military theorists, such as Li Quan and Du Mu.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Of the military texts written before the unification of China and Shi Huangdi's subsequent book burning in the second century BCE, six major works have survived. During the much later Song dynasty, these six works were combined with a Tang text into a collection called the "Seven Military Classics". As a central part of that compilation, "The Art of War" formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in early modern China. Illustrating this point, the book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu's "The Art of War" uses language that may be unusual in a Western text on warfare and strategy. For example, the eleventh chapter states that a leader must be "serene and inscrutable" and capable of comprehending "unfathomable plans". The text contains many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of the East Asian context. The meanings of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice. Sun Tzu viewed the ideal general as an enlightened Taoist master, which has led to "The Art of War" being considered a prime example of Taoist strategy.


title: Sun Tzu

text: The book has also become popular among political leaders and those in business management. Despite its title, "The Art of War" addresses strategy in a broad fashion, touching upon public administration and planning. The text outlines theories of battle, but also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state.


title: Sun Tzu

text: On 10 April 1972, the Yinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally unearthed by construction workers in Shandong.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Scholars uncovered a collection of ancient texts written on unusually well-preserved bamboo slips. Among them were "The Art of War" and Sun Bin's "Military Methods". Although Han dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written by a descendant of Sun, it had previously been lost. The rediscovery of Sun Bin's work is regarded as extremely important by scholars, both because of Sun Bin's relationship to Sun Tzu and because of the work's addition to the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity.


title: Sun Tzu

text: The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the body of surviving Warring States military theory. Sun Bin's treatise is the only known military text surviving from the Warring States period discovered in the twentieth century and bears the closest similarity to "The Art of War" of all surviving texts.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu's "Art of War" has influenced many notable figures. The Chinese historian Sima Qian recounted that China's first historical emperor, Qin's Shi Huangdi, considered the book invaluable in ending the time of the Warring States. In the 20th century, the Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory over Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang to "The Art of War". The work strongly influenced Mao's writings about guerrilla warfare, which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world.


title: Sun Tzu

text: "The Art of War" was introduced into Japan and the book quickly became popular among Japanese generals. Through its later influence on the Sengoku period "Great Unifiers" of Japan, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, it significantly affected the unification of Japan in the early modern era. The mastery of its teachings was honored among the samurai and its teachings were both exhorted and exemplified by influential "daimyōs" and "shōguns". After the Meiji Restoration, it remained popular among the Imperial Japanese armed forces. The Admiral of the Fleet Tōgō Heihachirō, who led Japan's forces to victory in the Russo-Japanese War, was an avid reader of Sun Tzu.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. His general Võ Nguyên Giáp, the strategist behind victories over French and American forces in Vietnam, was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas.


title: Sun Tzu

text: America's Asian conflicts against Japan, North Korea, and North Vietnam brought Sun Tzu to the attention of American military leaders. The Department of the Army in the United States, through its Command and General Staff College, has directed all units to maintain libraries within their respective headquarters for the continuing education of personnel in the art of war. "The Art of War" is mentioned as an example of works to be maintained at each facility, and staff duty officers are obliged to prepare short papers for presentation to other officers on their readings. Similarly, Sun Tzu's "Art of War" is listed on the Marine Corps Professional Reading Program. During the Gulf War in the 1990s, both Generals Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. and Colin Powell employed principles from Sun Tzu related to deception, speed, and striking one's enemy's weak points. However, the United States and other Western countries have been criticised for not truly understanding Sun Tzu's work and not appreciating "The Art of War" within the wider context of Chinese society.


title: Sun Tzu

text: In the 1987 film "Wall Street", the protagonist Gordon Gekko frequently cites passages from "The Art of War" as guiding principles for his aggressive trading techniques.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Daoist rhetoric is a component incorporated in the "Art of War". According to Steven C. Combs in "Sun-zi and the "Art of War": The Rhetoric of Parsimony", warfare is "used as a metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts." Combs writes: "Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds." The application of "The Art of War" strategies throughout history is attributed to its philosophical rhetoric. Daoism is the central principle in the "Art of War". Combs compares ancient Daoist Chinese to traditional Aristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Daoist rhetoric in "The Art of War" warfare strategies is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech". This form of communication is parsimonious. Parsimonious behavior, which is highly emphasized in "The Art of War" as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Daoism.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Mark McNeilly writes in "Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare" that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China's push to becoming a superpower in the twenty-first century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons and "The Art of War" in developing their theories, seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu's teachings and other traditional Chinese writers, which are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders.


title: Sun Tzu

text: In 2008, the Chinese television producer Zhang Jizhong adapted Sun Tzu's life story into a 40-episode historical drama television series entitled "Bing Sheng", starring Zhu Yawen as Sun Tzu.


title: Sun Tzu

text: The video game "" contains challenge missions based on Sun Tzu's "The Art of War", which explains the military tactics and strategies.


title: Moore's law

text: Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an observation and projection of a historical trend. Rather than a law of physics, it is an empirical relationship linked to gains from experience in production.


title: Moore's law

text: The observation is named after Gordon Moore, the co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel (and former CEO of the latter), who in 1965 posited a doubling every year in the number of components per integrated circuit, and projected this rate of growth would continue for at least another decade. In 1975, looking forward to the next decade, he revised the forecast to doubling every two years, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 41%. While Moore did not use empirical evidence in forecasting that the historical trend would continue, his prediction held since 1975 and has since become known as a "law".


title: Moore's law

text: Moore's prediction has been used in the semiconductor industry to guide long-term planning and to set targets for research and development, thus functioning to some extent as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Advancements in digital electronics, such as the reduction in quality-adjusted microprocessor prices, the increase in memory capacity (RAM and flash), the improvement of sensors, and even the number and size of pixels in digital cameras, are strongly linked to Moore's law. These ongoing changes in digital electronics have been a driving force of technological and social change, productivity, and economic growth.


title: Moore's law

text: Industry experts have not reached a consensus on exactly when Moore's law will cease to apply. Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, slightly below the pace predicted by Moore's law.


title: Moore's law

text: In 1959, Douglas Engelbart studied the projected downscaling of integrated circuit (IC) size, publishing his results in the article "Microelectronics, and the Art of Similitude". Engelbart presented his findings at the 1960 International Solid-State Circuits Conference, where Moore was present in the audience.


title: Moore's law

text: In 1965, Gordon Moore, who at the time was working as the director of research and development at Fairchild Semiconductor, was asked to contribute to the thirty-fifth anniversary issue of "Electronics" magazine with a prediction on the future of the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. His response was a brief article entitled "Cramming more components onto integrated circuits". Within his editorial, he speculated that by 1975 it would be possible to contain as many as 65,000 components on a single quarter-square-inch (~1.6 square-centimeter) semiconductor.


title: Moore's law

text: The complexity for minimum component costs has increased at a rate of roughly a factor of two per year. Certainly over the short term this rate can be expected to continue, if not to increase. Over the longer term, the rate of increase is a bit more uncertain, although there is no reason to believe it will not remain nearly constant for at least 10 years.


title: Moore's law

text: Moore posited a log-linear relationship between device complexity (higher circuit density at reduced cost) and time. In a 2015 interview, Moore noted of the 1965 article: "...I just did a wild extrapolation saying it’s going to continue to double every year for the next 10 years." One historian of the law cites Stigler's law of eponymy, to introduce the fact that the regular doubling of components was known to many working in the field.


title: Moore's law

text: In 1974, Robert H. Dennard at IBM recognized the rapid MOSFET scaling technology and formulated what became known as Dennard scaling, which describes that as MOS transistors get smaller, their power density stays constant such that the power use remains in proportion with area. Evidence from the semiconductor industry shows that this inverse relationship between power density and areal density broke down in the mid-2000s.


title: Moore's law

text: At the 1975 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting, Moore revised his forecast rate, predicting semiconductor complexity would continue to double annually until about 1980, after which it would decrease to a rate of doubling approximately every two years. He outlined several contributing factors for this exponential behavior:


title: Moore's law

text: Shortly after 1975, Caltech professor Carver Mead popularized the term "Moore's law". Moore's law eventually came to be widely accepted as a goal for the semiconductor industry, and it was cited by competitive semiconductor manufacturers as they strove to increase processing power. Moore viewed his eponymous law as surprising and optimistic: "Moore's law is a violation of Murphy's law. Everything gets better and better." The observation was even seen as a self-fulfilling prophecy.


title: Moore's law

text: The doubling period is often misquoted as 18 months because of a prediction by Moore's colleague, Intel executive David House. In 1975, House noted that Moore's revised law of doubling transistor count every 2 years in turn implied that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months (with no increase in power consumption). Mathematically, Moore's Law predicted that transistor count would double every 2 years due to shrinking transistor dimensions and other improvements. As a consequence of shrinking dimensions, Dennard scaling predicted that power consumption per unit area would remain constant. Combining these effects, David House deduced that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months. Also due to Dennard scaling, this increased performance would not be accompanied by increased power, i.e., the energy-efficiency of silicon-based computer chips roughly doubles every 18 months. Dennard scaling ended in the 2000s. Koomey later showed that a similar rate of efficiency improvement predated silicon chips and Moore's Law, for technologies such as vacuum tubes.


title: Moore's law

text: Microprocessor architects report that since around 2010, semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich, the former CEO of Intel, cited Moore's 1975 revision as a precedent for the current deceleration, which results from technical challenges and is "a natural part of the history of Moore's law". The rate of improvement in physical dimensions known as Dennard scaling also ended in the mid-2000s. As a result, much of the semiconductor industry has shifted its focus to the needs of major computing applications rather than semiconductor scaling. Nevertheless, leading semiconductor manufacturers TSMC and Samsung Electronics have claimed to keep pace with Moore's law with 10 nm and 7 nm nodes in mass production and 5 nm nodes in risk production .


title: Moore's law

text: As the cost of computer power to the consumer falls, the cost for producers to fulfill Moore's law follows an opposite trend: R&D, manufacturing, and test costs have increased steadily with each new generation of chips. Rising manufacturing costs are an important consideration for the sustaining of Moore's law. This led to the formulation of Moore's second law, also called Rock's law, which is that the capital cost of a semiconductor fabrication plant also increases exponentially over time.


title: Moore's law

text: Numerous innovations by scientists and engineers have sustained Moore's law since the beginning of the IC era. Some of the key innovations are listed below, as examples of breakthroughs that have advanced integrated circuit and semiconductor device fabrication technology, allowing transistor counts to grow by more than seven orders of magnitude in less than five decades.


title: Moore's law

text: Computer industry technology road maps predicted in 2001 that Moore's law would continue for several generations of semiconductor chips.


title: Moore's law

text: One of the key challenges of engineering future nanoscale transistors is the design of gates. As device dimension shrinks, controlling the current flow in the thin channel becomes more difficult. Modern nanoscale transistors typically take the form of multi-gate MOSFETs, with the FinFET being the most common nanoscale transistor. The FinFET has gate dielectric on three sides of the channel. In comparison, the gate-all-around MOSFET (GAAFET) structure has even better gate control.


title: Moore's law

text: Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich, the former CEO of Intel, announced, "Our cadence today is closer to two and a half years than two." Intel stated in 2015 that improvements in MOSFET devices have slowed, starting at the 22 nm feature width around 2012, and continuing at 14 nm.


title: Moore's law

text: The physical limits to transistor scaling have been reached due to source-to-drain leakage, limited gate metals and limited options for channel material. Other approaches are being investigated, which do not rely on physical scaling. These include the spin state of electron spintronics, tunnel junctions, and advanced confinement of channel materials via nano-wire geometry. Spin-based logic and memory options are being developed actively in labs.


title: Moore's law

text: The vast majority of current transistors on ICs are composed principally of doped silicon and its alloys. As silicon is fabricated into single nanometer transistors, short-channel effects adversely change desired material properties of silicon as a functional transistor. Below are several non-silicon substitutes in the fabrication of small nanometer transistors.


title: Moore's law

text: One proposed material is indium gallium arsenide, or InGaAs. Compared to their silicon and germanium counterparts, InGaAs transistors are more promising for future high-speed, low-power logic applications. Because of intrinsic characteristics of III-V compound semiconductors, quantum well and tunnel effect transistors based on InGaAs have been proposed as alternatives to more traditional MOSFET designs.


title: Moore's law

text: Biological computing research shows that biological material has superior information density and energy efficiency compared to silicon-based computing.


title: Moore's law

text: Various forms of graphene are being studied for graphene electronics, e.g. graphene nanoribbon transistors have shown great promise since its appearance in publications in 2008. (Bulk graphene has a band gap of zero and thus cannot be used in transistors because of its constant conductivity, an inability to turn off. The zigzag edges of the nanoribbons introduce localized energy states in the conduction and valence bands and thus a bandgap that enables switching when fabricated as a transistor. As an example, a typical GNR of width of 10 nm has a desirable bandgap energy of 0.4 eV.) More research will need to be performed, however, on sub-50 nm graphene layers, as its resistivity value increases and thus electron mobility decreases.


title: Moore's law

text: In April 2005, Gordon Moore stated in an interview that the projection cannot be sustained indefinitely: "It can't continue forever. The nature of exponentials is that you push them out and eventually disaster happens." He also noted that transistors eventually would reach the limits of miniaturization at atomic levels:


title: Moore's law

text: In 2016 the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, after using Moore's Law to drive the industry since 1998, produced its final roadmap. It no longer centered its research and development plan on Moore's law. Instead, it outlined what might be called the More than Moore strategy in which the needs of applications drive chip development, rather than a focus on semiconductor scaling. Application drivers range from smartphones to AI to data centers.


title: Moore's law

text: IEEE began a road-mapping initiative in 2016, "Rebooting Computing", named the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS).


title: Moore's law

text: Most forecasters, including Gordon Moore, expect Moore's law will end by around 2025. Although Moore's Law will reach a physical limitation, some forecasters are optimistic about the continuation of technological progress in a variety of other areas, including new chip architectures, quantum computing, and AI and machine learning. Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang declared Moore's law dead in 2022; several days later Intel CEO Pat Gelsinger declared that Moore's law is not dead.


title: Moore's law

text: Digital electronics have contributed to world economic growth in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The primary driving force of economic growth is the growth of productivity, and Moore's law factors into productivity. Moore (1995) expected that "the rate of technological progress is going to be controlled from financial realities". The reverse could and did occur around the late-1990s, however, with economists reporting that "Productivity growth is the key economic indicator of innovation." Moore's law describes a driving force of technological and social change, productivity, and economic growth.


title: Moore's law

text: An acceleration in the rate of semiconductor progress contributed to a surge in U.S. productivity growth, which reached 3.4% per year in 1997–2004, outpacing the 1.6% per year during both 1972–1996 and 2005–2013. As economist Richard G. Anderson notes, "Numerous studies have traced the cause of the productivity acceleration to technological innovations in the production of semiconductors that sharply reduced the prices of such components and of the products that contain them (as well as expanding the capabilities of such products)."


title: Moore's law

text: The primary negative implication of Moore's law is that obsolescence pushes society up against the Limits to Growth. As technologies continue to rapidly "improve", they render predecessor technologies obsolete. In situations in which security and survivability of hardware or data are paramount, or in which resources are limited, rapid obsolescence often poses obstacles to smooth or continued operations.


title: Moore's law

text: Because of the intensive resource footprint and toxic materials used in the production of computers, obsolescence leads to serious harmful environmental impacts. Americans throw out 400,000 cell phones every day, but this high level of obsolescence appears to companies as an opportunity to generate regular sales of expensive new equipment, instead of retaining one device for a longer period of time, leading to industry using planned obsolescence as a profit centre.


title: Moore's law

text: An alternative source of improved performance is in microarchitecture techniques exploiting the growth of available transistor count. Out-of-order execution and on-chip caching and prefetching reduce the memory latency bottleneck at the expense of using more transistors and increasing the processor complexity. These increases are described empirically by Pollack's Rule, which states that performance increases due to microarchitecture techniques approximate the square root of the complexity (number of transistors or the area) of a processor.


title: Moore's law

text: For years, processor makers delivered increases in clock rates and instruction-level parallelism, so that single-threaded code executed faster on newer processors with no modification. Now, to manage CPU power dissipation, processor makers favor multi-core chip designs, and software has to be written in a multi-threaded manner to take full advantage of the hardware. Many multi-threaded development paradigms introduce overhead, and will not see a linear increase in speed vs number of processors. This is particularly true while accessing shared or dependent resources, due to lock contention. This effect becomes more noticeable as the number of processors increases. There are cases where a roughly 45% increase in processor transistors has translated to roughly 10–20% increase in processing power.


title: Moore's law

text: On the other hand, manufacturers are adding specialized processing units to deal with features such as graphics, video, and cryptography. For one example, Intel's Parallel JavaScript extension not only adds support for multiple cores, but also for the other non-general processing features of their chips, as part of the migration in client side scripting toward HTML5.


title: Moore's law

text: Moore's law has affected the performance of other technologies significantly: Michael S. Malone wrote of a Moore's War following the apparent success of shock and awe in the early days of the Iraq War. Progress in the development of guided weapons depends on electronic technology. Improvements in circuit density and low-power operation associated with Moore's law also have contributed to the development of technologies including mobile telephones and 3-D printing.


title: Moore's law

text: Several measures of digital technology are improving at exponential rates related to Moore's law, including the size, cost, density, and speed of components. Moore wrote only about the density of components, "a component being a transistor, resistor, diode or capacitor", at minimum cost.


title: Moore's law

text: "Transistors per integrated circuit" – The most popular formulation is of the doubling of the number of transistors on ICs every two years. At the end of the 1970s, Moore's law became known as the limit for the number of transistors on the most complex chips. The graph at the top shows this trend holds true today. As of 2017, the commercially available processor possessing the highest number of transistors is the 48 core Centriq with over 18 billion transistors.


title: Moore's law

text: This is the formulation given in Moore's 1965 paper. It is not just about the density of transistors that can be achieved, but about the density of transistors at which the cost per transistor is the lowest.


title: Moore's law

text: As more transistors are put on a chip, the cost to make each transistor decreases, but the chance that the chip will not work due to a defect increases. In 1965, Moore examined the density of transistors at which cost is minimized, and observed that, as transistors were made smaller through advances in photolithography, this number would increase at "a rate of roughly a factor of two per year".


title: Moore's law

text: "Dennard scaling" – This posits that power usage would decrease in proportion to area (both voltage and current being proportional to length) of transistors. Combined with Moore's law, performance per watt would grow at roughly the same rate as transistor density, doubling every 1–2 years. According to Dennard scaling transistor dimensions would be scaled by 30% (0.7x) every technology generation, thus reducing their area by 50%. This would reduce the delay by 30% (0.7x) and therefore increase operating frequency by about 40% (1.4x). Finally, to keep electric field constant, voltage would be reduced by 30%, reducing energy by 65% and power (at 1.4x frequency) by 50%. Therefore, in every technology generation transistor density would double, circuit becomes 40% faster, while power consumption (with twice the number of transistors) stays the same. Dennard scaling came to end in 2005–2010, due to leakage currents.


title: Moore's law

text: The exponential processor transistor growth predicted by Moore does not always translate into exponentially greater practical CPU performance. Since around 2005–2007, Dennard scaling has ended, so even though Moore's law continued for several years after that, it has not yielded dividends in improved performance. The primary reason cited for the breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges, and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of thermal runaway and therefore, further increases energy costs.


title: Moore's law

text: The breakdown of Dennard scaling prompted a greater focus on multicore processors, but the gains offered by switching to more cores are lower than the gains that would be achieved had Dennard scaling continued. In another departure from Dennard scaling, Intel microprocessors adopted a non-planar tri-gate FinFET at 22 nm in 2012 that is faster and consumes less power than a conventional planar transistor. The rate of performance improvement for single-core microprocessors has slowed significantly. Single-core performance was improving by 52% per year in 1986–2003 and 23% per year in 2003–2011, but slowed to just seven percent per year in 2011–2018.


title: Moore's law

text: "Quality adjusted price of IT equipment" – The price of information technology (IT), computers and peripheral equipment, adjusted for quality and inflation, declined 16% per year on average over the five decades from 1959 to 2009. The pace accelerated, however, to 23% per year in 1995–1999 triggered by faster IT innovation, and later, slowed to 2% per year in 2010–2013.


title: Moore's law

text: While quality-adjusted microprocessor price improvement continues, the rate of improvement likewise varies, and is not linear on a log scale. Microprocessor price improvement accelerated during the late 1990s, reaching 60% per year (halving every nine months) versus the typical 30% improvement rate (halving every two years) during the years earlier and later. Laptop microprocessors in particular improved 25–35% per year in 2004–2010, and slowed to 15–25% per year in 2010–2013.


title: Moore's law

text: The number of transistors per chip cannot explain quality-adjusted microprocessor prices fully. Moore's 1995 paper does not limit Moore's law to strict linearity or to transistor count, "The definition of 'Moore's Law' has come to refer to almost anything related to the semiconductor industry that on a semi-log plot approximates a straight line. I hesitate to review its origins and by doing so restrict its definition."


title: Moore's law

text: "Hard disk drive areal density" – A similar prediction (sometimes called Kryder's law) was made in 2005 for hard disk drive areal density. The prediction was later viewed as over-optimistic. Several decades of rapid progress in areal density slowed around 2010, from 30–100% per year to 10–15% per year, because of noise related to smaller grain size of the disk media, thermal stability, and writability using available magnetic fields.


title: Moore's law

text: "Fiber-optic capacity" – The number of bits per second that can be sent down an optical fiber increases exponentially, faster than Moore's law. Keck's law, in honor of Donald Keck.


title: Moore's law

text: "Network capacity" – According to Gerald Butters, the former head of Lucent's Optical Networking Group at Bell Labs, there is another version, called Butters' Law of Photonics, a formulation that deliberately parallels Moore's law. Butters' law says that the amount of data coming out of an optical fiber is doubling every nine months. Thus, the cost of transmitting a bit over an optical network decreases by half every nine months. The availability of wavelength-division multiplexing (sometimes called WDM) increased the capacity that could be placed on a single fiber by as much as a factor of 100. Optical networking and dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) is rapidly bringing down the cost of networking, and further progress seems assured. As a result, the wholesale price of data traffic collapsed in the dot-com bubble. Nielsen's Law says that the bandwidth available to users increases by 50% annually.


title: Moore's law

text: "Pixels per dollar" – Similarly, Barry Hendy of Kodak Australia has plotted pixels per dollar as a basic measure of value for a digital camera, demonstrating the historical linearity (on a log scale) of this market and the opportunity to predict the future trend of digital camera price, LCD and LED screens, and resolution.


title: Moore's law

text: "The great Moore's law compensator (TGMLC)", also known as Wirth's law – generally is referred to as software bloat and is the principle that successive generations of computer software increase in size and complexity, thereby offsetting the performance gains predicted by Moore's law. In a 2008 article in InfoWorld, Randall C. Kennedy, formerly of Intel, introduces this term using successive versions of Microsoft Office between the year 2000 and 2007 as his premise. Despite the gains in computational performance during this time period according to Moore's law, Office 2007 performed the same task at half the speed on a prototypical year 2007 computer as compared to Office 2000 on a year 2000 computer.


title: Moore's law

text: "Library expansion" – was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons or other institutions. He did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth in an era that now sometimes is called the Information Age.


title: Moore's law

text: "Carlson curve" – is a term coined by "The Economist" to describe the biotechnological equivalent of Moore's law, and is named after author Rob Carlson. Carlson accurately predicted that the doubling time of DNA sequencing technologies (measured by cost and performance) would be at least as fast as Moore's law. Carlson Curves illustrate the rapid (in some cases hyperexponential) decreases in cost, and increases in performance, of a variety of technologies, including DNA sequencing, DNA synthesis, and a range of physical and computational tools used in protein expression and in determining protein structures.


title: Moore's law

text: "Eroom's law" – is a pharmaceutical drug development observation which was deliberately written as Moore's Law spelled backwards in order to contrast it with the exponential advancements of other forms of technology (such as transistors) over time. It states that the cost of developing a new drug roughly doubles every nine years.


title: Moore's law

text: "Experience curve effects" says that each doubling of the cumulative production of virtually any product or service is accompanied by an approximate constant percentage reduction in the unit cost. The acknowledged first documented qualitative description of this dates from 1885. A power curve was used to describe this phenomenon in a 1936 discussion of the cost of airplanes.


title: Moore's law

text: "Edholm's law" – Phil Edholm observed that the bandwidth of telecommunication networks (including the Internet) is doubling every 18 months. The bandwidths of online communication networks has risen from bits per second to terabits per second. The rapid rise in online bandwidth is largely due to the same MOSFET scaling that enables Moore's law, as telecommunications networks are built from MOSFETs.


title: Moore's law

text: "Swanson's law" is the observation that the price of solar photovoltaic modules tends to drop 20 percent for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume. At present rates, costs go down 75% about every 10 years.


title: Mulan (1998 film)

text: Mulan is a 1998 American animated musical adventure film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation for Walt Disney Pictures. It is based on the Chinese legend of Hua Mulan, and was Disney's 36th animated feature and the ninth animated film produced and released during the Disney Renaissance. It was directed by Barry Cook and Tony Bancroft, with story by Robert D. San Souci and screenplay by Rita Hsiao, Chris Sanders, Philip LaZebnik, Raymond Singer, and Eugenia Bostwick-Singer. Ming-Na Wen, Eddie Murphy, Miguel Ferrer, and BD Wong star in the English version, while Jackie Chan provided the voice of Captain Li Shang for the Chinese dubs of the film. The film's plot takes place in China during an unspecified Imperial dynasty, where Fa Mulan, daughter of aged warrior Fa Zhou, impersonates a man to take her father's place during a general conscription to counter a Hun invasion.


title: Mulan (1998 film)

text: "Mulan" was the first of three features produced primarily at the Disney animation studio at Disney-MGM Studios (now Disney's Hollywood Studios) in Bay Lake, Florida. Development for the film began in 1994, when a number of artistic supervisors were sent to China to receive artistic and cultural inspiration. "Mulan" was well received by critics and the public who praised the animation, plot, characters (particularly the title character), and musical score, and grossed over $304 million. It earned a Golden Globe and Academy Award nomination and won several Annie Awards, including Best Animated Feature. It was then followed by a direct-to-video sequel, "Mulan II" in 2004. A live-action adaptation directed by Niki Caro was released on September 4, 2020.