title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Lenin, in light of the Marx's theory of the state (which views the state as an oppressive organ of the ruling class), had no qualms of forcing change upon the country. He viewed the dictatorship of the proletariat, rather than the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, to be the dictatorship of the majority. The repressive powers of the state were to be used to transform the country, and to strip of the former ruling class of their wealth. Lenin believed that the transition from the capitalist mode of production to the socialist mode of production would last for a long period. According to some authors, Leninism was by definition authoritarian. In contrast to Marx, who believed that the socialist revolution would comprise and be led by the working class alone, Lenin argued that a socialist revolution did not necessarily need to be led or to comprise the working class alone. Instead, he said that a revolution needed to be led by the oppressed classes of society, which in the case of Russia was the peasant class.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Stalinism, while not an ideology "per se", refers to Stalin's thoughts and policies. Stalin's introduction of the concept "Socialism in One Country" in 1924 was an important moment in Soviet ideological discourse. According to Stalin, the Soviet Union did not need a socialist world revolution to construct a socialist society. Four years later, Stalin initiated his "Second Revolution" with the introduction of state socialism and central planning. In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution", Stalin launched the "Cult of Lenin"a cult of personality centered upon himself. The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin's birth-name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere. The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state". Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930;


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: We stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the mightiest and most powerful authority of all forms of State that have ever existed. The highest development of the State power for the withering away of State power —this is the Marxian formula. Is this contradictory? Yes, it is contradictory. But this contradiction springs from life itself and reflects completely Marxist dialectic.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: At the 1939 18th Congress, Stalin abandoned the idea that the state would wither away. In its place, he expressed confidence that the state would exist, even if the Soviet Union reached communism, as long as it was encircled by capitalism. Two key concepts were created in the latter half of his rule; the "two camps" theory and the "capitalist encirclement" theory. The threat of capitalism was used to strengthen Stalin's personal powers and Soviet propaganda began making a direct link with Stalin and stability in society, saying that the country would crumble without the leader. Stalin deviated greatly from classical Marxism on the subject of "subjective factors"; Stalin said that party members of all ranks had to profess fanatic adherence to the party's line and ideology, if not, those policies would fail.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Lenin, supporting Marx's theory of the state, believed democracy to be unattainable anywhere in the world before the proletariat seized power. According to Marxist theory, the state is a vehicle for oppression and is headed by a ruling class. He believed that by his time, the only viable solution was dictatorship since the war was heading into a final conflict between the "progressive forces of socialism and the degenerate forces of capitalism". The Russian Revolution was by 1917, already a failure according to its original aim, which was to act as an inspiration for a world revolution. The initial anti-statist posture and the active campaigning for direct democracy was replaced because of Russia's level of development withaccording to their own assessmentsdictatorship. The reasoning was Russia's lack of development, its status as the sole socialist state in the world, its encirclement by imperialist powers, and its internal encirclement by the peasantry.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Marx and Lenin did not care if a bourgeois state was ruled in accordance with a republican, parliamentary or a constitutional monarchical system since this did not change the overall situation. These systems, even if they were ruled by a small clique or ruled through mass participation, were all dictatorships of the bourgeoisie who implemented policies in defense of capitalism. However, there was a difference; after the failures of the world revolutions, Lenin argued that this did not necessarily have to change under the dictatorship of the proletariat. The reasoning came from practical considerations; the majority of the country's inhabitants were not communists, neither could the party reintroduce parliamentary democracy because that was not in synchronization with its ideology and would lead to the party losing power. He, therefore, concluded that the form of government has nothing to do with the nature of the dictatorship of the proletariat.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Bukharin and Trotsky agreed with Lenin; both said that the revolution had destroyed the old but had failed to create anything new. Lenin had now concluded that the dictatorship of the proletariat would not alter the relationship of power between men, but would rather "transform their productive relations so that, in the long run, the realm of necessity could be overcome and, with that, genuine social freedom realized". From 1920 to 1921, Soviet leaders and ideologists began differentiating between socialism and communism; hitherto the two terms had been used interchangeably and used to explain the same things. From then, the two terms had different meanings; Russia was in transition from capitalism to socialismreferred to interchangeably under Lenin as the dictatorship of the proletariat, socialism was the intermediate stage to communism and communism was considered the last stage of social development. By now, the party leaders believed that because of Russia's backward state, universal mass participation and true democracy could only take form in the last stage.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: In early Bolshevik discourse, the term "dictatorship of the proletariat" was of little significance, and the few times it was mentioned it was likened to the form of government which had existed in the Paris Commune. However, with the ensuing Russian Civil War and the social and material devastation that followed, its meaning altered from commune-type democracy to rule by iron-discipline. By now, Lenin had concluded that only a proletarian regime as oppressive as its opponents could survive in this world. The powers previously bestowed upon the Soviets were now given to the Council of People's Commissars, the central government, which was, in turn, to be governed by "an army of steeled revolutionary Communists [by Communists he referred to the Party]". In a letter to Gavril Myasnikov in late 1920, Lenin explained his new interpretation of the term "dictatorship of the proletariat":


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Dictatorship means nothing more nor less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force. The term 'dictatorship' .


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Lenin justified these policies by claiming that all states were class states by nature and that these states were maintained through class struggle. This meant that the dictatorship of the proletariat in the Soviet Union could only be "won and maintained by the use of violence against the bourgeoisie". The main problem with this analysis is that the party came to view anyone opposing or holding alternate views of the party as bourgeois. Its worst enemy remained the moderates, which were considered to be "the real agents of the bourgeoisie in the working-class movement, the labor lieutenants of the capitalist class". The term "bourgeoisie" became synonymous with "opponent" and with people who disagreed with the party in general. These oppressive measures led to another reinterpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and socialism in general; it was now defined as a purely economic system. Slogans and theoretical works about democratic mass participation and collective decision-making were now replaced with texts which supported authoritarian management. Considering the situation, the party believed it had to use the same powers as the bourgeoisie to transform Russia; there was no alternative. Lenin began arguing that the proletariat, like the bourgeoisie, did not have a single preference for a form of government and because of that, the dictatorship was acceptable to both the party and the proletariat. In a meeting with party officials, Lenin statedin line with his economist view of socialismthat "Industry is indispensable, democracy is not", further arguing that "we [the Party] do not promise any democracy or any freedom".


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The Marxist theory on imperialism was conceived by Lenin in his book, "" (published in 1917). It was written in response to the theoretical crisis within Marxist thought, which occurred due to capitalism's recovery in the 19th century. According to Lenin, imperialism was a specific stage of development of capitalism; a stage he referred to as state monopoly capitalism. The Marxist movement was split on how to solve capitalism's resurgence after the great depression of the late 19th century. Eduard Bernstein from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP) considered capitalism's revitalization as proof that it was evolving into a more humane system, adding that the basic aims of socialists were not to overthrow the state but to take power through elections. Karl Kautsky, also from the SDP, held a highly dogmatic view; he said that there was no crisis within Marxist theory. Both of them denied or belittled the role of class contradictions in society after the crisis. In contrast, Lenin believed that the resurgence was the beginning of a new phase of capitalism; this stage was created because of a strengthening of class contradiction, not because of its reduction.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Lenin did not know when the imperialist stage of capitalism began; he said it would be foolish to look for a specific year, however, said it began at the beginning of the 20th century (at least in Europe). Lenin believed that the economic crisis of 1900 accelerated and intensified the concentration of industry and banking, which led to the transformation of the finance capital connection to industry into the monopoly of large banks. In "Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism", Lenin wrote; "the twentieth century marks the turning point from the old capitalism to the new, from the domination of capital in general to the domination of finance capital". Lenin defines imperialism as the monopoly stage of capitalism.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The 1986 Party Program claimed the Tsarist regime collapsed because the contradictions of imperialism, which he held to be the gap "between the social nature of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation" manifesting itself in wars, economic recessions, and exploitation of the working class, were strongest in Russia. Imperialism was held to have caused the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War, with the 1905 Russian Revolution presented as "the first people's revolution of the imperialist epoch" and the October Revolution is said to have been rooted in "the nationwide movement against imperialist war and for peace."


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: "Peaceful coexistence" was an ideological concept introduced under Khrushchev's rule. While the concept has been interpreted by fellow communists as proposing an end to the conflict between the systems of capitalism and socialism, Khrushchev saw it as a continuation of the conflict in every area except in the military field. The concept said that the two systems were developed "by way of diametrically opposed laws", which led to "opposite principles in foreign policy".


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: Peaceful coexistence was steeped in Leninist and Stalinist thought. Lenin believed that international politics were dominated by class struggle; in the 1940s Stalin stressed the growing polarization which was occurring in the capitalist and socialist systems. Khrushchev's peaceful coexistence was based on practical changes which had occurred; he accused the old "two camp" theory of neglecting the non-aligned movement and the national liberation movements. Khrushchev considered these "grey areas", in which the conflict between capitalism and socialism would be fought. He still stressed that the main contradiction in international relations were those of capitalism and socialism. The Soviet Government under Khrushchev stressed the importance of peaceful coexistence, saying that it had to form the basis of Soviet foreign policy. Failure to do, they believed, would lead to nuclear conflict. Despite this, Soviet theorists still considered peaceful coexistence to be a continuation of the class struggle between the capitalist and socialist worlds, but not based on armed conflict. Khrushchev believed that the conflict, in its current phase, was mainly economic.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The emphasis on peaceful coexistence did not mean that the Soviet Union accepted a static world with clear lines. It continued to uphold the creed that socialism was inevitable and they sincerely believed that the world had reached a stage in which the "correlations of forces" were moving towards socialism. With the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe and Asia, Soviet foreign policy planners believed that capitalism had lost its dominance as an economic system.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The concept of "Socialism in One Country" was conceived by Stalin in his struggle against Leon Trotsky and his concept of permanent revolution. In 1924, Trotsky published his pamphlet "Lessons of October", in which he stated that socialism in the Soviet Union would fail because of the backward state of economic development unless a world revolution began. Stalin responded to Trotsky's pamphlet with his article, "October and Comrade Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution". In it, Stalin stated that he did not believe an inevitable conflict between the working class and the peasants would take place, and that "socialism in one country is completely possible and probable". Stalin held the view common among most Bolsheviks at the time; there was a possibility of real success for socialism in the Soviet Union despite the country's backwardness and international isolation. While Grigoriy Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Bukharintogether with Stalinopposed Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution, their views on the way socialism could be built diverged.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: According to Bukharin, Zinoviev and Kamenev supported the resolution of the 14th Conference held in 1925, which stated that "we cannot complete the building of socialism due to our technological backwardness". Despite this cynical attitude, Zinoviev and Kamenev believed that a defective form of socialism could be constructed. At the 14th Conference, Stalin reiterated his position that socialism in one country was feasible despite the capitalist blockade of the Soviet Union. After the conference, Stalin wrote "Concerning the Results of the XIV Conference of the RCP(b)", in which he stated that the peasantry would not turn against the socialist system because they had a self-interest in preserving it. Stalin said the contradictions which arose within the peasantry during the socialist transition could "be overcome by our own efforts". He concluded that the only viable threat to socialism in the Soviet Union was a military intervention.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: In late 1925, Stalin received a letter from a party official which stated that his position of "Socialism in One Country" was in contradiction with Friedrich Engels' writings on the subject. Stalin countered that Engels' writings reflected "the era of pre-monopoly capitalism, the pre-imperialist era when there were not yet the conditions of an uneven, abrupt development of the capitalist countries". From 1925, Bukharin began writing extensively on the subject and in 1926, Stalin wrote "On Questions of Leninism", which contains his best-known writings on the subject. With the publishing of "Leninism", Trotsky began countering Bukharin's and Stalin's arguments, writing that socialism in one country was only possible only in the short term, and said that without a world revolution it would be impossible to safeguard the Soviet Union from the "restoration of bourgeois relations". Zinoviev disagreed with Trotsky and Bukharin, and Stalin; he maintained Lenin's position from 1917 to 1922 and continued to say that only a defective form of socialism could be constructed in the Soviet Union without a world revolution. Bukharin began arguing for the creation of an autarkic economic model, while Trotsky said that the Soviet Union had to participate in the international division of labor to develop. In contrast to Trotsky and Bukharin, in 1938, Stalin said that a world revolution was impossible and that Engels was wrong on the matter. At the 18th Congress, Stalin took the theory to its inevitable conclusion, saying that the communist mode of production could be conceived in one country. He rationalized this by saying that the state could exist in a communist society as long as the Soviet Union was encircled by capitalism. However, with the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe, Stalin said that socialism in one country was only possible in a large country like the Soviet Union and that to survive, the other states had to follow the Soviet line.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: There were few, if any, who believed that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse by 1985. The economy was stagnating, but stable enough for the Soviet Union to continue into the 21st century. The political situation was calm because of twenty years of systematic repression against any threat to the country and one-party rule, and the Soviet Union was in its peak of influence in world affairs. The immediate causes for the Soviet Union's dissolution were the policies and thoughts of Mikhail Gorbachev, the CPSU General Secretary. His policies of perestroika and glasnost tried to revitalize the Soviet economy and the social and political culture of the country. Throughout his rule, he put more emphasis on democratizing the Soviet Union because he believed it had lost its moral legitimacy to rule. These policies led to the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and indirectly destabilized Gorbachev's and the CPSU's control over the Soviet Union. Archie Brown said:


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The expectations of, again most notably, Lithuanians, Estonians, and Latvians were enormously enhanced by what they saw happening in the 'outer empire' [Eastern Europe], and they began to believe that they could remove themselves from the 'inner empire'. In truth, a democratized Soviet Union was incompatible with denial of the Baltic states' independence for, to the extent that those Soviet republics became democratic, their opposition to remaining in a political entity whose center was Moscow would become increasingly evident. Yet, it was not preordained that the entire Soviet Union would break up.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: However, Brown said that the system did not need to collapse or to do so in the way it did. The democratization from above weakened the party's control over the country and put it on the defensive. Brown added that a different leader than Gorbachev would probably have oppressed the opposition and continued with economic reform. Nonetheless, Gorbachev accepted that the people sought a different road and consented to the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991. He said that because of its peaceful collapse, the fall of Soviet communism is "one of the great success stories of 20th-century politics". According to Lars T. Lih, the Soviet Union collapsed because people stopped believing in its ideology. He wrote:


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: When in 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed not with a bang but a whimper, this unexpected outcome was partly the result of the previous disenchantments of the narrative of class leadership. The Soviet Union had always been based on the fervent belief in this narrative in its various permutations. When the binding power of the narrative dissolved, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The first research into the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc were very simple and did not take into account several factors. However, these examinations became more advanced by the 1990s, and unlike most Western scholarship, which focuses on the role of Gorbachev and his reform efforts, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) examined "core (political) life and death issues" so that it could learn from them and not make the same mistakes. Following the CPSU's demise and the Soviet Union's collapse, the CCP's analysis began examining systematic causes. Several leading CCP officials began hailing Khrushchev's rule, saying that he was the first reformer and that if he had continued after 1964, the Soviet Union would not have witnessed the Era of Stagnation began under Brezhnev and continued under Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko. The main economic failure was that the political leadership did not pursue any reforms to tackle the economic malaise that had taken hold, dismissing certain techniques as capitalist, and never disentangling the planned economy from socialism. Xu Zhixin from the CASS Institute of Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia, argued that Soviet planners laid too much emphasis on heavy industry, which led to shortages of consumer goods. Unlike his counterparts, Xu argued that the shortages of consumer goods were not an error but "was a consciously planned feature of the system". Other CPSU failures were pursuing the policy of state socialism, the high spending on the military-industrial complex, a low tax base, and the subsidizing of the economy. The CCP argued that when Gorbachev came to power and introduced his economic reforms, they were "too little, too late, and too fast".


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: While most CCP researchers criticize the CPSU's economic policies, many have criticized what they see as "Soviet totalitarianism". They accuse Joseph Stalin of creating a system of mass terror, intimidation, annulling the democracy component of democratic centralism and emphasizing centralism, which led to the creation of an inner-party dictatorship. Other points were Russian nationalism, a lack of separation between the party and state bureaucracies, suppression of non-Russian ethnicities, distortion of the economy through the introduction of over-centralization and the collectivization of agriculture. According to CCP researcher Xiao Guisen, Stalin's policies led to "stunted economic growth, tight surveillance of society, a lack of democracy in decision-making, an absence of the rule of law, the burden of bureaucracy, the CPSU's alienation from people's concerns, and an accumulation of ethnic tensions". Stalin's effect on ideology was also criticized; several researchers accused his policies of being "leftist", "dogmatist" and a deviation "from true Marxism–Leninism." He is criticized for initiating the "bastardization of Leninism", of deviating from true democratic centralism by establishing a one-man rule and destroying all inner-party consultation, of misinterpreting Lenin's theory of imperialism and of supporting foreign revolutionary movements only when the Soviet Union could get something out of it. Yu Sui, a CCP theoretician, said that "the collapse of the Soviet Union and CPSU is a punishment for its past wrongs!" Similarly, Brezhnev, Mikhail Suslov, Alexei Kosygin and Konstantin Chernenko have been criticized for being "dogmatic, ossified, inflexible, [for having a] bureaucratic ideology and thinking", while Yuri Andropov is depicted by some of having the potential of becoming a new Khrushchev if he had not died early.


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: While the CCP concur with Gorbachev's assessment that the CPSU needed internal reform, they do not agree on how it was implemented, criticizing his idea of "humanistic and democratic socialism", of negating the leading role of the CPSU, of negating Marxism, of negating the analysis of class contradictions and class struggle, and of negating the "ultimate socialist goal of realizing communism". Unlike the other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev is criticized for pursuing the wrong reformist policies and for being too flexible and too rightist. The CCP Organization Department said, "What Gorbachev in fact did was not to transform the CPSU by correct principles—indeed the Soviet Communist Party —but instead he, step-by-step, and ultimately, eroded the ruling party's dominance in ideological, political and organizational aspects".


title: Communist Party of the Soviet Union

text: The CPSU was also criticized for not taking enough care in building the primary party organization and not having inner-party democracy. Others, more radically, concur with Milovan Đilas assessment, saying that a new class was established within the central party leadership of the CPSU and that a "corrupt and privileged class" had developed because of the nomenklatura system. Others criticized the special privileges bestowed on the CPSU elite, the nomenklatura systemwhich some said had decayed continuously since Stalin's ruleand the relationship between the Soviet military and the CPSU. Unlike in China, the Soviet military was a state institution whereas in China it is a party (and state) institution. The CCP criticizes the CPSU of pursuing Soviet imperialism in its foreign policies.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester, (Richard Alexander Walter George; born 26 August 1944) is a member of the British royal family. He is the second son of Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, as well as the youngest of the nine grandchildren of King George V and Queen Mary. He is currently 30th in line of succession to the British throne, and the highest person on the list who is not a descendant of George VI, who was his uncle. At the time of his birth, he was 5th in line to the throne, behind his first cousins Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II) and Princess Margaret, his father, and his elder brother Prince William of Gloucester.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: He practised as an architect until the death of his elder brother placed him in direct line to inherit his father's dukedom of Gloucester, which he assumed in 1974. He married Birgitte van Deurs Henriksen in July 1972. They have three children.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: Prince Richard was born on 26 August 1944 at 12:15 pm at St Matthew's Nursing Home in Northampton, the second son of Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester. His father was the third son of King George V and Queen Mary. His mother was the third daughter of the 7th Duke of Buccleuch and Lady Margaret Bridgeman. At the time of his birth, he was second in line to his father's dukedom, behind his elder brother, Prince William of Gloucester, who died in 1972 before inheriting the title and having any children of his own. Richard was baptised at the Royal Chapel of All Saints in Windsor Great Park on 20 October 1944 by the retired Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang. When Richard was four months old, he accompanied his parents to Australia, where his father served as governor-general from 1945 to 1947. The family returned to Barnwell Manor in 1947, where Richard spent most of his childhood.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: Prince Richard's early education took place at home, under the instruction of Rosalind Ramirez, who had also tutored young King Faisal II of Iraq; later, he attended Wellesley House School at Broadstairs and Eton College. In 1963, he matriculated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he read architecture, graduating with the degree of Bachelor of Arts in June 1966. As is customary at Cambridge, this was promoted to MA (Cantab) in 1971.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: In 1966, Prince Richard joined the Offices Development Group in the Ministry of Public Building and Works for a year of practical work. He returned to Cambridge in 1967, completing both parts of the Diploma in Architecture degree in June 1969. Upon passing his exams, he became a practising partner in Hunt Thompson Associates in London, an architectural firm.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: On 8 July 1972, Richard married the Danish-born Birgitte van Deurs Henriksen in St Andrew's Church at Barnwell, Northamptonshire; they have three children:


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester's official residence is at Kensington Palace in London. They have leased their private home, Barnwell Manor, since 1994. In September 2022, the Duke put the manor up for sale for £4.75 million.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: Richard ended his architectural career in 1972, after the death of his elder brother Prince William, who crashed his plane in a flying competition. Richard became heir apparent to his father's dukedom and had to take on additional family obligations and royal duties on behalf of the Queen. He became the second Duke of Gloucester (in the fifth creation of that title) upon the death of his father on 10 June 1974.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: Richard was elected as a corporate member of the Royal Institute of British Architects (and FRIBA) in 1972. He is president of the Society of Architect Artists. He also serves as a commissioner of the Historic Building and Monuments Commission for England (English Heritage). He has been patron of construction charity Construction Youth Trust for many years. With his background in architecture, the Duke of Gloucester takes interest in the work of the trust and frequently visits their projects, in addition to giving his name to their long standing Duke of Gloucester Young Achiever's Scheme Awards. The Duke is also patron of the Architects Benevolent Society. The Duke is also vice president of Lepra, a UK based charity working towards a world free from prejudice and disability due to leprosy. As part of his active involvement in this role, he attends national and international events in support of the charity's work. He is Royal Patron of the UK branch of the charity Habitat for Humanity, Royal Patron of the St. George's Society of New York, and president of The London Society. A keen motorist, Prince Richard passed the Advanced Driving Test of the Institute of Advanced Motorists, of which he was president for more than 32 years. On his appointment in 1971, it was recorded that the new president was "currently [driving] an Austin 1300", reflecting the modest image with which he has always been identified. He stood down as president in January 2005.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: The Duke of Gloucester, accompanied by the Duchess, represented his cousin Elizabeth II at the Solomon Islands independence celebrations on 7 July 1978. He served as a judge in Prince Edward's charity television special "The Grand Knockout Tournament" on 15 June 1987.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: On 10 April 2008, the Duke of Gloucester was officially installed as inaugural Chancellor of the University of Worcester at a ceremony in Worcester Cathedral. In this role, the Prince officiates at degree ceremonies and major events, as well as promoting the university overseas. The Duke carried out the first of these duties on 5 and 6 November 2008 at the Graduation Award Ceremonies. The Duke is also patron of the Severn Valley Railway and the Pestalozzi International Village Trust. He is patron of the British Homeopathic Association, a charity dedicated to the study, research and promotion of homeopathy. He shares a name with another Duke of Gloucester, Richard III, and has been the patron of the Richard III Society since 1980. He is also a member of the international advisory board of the Royal United Services Institute. Since 1972, the Duke has been a corporate member of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He is also an honorary fellow of the Institution of Structural Engineers. He has long been patron of the Richard III Society, sharing that monarch's forename and pre-reign title.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: During 2009, the Duke became patron of the De Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre in support of its bid to raise funds through private means and through a bid for Heritage Lottery Funding. Other patronages include: British Society of Soil Science, the International Council on Monuments and Sites, Action on Smoking and Health, British Association of Friends of Museums, British Mexican Society, St Bartholomew's Hospital, as well as numerous other organisations and charities. In July 2011, the Duke visited the Isle of Man to meet with the representative of Manx National Heritage and the Council of Cancer Charities. On 8 November 2011, he opened the new Law School Building at the University of Hertfordshire on the de Havilland campus site of the former de Havilland Aircraft factory. On 19 March 2013, the Duke represented Elizabeth II at the Vatican for the inauguration of Pope Francis.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: On 11 March 2015, the Duke visited the Royal School Dungannon in Dungannon, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, to celebrate their 400th anniversary since the founding of the school; presenting a commemorative plaque and raising an anniversary flag on the grounds. On 22 and 26 March 2015, the Duke represented the Queen at the ceremonies marking the reburial and commemorations of King Richard III in Leicester Cathedral. Richard III had held the title Duke of Gloucester before his ascension to the English throne. In March 2018, the Duke travelled to Malawi to attend the Commonwealth Day celebrations, and visited projects related to health services, wildlife, and climate change. He missed the celebrations in March 2022 after testing positive for COVID-19.


title: Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester

text: On 14 September 2022, after the death of Queen Elizabeth II on 8 September, the Duke joined her children, grandsons, nephew, and son-in-law, in walking in the state cortege from Buckingham Palace to Westminster Hall, for her lying in state.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Charles Thomas Munger (born January 1, 1924) is an American billionaire investor, businessman, and former real estate attorney. He is vice chairman of Berkshire Hathaway, the conglomerate controlled by Warren Buffett; Buffett has described Munger as his closest partner and right-hand man. Munger served as chairman of Wesco Financial Corporation from 1984 through 2011. He is also chairman of the Daily Journal Corporation, based in Los Angeles, California, and a director of Costco Wholesale Corporation.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger was born in Omaha, Nebraska. As a teenager, he worked at Buffett & Son, a grocery store owned by Warren Buffett's grandfather. His father, Alfred Case Munger, was a lawyer. His grandfather was Thomas Charles Munger, a U.S. district court judge and state representative.


title: Charlie Munger

text: He enrolled in the University of Michigan, where he studied mathematics. During his time in college, he joined the fraternity Sigma Phi Society. In early 1943, a few days after his 19th birthday, he dropped out of college to serve in the U.S. Army Air Corps, where he became a second lieutenant. After receiving a high score on the Army General Classification Test, he was ordered to study meteorology at Caltech in Pasadena, California, the town he was to make his home.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Through the GI Bill Munger took a number of advanced courses through several universities. When he applied to his father's alma mater, Harvard Law School, the dean of admissions rejected him because Munger had not completed an undergraduate degree. However, the dean relented after a call from Roscoe Pound, the former dean of Harvard Law and a Munger family friend. Munger excelled in law school, graduating "magna cum laude" with a J.D. in 1948. At Harvard, he was a member of the Harvard Legal Aid Bureau.


title: Charlie Munger

text: In college and the Army, he developed "an important skill": card playing. He used this in his approach to business. "What you have to learn is to fold early when the odds are against you, or if you have a big edge, back it heavily because you don't get a big edge often. Opportunity comes, but it doesn't come often, so seize it when it does come." He also used a card analogy to explain an approach to stock trading. He maintained that treating the shares of a company like baseball cards is a losing strategy because it requires one to predict the behavior of often irrational and emotional human beings.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger moved with his family to California, where he joined the law firm Wright & Garrett (later Musick, Peeler & Garrett). In 1962, he founded and worked as a real estate attorney at Munger, Tolles & Olson LLP. He then gave up the practice of law to concentrate on managing investments and later partnered with Otis Booth in real estate development. He then partnered with Jack Wheeler to form Wheeler, Munger, and Company, an investment firm with a seat on the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange. He wound up Wheeler, Munger, and Co. in 1976, after losses of 32% in 1973 and 31% in 1974.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Although Munger is better known for his association with Buffett, he ran an investment partnership of his own from 1962 to 1975. According to Buffett's essay "The Superinvestors of Graham-and-Doddsville", published in 1984, Munger's investment partnership generated compound annual returns of 19.8% during the 1962–75 period compared to a 5.0% annual appreciation rate for the Dow.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger was previously the chairman of Wesco Financial Corporation, now a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway. The acquisition of this company was controversial following accusations that Buffet's company, Blue Chip bought Wesco shares to defeat an impending merger between Wesco and Financial Corp. Wesco began as a savings and loan association, but eventually grew to control Precision Steel Corp., CORT Furniture Leasing, Kansas Bankers Surety Company, and other ventures. Wesco Financial also held a concentrated equity portfolio of over US$1.5 billion in companies such as Coca-Cola, Wells Fargo, Procter & Gamble, Kraft Foods, US Bancorp, and Goldman Sachs. Munger believes that holding a concentrated number of stocks that he knows extremely well will in the long term produce superior returns.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Wesco is based in Pasadena, California, Munger's adopted hometown. Pasadena was also the site of the company's annual shareholders' meeting, which were typically held on the Wednesday or Thursday after the more famous Berkshire Hathaway annual meeting. Munger's meetings were nearly as legendary in the investment community as those he co-hosts with Buffett in Omaha. Such meetings were often perfunctory, but Munger interacted with the other Wesco shareholders at considerable length, sometimes speculating about what Benjamin Franklin would do in a given situation. Meeting notes have been posted on the "Futile Finance?" website, but no updates exist beyond 2011.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger is also the chairman of the Daily Journal Corporation. Since Wesco meetings ended, the Daily Journal annual meeting has grown in importance, as investors flock to the meeting to listen to him speak at length.


title: Charlie Munger

text: In multiple speeches, and in the book "Poor Charlie's Almanack: The Wit and Wisdom of Charles T. Munger", "worldly wisdom" consists of a set of mental models framed as a latticework to help solve critical business problems.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger, along with Buffett, is one of the main inspirations behind the book "Seeking Wisdom: From Darwin to Munger". Author Peter Bevelin explained his key learnings from both Munger and Buffett in a 2007 interview: "How to think about businesses and investing, how to behave in life, the importance of ethics and honesty, how to approach problems but foremost how to reduce the chance of meeting problems." Bevelin stated that previously, he "was lacking the Munger ability to un-learn my own best-loved ideas".


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger states that high ethical standards are integral to his philosophy; at the 2009 Wesco Financial Corporation annual meeting he said, "Good businesses are ethical businesses. A business model that relies on trickery is doomed to fail." During an interview and Q&A session at Harvard-Westlake School on January 19, 2010, Munger referred to American philosopher Charles Frankel in his discussion on the financial crisis of 2007–08 and the philosophy of responsibility. Munger explained that Frankel believed:


title: Charlie Munger

text: the system is responsible in proportion to the degree that the people who make the decisions bear the consequences. So to Charlie Frankel, you don't create a loan system where all the people who make the loans promptly dump them on somebody else through lies and twaddle, and they don't bear the responsibility when the loans are good or bad. To Frankel, that is amoral, that is an irresponsible system.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger uses the term "Lollapalooza effect" for multiple biases, tendencies or mental models acting in compound with each other at the same time in the same direction. With the Lollapalooza effect, itself a mental model, the result is often extreme, due to the confluence of the mental models, biases or tendencies acting together, greatly increasing the likelihood of acting irrationally.


title: Charlie Munger

text: During a talk at Harvard in 1995 titled "The Psychology of Human Misjudgment", Munger mentions Tupperware parties and open outcry auctions, where he explained "three, four, five of these things work together and it turns human brains into mush," meaning that normal people will be highly likely to succumb to the multiple irrational tendencies acting in the same direction. In the Tupperware party, you have reciprocation, consistency and commitment tendency, and social proof. (The hostess gave the party and the tendency is to reciprocate; you say you like certain products during the party so purchasing would be consistent with views you've committed to; other people are buying, which is the social proof.)


title: Charlie Munger

text: In the open outcry auction, there is social proof of others bidding, reciprocation tendency, commitment to buying the item, and deprivation super-reaction syndrome, i.e. sense of loss. The latter is an individual's sense of loss of what he or she believes should be (or is) his or hers. These biases often occur at either conscious or subconscious level, and in both microeconomic and macroeconomic scale.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger is famous for his quote "All I want to know is where I'm going to die, so I'll never go there." This thinking was inspired by the German mathematician Carl Jacobi who often solved difficult problems by following a simple strategy: "man muss immer umkehren" (or loosely translated, "invert, always invert.")


title: Charlie Munger

text: "[Jacobi] knew that it is in the nature of things that many hard problems are best solved when they are addressed backward," Munger counsels. "Indeed, many problems can't be solved forward."


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger is critical of cryptocurrencies, referring to Bitcoin in particular as "noxious poison." Munger also compared Robinhood to gambling, saying that its success is due to "people who know how to take advantage essentially of the gambling instincts of, not only American public, worldwide public" and further explained why he thinks individual investments without commission is tantamount to gambling. "If you cater to those gambling chips, when people have money in their pocket for the first time, and you tell them they can make 30 or 40 or 50 trades a day, and you're not charging them any commission, but you're selling their order flow or whatever, I hope we don't have more of it." He has also said the use of cryptocurrency should be banned and said it was "beneath contempt"; that bitcoin was "stupid, "immoral," and "disgusting" and that It's like somebody else is trading turds and you decide, 'I can't be left out; and that it was like a venereal disease, among other things.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger is a major benefactor of the University of Michigan. In 2007, Munger made a $3 million gift to the University of Michigan Law School for lighting improvements in Hutchins Hall and the William W. Cook Legal Research Building, including the noted Reading Room. In 2011, Munger made another gift to the Law School, contributing $20 million for renovations to the Lawyers Club housing complex, which will cover the majority of the $39 million cost. The renovated portion of the Lawyers Club will be renamed the Charles T. Munger Residences in the Lawyers Club in his honor.


title: Charlie Munger

text: In 1997, the Mungers donated $1.8 million to the Marlborough School in Los Angeles, of which Nancy Munger was an alumna. The couple also donated to the Polytechnic School in Pasadena and the Los Angeles YMCA.


title: Charlie Munger

text: On December 28, 2011, Munger donated 10 shares of Berkshire Hathaway Class A stock (currently valued at $422,214 per share, or $4.22 million total) to the University of Michigan.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger and his late wife Nancy B. Munger have been major benefactors of Stanford University. Nancy Munger was an alumna of Stanford, and Wendy Munger, Charlie Munger's daughter from a previous marriage, was also an alumna (A.B. 1972). Both Nancy and Wendy Munger served as members of the Stanford board of trustees. In 2004, the Mungers donated 500 shares of Berkshire Hathaway Class A stock, then valued at $43.5 million, to Stanford to build a graduate student housing complex.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger has not signed The Giving Pledge that was started by his partner Warren Buffett and co-director, Bill Gates, and has stated that he "can't do it" because "[he has] already transferred so much to [his] children that [he has] already violated it."


title: Charlie Munger

text: Though Munger has no formal architectural training, he has contributed heavily to numerous building designs, including dormitories at Stanford University and the University of Michigan, as well as his current home. He has donated to universities on the precondition that the universities follow his architectural blueprints exactly. In each case, Munger promotes key architectural concepts of his own liking, and cedes professional architectural responsibility to a licensed architect of record, e.g., Hartman-Cox Architects in the case of the dormitory at UMichigan, and the firm of VTBS for the U.C. Santa Barbara residence hall.


title: Charlie Munger

text: On April 18, 2013, the University of Michigan announced the single largest gift in its history: a $110 million gift from Munger to fund a new "state of the art" residence designed to foster a community of scholars, where graduate students from multiple disciplines can live and exchange ideas. The gift includes $10 million for graduate student fellowships. Munger designed the residence, which houses 600 single bedrooms, most of which are designed to be windowless.


title: Charlie Munger

text: The Munger Graduate Residence, funded and designed by Munger himself, opened in late 2009 and now houses 600 law and graduate students. The Munger family gave a major gift to Stanford's Green Library to fund the restoration of the Bing Wing as well as the construction of a rotunda on the library's second floor, and endowed the Munger Chair in Nancy and Charles Munger Professorship of Business at Stanford Law School.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger has been a trustee of the Harvard-Westlake School in Los Angeles for more than 40 years, and previously served as chair of the board of trustees. His five sons and stepsons as well as at least one grandson graduated from the prep school. In 2009, Munger donated eight shares of Berkshire Hathaway Class A stock, worth nearly $800,000, to Harvard-Westlake. In 2006, Munger donated 100 shares of Berkshire Hathaway Class A stock, then valued at $9.2 million, to the school toward a building campaign at Harvard-Westlake's middle school campus. The Mungers had previously made a gift to build the $13 million Munger Science Center at the high school campus, a two-story classroom and laboratory building which opened in 1995 and has been described as "a science teacher's dream". The design of the Science Center was substantially influenced by Munger.


title: Charlie Munger

text: In October 2014, Munger announced that he would donate $65 million to the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara. This is the largest gift in the history of the school. The donation went toward construction of a residence building designed by Munger for visitors of the Kavli Institute in an effort to bring together physicists to exchange ideas as Munger stated,"to talk to one another, create new stuff, cross-fertilize ideas".


title: Charlie Munger

text: In March 2016, Munger announced a further $200 million gift to UC Santa Barbara, conditioned on the university's commitment to spend it on an undergraduate dormitory of Munger's own unconventional design preferences, notably windowless bedrooms and common areas, while tripling the record gift he gave for the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics. In October, 2021, Munger's insistence that the university follow his design compelled professional architect, Dennis McFadden, who had served the university for two decades, to resign from the university's Design Review Committee. McFadden stated that the windowless, 1.68-million-square-foot dormitory would be unsupportable from my perspective as an architect, a parent, and a human being ... An ample body of documented evidence shows that interior environments with access to natural light, air, and views to nature improve both the physical and mental wellbeing of occupants ... The Munger Hall design ignores this evidence and seems to take the position that it doesn't matter ... [T]he building is a social and psychological experiment with an unknown impact on the lives and personal development of the undergraduates the university serves."


title: Charlie Munger

text: In 1945, while studying at Caltech, Munger married Nancy Huggins, daughter of Frederick R. Huggins and Edith M. Huggins. She was a Pasadena native who had been Munger's sister's roommate at Scripps College.


title: Charlie Munger

text: They had three children, Wendy Munger (a former corporate lawyer, trustee of Stanford University, and trustee of The Huntington Library), Molly Munger (a civil rights attorney and funder of a ballot initiative to raise California taxes for public education) and Teddy Munger (deceased, leukemia, age 9).


title: Charlie Munger

text: After Munger's divorce, he remarried within a couple of years. From his second marriage with Nancy Barry, daughter of David Noble Barry Jr. and Emilie Hevener Barry, he has four children—physicist and Republican activist Charles T. Munger Jr., Emilie Munger Ogden, Barry A. Munger and Philip R. Munger—and two stepchildren: William Harold Borthwick and David Borthwick.


title: Charlie Munger

text: Munger is a Republican and has provided his opinions on a number of political topics including the policies of the Trump administration. Munger states he is "not a normal Republican", for example advocating "medicare for all" as a fix to the U.S. healthcare system, saying "I think we should have


title: Charlie Munger

text: single-payer medicine eventually". Munger repeated his sentiments in another interview, praising Singapore's single payer system in contrast to the U.S. "insane" system which is a "national disgrace".


title: Charlie Munger

text: In his 50s, after a failed eye cataract surgery that rendered his left eye blind, Munger had his left eye removed due to severe pain. When doctors told him that he had developed a condition that may cause his remaining eye to fill up with blood and become blind too, Munger started taking braille lessons. The eye condition has since receded and he still has sight in his right eye.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel (; , ) is a deep-fried ball or patty-shaped fritter in Middle Eastern cuisine (especially in Levantine and Egyptian cuisines) made from ground chickpeas, broad beans, or both. Nowadays, falafel is often served in a pita, which acts as a pocket, samoon, or wrapped in a flatbread known as taboon; "falafel" also frequently refers to a wrapped sandwich that is prepared in this way. The falafel balls may be topped with salads, pickled vegetables, hot sauce, and drizzled with tahini-based sauces. Falafel balls may also be eaten alone as a snack or served as part of a meze tray (assortment of appetizers).


title: Falafel

text: Falafel is eaten throughout the Middle East and is a common street food. Falafel is usually made with fava beans in Egypt, where it most likely originated, and with chickpeas in the Levant, Iraq and Bahrain. It is popular with vegetarians worldwide.


title: Falafel

text: The word () is of Arabic origin and is the plural of ' () 'pepper', borrowed from Persian (), from the Sanskrit word ' () 'long pepper'; or an earlier , from Aramaic 'small round thing, peppercorn', derived from "palpēl" 'to be round, roll'.


title: Falafel

text: The name is used world-wide. In English (where it has been written "falafel", "felafel", "filafel" and "filafil"), it is first attested in 1936.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel is known as ( ', ) in Egypt and Sudan. The word is derived from a diminutive form of the Arabic word ' (, "food"); the particular form indicates "a unit" of the given root in this case "" (, having to do with taste and food), thus meaning "a little piece of food" or "small tasty thing".


title: Falafel

text: The origin of falafel is controversial. The dish most likely originated in Egypt. There is a legend that a fava bean version was eaten by Coptic Christians in the Roman era as early as the 4th century during Lent, but there is no documented evidence for this. It has been speculated that its history may go back to Pharaonic Egypt. However, the earliest written references to falafel from Egyptian sources date to the 19th century, and oil was probably too expensive to use for deep frying in ancient Egypt.


title: Falafel

text: As Alexandria is a port city, it was possible to export the dish and its name to other areas in the Middle East. The dish later migrated northwards to the Levant, Iraq and Bahrain, where chickpeas replaced the fava beans.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel is a common form of street food or fast food in Egypt as well as the Levant, Iraq and Bahrain. The croquettes are regularly eaten as part of meze. During Ramadan, falafel balls are sometimes eaten as part of the "iftar", the meal that breaks the daily fast after sunset. Falafel became so popular that McDonald's for a time served a "McFalafel" in its breakfast menu in Egypt. Falafel is still popular in the Coptic diet, and as such large volumes are cooked during religious holidays. Falafel is consumed as part of Lent diet by Christians in Arab countries.


title: Falafel

text: Debates over the history of falafel have sometimes devolved into political discussions about the relationship between Arabs and Israeli Jews. In modern times, falafel has been considered a national dish of Egypt, Israel, and the State of Palestine.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel plays an iconic role in Israeli cuisine and is widely considered to be a national dish of the country. It has historically been consumed by Mizrahi Jews in the Middle East and North Africa. Later, it was adopted in the diet of early Jewish immigrants to the Jewish communities of Ottoman Syria. As it is plant-based, Jewish dietary laws classify it as pareve and thus allow it to be eaten with both meat and dairy meals. Many Palestinians resent what they see as an appropriation of their dish by Israelis. Additionally, the Lebanese Industrialists' Association has raised assertions of copyright infringement against Israel concerning falafel.


title: Falafel

text: In 2012, one of the hotels in the capital of Jordan, Amman, prepared the world's largest falafel disc weighing about 75 kg – breaking the previous record set at a Jewish food festival in the United States.


title: Falafel

text: Waves of migration – principally of Arabs and Turks – had taken it through Europe. In Germany in particular, where a large Turkish population put down roots, it enjoyed huge popularity. At first it was a dish consumed principally by migrants; but by the early 1970s, the appearance of Turkish food stalls and restaurants made it available to a growing number of hungry Germans, which led to yet another transformation of its recipe.


title: Falafel

text: In North America, prior to the 1970s, falafel was found only in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Jewish neighborhoods and restaurants. Today, the dish is a common and popular street food in many cities throughout North America.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel has become popular among vegetarians and vegans, as an alternative to meat-based street foods, and is now sold in packaged mixes in health-food stores. While traditionally thought of as being used to make veggie burgers, its use has expanded as more and more people have adopted it as a source of protein. In the United States, falafel's versatility has allowed for the reformulating of recipes for meatloaf, sloppy joes and spaghetti and meatballs into vegetarian dishes.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel is made from fava beans or chickpeas, or a combination. Chickpeas are common in most Middle Eastern countries. The dish is usually made with chickpeas in the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine), Iraq, and Bahrain. This version is the most popular in the West. The Egyptian variety uses only fava beans.


title: Falafel

text: When chickpeas are used, they are not cooked prior to use (cooking the chickpeas will cause the falafel to fall apart, requiring adding some flour to use as a binder). Instead they are soaked (sometimes with baking soda) overnight, then ground together with various ingredients such as parsley, scallions, and garlic. Spices such as cumin and coriander are often added to the beans for added flavor. The dried fava beans are soaked in water and then stone ground with leek, parsley, green coriander, cumin and dry coriander. The mixture is shaped into balls or patties. This can be done by hand or with a tool called an "aleb falafel" (falafel mould). The mixture is usually deep fried, or it can be oven baked.


title: Falafel

text: Falafel is typically ball-shaped, but is sometimes made in other shapes. The inside of falafel may be green (from green herbs such as parsley or green onion), or tan. Sometimes sesame seeds are added on top of the falafel before frying it.


title: Falafel

text: The pita falafel sandwich was popularized after Israel's independence and in the 1950s by Jewish Yemeni immigrants. Yemeni Jews were the first to introduce the concept of serving falafel in a pita with condiments. A 19 October 1939 "The Palestine Post" article is the first mention of the concept of falafels served in a pita bread as a street food. When served as a sandwich, falafel is often wrapped with flatbread or stuffed in a hollow pita bread, or it can be served with flat or unleavened bread. Tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, and other garnishes can be added. Falafel is commonly accompanied by tahini sauce.


title: Falafel

text: When made with chickpeas, falafel is high in protein, complex carbohydrates, and fiber. Key nutrients are calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper, manganese, vitamin C, thiamine, pantothenic acid, vitamin B, and folate. Phytochemicals include beta-carotene. Falafel is high in soluble fiber, which has been shown to be effective in lowering blood cholesterol.


title: Falafel

text: Chickpeas are low in fat and contain initially no cholesterol, but a considerable amount of fat is absorbed during the frying process. Falafel can instead be baked to avoid the high fat content associated with frying.


title: Falafel

text: The current record, , was set on 28 July 2012 in Amman, Jordan. The previous record was , in circumference and in diameter, set at the Santa Clarita Valley Jewish Food and Cultural Festival (US), at the College of the Canyons in Valencia, California, US, on 15 May 2011.


title: Falafel

text: The record, 5,173 kg (11,404 lb 8 oz), was set by Chef Ramzi Choueiri and the students of Al-Kafaat University (Lebanon) in Beirut on 9 May 2010.


title: The IT Crowd

text: The IT Crowd is a British sitcom originally broadcast by Channel 4, written and directed by Graham Linehan, produced by Ash Atalla and starring Chris O'Dowd, Richard Ayoade, Katherine Parkinson, and Matt Berry. Set in the offices of the fictional Reynholm Industries in London, the series revolves around the three staff members of its IT (Information Technology) department: computer programmer Maurice Moss (Ayoade), work-shy Roy Trenneman (O'Dowd), and Jen Barber (Parkinson), the department head/relationship manager who knows nothing about IT. The show also focuses on the bosses of Reynholm Industries: Denholm Reynholm (Chris Morris) and later, his son Douglas (Matt Berry). Goth IT technician Richmond Avenal (Noel Fielding), who resides in the dark server room, also appears in a number of episodes.


title: The IT Crowd

text: The comedy premiered on Channel 4 on 3 February 2006, and ran for four series of six episodes each. Although a fifth series was commissioned, it was not produced. The programme was concluded with a special "farewell" episode that aired on 27 September 2013. The programme was critically acclaimed and has a cult following.


title: The IT Crowd

text: "The IT Crowd" is set in the offices of Reynholm Industries, a fictional British corporation at 123 Carenden Road in Central London. It focuses on the shenanigans of the three members of the IT support team, who dwell in a dingy, cluttered basement—a great contrast to the shining modern architecture and stunning London views enjoyed by the rest of the organisation. The obscurity surrounding the company's business is a running gag; all that is known is that it bought and sold ITV, has a chemicals laboratory, and makes an unnamed product. In one episode, Denholm Reynholm claims the company has bought mobile-phone carriers and television stations, creating "the largest communications empire in the UK", but it is unclear whether this is true.


title: The IT Crowd

text: Roy and Moss, the two technicians, are socially inept geeks or, in Denholm Reynholm's words, "standard nerds". Despite the company's dependence on them, they are generally ignored and considered losers. Roy's support techniques include ignoring the phone, hoping it will stop ringing, and using reel-to-reel tape recordings of stock IT suggestions such as, "Have you tried turning it off and on again?" and "Is it definitely plugged in?". He wears a different T-shirt in most episodes. Moss's deep knowledge of technical topics is reflected in his extended, overdetailed suggestions, while he cannot deal with practical problems such as extinguishing fires and removing spiders. His shyness makes it difficult for him to relate to others, often leading him to cite bizarre facts, or dwell on himself and/or technology. When someone shows their ignorance about computers, he can be arrogant. Moss overcomes his lack of confidence while wearing women's slacks (a tip given to him by Douglas Reynom) but he can't wear them all the time because he claims he would have a heart attack.


title: The IT Crowd

text: Jen, the team's newest member, is hopelessly non-technical, despite claiming on her CV that she has "a lot of experience with computers". As Denholm is equally technologically illiterate, Jen's interview bluffing convinces him she should be the head of the IT department. After meeting Roy and Moss, Jen redefines her role as "Relationship Manager"; yet her attempts to bridge the gap between the technicians and the company's other employees generally have the opposite effect, landing her and her teammates in ludicrous situations.


title: The IT Crowd

text: Creator Graham Linehan wrote the series after a PC Tech with poor people skills made a house call. The show was video-recorded before a live studio audience, which at the time was considered "riskier" than using a laugh track. Of this choice, Linehan said, "I trust my instincts, so I'm going to do it my way and hope people come to me." The first series was recorded at Teddington Studios, and subsequent series at Pinewood Studios, with intermittent location footage. Cinematic-style footage was also recorded before live tapings. The show's title sequence was produced by Shynola.


title: The IT Crowd

text: The programme is broadcast internationally. In Australia it has been broadcast on ABC1 and UKTV. In Bulgaria, GTV began airing it in July 2008, while Comedy Central Germany started airing the first series in September 2009. ETV has aired the programme in Estonia. In Poland it has been shown on Comedy Central Poland, TVP2, and Fox Comedy. In the Czech Republic it was broadcast on Česká televize and HBO. TV 2 Zulu has aired it in Denmark, as has Comedy Central in the Netherlands. Canal+ runs it in Spain. In New Zealand, it was aired on TV One. It airs sporadically in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ2 and on the RTÉ Player.


title: The IT Crowd

text: In the United States, episodes have been shown on IFC; all 4 series and the special are also available on Netflix, Tubi TV, Pluto TV, and Hulu, and for purchase in the iTunes Store. Canadian channel G4 ran the programme during their Adult Digital Distraction block in July 2007. Reruns also aired on BiteTV in Canada until it relaunched as "Makeful" in August 2015. In Brazil, Argentina and Chile it has been broadcast on I.Sat. In Mexico it has aired on Canal 11 since 2010. It was also broadcast in Spain on Canal 3xl during 2011.


title: The IT Crowd

text: A fifth series was commissioned by Channel 4, for release in 2011. Series creator Graham Linehan began pre-production on it, stating it would be the programme's last series, as a "goodbye to the characters". The writing team were unable to meet regularly, so they created a virtual writers room using the online project-management tool Basecamp. Linehan found it a disadvantage, calling it "a stuffy, businesslike service that I think it actually ended up making everyone self-conscious", but there was no suitable alternative. Nonetheless, the writers did formulate some story ideas (one was reportedly a "Die Hard–"based episode), but ultimately Linehan didn't consider the arrangement practical. Due to this, Linehan's conflicting schedule, and the show's budget requirements, the fifth series was shelved.


title: The IT Crowd

text: However, Linehan did feel a single, special "farewell" episode could be produced. He was already busy with his TV adaptation of "Count Arthur Strong" and his work on "The Walshes", and the "IT Crowd" actors had also taken on other commitments. Thus it wasn't until June 2013 that the show's final episode was filmed.


title: The IT Crowd

text: Linehan has said that there are certain "IT Crowd" characters he would like to explore in future spin-off-style specials, particularly Matt Berry's character, Douglas. In a 2014 interview, Linehan said he had a half-formed idea about expanding on the Douglas character, but that with Matt Berry busy with his series "Toast of London", Linehan would need to "pounce when he's taking a rest". Linehan has also discussed reprising Benedict Wong's character Prime from the episode "Final Countdown". Wong has said he would be "thrilled" if Prime got his own series, joking that it could be called "Prime Time".


title: The IT Crowd

text: The first series was released in the UK as "The IT Crowd – Version 1.0" on 13 November 2006 by 2 Entertain Video Ltd. The DVD start-up sequence and subsequent menus are designed to resemble a ZX Spectrum. The DVD also included a short film written and directed by Linehan called "Hello Friend", his directorial debut, and a tongue-in-cheek behind-the-scenes documentary presented by Ken Korda, a filmmaker created and portrayed by comedian Adam Buxton (of Adam and Joe). "The IT Crowd – Version 2.0" DVD was released in the UK on 1 October 2007, together with a box set containing both the first and second series. Retail chain HMV sold an exclusive limited edition version featuring a set of four postcards in the style of popular viral photos such as Ceiling Cat — here replicated as "Ceiling Goth". While the first series DVD menus parodied 8-bit games, the Series 2 DVD menus parody 16-bit games and make reference to the "All your base are belong to us" meme popularised by "Zero Wing", "Mortal Kombat", "Tetris" and "Lemmings". There are also several 'hidden' extras encoded into the subtitles. These are done in much the same way as the base64 subtitles from Series 1, and include three JPG images and a text adventure game file. Episode 4 has a BBC BASIC listing, and Episode 6 has light bars in the corner of the screen which can be decoded using a barcode reader. Series 3 was released on 16 March 2009, the DVD menus are based on such internet games as GROW CUBE, Doeo and flow. The DVD for series 4 was released in the UK on 26 September 2010, also under the 2|entertain label. A box-set containing all four series was also released on the same day, which includes an "IT Crowd"-themed board game. The series 4 DVD includes a documentary feature on the computer games which served as inspiration for the menus on each of the series' DVDs, culminating in the game "Windosill", the basis for the series 4 DVD. "The Internet Is Coming" was released in Australia 18 December 2013, but had yet to be released elsewhere until it was announced in November 2015 that a Region 2 DVD version would be released in the United Kingdom and throughout Region 2 on 23 November 2015. All episodes of the programme are available to stream in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland on All 4, with the exception of the series three episode "The Speech" which has been removed for transphobic themes.


title: The IT Crowd

text: The premiere of the programme on Channel 4 was watched by 1.8m viewers, described as "disappointing" by BBC News; however, Linehan stated he was "playing the long game" and reflected how the first series of "Father Ted" also "went pretty unnoticed" but went on to gain viewers and awards. The series 4 finale on 30 July 2010 saw the programme reach its current ratings peak of 2.17 million and was highly successful in its time slot.


title: The IT Crowd

text: "The IT Crowd" has won awards from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTAs), the International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (the International Emmys), the Rose d'Or television entertainment awards, and from the fan-voted Comedy.co.uk Awards organized by the British Comedy Guide. It also received a British Comedy Awards and an Irish Film and Television Award.


title: The IT Crowd

text: In 2006, the series was voted Best New British Sitcom at the 2006 Comedy.co.uk Awards, out of 17 nominees. In 2007, it was voted Comedy of The Year at the 2007 Comedy.co.uk Awards, out of 100 nominees. Nominated in the 2007 BAFTAs for Best Situation Comedy, alongside "Green Wing" and "Pulling", it lost to "The Royle Family". In 2008, the series won the International Emmy Award for Comedy and the 2008 Rose d'Or for Best Sitcom. Nominated in the 2008 BAFTAs for Best Situation Comedy alongside "The Thick of It" and "Benidorm", it lost to "Peep Show". In 2009, it won Best Situation Comedy at the 2009 BAFTAs. Also in 2009, Graham Linehan won Best Television Script at the 6th Irish Film and Television Awards, and Katherine Parkinson won Best Comedy Actress at the 2009 British Comedy Awards.


title: The IT Crowd

text: At the 2014 British Academy Television Awards, Parkinson won Best Female Performance in a Comedy Programme; Richard Ayoade won Male Performance in a Comedy Programme; and Chris O'Dowd was nominated in the same category.


title: The IT Crowd

text: An American version of "The IT Crowd" was almost aired by NBC in 2007–08, starring Richard Ayoade reprising his role as Moss, with Joel McHale as Roy, Jessica St. Clair as Jen, and Rocky Carroll as Denholm. It was produced by FremantleMedia for Universal Media Studios with Steve Tao as executive producer. Linehan was also credited as executive producer, but stated he had no actual involvement. The writing staff was David Guarascio, Moses Port, Joe Port, and Joe Wiseman. A pilot was filmed in January 2007, and a full series was ordered and advertised by NBC to be aired in 2007–08.


title: The IT Crowd

text: However, a September 2007 report in "The Hollywood Reporter" said that the show would not reach production, despite the development of a number of scripts, as it "didn't quite spark" with new NBC chairman Ben Silverman. In 2012, the pilot was leaked online.


title: The IT Crowd

text: In October 2014, it was announced that NBC would produce another pilot, produced by Bill Lawrence. It, too, did not make it to air.


title: The IT Crowd

text: A third attempt at an NBC remake was confirmed in January 2018. Unlike the two previous versions, Graham Linehan was to be involved as a writer and executive producer. However, no further developments have been announced.


title: The IT Crowd

text: A German version of the programme was in production starting June 2007, starring Sky du Mont, Sebastian Münster, Stefan Puntigam and Britta Horn. Originally titled "Das iTeam – Die Jungs mit der Maus" ("The iTeam – The Boys with the Mouse"), the title was changed to "Das iTeam – Die Jungs an der Maus" ("The iTeam – The Boys at the Mouse") last minute. The first episode was aired on 4 January 2008 on Sat.1 and received mainly negative receptions. It was criticised for the poor translation of the original stories and jokes, poor direction, poor timing, and the poor performance of the actors, mainly Stefan Puntigam as Gabriel (the German version of Moss). Manuel Weis of Quotenmeter.de heavily panned the programme, commenting: "It could indeed be possible that the boys of class 10a from secondary school Brunsbüttel made the series. In short: In this form 'The iTeam' should never have come onto the screen. The look is strongly reminiscent of cheap crime documentaries airing in the afternoon and the actors are reminiscent of lousy daytime formats. The climax of these catastrophes is [...] Stefan Puntigam, who embodies the role of the computer geek Gabriel. [...] his role seems artificial, exaggerated and in any case badly acted." "The IT Crowd" creator Graham Linehan noted in his blog that the first gag already does not work due to being wrongly executed. The programme was cancelled after only two episodes due to low ratings. All episodes were later screened on Sat.1 Comedy.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: The discography of the English rock group Pink Floyd consists of 15 studio albums, four live albums, twelve compilation albums, five box sets, three extended plays, and 27 singles. Formed in 1965, Pink Floyd initially earned recognition for their psychedelic or space rock music, and, as they evolved, for their progressive rock music. The group have sold over 250 million records worldwide, including 75 million units sold in the United States.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: Pink Floyd first achieved success in London's underground music scene, when they were led by singer and guitarist Syd Barrett. The group signed a management deal with Peter Jenner and Andrew King (Blackhill Enterprises) in October 1966, and recorded a demo shortly afterwards to attract record label interest. They subsequently signed with EMI Columbia and released their first single, "Arnold Layne" on 11 March 1967, followed by the album "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" in August.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: Barrett's erratic behaviour led to singer and guitarist David Gilmour joining the group; both appear on the second album, "A Saucerful of Secrets". Barrett officially left on 6 April 1968, before its release. The album was also the first of several to feature cover artwork by Hipgnosis. The following year, the band released a soundtrack album ("More") and the live / studio hybrid "Ummagumma". The following year's "Atom Heart Mother" was a collaboration with Ron Geesin featuring an orchestra and choir, with "Meddle" and the "Obscured by Clouds" soundtrack following in 1971 and 1972, respectively.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: The band achieved worldwide commercial success with "The Dark Side of the Moon" (1973), which has sold more than 30 million copies and is one of the best-selling albums in the world. It has been reissued as a Quadrophonic LP and 5.1 surround sound Super Audio CD. "The Dark Side of the Moon" was followed by "Wish You Were Here" (1975), "Animals" (1977), and "The Wall" (1979); all except "Animals" reached number one in the US, and "The Wall" is the highest-certified multiple-disc album by the Recording Industry Association of America. Pink Floyd released few singles after Barrett's departure, though "Money" was a US top 20 hit, and "Another Brick in the Wall, Part 2" was a number one hit in the UK and US.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: Bassist and singer Roger Waters gradually became the dominant and driving force in the band from the mid-1970s until his departure from the group in 1985, declaring Pink Floyd "a spent force". He unsuccessfully sued to dissolve the group's partnership and retire the name. The remaining members, led by Gilmour, continued recording and touring as Pink Floyd, releasing "A Momentary Lapse of Reason" (1987) and "The Division Bell" (1994). A further album, "The Endless River", followed in 2014.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: In 2010, Pink Floyd sued their label, EMI, for lack of royalty payments and publishing their back catalogue on music streaming services without the group's consent. A settlement was reached the following year, with the publication of the individual tracks on iTunes, and re-releases of "The Dark Side of the Moon", "Wish You Were Here" and "The Wall". In 2016, the band established their own record label, Pink Floyd Records, and launched an extensive reissue programme of their work on vinyl, and a box set "The Early Years 1965–1972" containing a significant amount of previously unreleased material. In 2022, the band released a one-off single "Hey, Hey, Rise Up!" featuring Ukrainian artist Andriy Khlyvnyuk in response to the Russia's invasion of Ukraine.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: All Pink Floyd albums feature distinctive artwork. Most covers do not feature the band members, and many do not feature the band name or any text either.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: Waters recommended Hipgnosis for "A Saucerful of Secrets" cover, for which they were paid £110, and they went on to create many of the group's album packages. "Ummagumma" was the last to feature the group on the front cover, with a Droste effect created by multiple photographs, and a breakdown of their musical equipment on the back. "Atom Heart Mother" features a Friesian cow (named Lulubelle III) on the front cover, deliberately chosen as a reaction against the group's psychedelic image.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: The cover of "The Dark Side of the Moon" was designed by Hipgnosis in collaboration with graphic designer George Hardie, and features a line drawing of light being refracted in a prism. The inner sleeve shows the graphic of a heartbeat, which can be heard at the start of the album. The original packaging also included additional posters and stickers. It has become one of the most recognisable rock album covers. The cover of "Animals" features an inflatable pig moored to Battersea Power Station that broke free and drifted into airspace. "The Wall" features a minimalist design on the front cover, while the inside sleeve shows cartoons of the principal characters in the story, both created by Gerald Scarfe. Hipgnosis' Storm Thorgerson returned to produce the cover for "A Momentary Lapse of Reason", which featured a row of beds on Saunton Sands. For "The Division Bell", he photographed two high heads in style of Aku-Aku in a field near Ely, Cambridgeshire.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: The CD packaging of the live album "Pulse" included a light emitting diode on the spine, powered by batteries. This gave a visual "pulse" when the CD was stored on a shelf, with the battery expected to last up to a year. The compilation "" features a composite piece of artwork created by Hipgnosis combining several past album covers.


title: Pink Floyd discography

text: Pink Floyd rarely appeared on multi-artist compilations, because they believed doing so would cheapen their work as a whole.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin, sold under the brand name Lyrica among others, is an anticonvulsant, analgesic and anxiolytic medication used to treat epilepsy, neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, restless leg syndrome, opioid withdrawal and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Pregabalin also has antiallodynic properties. Its use in epilepsy is as an add-on therapy for partial seizures. It is a gabapentinoid medication. When used before surgery, it reduces pain but results in greater sedation and visual disturbances. It is taken by mouth.


title: Pregabalin

text: Common side effects include headache, dizziness, sleepiness, confusion, trouble with memory, poor coordination, dry mouth, problems with vision, and weight gain. Serious side effects may include angioedema, drug misuse, and an increased suicide risk. When pregabalin is taken at high doses over a long period of time, addiction may occur, but if taken at usual doses the risk is low. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is of unclear safety. Pregabalin is a gabapentinoid and acts by inhibiting certain calcium channels.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin was approved for medical use in the United States in 2004. It was developed as a successor to be related to gabapentin. It is available as a generic medication in a number of countries, including the United States as of 2019. A generic version of the extended-release formulation is available in the United States as of April 2021. In 2020, it was the 78th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 9million prescriptions. In the US, pregabalin is a Schedule V controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. It is a Class C controlled substance in the UK.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is useful when added to other treatments, when those other treatments are not controlling partial epilepsy. Its use alone is less effective than some other seizure medications. It is unclear how it compares to gabapentin for this use.


title: Pregabalin

text: The European Federation of Neurological Societies recommends pregabalin as a first line agent for the treatment of pain associated with diabetic neuropathy, post-herpetic neuralgia, and central neuropathic pain. A minority obtain substantial benefit, and a larger number obtain moderate benefit. It is given equal weight as gabapentin and tricyclic antidepressants as a first line agent, however the latter are less expensive as of 2010.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin's use in cancer-associated neuropathic pain is controversial; though such use is common. It has been examined for the prevention of post-surgical chronic pain, but its utility for this purpose is controversial.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is generally not regarded as efficacious in the treatment of acute pain. In trials examining the utility of pregabalin for the treatment of acute post-surgical pain, no effect on overall pain levels was observed, but people did require less morphine and had fewer opioid-related side effects. Several possible mechanisms for pain improvement have been discussed.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is moderately effective and is safe for treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. It is also effective for the short- and long-term treatment of social anxiety disorder and in reducing preoperative anxiety. However there is concern regarding pregabalin's off-label use due to the lack of strong scientific evidence for its efficacy in multiple conditions and its proven side effects.


title: Pregabalin

text: The World Federation of Biological Psychiatry recommends pregabalin as one of several first line agents for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, but recommends other agents such as SSRIs as first line treatment for obsessive–compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). For PTSD, pregabalin as complimentary treatment seems to be effective.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin appears to have anxiolytic effects similar to benzodiazepines with less risk of dependence. The effects of pregabalin appear after one week of use, and are similar in effectiveness to lorazepam, alprazolam, and venlafaxine, but pregabalin has demonstrated superiority by producing more consistent therapeutic effects for psychosomatic anxiety symptoms. Long-term trials have shown continued effectiveness without the development of tolerance, and, in addition, unlike benzodiazepines, it has a beneficial effect on sleep and sleep architecture, characterized by the enhancement of slow-wave sleep. It produces less severe cognitive and psychomotor impairment compared to benzodiazepines.


title: Pregabalin

text: Although pregabalin is sometimes prescribed for people with bipolar disorder there is no evidence showing that it is effective.


title: Pregabalin

text: There is no evidence and significant risk in using pregabalin for sciatica and low back pain. Evidence of benefit in alcohol withdrawal as well as withdrawal from certain other drugs is limited as of 2016.


title: Pregabalin

text: Exposure to pregabalin is associated with weight gain, sleepiness and fatigue, dizziness, vertigo, leg swelling, disturbed vision, loss of coordination, and euphoria. It has an adverse effect profile similar to other central nervous system depressants. Even though Pregabalin is a depressant and anti-convulsant it can sometimes paradoxically induce seizures, particularly in large overdoses. Adverse drug reactions associated with the use of pregabalin include:


title: Pregabalin

text: Following abrupt or rapid discontinuation of pregabalin, some people reported symptoms suggestive of physical dependence. The FDA determined that the substance dependence profile of pregabalin, as measured by a personal physical withdrawal checklist, was quantitatively less than benzodiazepines.


title: Pregabalin

text: Even people who have discontinued short term use of pregabalin have experienced withdrawal symptoms, including insomnia, headache, nausea, anxiety, diarrhea, flu like symptoms, nervousness, major depression, pain, convulsions, hyperhidrosis and dizziness.


title: Pregabalin

text: In December 2019, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) warned about serious breathing issues for those taking gabapentin or pregabalin when used with CNS depressants or for those with lung problems.


title: Pregabalin

text: The FDA required new warnings about the risk of respiratory depression to be added to the prescribing information of the gabapentinoids. The FDA also required the drug manufacturers to conduct clinical trials to further evaluate their abuse potential, particularly in combination with opioids, because misuse and abuse of these products together is increasing, and co-use may increase the risk of respiratory depression.


title: Pregabalin

text: Among 49 case reports submitted to the FDA over the five-year period from 2012 to 2017, twelve people died from respiratory depression with gabapentinoids, all of whom had at least one risk factor.


title: Pregabalin

text: The FDA reviewed the results of two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials in healthy people, three observational studies, and several studies in animals. One trial showed that using pregabalin alone and using it with an opioid pain reliever can depress breathing function. The other trial showed gabapentin alone increased pauses in breathing during sleep. The three observational studies at one academic medical center showed a relationship between gabapentinoids given before surgery and respiratory depression occurring after different kinds of surgeries. The FDA also reviewed several animal studies that showed pregabalin alone and pregabalin plus opioids can depress respiratory function.


title: Pregabalin

text: An overdose of Pregabalin usually consists of severe drowsiness, severe ataxia, blurred vision, slurred speech, severe uncontrollable jerking motions (myoclonus), tonic clonic seizures and anxiety. Despite these symptoms an overdose is not usually fatal unless mixed with another depressant. Several people with kidney failure developed myoclonus while receiving pregabalin, apparently as a result of gradual accumulation of the drug. Acute overdosage may be manifested by somnolence, tachycardia and hypertonia. Plasma, serum or blood concentrations of pregabalin may be measured to monitor therapy or to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized people.


title: Pregabalin

text: No interactions have been demonstrated "in vivo". The manufacturer notes some potential pharmacological interactions with opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, ethanol (alcohol), and other drugs that depress the central nervous system. ACE inhibitors may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of pregabalin. Pregabalin may enhance the fluid-retaining effect of certain anti-diabetic agents (thiazolidinediones).


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is a gabapentinoid and acts by inhibiting certain calcium channels. Specifically it is a ligand of the auxiliary αδ subunit site of certain voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs), and thereby acts as an inhibitor of αδ subunit-containing VDCCs. There are two drug-binding αδ subunits, αδ-1 and αδ-2, and pregabalin shows similar affinity for (and hence lack of selectivity between) these two sites. Pregabalin is selective in its binding to the αδ VDCC subunit. Despite the fact that pregabalin is a GABA analogue, it does not bind to the GABA receptors, does not convert into or another GABA receptor agonist "in vivo", and does not directly modulate GABA transport or metabolism. However, pregabalin has been found to produce a dose-dependent increase in the brain expression of L-glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), the enzyme responsible for synthesizing GABA, and hence may have some indirect GABAergic effects by increasing GABA levels in the brain. There is currently no evidence that the effects of pregabalin are mediated by any mechanism other than inhibition of αδ-containing VDCCs. In accordance, inhibition of αδ-1-containing VDCCs by pregabalin appears to be responsible for its anticonvulsant, analgesic, and anxiolytic effects.


title: Pregabalin

text: The endogenous α-amino acids -leucine and -isoleucine, which closely resemble pregabalin and the other gabapentinoids in chemical structure, are apparent ligands of the αδ VDCC subunit with similar affinity as the gabapentinoids (e.g., IC = 71 nM for -isoleucine), and are present in human cerebrospinal fluid at micromolar concentrations (e.g., 12.9 μM for -leucine, 4.8 μM for -isoleucine). It has been theorized that they may be the endogenous ligands of the subunit and that they may competitively antagonize the effects of gabapentinoids. In accordance, while gabapentinoids like pregabalin and gabapentin have nanomolar affinities for the αδ subunit, their potencies "in vivo" are in the low micromolar range, and competition for binding by endogenous -amino acids has been said to likely be responsible for this discrepancy.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin was found to possess 6-fold higher affinity than gabapentin for αδ subunit-containing VDCCs in one study. However, another study found that pregabalin and gabapentin had similar affinities for the human recombinant αδ-1 subunit (K = 32 nM and 40 nM, respectively). In any case, pregabalin is 2 to 4 times more potent than gabapentin as an analgesic and, in animals, appears to be 3 to 10 times more potent than gabapentin as an anticonvulsant.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is absorbed from the intestines by an active transport process mediated via the large neutral amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1, SLC7A5), a transporter for amino acids such as -leucine and -phenylalanine. Very few (less than 10 drugs) are known to be transported by this transporter. Unlike gabapentin, which is transported solely by the LAT1, pregabalin seems to be transported not only by the LAT1 but also by other carriers. The LAT1 is easily saturable, so the pharmacokinetics of gabapentin are dose-dependent, with diminished bioavailability and delayed peak levels at higher doses. In contrast, this is not the case for pregabalin, which shows linear pharmacokinetics and no saturation of absorption.


title: Pregabalin

text: The oral bioavailability of pregabalin is greater than or equal to 90% across and beyond its entire clinical dose range (75 to 900 mg/day). Food can decrease the absorption rate of Pregabalin. Pregabalin is rapidly absorbed when administered on an empty stomach, with a T (time to peak levels) of generally less than or equal to 1 hour at doses of 300 mg or less. However, food has been found to substantially delay the absorption of pregabalin and to significantly reduce peak levels without affecting the bioavailability of the drug; T values for pregabalin of 0.6 hours in a fasted state and 3.2 hours in a fed state (5-fold difference), and the C is reduced by 25–31% in a fed versus fasted state.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin crosses the blood–brain barrier and enters the central nervous system. However, due to its low lipophilicity, pregabalin requires active transport across the blood–brain barrier. The LAT1 is highly expressed at the blood–brain barrier and transports pregabalin across into the brain. Pregabalin has been shown to cross the placenta in rats and is present in the milk of lactating rats. In humans, the volume of distribution of an orally administered dose of pregabalin is approximately 0.56 L/kg. Pregabalin is not significantly bound to plasma proteins (<1%).


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin undergoes little or no metabolism. In experiments using nuclear medicine techniques, it was revealed that approximately 98% of the radioactivity recovered in the urine was unchanged pregabalin. The main metabolite is "N"-methylpregabalin.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is eliminated by the kidneys in the urine, mainly in its unchanged form. It has a relatively short elimination half-life, with a reported value of 6.3 hours. Because of its short elimination half-life, pregabalin is administered 2 to 3 times per day to maintain therapeutic levels. The kidney clearance of pregabalin is 73 mL/minute.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is a GABA analogue that is a 3-substituted derivative as well as a γ-amino acid. Specifically, pregabalin is ("S")-(+)-3-isobutyl-GABA. Pregabalin also closely resembles the α-amino acids -leucine and -isoleucine, and this may be of greater relevance in relation to its pharmacodynamics than its structural similarity to GABA.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin was synthesized in 1990 as an anticonvulsant. It was invented by medicinal chemist Richard Bruce Silverman at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. Silverman is best known for identifying the drug pregabalin as a possible treatment for epileptic seizures. During 1988 to 1990, Ryszard Andruszkiewicz, a visiting research fellow, synthesized a series of molecules requested by Silverman. One looked particularly promising. The molecule was effectively shaped for transportation into the brain, where it activated L-glutamic acid decarboxylase, an enzyme. Silverman hoped that the enzyme would increase production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and block convulsions. Eventually, the set of molecules were sent to Parke-Davis Pharmaceuticals for testing. The drug was approved in the European Union in 2004. The US received FDA approval for use in treating epilepsy, diabetic neuropathic pain, and postherpetic neuralgia in December 2004. Pregabalin then appeared on the US market under the brand name" Lyrica" in fall of 2005. In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved pregabalin extended-release "Lyrica CR" for the management of neuropathic pain associated with diabetic peripheral neuropathy, and postherpetic neuralgia.


title: Pregabalin

text: Pregabalin is available as a generic medication in a number of countries, including the United States as of July 2019. In the United States as of July 2019 the wholesale/pharmacy cost for generic pregabalin is US$0.17-0.22 per 150 mg capsule.