title: J. Paul Getty

text: Getty defended his initial refusal to pay the ransom on two points. He argued that his 13 other grandchildren could also become kidnap targets if he paid, and also stated, "The second reason for my refusal was much broader-based. I contend that acceding to the demands of criminals and terrorists merely guarantees the continuing increase and spread of lawlessness, violence and such outrages as terror-bombings, "skyjackings" and the slaughter of hostages that plague our present-day world."


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Nine of the kidnappers were apprehended, including Girolamo Piromalli and Saverio Mammoliti, high-ranking members of the 'Ndrangheta, a Mafia organization in Calabria. Two of the kidnappers were convicted and sent to prison; the others were acquitted for lack of evidence, including the 'Ndrangheta bosses. Most of the ransom money was never recovered.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Many anecdotal stories exist of Getty's reputed thriftiness and parsimony, which struck observers as comical, even perverse, because of his extreme wealth. The two most widely known examples are his reluctance to pay his grandson's $17 million kidnapping ransom, and a notorious pay-phone he had installed at Sutton Place. A darker incident was his fifth wife's claim that Getty had scolded her for spending too much on their terminally ill son's medical treatment, though he was worth tens of millions of dollars at the time. He was well known for bargaining on almost everything to obtain the lowest possible price, including suites at luxury hotels and virtually all purchases of artwork and real estate. In 1959, Sutton Place, a 72-room mansion, was purchased from George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 5th Duke of Sutherland, for £60,000, about half of what the Duke paid for it 40 years earlier.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Author John Pearson attributed part of Getty's extreme penny-pinching to the Methodist sensibility of Getty's upbringing, which emphasized modest living and personal economy. His business acumen was also a major factor in Getty's thriftiness. "He would allow himself no self-indulgence in the purchase of a place to live, a work of art, even a piece of furniture, unless he could convince himself that it would appreciate in value."


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Getty famously had a payphone installed at Sutton Place, helping to seal his reputation as a miser. Getty placed dial-locks on all the regular telephones, limiting their use to authorized staff, and the coin-box telephone was installed for others. In his autobiography, he described his reasons:


title: J. Paul Getty

text: When speaking in a televised interview with Alan Whicker in February 1963, Getty said that he thought guests would want to use a payphone. After 18 months, Getty explained, "the in-and-out traffic flow at Sutton subsided. Management and operation of the house settled into a reasonable routine. With that, the pay-telephone [was] removed, and the dial-locks were taken off the telephones in the house."


title: J. Paul Getty

text: On June 30, 1960, Getty threw a 21st birthday party for a relative of his friend, the 16th Duke of Norfolk, which served as a housewarming party for the newly purchased Sutton Place. Party goers were irritated by Getty's stinginess, such as not providing cigarettes and relegating everyone to using creosote portable toilets outside. At about 10 p.m. the party descended into pandemonium as party crashers arrived from London, swelling the already overcrowded halls and causing an estimated £20,000 in damage. A valuable silver ewer by the 18th century silversmith Paul de Lamerie was stolen, but returned anonymously when the London newspapers began covering the theft. The failure of the event made Getty the object of ridicule and he never threw another large party again.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Getty remained an inveterate hard worker, boasting at age 74 that he often worked 16 to 18 hours per day overseeing his operations across the world. The value of Getty Oil shares quadrupled during the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur War of October 1973, which caused a worldwide oil shortage for years. Getty's earnings topped $25.8 million in 1975.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Getty met the English interior designer Penelope Kitson in the 1950s and entrusted her with decorating his homes and the public rooms of the oil tankers he was launching. From 1960, Kitson resided in a cottage on the grounds of Sutton Place. Getty and Kitson maintained a platonic relationship and Getty held her in high respect and trust.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Getty's insatiable appetite for sex also continued into his 80s. He used an experimental drug, H3, to maintain his potency. Mistresses who resided at Sutton Place included the married Mary Teissier, a distant cousin of the last Tsar of Russia, Lady Ursula d'Abo, who had close connections to the British Royal Family, and Nicaraguan-born Rosabella Burch.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: "The New York Times" wrote of Getty's domestic arrangement: "[Getty] ended his life with a collection of desperately hopeful women, all living together in his Tudor mansion in England, none of them aware that his favorite pastime was rewriting his will, changing his insultingly small bequests: $209 a month to one, $1,167 to another." Only Kitson received a significant bequest upon Getty's death, receiving 5,000 shares of Getty Oil, which doubled in value during the 1980s, and a $1,167 monthly income.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Getty died of heart failure at the age of 83 on June 6, 1976, in Sutton Place near Guildford, Surrey. He was buried in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles County, California at the Getty Villa. The gravesite is not open to the public.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Rudy De Luca portrayed Getty in the 1991 Mel Brooks film "Life Stinks", in which Brooks plays a real estate tycoon who took a bet that he couldn't live in the streets as a derelict for a month, who then several times throughout the film runs into a homeless man who claims to be Getty in a similar situation but neither believe each other. It's never confirmed if this was supposed to actually be Getty, or just a homeless person with a personality disorder, but is credited as "J. Paul Getty".


title: J. Paul Getty

text: Christopher Plummer portrayed Getty in the 2017 film "All the Money in the World," which dramatizes the kidnapping of his grandson. Getty was originally portrayed by Kevin Spacey, but after sexual misconduct allegations surfaced against Spacey ahead of the film's premiere, Plummer was cast to re-film his scenes. For his performance, Plummer received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.


title: J. Paul Getty

text: The kidnapping is also dramatized in the first season of the American anthology drama series "Trust", where Getty is portrayed by Donald Sutherland.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: The Girl Next Door is a 2004 American romantic comedy film directed by Luke Greenfield. It follows a high school senior who falls in love for the first time with the girl next door, but finds the situation becoming complicated after he learns that she is a former pornographic actress. It stars Emile Hirsch, Elisha Cuthbert, Timothy Olyphant, James Remar, Chris Marquette, and Paul Dano. The film received mixed reviews and low theatrical attendance at the time, but over time has gained cult film status.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Ambitious high school senior Matthew Kidman has been accepted to Georgetown University, but cannot afford the tuition. As class president, he has raised $25,000 in order to bring a brilliant Cambodian student, Samnang, to study in the United States, but otherwise has found little else memorable about his high school experience. His friends, perverted film student Eli, and shy and awkward Klitz, rebuff his displeasure with their lack of risky behavior. His life suddenly changes when a young woman, Danielle, moves in next door. When Matthew witnesses her undressing, she sees him and storms over. Introducing herself to his parents, they suggest to Matthew that he show Danielle around town. During the car ride, Danielle coerces him into taking his clothes off and forces him to run naked down the street.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Matthew and Danielle bond through a series of flirtatious dares. At a raucous party thrown by a classmate, Matthew finally finds the courage to kiss Danielle. The following day, Matthew's reverie is shattered when Eli informs him that Danielle is a former adult film actress.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: On Eli's advice, Matthew takes Danielle to a motel and treats her coolly. Danielle, insulted, abruptly ends their relationship. Matthew attempts to apologize, but Danielle decides to return to the adult industry. Matthew, Eli, and Klitz go to an adult film convention in Las Vegas where Kelly, an adult film producer and Danielle's ex-boyfriend, menacingly warns Matthew not to interfere with his business. Matthew ignores him, convincing Danielle to leave her past behind.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Days later, an enraged Kelly abducts Matthew from school and physically assaults him, saying that he cost him $30,000. Kelly offers to let Matthew erase his debt by stealing an award from his former partner, Hugo Posh. Once Matthew enters the house, Kelly calls the police and leaves. Matthew narrowly escapes and rushes to an important scholarship award dinner. High on ecstasy that Kelly tricked him into taking, he improvises a sentimental speech. Although he endears himself to Danielle, he does not win the scholarship.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Kelly exacts further revenge by posing as Matthew's student advisor and stealing the money raised for Samnang. Matthew fears that he will be implicated in the fraud. He turns to Danielle for help, and she calls Hugo Posh; they agree to make a pornographic film on prom night with Danielle's former colleagues and Matthew's classmates as actors. Eli directs the production, and when no-one is able to perform an important scene, Klitz finds the confidence to undertake it. They celebrate the successful shoot; Matthew and Danielle have sex for the first time.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: The next morning, Eli calls Matthew, informing him that the tape has been stolen. Matthew enters his house to find Kelly, in possession of the tape, talking with his parents and principal. Kelly demands Matthew's half of the eventual profits. When Matthew refuses, Kelly plays the tape for the group, who are surprised to find that Matthew and his friends have made a modern sexual education film.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Hugo Posh and Matthew make millions, and Posh pays for Samnang's trip. Eli becomes a successful filmmaker, Klitz attends college and is pleased to learn that his classmates revel at his scene in the film, and Matthew attends Georgetown, bringing Danielle with him.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: The film grossed $14,589,444 in the US, plus $15,821,739 outside the US, for a combined gross of $30,411,183.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 56% approval rating based on reviews from 159 reviews, with an average rating of 5.60/10. The site's consensus reads: "The movie borrows heavily from "Risky Business", though Hirsch and Cuthbert are appealing leads." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average average score of 47 based on 32 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B+" on scale of A to F.


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Desson Thomson of "The Washington Post" called it "An entertaining affair whose wild-card creativity never ceases to surprise."


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" gave it a B- grade and wrote: ""Risky Business" had a great opening act and then descended into contrivances. This genial cardboard knockoff is contrived from the start but gets better as it goes along."


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Joe Leydon of "Variety" gave it a mixed review, criticizing it for being "recycled" comparing it to "Risky Business", "American Pie", and 1980s Brat Pack romances, and calling the script "shamelessly derivative". He describes the lead actors as "attractive but bland" but praised the supporting cast, especially the " scene-stealing turn" by Olyphant. A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" wrote that the film "[o]ffers a view of pornography that is nonjudgmental, even celebratory, but at the same time its premise – that Danielle must be rescued from the shame and degradation of her old job – suggests a more traditional, disapproving point of view. Instead of addressing this contradiction, the movie is happy to wallow in it, which would be fine if it had any real pleasure to offer."


title: The Girl Next Door (2004 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 1.5 stars out of 4, describing it as a "nasty piece of business" and faulted the studio for marketing the film as a teen comedy.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom, was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India, which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of Telangana and Maharashtra. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Perso-Turkic Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's ruling families and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region, in addition to annexing modern day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Kingdom thus becoming a notable power. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti. These travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages, and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architecture style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the construction of Hindu temples. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology, historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music, evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: "Karnata Rajya" (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work "Jambavati Kalyanam" by King Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work "Vasu Charitamu". According to historians including Vasundhara Kavali-Filliozat, B. A. Saletore, P. B. Desai, and Ram Sharma, "although Robert Sewell mentioned in the body of the text that the empire was called Karnataka, he chose Vijayanagar in the title because he knew Kannada and Telugu groups would fight if he called it Karnataka." As per the historical records exist from the inscriptions available in historical ruins of the empire, it was called "Karnataka Samrajya" (translated in English to "Karnataka Empire").


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana) had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in . He created the Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-day Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat, the populace committed a "jauhar" (ritual mass suicide) in . The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka I, the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal. According to tradition, based on a Telugu-narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned the title of "master of the eastern and western seas" ("Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai, and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the north. The original capital of the empire was in the principality of Anegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I's reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies, who were persistently attacking from the northern lands.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and South India was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, was successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook works of fortification and irrigation. Firuz Bahmani of Bahmani Sultanate entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of "100,000 huns, five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants". The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute. Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Deva Raya II (eulogized in contemporary literature as "Gajabetekara") succeeded to the throne in 1424. He was possibly the most successful of the Sangama Dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim. By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship. After a few years of tranquility, wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals. The Persian visitor Firishta attributes Deva Raya II's war preparations, which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry, to be the cause of the conflict. Contemporary Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire, including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son Mallikarjuna Raya in 1446. The Gajapati king removed the Vijayanagara control over the Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry, Kondaveedu, Kanchipuram, and Tiruchirapalli. These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire's prestige, described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as "a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King". Mallikarjuna's successor Virupaksha Raya II led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to the Bahmani Sultanate. His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river, Chittoor, the two Arcots and Kolar. Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri, drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore, and took procession of Machilipatnam and Kondaveedu. He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of the empire's earlier losses.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485, Saluva Narasimha led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north. Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka who ably defended the kingdom from their traditional enemies, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan. He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya territories. Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka retained control as a regent king till 1503.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: In 1503, Narasa Nayaka's son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the Saluva dynasty assassinated and took over the rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the Tuluva dynasty rulers. This did not go well with the nobles who revolted. Seeing internal troubles grow, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur, Adoni, and Talakad colluded to capture the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region from the empire. The empire came under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509, another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. Initially Krishnadevaraya faced a many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles, the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra, a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast. Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire, one victory at a time. He was an astute king who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army. In the following decades, the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates to its north.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire gained territory formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan, such as Raichur and Gulbarga from the Bahamani Sultanate, territories in the eastern Deccan from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shahi of Golkonda, and Kalinga region from the Gajapatis of Odisha. This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of King Krishnadevaraya.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Krishna Deva Raya was succeeded by his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529. When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, Sadashiva Raya, the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya, was appointed king, and Aliya Rama Raya, Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law, becoming the caretaker. When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne, Aliya Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler. He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with the Sultanates and called himself "Sultan of the World". He was keen interfering in the internal affairs of the various Sultanates and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another, while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power. This worked for a while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers. He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur, then defeated the Bijapur ruler and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmednagar.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Eventually the Deccan sultanates to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Aliya Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the Battle of Talikota. Regarding the Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them a greater reach, and their archers used metal cross bows which enabled them to reach longer distance targets. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow moving war elephants, a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter reach javelines, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with the Sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of the Sultanates. The generals captured Aliya Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display. Aliya Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the Vijayanagara army, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: After Aliya Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara, including the Nayakas of Chitradurga, Keladi Nayaka, Mysore Kingdom, Nayak Kingdom of Gingee, Nayaks of Tanjore, and Nayaks of Madurai.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms. The King, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, military, and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance. The King was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers ("Pradhana") headed by the prime minister ("Mahapradhana"). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary ("Karyakartha" or "Rayaswami") and the imperial officers ("Adhikari"). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training. A secretariat near the king's palace employed scribes and officers to maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king. At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords ("Gowdas") supervised accountants ("Karanikas" or "Karnam") and guards ("Kavalu"). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments ("Niyogas"), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The empire was divided into five main provinces ("Rajya"), each under a commander ("Dandanayaka" or "Dandanatha") and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes. A "Rajya" was divided into regions ("Vishaya", "Vente" or "Kottam") and further divided into counties ("Sime" or "Nadu"), themselves subdivided into municipalities ("Kampana" or "Sthala"). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire, while some areas, such as Keladi and Madurai, came under the direct supervision of a commander.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: On the battlefield, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small-scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long-range artillery, which were commonly manned by foreign gunners. Army troops were of two types: the king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen, and over 900 elephants. The whole army numbered over 1.1 million soldiers, with up to 2 million having been recorded, along with a navy led by a "Navigadaprabhu" (commander of the navy). The army recruited from all classes of society, supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers, and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics, shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The capital city was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India. Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers. Excavations uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines. In the fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River, canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks. These canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas, the administration encouraged digging wells, which were monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. Sorghum ("jowar"), cotton, and pulse legumes grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane, rice, and wheat thrived in rainy areas. Betel leaves, areca (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops, and large-scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric, pepper, cardamom, and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of masons, sculptors, and other skilled artisans.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: According to Abdur Razzak, much of the empire was fertile and well cultivated. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment. Salt production and the manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable. Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and Dharmadam were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities (Arabs, Persians, Guzerates, Khorassanians) settled in Calicut, drawn by the thriving trade business. Ship building prospered and keeled ships between 1000 and 1200 "bahares" (burden) were built without decks by sewing the entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice. The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain. Cotton yarn was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from Palestine were copper, quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, colored camlets, gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: East coast trade routes were busy, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet, pulses and tobacco were grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region. The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and the Far East. Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals, camphor, porcelain, silk and luxury goods.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Mahanavami festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days. At this time, an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues, which included rents and taxes, paid on a monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses. In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called "Srotriyas", in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as "Jodi". Taxes such as "Durgavarthana", "Dannayivarthana" and "Kavali Kanike" were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions. "Jeevadhanam" was collected for cattle graze on non-private lands. Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called "Perayam" or "Kanike". Residential property taxes were called "Illari".


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific "Varnasramadharma" ("lit", "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage ("Gotra") and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati"). According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same. Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits. According to Talbot, terminology such as "Setti" was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while "Boya" identified herders of all types. Artisans consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of a place. The "Tottiyans" were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status ("poligars"), "Saurashtrans" were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the "Reddys" were agriculturists and the "Uppilia" were salt farmers.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in the military. The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order. Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended the social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the "Nayakas".


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as "Satikal" (Sati stone) or "Sati-virakal" (Sati hero stone). There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in the previous centuries, such as Lingayatism, provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts. Tirumalamba Devi who wrote "Varadambika Parinayam" and Gangadevi the author of "Madhuravijayam" were among the notable women poets of the Sanskrit language. Early Telugu women poets such as Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular. Further south the provincial Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets. The Devadasi system, as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of harems among men of the royalty and the existence of seraglio is well known from records.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Well-to-do men wore the "Petha" or "Kulavi", a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water, civet musk, musk or sandalwood. In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as cock fight, ram fight and female wrestling. Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When a sister of Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur was married to Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, the town of Sholapur was given to the bride by her family. Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious King Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry. Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting a price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic Mahr system. To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the "kanyadana" within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of "Streedhana" ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that the villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show. The kings used titles such as "Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya" ("literally", "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism, and yet at the same time adopted Islamicate court ceremonies, dress, and political language, as reflected in the title "Hindu-rāya-suratrāṇa" ("lit", "sultan among Hindu kings"). The empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I) came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the Kuruba people, that claimed Yadava lineage. The founders of the empire were devout Shaivas (worshippers of the Hindu god Shiva) but made grants to Vishnu temples. Their patron saint Vidyaranya was from the Advaita order at Sringeri. The "Varaha" (the boar avatar of Vishnu) was the emblem of the empire. Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati as well as Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work, "Jambavati Kalyanam" by King Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as "Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani" ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi. Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the "Vyasakuta" and "Dasakuta", the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the "Dasakuta" merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs ("Devaranamas" and "Kirthanas"). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha, the "guru" (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa ("Pitamaha" or "Father of Carnatic music") and Kanakadasa earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya. The king considered the saint his "Kuladevata" (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of "Kirthanas" in Telugu at Tirupati in present-day Andhra Pradesh.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas ("Moplahs") and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century, Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545) and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a panegyric of the king or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or a curse on those who do not honor the grant.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Most Vijayanagara empire inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit. According to Suryanath U. Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered. Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century. According to Mack, the majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period. Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium, the majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: In addition to epigraphs and coins, the sources of Vijayanagara history (its origin, social and political life and eventual defeat) are the accounts of foreign travelers and contemporary literary sources in Sanskrit, Kannada, Persian and Telugu. The Portuguese visitors to the empire were Domingo Paes (1522), Fernão Nunes (1537), Duarte Barbosa (1516) and Barradas (1616), and Athanasius Nikitin (1470) came from Russia. Niccolò de' Conti (1420), Ludovico di Varthema (1505), Caesar Fredericci (1567) and Filippo Sassetti (1585) were travelers from Italy and Abdur Razzak (1443) visited from Persia. Contemporary Muslim writers who were either under the patronage of rival kingdoms (the Sultanates) or were visitors to Vijayanagara and accomplished valuable works are Ziauddin Barani ("Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi", 1357), Isamy ("Fatuhat us salatin"), Syed Ali Tabatabai ("Burhan-i-Maisar", 1596), Nisammuddin Bakshi, Firishta ("Tarik-i-Firishta") and Rafiuddin Shirazi ("Tazkirat ul Mulk", 1611). Among writings by native authors, the important Sanskrit works that shed light on the empire are "Vidyaranya Kalajnana", Dindima's "Ramabhyudayam" on the life of King Saluva Narasimha, Dindima II's "Achyutabhyudayam" and Tirumalamba's "Varadambika Parinayam". Among Kannada literary works, "Kumara Ramana Kathe" by Nanjunda Kavi, "Mohanatarangini" by Kanakadasa, "Keladiripavijayam" by Linganna and the recently discovered "Krishnadevarayana Dinachari" are useful sources, and among Telugu works, Srinatha's "Kashikanda", Mallayya and Singayya's "Varahapuranamu", Vishvanatha Nayani's "Rayavachakamu", Nandi Timmanna's "Parijathapaharanamu", Durjati's "Krishnaraja Vijayamu", Peddanna's "Manucharitamu" and King Krishnadevaraya's "Amuktamalyada" are important sources of information.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that the empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold "Varaha" (or "Hun/Honnu", "Gadyana") weighted 50.65 53 grains. The "Partab" or "Pratapa" was valued at half a "Varaha", the "Fanam", "Phanam" or "Hana", an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the "Varaha". A "Tar" made of pure silver was a sixth of a "Phanam" and a "Chital" made of brass was a third of the "Tar". "Haga", "Visa" and "Kasu" were also coins of lower denominations.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, "Prabandha" (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of the Empire were Kannada and Telugu, the latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krishnadevaraya.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as Sayanacharya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called "Vedartha Prakasha" whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title "Tikacharya" for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of Adi Sankara. Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as "Jambavati Kalyana" by King Krishnadevaraya, and "Madura Vijayam" (also known as "Veerakamparaya Charita") by Princess Gangadevi, a daughter-in-law of King Bukka I, dwells on the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara empire.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Veerashaiva (Lingayatism) literature. The "Haridasa" poets celebrated their devotion through songs called "Devaranama" (lyrical poems) in the native meters of "Sangatya" (quatrain), "Suladi" (beat based), "Ugabhoga" (melody based) and "Mundige" (cryptic). Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many "Dasas" (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution. Kumara Vyasa, the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote "Gadugina Bharata", a translation of the epic "Mahabharata". This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada. Chamarasa was a famous Veerashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His "Prabhulinga Leele", later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi).


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: At this peak of Telugu literature, the most famous writing in the "Prabandha" style was "Manucharitamu". King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the "Amuktamalyada", a story of the wedding of the god Vishnu to Andal, the Tamil Alvar saint poet and the daughter of Periyalvar at Srirangam. In his court were eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars ("Ashtadiggajas") of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were Allasani Peddana who held the honorific "Andhrakavitapitamaha" ("lit", "father of Telugu poetry") and Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester who authored several notable works. The other six poets were Nandi Thimmana (Mukku Timmana), Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Madayyagari Mallana, Bhattu Murthi (Ramaraja Bhushana), Pingali Surana, and Dhurjati. Srinatha, who wrote books such as "Marutratcharitamu" and "Salivahana-sapta-sati", was patronised by King Devaraya II and enjoyed the same status as important ministers in the court.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Most Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil-speaking regions, which were ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention to the cultivation of Tamil literature. Some poets were also patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. Svarupananda Desikar wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, "Sivaprakasap-perundirattu", on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, Tattuvarayar, wrote a shorter anthology, "Kurundirattu", that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose "Irusamaya Vilakkam" was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's "Sangitsara", Praudha Raya's "Ratiratnapradipika", Sayana's "Ayurveda Sudhanidhi" and Lakshmana Pandita's "Vaidyarajavallabham". The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished during this period with scholars such as Madhava, who made important contributions to trigonometry and calculus, and Nilakantha Somayaji, who postulated on the orbitals of planets.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared "Kalyanamantapa" (marriage hall), "Vasanthamantapa" (open pillared halls) and the "Rayagopura" (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: In the 14th century, the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work. At Hampi, the "Vitthala" and "Hazara Ramaswamy" temples are examples of their pillared "Kalyanamantapa" style. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. The "Vitthala" temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large monoliths such as the "Sasivekaalu" (mustard) Ganesha and "Kadalekaalu" (ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and "Girijakalyana" (marriage of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, the "Shivapurana" murals (tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India.


title: Vijayanagara Empire

text: An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" ("Mahanavami Dibba") has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Beverly Hills, 90210 (often referred to by its short title, 90210) is an American teen drama television series created by Darren Star and produced by Aaron Spelling under his production company Spelling Television. The series ran for ten seasons on Fox from October 4, 1990, to May 17, 2000, and is the first of six television series in the "Beverly Hills, 90210" franchise. The series follows the lives of a group of friends living in Beverly Hills, California, as they transition from high school to college and into the adult world. "90210" refers to one of the city's five ZIP codes.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The initial premise of the show was based on the adjustment and culture shock that twins Brandon (Jason Priestley) and Brenda Walsh (Shannen Doherty) experienced when they and their parents, Jim (James Eckhouse) and Cindy (Carol Potter), moved from Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Beverly Hills, California. In addition to chronicling the characters' friendships and romantic relationships, the show addressed topical issues such as sex, date rape, homophobia, animal rights, alcoholism, drug abuse, domestic violence, eating disorders, antisemitism, racism, teenage suicide, teenage pregnancy, and AIDS.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: After poor ratings during its first season, the series gained popularity during the summer of 1991, when Fox aired a special "summer season" of the show while most other series were in reruns. Viewership increased dramatically, and "90210" became one of Fox's top shows when it returned that fall. The show became a global pop culture phenomenon with its cast members, particularly Jason Priestley and Luke Perry, who became teen idols; the series also made actresses Shannen Doherty and Jennie Garth household names in the United States. The show is credited with creating or popularizing the teen soap genre that many other successful television shows followed in the years to come.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The show had many cast changes; Jennie Garth, Tori Spelling, Brian Austin Green, and Ian Ziering were the only actors to appear during its entire run and appeared on the first episode of the spin-off "Melrose Place".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: On February 27, 2019, it was announced that a six-episode reboot had been ordered by Fox and that the show would simply be titled "BH90210". The revival premiered on Fox on August 7, 2019, and was cancelled on November 7, 2019.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The series begins with the introduction of the Walsh family—Jim, Cindy, Brandon, and Brenda—who have recently moved from Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Beverly Hills, California, as a result of Jim's job promotion. In the first episode, Brandon and Brenda begin attending West Beverly Hills High School, where they befriend several classmates: the self-centered and promiscuous Kelly Taylor, carefree and spoiled Steve Sanders, smart and driven Andrea Zuckerman, ditzy and virtuous Donna Martin, brooding loner Dylan McKay, and younger and naive students David Silver and Scott Scanlon. The show follows the siblings as they bear witness and take part in the dramatic lives that their wealthy and privileged peers lead.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Torand Productions was used by the production company for several seasons on the show. "Torand" is derived from the first several letters of Aaron Spelling's first and second children, Tori and Randy.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The original name for the show, used during shooting of the original pilot in March and April 1990, was "Doing Time in Beverly Hills"; later, the tentative title for the show changed to "Class of Beverly Hills". The show's episodes were issue-based until the producers decided it should become a teen soap opera. In the first season, the teenage characters (aside from David Silver and Scott Scanlon) were said to be in the eleventh grade, but due to the success of the show, their ages were retconned to be one year younger in the second season, making them tenth graders in the first.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Jennie Garth had to audition five times for the role of Kelly Taylor and was the first to be cast on the show. Gabrielle Carteris felt that she was too old to play a high school student. She first auditioned for Brenda because she thought that being a real-life twin would help her chances, but the producers felt that she would be better for the part of Andrea.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: When Tori Spelling (Aaron Spelling's daughter) auditioned for the show, she used the name Tori Mitchell and auditioned for the role of Kelly Taylor, but she was eventually recognized and was instead cast as Donna Martin. Tori Spelling brought Shannen Doherty to her father's attention after seeing Doherty's movie "Heathers" and being impressed with her performance.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Lyman Ward was originally cast as Jim Walsh in the pilot but was replaced by James Eckhouse, and Ward's scenes were cut and re-shot with Eckhouse. Kristin Dattilo was also up for the role of Brenda Walsh, but she turned it down. She later guest starred as Melissa Coolidge in an episode of the first season.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Additionally, Luke Perry had auditioned for the role of Steve Sanders, but the role eventually went to Ian Ziering before Perry was cast as Dylan McKay. Perry's character was not an original cast member of the show, and he was first featured in the show's second episode. He was originally intended to only appear in one story arc, for one or two episodes. Fox was initially reluctant to have him included as a regular, but Aaron Spelling felt differently and gave Perry a bigger role during the first two years until the network was won over.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In the first season, when Donna tries out for school D.J., she is referred to as Donna Morgan. Throughout the rest of the show, her name is Donna Martin.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In addition, in the first season Donna's mother was named Nancy Martin and played by actress Jordana Capra. When she was reintroduced in season two, she was named Felice Martin and was played by actress Katherine Cannon.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In the pilot episode, the role of Jackie Taylor was first played by Pamela Galloway and then by Ann Gillespie for the rest of the series. Terence Ford and Arthur Brooks portrayed Dylan's father, Jack McKay, in two episodes before Josh Taylor assumed the role.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The departure of Shannen Doherty at the end of season 4 came after a period of strife between Doherty, the other cast members, and the show's producers. Executive producer Charles Rosin commented in 2000 that Doherty "had habitual lateness, her lateness was appalling, and she had a callous attitude and an indifference." Trouble between Doherty and her co-stars, Jennie Garth in particular, was also widely reported in the media. Doherty, who was struggling in her personal life with her father's illness, came to an agreement with the producers to phase her out of the show at the beginning of season 4, when Brenda returns to Minnesota for college. It was planned to reduce her appearances from that point, but Doherty had a change of heart and requested to remain as a main cast member. However, as the fourth season wore on Doherty's attitude deteriorated and her friction with the other cast members intensified. When she caused continuity problems by cutting her hair halfway through filming an episode, the producers and cast requested from Aaron Spelling that she be fired.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In season 5, the production accommodated Gabrielle Carteris' pregnancy by reluctantly writing a pregnancy storyline for Andrea. The producers were unhappy with the more adult direction of the character, and Carteris was written off the show at the end of the season. Also in season 5, Jamie Walters was introduced as Donna's boyfriend Ray, who later begins abusing her. The writers intended to "rehabilitate" the character in season 6, and Walters signed a $1 million contract. However, the show received such a flood of negative mail from fans complaining about Donna being "stupid" for staying with her abuser, that an angry Aaron Spelling ordered that Walters should be fired. Producer Larry Mollin said of the incident that "he [Walters] got to walk away with his money. But it was still devastating for him. We left him as being a beater, which stayed with him, unfortunately. People thought he was a beater. It was just terrible."


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In Season 8 Jason Priestley was worried that Brandon and Kelly would end up together so he chose to leave the show.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The series was produced in Van Nuys, Los Angeles, California. During the 10 years the series was in production it was filmed in a warehouse complex in Van Nuys, the interiors of the series as well as the exteriors of the Peach Pit parking lot and P.P.A.D. club entrance were all located off the 15000 block of Calvert Street. An unmarked gated studio entrance now stands at this address, but the exterior brick facing of the P.P.A.D. is still visible down the alley, on the side of the building.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The studio building complex has since been the home to various projects including the 2006 CBS series "Jericho", which guest starred James Eckhouse in one episode. Until February 2010, the CW series "Melrose Place" was also produced at the original "90210" Calvert studios. Post-production services for "Beverly Hills, 90210" were provided by LaserPacific for all seasons.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Many changes were made after the pilot episode. The producers first used a location that was used only once during the pilot episode for the Walsh house, that was located in a gated community of Brentwood. After the pilot episode the Walsh house was moved to Altadena, California. The house used for Dylan's home in the show is located in the same Altadena neighborhood.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Three locations were used for the frontage of The Peach Pit during the show's ten-year history. The original location, on Pico Boulevard in Los Angeles, was only used in the first few episodes of season one, then was changed to a different location for the rest of that season. When the Peach Pit was fictionally remodeled during season two, the producers used Rose City Diner in Pasadena, California, to film the exterior of the gang's hangout, and it remained the same throughout the rest of the show's run.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Most of the filming during the second season of the summer season at the Beverly Hills Beach Club took place in Santa Monica, at the old Sand and Sea Beach Club. The beach club used in the show was the very same beach club that was used during one summer season of "Saved by the Bell".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The filming location for West Beverly High School was in the middle class community of Torrance at Torrance High School, located in the 90501 zip code. Torrance High can also be seen in other shows such as "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: When the "90210" characters began attending the then-fictitious California University in the show's fourth season, the scenes around campus were actually filmed at Occidental College in Eagle Rock. Kelly and Donna's beach house used in the show is located in Hermosa Beach. The Golden Oak Ranch, outside Santa Clarita, was also used for filming.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: "Beverly Hills, 90210" originally aired from October 4, 1990, to May 17, 2000, on Fox in the United States. The show aired Thursday at 9:00 pm for the first two seasons and Wednesday at 8:00 pm for the rest of its run.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Prior to the premiere of "Beverly Hills, 90210", "Glory Days" was airing on Thursdays at 9:00 pm. After the show had moved to Wednesday, where Fox did not have regular programming, "The Heights" took over the timeslot. After "Beverly Hills, 90210" left Fox in 2000, it went to air reruns on syndication and was replaced by "Malcolm in the Middle" and "Normal, Ohio".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Seasons 2 and 3 featured all new summer episodes that aired during July and August before the regular fall episodes started in September. At the beginning of the third season, in July and August 1992, all new summer episodes of "Beverly Hills, 90210" were playing during the series new time slot of Wednesdays at 8pm but viewers could see repeats from "Beverly Hills, 90210" first season in the original time slot of Thursdays at 9pm. The Fox Network was heavily promoting the new time slot so viewers could find the show. The seventh season started earlier than usual because of the 1996 Olympics and the MLB Playoffs on Fox during the month of October.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: At various times since 1998, reruns of the show have aired in syndication, on FX until 2005. Later SoapNet aired reruns of the show seven days a week until 2013. The syndicated episodes featured the show's original music, unlike the DVD and Hulu releases. Since 2014, Pop airs reruns of the show with two back-to-back episodes, sometimes three or four. The syndicated episodes that are featured on this network however, do not use the show's original music with the content mostly taken from the DVD releases.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: After poor ratings in the first season, the episodes' average ratings per season increased, constantly maintained above 11% from season two until season five, despite Shannen Doherty's departure at the end of season four. From season six until the end of the series the average rating gradually decreased, and the final blow to the show was the early ninth season's departures of Jason Priestley and Tiffani Thiessen (both season peaks at 8.1%). Since then no episode reached 8% again in ratings until the series finale, despite Luke Perry's return, with average ratings falling to 6.9% in season nine and 5.9% in the last season. During the entire series, the episodes with the highest ratings peaked at 14.1%, and included the closing episodes of seasons two and three, and the opening episode of season five.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Ratings for the tenth season declined to an average of 10 million viewers per episode (according to a May 2000 issue of "Us Weekly"). The ratings were low compared to previous seasons. The lower ratings, along with the high costs associated with any television show in its later seasons, led Fox to end the series in January 2000. Though there were many cast changes, over 25 million people tuned in to watch the final episode, which aired in May 2000. Tiffani Thiessen returned in the series finale.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: "Entertainment Weekly" named the show #20 on its list of top 100 TV shows in the past 25 years. The magazine also named the theme song #15 on its list of top 25 TV theme songs in the past 25 years, and the "90210 Sideburns" #50 on its list of Pop Culture Moments that Rocked Fashion. The show was named one of the Best School Shows of All Time by AOL TV.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The first-season episode "Spring Dance" caused outrage from many parents after the character of Brenda loses her virginity to Dylan. Parents were offended by the fact that Brenda suffers no consequences and shows no remorse for having had sex, something unusual for network television in 1991. After a slew of angry phone calls to the network, Fox decided to placate upset viewers by featuring a pregnancy scare for Brenda and Dylan in the second season, as a means of "punishing" the teenagers for their decision. Executive Producer Charles Rosin criticized this decision, saying "Someday I will write a long article about the censorship that occurred after Brenda lost her virginity at the Spring Dance to her boyfriend (who had been AIDS tested) because she was happy and not full of remorse."


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In February 1992, at the height of the show's popularity, the three main stars Jason Priestley, Shannen Doherty and Luke Perry were featured on the cover of "Rolling Stone".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The rap duo Insane Clown Posse released an EP titled "Beverly Kills 50187" which featured a song titled "Beverly Kills" describing member Violent J killing the series' characters for being rich and prejudiced toward the "lower class".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The short-lived "The Ben Stiller Show" did a parody of this show, "The Heights" and "Melrose Place" called "Melrose Heights 90210-2420" that portrayed the cast as superficial, self-absorbed, and self-pitying, as well as introducing each of the stereotypical cast along with "Akeem, the black guy". A typical episode's "issue" was a character getting a headache, which affected all the other characters. Each episode would end with the same upbeat song (resembling "The Heights" hit single "How Do You Talk to an Angel") performed by the whole cast with new lyrics for each episode.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: A cutaway gag in an episode of "Family Guy" parodied the fact that a number of the show's cast members were in their mid-to-late 20s and not teenagers. In the gag, Andrea is portrayed as a senile elderly woman.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: When Jason Priestley guest-hosted "Saturday Night Live" in 1992, one of that episode's sketches, which parodied "Beverly Hills 90210", involved that town's zip code being changed to 90218 due to the 1990 Census redistricting. Several of the characters take offense to the fact that Beverly Hills will be absorbed into poorer communities and convene at the Peach Pit, where a Hispanic busboy expresses pride that his native community of Reseda now shares the same zip code as the "90210" cast. The gang lashes out in different ways, with Dylan getting drunk and Donna and Kelly going impulse shopping. Priestley, in his role of Brandon, confiscates all their keys and puts them in a lockbox and gives them a tag to reclaim them when they regain self-control. The sketch ends with the zip code "Beverly Hills, 90210" retained as their rich and powerful parents lobbied the US government not to redistrict.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The Fox sketch show "The Edge" did a parody of "90210" that mocked Tori Spelling. During the sketch, the character of Tori constantly says, "I can do whatever I want because this is my Daddy's show." Aaron Spelling took offense to this, and asked for an apology from the producers of the show. "Saturday Night Live" also did a Tori Spelling parody as well, where Melanie Hutsell spoofed Spelling, which was met with less protest.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: "The Mickey Mouse Club" did a parody sketch called "Beverly Hillbillies 90210", combining the characters of both "90210" and "The Beverly Hillbillies". In 1999, Christina Aguilera from the Mickey Mouse Club made a cameo performance on "Beverly Hills 90210" as herself performing at the PPAD for David Silver's surprise birthday party, season 10 episode 2: "Let's Eat Cake". Music from former MMC members Justin Timberlake and JC Chasez of 'N Sync also was originally used during several opening title sequences during the mid-to-late seasons of "90210".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: "MADtv" made its own parodies of the show as "Beverly Hills, 90210 B.C." set in prehistoric Beverly Hills. When Luke Perry made his high-profile return to the series, MADtv did a second parody titled "Beverly Hills 9021-H20" which had the characters being stalked and killed off by Luke Perry (Pat Kilbane), who had rejoined the cast as a masked killer who was a parody of Michael Myers of the "Halloween" film series.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The Czech TV Nova parody show "Tele Tele" made a parody of the show known as "Heverly Debils". Three mini-episodes (about 10 minutes each) were filmed.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: GZA of the Wu-Tang Clan released a song called "Killah Hills 10304", a reference to the show's title in a song about crime and a rough neighborhood.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: A VH1 promo for "I Love the 90s" featured Hal Sparks and Michael Ian Black sitting in the Peach Pit, with "Beverly Hills, 90210" theme music playing. Joe E. Tata also appears in the promo as Nat.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In 2009, "The Simpsons" aired an episode called "Waverly Hills, 9-0-2-1-D'oh", which features Lisa wanting to go to a better school and finding it in the very posh town of Waverly Hills.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: On the 9th season of "RuPaul's Drag Race", the contestants acted in a parody of the show, called "Beverly Hills, 9021-HO". The episode was guest judged by Jennie Garth and Tori Spelling.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In 2021, "Beverly Hills, 90210" was one of the shows featured on season 1, episode 3 of Vice Media's "Dark Side of the 90's" entitled "TV for Teens."


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all ten seasons on DVD in Regions 1, 2 & 4. Due to music licensing issues, most of the original music has been replaced on these DVD releases. Deleted songs include "Damn, I Wish I Was Your Lover", "Losing My Religion", and "In The Mood". Starting with Season 2, some episodes are edited from their original broadcast versions.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: For reasons that were never made clear, the first three-season releases used promotional pictures from their succeeding seasons instead of the actual promotional pictures that were taken while the seasons aired. Due to the group pictures from the fourth season being used on the third season DVD and the absence of Shannen Doherty in later seasons, a collage of still photos was used on the fourth season. Jamie Walters was not featured on the covers of any of the seasons that he regularly appeared in (although he did appear in some of the DVD menu still shots for seasons 5 and 6). Kathleen Robertson was only featured on the cover of the seventh season, even though she had been a regular since season 6, recurring in the entirety of season 5 and made her first appearance towards the end of season 4 (her photo was, however, used in one of the inner cases for the season 6 release).


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Hilary Swank, who was cast as a main star in the eighth season, is featured on the cover of the DVD, even though she left halfway through her only season on the show, while Vincent Young, who joined the cast that same year, is not on the cover at all, or on the cover of the ninth season (he is, however, featured on the tenth season cover), but Lindsay Price, Vanessa Marcil and Luke Perry were all featured on the cover, as were Jason Priestley and Tiffani-Amber Thiessen who both departed the series after a few episodes. Daniel Cosgrove was not featured on the Season 9 cover either even though he was a regular also (he is featured on the season 10 cover).


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: For seasons 1–8, the DVDs were packaged in individual slim plastic cases which were then housed in a large outer cardboard box. Beginning with season 9, the discs were fitted into a singular standard-sized DVD case. Initial copies came with an outer cardboard slipcase.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: On November 5, 2013, Paramount released "Beverly Hills, 90210 - The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1, with extra bonuses not available on the season sets.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: On May 18, 2021, Paramount released "Beverly Hills, 90210 - The Ultimate Collection" on DVD in Region 1, which includes BH90210 along with the season sets and bonus extras from the previous release.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: The series "Melrose Place" was a spin-off from the show, as actor Grant Show (who played Jake on "Melrose Place") appeared for a multi-episode run at the end of the series second season as Kelly's love interest, and a friend of Dylan's. Jennie Garth, Tori Spelling, Brian Austin Green and Ian Ziering made appearances as their "Beverly Hills, 90210" characters in the first few episodes of "Melrose Place".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: "Models Inc.", a series about the personal and professional struggles of several young models, spin-off from "Melrose Place". The series was introduced via the characters Hillary Michaels, the mother of "Melrose Place" Amanda Woodward, and model Sarah Owens—both of whom had appeared in a multi-episode run on "MP". In addition to his role in "Melrose Place", Jake Hanson was the only character to appear in both "Beverly Hills, 90210" and "Models Inc".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: A third spin-off premiered on The CW Network on September 2, 2008, focusing on a family from Kansas who move to Beverly Hills when the children's grandmother has an alcohol addiction.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In guest appearances, Jennie Garth, Shannen Doherty and Tori Spelling reprised their roles as Kelly Taylor, Brenda Walsh and Donna Martin, respectively. Joe E. Tata also reprised his role as Nat, owner of the Peach Pit, diner turned coffee house, for a couple of episodes at the beginning of the show's first season. Ann Gillespie also reprised her role as Jackie Taylor, Kelly's mom, in the first 2 seasons. Jackie dies of cancer early in season 2.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: A fifth series was officially picked up by The CW on May 21, 2009. The show is an updated version of "Melrose Place", featuring a group of young adults living in a West Hollywood apartment complex. "Smallville" producers Todd Slavkin and Darren Swimmer wrote the pilot script and became the executive producers on the series. The series was canceled on May 20, 2010.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: On October 3, 2015, a television movie called "The Unauthorized Beverly Hills, 90210 Story" was aired on the Lifetime network. The film purports to dramatize the behind-the-scenes making of the series.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: In December 2018 it was reported on "Deadline Hollywood" that a reboot of "Beverly Hills, 90210" was being shopped around to different networks. The project was initially developed by Tori Spelling and Jennie Garth in conjunction with CBS Television Studios, and was first hinted at by Spelling on her Instagram page the previous March. The bulk of the original cast is attached, including Garth, Spelling, Shannen Doherty, Jason Priestley, Ian Ziering, Brian Austin Green and Gabrielle Carteris. CBS confirmed on December 18 that the project was in "early development", adding "We aren't confirming much detail except that it is an untraditional take on a reboot with some of the original cast".


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: She added that "almost everybody" from the original cast was set to return, with Luke Perry's participation initially presumed to be limited because of his work on "Riverdale" until his death on March 4.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: Following Perry's death, CBS Television executive David Stapf said the new series would honor him in some way. Stapf also confirmed Spelling pitched the idea of a new TV show reuniting the original cast.


title: Beverly Hills, 90210

text: On February 27, 2019, it was announced that a six-episode reboot had been ordered by Fox. According to a press release on April 26, 2019, the revival — retitled as BH90210 — will feature the cast playing "heightened versions of themselves" in an irreverent drama "inspired by their real lives and relationships with each other." On May 8, 2019, it was announced that the reboot will premiere on August 7, 2019, at 9/8c on Fox. It was announced on November 7, 2019, that there would not be a season 2 of the reboot.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: Sultan Kösen (born 10 December 1982) is a Turkish farmer who holds the Guinness World Record for tallest living male at . Of Kurdish ethnicity, he is the seventh tallest man in history.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: Kösen's growth resulted from the conditions gigantism and acromegaly, caused by a tumour affecting his pituitary gland. Due to his condition, he uses crutches to walk.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: Kösen, a Turkish man of ethnic Kurdish descent, was born in Mardin, a city in southeastern Turkey. Kösen was unable to complete his education because of his height; he instead worked part-time as a farmer. He describes the advantages of being tall as being able to see a great distance and being able to help his family with domestic tasks such as changing light bulbs and hanging curtains. He lists disadvantages as not being able to find clothes for his legs measuring and for his arms with a sleeve length measuring or shoes that fit (his once record breaking length of for left and for right foot, whereas his hands are the longest measured in a living person at ), as well as finding it difficult to fit into an average-sized car.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: Starting in 2010, Kösen received Gamma Knife treatment for his pituitary tumour at the University of Virginia Medical School and was provided with medication to control his excessive levels of growth hormone. It was confirmed in March 2012 that the treatment was effective in halting Kösen's growth.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: In October 2013, Kösen married Syrian-born Merve Dibo, who is ten years younger than him. In an interview, he said that his biggest problem with his wife is communication, as he spoke Turkish but his wife spoke only Arabic. The pair divorced in 2021 citing the language barrier as one of the key problems. Kösen hopes to marry another woman someday.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: On 13 November 2014, as part of Guinness World Records Day, Kösen met, for the first time, the world's shortest man ever, Chandra Bahadur Dangi (, at an event in London.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: Kösen turned 40 years old on 10 December 2022. He celebrated his birthday a few days early by visiting the Ripley's Believe It or Not! museum in Orlando, Florida, USA and posing next to a life-sized statue of Robert Wadlow, the tallest man ever at 272 cm (8 ft 11.1 in).


title: Sultan Kösen

text: On 25 August 2009, Kösen's standing height was recorded at in his home country by "Guinness World Records", overtaking former world record holder Bao Xishun who stands tall. Kösen also holds the current Guinness record for the largest hands at , and the second largest feet at (left foot) and (right foot).


title: Sultan Kösen

text: On 25 August 2010, according to the University of Virginia, a height of up to had been confirmed by doctors, who stated that this might be Kösen's actual height, artificially lowered by scoliosis and bad posture.


title: Sultan Kösen

text: On 9 February 2011, Kösen was remeasured by "Guinness World Records" at . They also remeasured his hands at , which broke his previous record.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints. It typically results in warm, swollen, and painful joints. Pain and stiffness often worsen following rest. Most commonly, the wrist and hands are involved, with the same joints typically involved on both sides of the body. The disease may also affect other parts of the body, including skin, eyes, lungs, heart, nerves and blood. This may result in a low red blood cell count, inflammation around the lungs, and inflammation around the heart. Fever and low energy may also be present. Often, symptoms come on gradually over weeks to months.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: While the cause of rheumatoid arthritis is not clear, it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The underlying mechanism involves the body's immune system attacking the joints. This results in inflammation and thickening of the joint capsule. It also affects the underlying bone and cartilage. The diagnosis is made mostly on the basis of a person's signs and symptoms. X-rays and laboratory testing may support a diagnosis or exclude other diseases with similar symptoms. Other diseases that may present similarly include systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriatic arthritis, and fibromyalgia among others.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: The goals of treatment are to reduce pain, decrease inflammation, and improve a person's overall functioning. This may be helped by balancing rest and exercise, the use of splints and braces, or the use of assistive devices. Pain medications, steroids, and NSAIDs are frequently used to help with symptoms. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as hydroxychloroquine and methotrexate, may be used to try to slow the progression of disease. Biological DMARDs may be used when disease does not respond to other treatments. However, they may have a greater rate of adverse effects. Surgery to repair, replace, or fuse joints may help in certain situations.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: RA affects about 24.5 million people as of 2015. This is between 0.5 and 1% of adults in the developed world with 5 and 50 per 100,000 people newly developing the condition each year. Onset is most frequent during middle age and women are affected 2.5 times as frequently as men. It resulted in 38,000 deaths in 2013, up from 28,000 deaths in 1990. The first recognized description of RA was made in 1800 by Dr. Augustin Jacob Landré-Beauvais (1772–1840) of Paris. The term "rheumatoid arthritis" is based on the Greek for watery and inflamed joints.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: RA primarily affects joints, but it also affects other organs in more than 15–25% of cases. Associated problems include cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, interstitial lung disease, infection, cancer, feeling tired, depression, mental difficulties, and trouble working.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: Arthritis of joints involves inflammation of the synovial membrane. Joints become swollen, tender and warm, and stiffness limits their movement. With time, multiple joints are affected (polyarthritis). Most commonly involved are the small joints of the hands, feet and cervical spine, but larger joints like the shoulder and knee can also be involved. Synovitis can lead to tethering of tissue with loss of movement and erosion of the joint surface causing deformity and loss of function. The fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), highly specialized mesenchymal cells found in the synovial membrane, have an active and prominent role in these pathogenic processes of the rheumatic joints.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: RA typically manifests with signs of inflammation, with the affected joints being swollen, warm, painful and stiff, particularly early in the morning on waking or following prolonged inactivity. Increased stiffness early in the morning is often a prominent feature of the disease and typically lasts for more than an hour. Gentle movements may relieve symptoms in early stages of the disease. These signs help distinguish rheumatoid from non-inflammatory problems of the joints, such as osteoarthritis. In arthritis of non-inflammatory causes, signs of inflammation and early morning stiffness are less prominent.


title: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: The pain associated with RA is induced at the site of inflammation and classified as nociceptive as opposed to neuropathic. The joints are often affected in a fairly symmetrical fashion, although this is not specific, and the initial presentation may be asymmetrical.