title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: In January 2013, Clay competed in the 2013 Royal Rumble match and was eliminated by five men. Tensai was embarrassed after a dance contest, but Clay encouraged him to dance and have fun because "what happens in Vegas stays in Vegas". Tensai, with Clay's encouragement, began using several "silly dance moves". Two days later on "WWE Main Event", Clay came out to support Tensai during his match with Titus O'Neil. Following this, Clay and Tensai formed a tag team and went on to defeat established teams such as Primo & Epico, Heath Slater and Jinder Mahal of 3MB and Team Rhodes Scholars (Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow). On the March 22 episode of "SmackDown", Tensai and Clay were defeated by Team Rhodes Scholars after an interference from The Bella Twins.<ref name="SmackDown3/22/13"></ref> Tensai and Clay announced their official tag-team name "Tons of Funk" on the March 27 episode of "Main Event", where they accompanied The Funkadactyls to ring in a losing effort to The Bella Twins.<ref name="MainEvent3/27/13"></ref> The two teams were originally booked to face each other in an eight-person mixed tag team match on April 7 at WrestleMania 29, but their match was cut due to time constraints. The match instead took place the following night on "Raw", where Tons of Funk and The Funkadactyls emerged victorious.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: In November 2013, Clay started a storyline where he became angry and jealous of the debuting Xavier Woods, who "borrowed" Clay's music and The Funkadactyls for his entrance. Clay thus began to exhibit more villainous tendencies, such as repeatedly attacking Woods, after he had defeated Woods in a match. At , Clay faced Woods' partner, R-Truth and continually assaulted Truth instead of going for a win, so Tensai and the Funkadactyls left in protest and Clay lost the match.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: On the next day on "Raw", Clay completed his heel turn by abandoning Tensai to lose their tag match and attacking Tensai after the match. Clay found no immediate success, as he went on to lose to Tensai, Woods and Truth in singles matches. On the April 17 episode "NXT", Clay would lose by countout against Adrian Neville in a non-title match. On June 12, 2014, Clay was released by WWE.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: On September 16, 2014, Murdoch debuted for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) under the ring name Tyrus at TNA's television tapings, aligning himself with Ethan Carter III (EC3). Moments after EC3 introduced him, he had his first wrestling match on the October 15 episode of "Impact Wrestling" against Shark Boy, which he won. Together they entered the TNA World Tag Team Championship number one contenders tournament, defeating Eric Young and Rockstar Spud in the quarterfinals, only to lose to The Hardy Boyz on the October 29 episode of "Impact Wrestling" in the semifinals, when Tyrus was pinned by Matt Hardy. At Lockdown, Tyrus defeated Spud and Mark Andrews in a 2-on-1 Six Sides of Steel match. On May 15, 2015 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Tyrus lost to Mr. Anderson. At Slammiversary, Carter and Tyrus defeated Lashley and Mr. Anderson in the co-main event. On October 4, 2015, at Bound For Glory, Tyrus won a gauntlet for the gold match to become the number one contender for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: On a June 28, 2016 taping of "Impact Wrestling", Tyrus returned as a "fixer" for hire, siding with Grado and Mahabali Shera in a match against The Tribunal and Al Snow. Since then, TNA began airing vignettes for the "fixer" gimmick on "Impact Wrestling" on weekly basis. At , Tyrus defeated Crazzy Steve. This was his first singles victory since Bound for Glory 2015. Tyrus returned to Impact Wrestling and began aligning himself with Eli Drake. On January 6, 2017, Tyrus and Eli Drake unsuccessfully challenged The Broken Hardys (Jeff Hardy and Matt Hardy) for the TNA World Tag Team Championships at . On August 18, 2017, the promotion announced that Tyrus was granted his release from his contract. Murdoch explained that he didn't feel comfortable with Jeff Jarrett returning to Impact, since Murdoch decided in the past to stay with TNA and didn't sign a contract with GFW.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: At Impact's January 2018 tapings, he returned to defeat his former boss Ethan Carter III after turning on him. However, his return was short-lived when, on April 18, 2018, Tyrus left Impact once again, confirming his release and departure from the company. Murdoch claimed that poor booking decisions involving his character would hurt his reputation, so he left the promotion again.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: Tyrus made his debut for Tommy Dreamer's House of Hardcore at House of Hardcore 52 on December 8, teaming with Robert Strauss to unsuccessfully face David Arquette and RJ City.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: On March 11, 2021, National Wrestling Alliance announced on their social media that Tyrus would make his NWA debut at Back For The Attack. On the August 6 episode of NWA Powerrr, Tyrus defeated The Pope to win the NWA World Television Championship.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: Tyrus unsuccessfully challenged Trevor Murdoch for the NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship at NWA 74th Anniversary Show on August 28, 2022. On the September 24, 2022 episode of NWA USA, Tyrus vacated the NWA World Television Championship using the "Lucky 7" rule to challenge Murdoch and Matt Cardona for the NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship at NWA Hard Times 3. At the event on November 12, Tyrus pinned Murdoch to win the title, marking his first world championship in his career.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: In November 2016, Fox News host Greg Gutfeld invited Murdoch to appear as a guest commentator on "The Greg Gutfeld Show"; after Murdoch's first appearance, Gutfeld offered to have him back on the show – using his stage name "Tyrus" – twice a month. He then began making guest appearances on various programs on Fox News Channel, including "The Five". Gutfeld has jokingly referred to Tyrus as his "massive sidekick." Subsequently, he became a regular contributor on Fox News host Dana Perino’s former daytime news show, "The Daily Briefing". Since April 2021, Tyrus has been a regular panelist on Gutfeld's relaunched 11 p.m. show, "Gutfeld!".


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: Though a supporter of former President Donald Trump, he did not vote in 2016 and it is unclear whether he did in the subsequent elections.


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: From 2018 to 2019, he was a co-host of the show "Un-PC" on Fox News's streaming channel, Fox Nation. In June 2019, he premiered a new Fox Nation show, "Nuff Said".


title: Tyrus (wrestler)

text: In 2019, "Un-PC" co-host Britt McHenry accused Murdoch of sexual harassment after he allegedly sent her a series of lewd text messages. According to Fox News, the matter was investigated and resolved. However, on December 10, 2019, McHenry filed a sexual harassment suit against Fox News and Murdoch. Subsequently, McHenry claimed that she lost the phone containing text messages she says are central to her claims. In July 2021, she voluntarily dismissed the lawsuit and left the Fox network, apparently as part of a legal settlement.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish (, ()), also known as hash, "dry herb, hay" is a drug made by compressing and processing parts of the cannabis plant, typically focusing on flowering buds (female flowers) containing the most trichomes. It is consumed by smoking, typically in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joint, or via oral ingestion. Hash has a long history of usage in countries such as Morocco, Egypt, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Iran, Palestine and Lebanon. Hash consumption is also popular in Europe. In the United States, dried flowers or concentrates are more popular, though hash has seen a rise in popularity following changes in law. Like many recreational drugs, multiple synonyms and alternative names for hash exist, and vary greatly depending on the country and native language.


title: Hashish

text: Hash is a cannabis concentrate product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes, from the plant. It is defined by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV) as "the separated resin, whether crude or purified, obtained from the cannabis plant". The resin contains ingredients such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids—but often in higher concentrations than the unsifted or unprocessed cannabis flower. Purities of confiscated hashish in Europe (2011) range between 3% and 15%. Between 2000 and 2005, the percentage of hashish in cannabis end product seizures was at 18%. With the strength of unprocessed cannabis flowers having increased greatly in recent years—with flowers containing upwards of 25% THC by weight—the strength of hashish produced today and in the future is likely to be far more potent than in these older records.


title: Hashish

text: The consistency and appearance of hash vary depending on the process and amount of leftover plant material (e.g. chlorophyll). It is typically solid, though its consistency ranges from brittle to malleable. It is most commonly light or dark brown in color, though may appear transparent, yellow, black, or red.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish has been consumed for many centuries, though there is no clear evidence as to its first appearance. North India and Nepal have a long social tradition in the production of hashish, known locally as "charas".


title: Hashish

text: The first attestation of the term "hashish" is in a pamphlet published in Cairo in 1123 CE, accusing Nizari Muslims of being "hashish-eaters". The cult of Nizari militants which emerged after the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate is commonly called the sect of the Assassins—a corruption of "hashishin," Arabic for "hashish-smokers." The 13th-century jurist Ibn Taymiyyah prohibited the use of hashish; he mentioned that it was introduced to Levant with the Mongol invasion (throughout the 13th century). Smoking did not become common in the Old World until after the introduction of tobacco; until the 1500s, hashish was consumed as an edible in the Muslim world.


title: Hashish

text: In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on "Bangue" ("bhang") in his historic work documenting his journeys in the East. He particularly mentioned the Egyptian hashish. He said, "Bangue is likewise much used in Turkie and Egypt, and is made in three sorts, having also three names. The first by the Egyptians is called Assis (Hashish (Arab.)), which is the poulder of Hemp, or of Hemp leaves, which is water made in paste or dough, they would eat five pieces, (each) as big as a Chestnut (or larger); This is used by the common people, because it is of a small price, and it is no wonder, that such vertue proceedeth from the Hempe, for that according to Galens opinion, Hempe excessively filleth the head."


title: Hashish

text: Hashish arrived in Europe from the East during the 18th century, and is first mentioned scientifically by Gmelin in 1777. The Napoleonic campaigns introduced French troops to hashish in Egypt and the first description of it's useful stems was in 1830 by pharmacist and botanist Theodor Friedrich Ludwig Nees von Esenbeck.


title: Hashish

text: In 1839, O’Shaughnessy wrote a comprehensive study of Himalayan hemp, which was recognised by the European school of medicine and describes hashish as relief for cramps and causing the disappearance of certain symptoms from afflictions such as rabies, cholera, and tetanus. This led to high hopes in the medical community. In 1840, Louis Aubert-Roche reported his successful use of hashish against pestilence. Also psychiatric experiments with hashish were done at the same time with Jacques-Joseph Moreau being convinced that it is the supreme medicament for use in psychiatry.


title: Hashish

text: In the 19th century, hashish was embraced in some European literary circles. Most famously, the Club des Hashischins was a Parisian club dedicated to the consumption of hashish and other drugs; its members included writers Théophile Gautier, Dr. Moreau de Tours, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Charles Baudelaire and Honoré de Balzac. Baudelaire later wrote the 1860 book "Les paradis artificiels", about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish. At around the same time, American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow wrote the 1857 book "The Hasheesh Eater" about his youthful experiences, both positive and negative, with the drug.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish was also mentioned and used as an anaesthetic in Germany in 1869. It was imported in great quantities especially from India where it was called charas. However, there were also people who did not deem cannabis as harmless. Between 1880 and 1900 was the peak of the medicinal use, where hashish compounds were most commonplace in almost all European countries and the USA. Evidence of misuse at that time was practically non-existent (as opposed to widespread reports in Asia and Africa). Hashish played a significant role in the treatment of pain, migraine, dysmenorrhea, pertussis, asthma and insomnia in Europe and USA towards the end of the 19th century. Rare applications included stomach ache, depression, diarrhea, diminished appetite, pruritus, hemorrhage, Basedow syndrome and malaria. The use was later prohibited worldwide as the use as a medicine was made impossible by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.


title: Hashish

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, the majority of hashish in Europe came from Kashmir, Afghanistan, as well as Greece, Syria, Nepal, Lebanon, and Turkey. Larger markets developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s when most of the hashish was imported from Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Greece, Hashish was prevalent in the early decades of the 20th century, and although locally produced for hundreds of years prior, it reached its peak with the coming of two and a half million Greek refugees, expelled from Turkey following the diastrous 1919-21 war. Many of these refugees had habitually smoked hashish in Turkey, using waterpipes, (hookas) called "arghilethes," and due to extrteme poverty upon arriving in Greece, and living in overcrowded and poor refugee communities, many hashish dens, called "tekethes" sprung up in Greece's larger cities, the port city of Piraeus, and the northern city of Thessaloniki (where many refugees lived.) This gave rise to a substantial urban underclass and sub culture of hashish smokers called "hasiklithes," and a musical genre "rembetika" (oriental sounding), "urban blues" played on the bouzouki, tzoura, and oriental instruments such as the baglama, outi (oud) and kanonaki (kanun,) that spoke of life as a hashish user in the "tekethes", as well as about life as refugees, society's unfairness, lack of financial opportunities, prejudice against the refugees, and the deceit of lovers and others in the community. The "tekethes" were closed down in the 1930s by the Greek police and the "rembetes" were jailed and ostracized. In succeeding decades, there has been a strong 20+ year resurgence in Greece of "rembetika" music with the songs of the rembetes and hasiklithes being contuinually performed publicly by many including the younger generation, as a form of cultural heritage, and have gained respectability and popoularity for their frank expressions of that period, and Greek society in general. Due to disruptive conflicts in the regions, Morocco took over and was the sufficient exporter until lately. It is believed that massive hashish production for international trade originated in Morocco during the 1960s, where the cannabis plant was widely available. Before the coming of the first hippies from the Hippie Trail, only small pieces of Lebanese hashish were found in Morocco.


title: Hashish

text: However, since the 2000s there has been a dramatic shift in the market due to an increase of homegrown cannabis production. While Morocco held a quasi-monopoly on hashish in the 1990s with the 250g so-called "soap bar" blocks, which were of low quality, Afghanistan is now regarded as the biggest producer of higher quality hashish. Since then, hashish quality in Europe has increased while its prices have remained stable, with an exception of the COVID-19 pandemic, where the cannabis street prices surged due to various national lockdowns.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish remains in high demand in most of the world while quality continues to increase, due to many Moroccan and western farmers in Morocco and other hash producing countries using more advanced cultivation methods as well as cultivating further developed cannabis strains which increases yields greatly, as well as improving resin quality with higher ratios of psychoactive ingredients (THC). A tastier, smoother and more aromatic terpenes and flavanoids profile is seen as an indicator of a significant rise in hashish quality in more recent years. Hashish production in Spain has also become more popular and is on the rise, however the demand for relatively cheap and high quality Moroccan hash is still extremely high.


title: Hashish

text: Changes to regulations around the world have contributed greatly to more and more countries becoming legitimate hashish producing regions, with countries like Spain effecting more lenient laws on cannabis products such as hashish. Washington State followed by Colorado started regulating cultivation, manufacturing and distribution of cannabis and cannabis derived products such as hashish in the United States, followed by many other places in the US, and around the world.


title: Hashish

text: According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Western Europe is the biggest market for cannabis resin with 70% of global seizures. The European hashish market is changing though: Cannabis cultivation increased throughout the 1990s until 2004, with a noticeable decrease reported in 2005 according to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Morocco has been the major source, however lately there has been a shift in the market and Afghanistan has been named the major producer of Hashish. Even though a drop in usage and production has been reported, Morocco produced around 6600 tonnes of resin in 2005.


title: Hashish

text: As 641 tonnes of hashish were consumed in the EU in 2013, the European market is currently the world's largest and most profitable. Therefore, many players are involved in the business, including organised crime groups. The largest cannabis resin seizures in Europe happen in Portugal, due to its proximity to Northern Africa.


title: Hashish

text: The 1990s "soap bars" disappeared and the physical shapes of hashish changed to melon shaped, tablets or olive shaped pellets. Overall the general trend of domestically grown cannabis displacing the imported resin leads to a market reaction of potency changes while the prices remain stable while soap-bar potency increased from 8% to up to 20.7% in 2014.


title: Hashish

text: As hashish is a derivative of cannabis, it possesses identical psychoactive and biological effects. When smoked, THC can be detected in plasma within seconds, with a half-life of two hours. Due to its lipophilic nature, it is widely distributed through the body, and some metabolites can be detected in urine for up to two weeks following consumption.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish is made from cannabinoid-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments. The flowers of a mature female plant contain the most trichomes, though trichomes are also found on other parts of the plant. Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce large amounts of trichomes. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen (vendors often use the euphemism "pollen catchers" to describe screened kief-grinders in order to skirt paraphernalia-selling laws), are separated from the plant through various methods.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish samples from India, Lebanon and Morocco confiscated in Europe and Israel in 2005 contained all appreciable amounts of cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN), in addition to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In some samples the CBD-content was significantly higher than the THC-content. The simultaneous occurrence of these three cannabinoids constitute the typical, chemical profile of hashish consumed in Europe and Northern Africa. In comparison, most high-potency marijuana products contain only THC. It is believed that the psychotropic effects of hashish are therefore more subtle, and sedative.


title: Hashish

text: Hashish can be consumed by oral ingestion or smoking. When smoked, it may be smoked in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joints, where it is often mixed with tobacco, as pure hashish will burn poorly if burned alone. THC has a low water solubility therefore ingestion should be done alongside a fatty meal or snack. Not all hashish can be consumed orally as some is not decarboxylated during manufacture. Generally the methods are similar to overall cannabis consumption.


title: Hashish

text: The sticky resins of the fresh flowering female cannabis plant are collected. Traditionally this was, and still is, done in remote locations by pressing or rubbing the flowering plant between two hands and then forming the sticky resins into a small ball of hashish called charas. This method produces the highest amount of cannabinoids (THC content up to 60%) without chemical solvents or distillation. The best quality charas is produced in Central Asia, and sold in sausage-like shapes.


title: Hashish

text: Mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from the dried plant material, such as sieving through a screen by hand or in motorized tumblers. This technique is known as "drysifting". The resulting powder, referred to as "kief" or "drysift", is compressed with the aid of heat into blocks of hashish; if pure, the kief will become gooey and pliable. When a high level of pure THC is present, the end product will be almost transparent and will start to melt at the point of human contact.


title: Hashish

text: Ice-water separation is another mechanical method of isolating trichomes. Newer techniques have been developed such as heat and pressure separations, static-electricity sieving or acoustical dry sieving.


title: Hashish

text: Trichomes may break away from supporting stalks and leaves when plant material becomes brittle at low temperatures. After plant material has been agitated in an icy slush, separated trichomes are often dense enough to sink to the bottom of the ice-water mixture following agitation, while lighter pieces of leaves and stems tend to float.


title: Hashish

text: The ice-water method requires ice, water, agitation, filtration bags with various-sized screens and plant material. With the ice-water extraction method the resin becomes hard and brittle and can easily be separated. This allows large quantities of pure resins to be extracted in a very clean process without the use of solvents, making for a more purified hashish.


title: Hashish

text: Chemical separation methods generally use a solvent such as ethanol, butane or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin. Remaining plant materials are filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost. The solvent is then evaporated, or boiled off (purged) leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, "hash oil", or just "oil". Honey oil still contains waxes and essential oils and can be further purified by vacuum distillation to yield "red oil". The product of chemical separations is more commonly referred to as "honey oil." This oil is not really hashish, as the latter name covers trichomes that are extracted by sieving. This leaves most of the glands intact.


title: Hashish

text: In a study conducted in 2014 by Jean-Jaques Filippi, Marie Marchini, Céline Charvoz, Laurence Dujourdy and Nicolas Baldovini ("Multidimensional analysis of cannabis volatile constituents: Identification of 5,5-dimethyl-1-vinylbicyclo[2.1.1]hexane as a volatile marker of hashish, the resin of Cannabis sativa L.") the researchers linked the characteristic flavour of hashish with a rearrangement of myrcene caused during the process of manufacture.


title: Hashish

text: Depending on the production process, the product can be contaminated with different amounts of dirt and plant fragments, varying greatly in terms of appearance, texture, odour and potency. Also, adulterants may be added in order to increase weight or modify appearance.


title: Hashish

text: Morocco has been the major hashish producer globally with €10.8 billion earned from Moroccan resin in 2004, but some so-called "Moroccan" may actually be European-made. The income for the farmers was around €325 million in 2005. While the overall number of plants and areas shrank in size, the introduction of more potent hybrid plants produced a high resin rate. The range of resin produced is estimated between 3800 and 9500 tonnes in 2005.


title: Hashish

text: The largest producer today is Afghanistan, however studies suggest there is a "hashish revival" in Morocco.


title: Hashish

text: Tiny pieces of leaf matter may be accidentally or even purposely added; adulterants introduced when the hashish is being produced will reduce the purity of the material and often resulting in green finished product. If hash is really sticky, this can mean that additional oils have been added to increase the overall weight of the product. The most common quality indicator is the smell. High-quality hash will smell fragrant and aromatic, whereas hash of low quality may have a distinct mouldy or musty aroma. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of hashish comes in wide ranges from almost none to 65% and that of hash oil from 30% to 90%. Hashish can also contain appreciable amounts of CBD, CBN and also contain trace amounts of other cannabinoids


title: Hashish

text: As mentioned above, there has been a general increase in potency as the competition has grown bigger and new hybrid plants have been developed.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is an opiate and prodrug of morphine mainly used to treat pain, coughing, and diarrhea. It is also commonly used as a recreational drug. It is found naturally in the sap of the opium poppy, "Papaver somniferum". It is typically used to treat mild to moderate degrees of pain. Greater benefit may occur when combined with paracetamol (acetaminophen) or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) such as aspirin or ibuprofen. Evidence does not support its use for acute cough suppression in children or adults. In Europe, it is not recommended as a cough medicine in those under 12 years of age. It is generally taken by mouth. It typically starts working after half an hour, with maximum effect at two hours. Its effects last for about four to six hours. Codeine exhibits abuse potential similar to other opioid medications.


title: Codeine

text: Common side effects include vomiting, constipation, itchiness, lightheadedness, and drowsiness. Serious side effects may include breathing difficulties and addiction. Whether its use in pregnancy is safe is unclear. Care should be used during breastfeeding, as it may result in opiate toxicity in the baby. Its use as of 2016 is not recommended in children. Codeine works following being broken down by the liver into morphine; how quickly this occurs depends on a person's genetics.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine was discovered in 1832 by Pierre Jean Robiquet. In 2013, about 361,000 kg (795,000 lb) of codeine were produced while 249,000 kg (549,000 lb) were used, which made it the most commonly taken opiate. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Codeine occurs naturally and makes up about 2% of opium.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is used to treat mild to moderate pain. It is commonly used to treat post-surgical dental pain.


title: Codeine

text: Weak evidence indicates that it is useful in cancer pain, but it may have increased adverse effects, especially constipation, compared to other opioids. The American Academy of Pediatrics does not recommend its use in children due to side effects. The FDA lists age under 12 years old as a contraindication to use.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is used to relieve coughing. Evidence does not support its use for acute cough suppression in children. In Europe, it is not recommended as a cough medicine in those under 12 years of age. Some tentative evidence shows it can reduce a chronic cough in adults.


title: Codeine

text: It is used to treat diarrhea and diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, although loperamide (which is available without a prescription for milder diarrhea), diphenoxylate, paregoric, or even laudanum are more frequently used to treat severe diarrhea.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is marketed as both a single-ingredient drug and in combination preparations with paracetamol (as co-codamol: "e.g.," brands Paracod, Panadeine, and the Tylenol-with-codeine series, including Tylenol 3 and 1, 2, and 4); with aspirin (as co-codaprin); or with ibuprofen (as Nurofen Plus). These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone (drug synergy).


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is also commonly marketed in products containing codeine with other pain killers or muscle relaxers, as well as codeine mixed with phenacetin (Emprazil with codeine No. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), naproxen, indomethacin, diclofenac, and others, as well as more complex mixtures, including such mixtures as aspirin + paracetamol + codeine ± caffeine ± antihistamines and other agents, such as those mentioned above.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine-only products can be obtained with a prescription as a time release tablet. Codeine is also marketed in cough syrups with zero to a half-dozen other active ingredients, and a linctus ("e.g.," Paveral) for all of the uses for which codeine is indicated.


title: Codeine

text: Injectable codeine is available for subcutaneous or intramuscular injection only; intravenous injection is contraindicated, as this can result in nonimmune mast-cell degranulation and resulting anaphylactoid reaction. Codeine suppositories are also marketed in some countries.


title: Codeine

text: Common adverse effects associated with the use of codeine include drowsiness and constipation. Less common are itching, nausea, vomiting, dry mouth, miosis, orthostatic hypotension, urinary retention, euphoria, and dysphoria. Rare adverse effects include anaphylaxis, seizure, acute pancreatitis, and respiratory depression. As with all opiates, long-term effects can vary, but can include diminished libido, apathy, and memory loss. Some people may have allergic reactions to codeine, such as the swelling of skin and rashes.


title: Codeine

text: Tolerance to many of the effects of codeine, including its therapeutic effects, develops with prolonged use. This occurs at different rates for different effects, with tolerance to the constipation-inducing effects developing particularly slowly for instance.


title: Codeine

text: A potentially serious adverse drug reaction, as with other opioids, is respiratory depression. This depression is dose-related and is a mechanism for the potentially fatal consequences of overdose. As codeine is metabolized to morphine, morphine can be passed through breast milk in potentially lethal amounts, fatally depressing the respiration of a breastfed baby.


title: Codeine

text: In August 2012, the United States Federal Drug Administration issued a warning about deaths in pediatric patients less than 6 years old after ingesting "normal" doses of paracetamol with codeine after tonsillectomy; this warning was upgraded to a black box warning in February 2013.


title: Codeine

text: Some patients are very effective converters of codeine to its active form, morphine, resulting in lethal blood levels. The FDA is presently recommending very cautious use of codeine in young tonsillectomy patients; the drug should be used in the lowest amount that can control the pain, "as needed" and not "around the clock", and immediate medical attention is needed if the user responds negatively.


title: Codeine

text: As with other opiates, chronic use of codeine can cause physical dependence which can lead to severe withdrawal symptoms if a person suddenly stops the medication. Withdrawal symptoms include drug craving, runny nose, yawning, sweating, insomnia, weakness, stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle spasms, chills, irritability, and pain. These side-effects also occur in acetaminophen/aspirin combinations, though to a lesser extent. To minimize withdrawal symptoms, long-term users should gradually reduce their codeine medication under the supervision of a healthcare professional.


title: Codeine

text: Also, no evidence indicates that CYP2D6 inhibition is useful in treating codeine dependence, though the metabolism of codeine to morphine (and hence further metabolism to glucuronide morphine conjugates) does have an effect on the abuse potential of codeine. However, CYP2D6 has been implicated in the toxicity and death of neonates when codeine is administered to lactating mothers, particularly those with increased enzyme activity ("ultra-rapid" metabolizers).


title: Codeine

text: In 2019 Ireland was said to be on the verge of a codeine addiction epidemic, according to a paper in the Irish Medical Journal. Under Irish law, codeine can be bought over-the-counter under supervision of a pharmacist, but there is no mechanism to detect patients travelling to different pharmacies to purchase codeine.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is a nonsynthetic opioid. It is a selective agonist of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR). Codeine itself has relatively weak affinity for the MOR. Instead of acting directly on the MOR, codeine functions as a prodrug of its major active metabolites morphine and codeine-6-glucuronide, which are far more potent MOR agonists in comparison.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine has been found as an endogenous compound, along with morphine, in the brains of nonhuman primates with depolarized neurons, indicating that codeine may function as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in the central nervous system. Like morphine, codeine causes TLR4 signaling which causes allodynia and hyperalgesia. It doesn't need to be converted to morphine to increase pain sensitivity.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is an opioid and an agonist of the mu opioid receptor (MOR). It acts on the central nervous system to have an analgesic effect. It is metabolised in the liver to produce morphine which is ten times more potent against the mu receptor. Opioid receptors are G protein-coupled receptors that positively and negatively regulate synaptic transmission through downstream signalling. Binding of codeine or morphine to the mu opioid receptor results in hyperpolarization of the neuron leading to the inhibition of release of nociceptive neurotransmitters, causing an analgesic effect and increased pain tolerance due to reduced neuronal excitability.


title: Codeine

text: The conversion of codeine to morphine occurs in the liver and is catalyzed by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6. CYP3A4 produces norcodeine, and UGT2B7 conjugates codeine, norcodeine, and morphine to the corresponding 3- and 6-glucuronides. Srinivasan, Wielbo and Tebbett speculate that codeine-6-glucuronide is responsible for a large percentage of the analgesia of codeine, and thus these patients should experience some analgesia. Many of the adverse effects will still be experienced in poor metabolizers. Conversely, between 0.5% and 2% of the population are "extensive metabolizers"; multiple copies of the gene for 2D6 produce high levels of CYP2D6 and will metabolize drugs through that pathway more quickly than others.


title: Codeine

text: Some medications are CYP2D6 inhibitors and reduce or even completely block the conversion of codeine to morphine. The best-known of these are two of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, paroxetine (Paxil) and fluoxetine (Prozac) as well as the antihistamine diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and the antidepressant bupropion (Wellbutrin, also known as Zyban). Other drugs, such as rifampicin and dexamethasone, induce CYP450 isozymes and thus increase the conversion rate.


title: Codeine

text: CYP2D6 converts codeine into morphine, which then undergoes glucuronidation. Life-threatening intoxication, including respiratory depression requiring intubation, can develop over a matter of days in patients who have multiple functional alleles of CYP2D6, resulting in ultrarapid metabolism of opioids such as codeine into morphine.


title: Codeine

text: Studies on codeine's analgesic effect are consistent with the idea that metabolism by CYP2D6 to morphine is important, but some studies show no major differences between those who are poor metabolizers and extensive metabolizers. Evidence supporting the hypothesis that ultrarapid metabolizers may get greater analgesia from codeine due to increased morphine formation is limited to case reports.


title: Codeine

text: Due to increased metabolism of codeine to morphine, ultrarapid metabolizers (those possessing more than two functional copies of the CYP2D6 allele) are at increased risk of adverse drug effects related to morphine toxicity. Guidelines released by the Clinical Pharmacogenomics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) advise against administering codeine to ultrarapid metabolizers, where this genetic information is available. The CPIC also suggests that codeine use be avoided in poor metabolizers, due to its lack of efficacy in this group.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine and its salts are readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, and ingestion of codeine phosphate produces peak plasma concentrations in about one hour. Plasma half life is between 3 and 4 hours, and oral/intramuscular analgesic potency ratio is approximately equal to 1:1.5. The most common conversion ratio, given on equianalgesia charts used in the United States, Canada, the UK, Republic of Ireland, the European Union, Russia and elsewhere as 130 mg IM equals 200 mg PO—both of which are equivalent to 10 mg of morphine sulphate IV and 60 mg of morphine sulphate PO. The salt:freebase ratio of the salts of both drugs in use are roughly equivalent, and do not generally make a clinical difference.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is metabolised by "O"- and "N"-demethylation in the liver to morphine and norcodeine. Hydrocodone is also a metabolite of codeine in humans. Codeine and its metabolites are excreted almost entirely by the kidney, mainly as conjugates with glucuronic acid.


title: Codeine

text: The active metabolites of codeine, notably morphine, exert their effects by binding to and activating the μ-opioid receptor.


title: Codeine

text: While codeine can be directly extracted from opium, its original source, most codeine is synthesized from the much more abundant morphine through the process of O-methylation, through a process first completed in the late 20th century by Robert C. Corcoran and Junning Ma.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine has been used in the past as the starting material and prototype of a large class of mainly mild to moderately strong opioids; such as hydrocodone (1920 in Germany), oxycodone (1916 in Germany), dihydrocodeine (1908 in Germany), and its derivatives such as nicocodeine (1956 in Austria). However, these opioids are no longer synthesized from codeine and are usually synthesized from other opium alkaloids; specifically thebaine. Other series of codeine derivatives include isocodeine and its derivatives, which were developed in Germany starting around 1920. In general, the various classes of morphine derivatives such as ketones, semisynthetics like dihydromorphine, halogeno-morphides, esters, ethers, and others have codeine, dihydrocodeine, and isocodeine analogues. The codeine ester acetylcodeine is a common active impurity in street heroin as some codeine tends to dissolve with the morphine when it is extracted from opium in underground heroin and morphine base labs.


title: Codeine

text: As an analgesic, codeine compares weakly to other opiates. Related to codeine in other ways are codoxime, thebacon, codeine-"N"-oxide (genocodeine), related to the nitrogen morphine derivatives as is codeine methobromide, and heterocodeine, which is a drug six times stronger than morphine and 72 times stronger than codeine due to a small re-arrangement of the molecule, namely moving the methyl group from the 3 to the 6 position on the morphine carbon skeleton.


title: Codeine

text: Drugs bearing resemblance to codeine in effects due to close structural relationship are variations on the methyl groups at the 3 position including ethylmorphine, also known as codethyline (Dionine), and benzylmorphine (Peronine). While having no narcotic effects of its own, the important opioid precursor thebaine differs from codeine only slightly in structure. Pseudocodeine and some other similar alkaloids not currently used in medicine are found in trace amounts in opium as well.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine, or 3-methylmorphine, is an alkaloid found in the opium poppy, "Papaver somniferum" var. "album", a plant in the family Papaveraceae. Opium poppy has been cultivated and utilized throughout human history for a variety of medicinal (analgesic, anti-tussive and anti-diarrheal) and hypnotic properties linked to the diversity of its active components, which include morphine, codeine and papaverine.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is found in concentrations of 1% to 3% in opium prepared by the latex method from unripe pods of "Papaver somniferum". The name codeine is derived from the Ancient Greek (, "poppy head"). The relative proportion of codeine to morphine, the most common opium alkaloid at 4% to 23%, tends to be somewhat higher in the poppy straw method of preparing opium alkaloids.


title: Codeine

text: Until the beginning of the 19th century, raw opium was used in diverse preparations known as laudanum (see Thomas de Quincey's "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater", 1821) and paregoric elixirs, a number of which were popular in England since the beginning of the 18th century; the original preparation seems to have been elaborated in Leiden, the Netherlands around 1715 by a chemist named Lemort; in 1721 the "London Pharmacopoeia" mentions an Elixir Asthmaticum, replaced by the term Elixir Paregoricum ("pain soother") in 1746.


title: Codeine

text: The progressive isolation of opium's several active components opened the path to improved selectivity and safety of the opiates-based pharmacopeia.


title: Codeine

text: Morphine had already been isolated in Germany by in 1804. Codeine was first isolated in 1832 in France by , already famous for the discovery of alizarin, the most widespread red dye, while working on refined morphine extraction processes. Robiquet is also credited with discovering caffeine independently of Pelletier, Caventou, and Runge. Thomas Anderson determined the correct composition in 1853 but a chemical structure was proposed only in 1925 by J. M. Gulland and Robert Robinson. The first crystal structure would have to wait until 1954.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine and morphine, as well as opium, were used in an attempt to treat diabetes in the 1880s and thereafter, as recently as the 1950s.


title: Codeine

text: Numerous codeine salts have been prepared since the drug was discovered. The most commonly used are the hydrochloride (freebase conversion ratio 0.805, i.e. 10 mg of the hydrochloride salt is equivalent in effect to 8.05 mg of the freebase form), phosphate (0.736), sulphate (0.859), and citrate (0.842). Others include a salicylate NSAID, codeine salicylate (0.686), a bromide (codeine methylbromide, 0.759), and at least five codeine-based barbiturates, the phenylethylbarbiturate (0.56), cyclohexenylethylbarbiturate (0.559), cyclopentenylallylbarbiturate (0.561), diallylbarbiturate (0.561), and diethylbarbiturate (0.619). The latter was introduced as Codeonal in 1912, indicated for pain with nervousness. Codeine methylbromide is also considered a separate drug for various purposes.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is the most widely used opiate in the world, and is one of the most commonly used drugs overall according to numerous reports by organizations including the World Health Organization and its League of Nations predecessor agency.


title: Codeine

text: It is often sold as a salt in the form of either codeine sulfate or codeine phosphate in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Codeine hydrochloride is more common worldwide and the citrate, hydroiodide, hydrobromide, tartrate, and other salts are also seen. The chemical name for codeine is morphinan-6-ol, 7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methyl-, (5α,6α)-


title: Codeine

text: A heroin (diamorphine) or other opiate/opioid addict may use codeine to ward off the effects of withdrawal during periods where their preferred drug is unavailable or unaffordable.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is also available in conjunction with the anti-nausea medication promethazine in the form of a syrup. Brand named as Phenergan with Codeine or in generic form as promethazine with codeine, it began to be mixed with soft drinks in the 1990s as a recreational drug, called 'syrup', 'lean', or 'purple drank'. Rapper Pimp C, from the group UGK, died from an overdose of this combination.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine and its major metabolites may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor therapy, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or assist in a medico-legal death investigation. Drug abuse screening programs generally test urine, hair, sweat or saliva. Many commercial opiate screening tests directed at morphine cross-react appreciably with codeine and its metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish codeine from other opiates and opioids. It is important to note that codeine usage results in significant amounts of morphine as an excretion product. Furthermore, heroin contains codeine (or acetyl codeine) as an impurity and its use will result in excretion of small amounts of codeine. Poppy seed foods represent yet another source of low levels of codeine in one's biofluids. Blood or plasma codeine concentrations are typically in the 50–300 µg/L range in persons taking the drug therapeutically, 700–7,000 µg/L in chronic users and 1,000–10,000 µg/L in cases of acute fatal over dosage.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is produced in the human body along the same biosynthetic pathway as morphine. Urinary concentrations of endogenous codeine and morphine have been found to significantly increase in individuals taking L-DOPA for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.


title: Codeine

text: Around the world, codeine is, contingent on its concentration, a Schedule II and III drug under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States and many other countries, codeine is regulated under various narcotic control laws. In some countries, it is available without a medical prescription in combination preparations from licensed pharmacists in doses up to 20 mg, or 30 mg when sold combined with 500 mg paracetamol.


title: Codeine

text: Of the European Union member states, 11 countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovenia) allow the sale of OTC codeine solid dosage forms.


title: Codeine

text: In Australia, since 1 February 2018, preparations containing codeine are not available without a prescription.


title: Codeine

text: Preparations containing pure codeine (e.g., codeine phosphate tablets or codeine phosphate linctus) are available on prescription and are considered S8 (Schedule 8, or "Controlled Drug Possession without authority illegal"). Schedule 8 preparations are subject to the strictest regulation of all medications available to consumers.


title: Codeine

text: In Canada, codeine is regulated under the Narcotic Control Regulations (NCR), which falls under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA). Regulations state the pharmacists may, without a prescription, sell low-dose codeine products (containing up to 8 mg of codeine per tablet or up to 20 mg per 30 ml in liquid preparation) if the preparation contains at least two


title: Codeine

text: In Canada tablets containing 8 mg of codeine combined with 15 mg of caffeine and 300 mg of acetaminophen are sold as T1s (Tylenol Number 1) without a prescription. A similar tablet called "A.C. & C." (which stands for Acetylsalicylic acid with Caffeine and Codeine) containing 325–375 mg of acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) instead of acetaminophen is also available without a prescription. Codeine combined with an antihistamine, and often caffeine, is sold under various trade names and is available without a prescription. These products are kept behind the counter and must be dispensed by a pharmacist who may limit quantities.


title: Codeine

text: Names of many codeine and dihydrocodeine products in Canada tend to follow the narcotic content number system (Tylenol With Codeine No. 1, 2, 3, 4 &c) mentioned below in the section on the United States; it came to be in its current form with the Pure Food & Drug Act of 1906.


title: Codeine

text: Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (S.C. 1996, c. 19) effective July 28, 2020. Codeine is now classified under Schedule 1, giving it a higher priority in the treatments of offenders of the law.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine became a prescription-only medication in the province of Manitoba on February 1, 2016. The number of low-dose codeine tablets sold in Manitoba decreased by 94 percent from 52.5 million tablets sold in the year prior to the policy change to 3.3 million in the year after. A pharmacist may issue a prescription, and all purchases are logged to a central database to prevent overprescribing. Saskatchewan's pharmacy college is considering enacting a similar ban to Manitoba's.


title: Codeine

text: On 9 May 2019, the Canadian Pharmacists Association wrote to Health Canada proposing regulations amending the NCR, the BOTSR, and the FDR - Part G, which included requiring that all products containing codeine be available by prescription only.


title: Codeine

text: New safety measures were issued by Health Canada on July 28, 2016; "codeine should no longer be used (contraindicated) in patients under 18 years of age to treat pain after surgery to remove tonsils or adenoids, as these patients are more susceptible to the risk of serious breathing problems. Codeine (prescription and non-prescription) is already not recommended for children under the age of 12, for any use."


title: Codeine

text: In Denmark codeine is sold over the counter in dosages up to 9.6 mg (with aspirin, brand name Kodimagnyl); anything stronger requires a prescription.


title: Codeine

text: In Estonia codeine is sold over the counter in dosages up to 8 mg (with paracetamol, brand name Co-Codamol).


title: Codeine

text: In France, most preparations containing codeine only began requiring a doctor's prescription in 2017. Products containing codeine include Néocodion (codeine and camphor), Tussipax (ethylmorphine and codeine), Paderyl (codeine alone), Codoliprane (codeine with paracetamol), Prontalgine and Migralgine (codeine, paracetamol and caffeine). The 2017 law change made a prescription mandatory for all codeine products, along with those containing ethylmorphine and dextromethorphan.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is listed under the "Betäubungsmittelgesetz" in Germany and the similarly named narcotics and controlled substances law in Switzerland. In Austria, the drug is listed under the "Suchtmittelgesetz" in categories corresponding to their classification under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Dispensing of products containing codeine and similar drugs (dihydrocodeine, nicocodeine, benzylmorphine, ethylmorphine, etc.) generally requires a prescription order from a doctor or the discretion of the pharmacist.


title: Codeine

text: Municipal and provincial regulations may impact availability, in particular in Austria and Switzerland, which allows cities and provinces to regulate the selling of the least-regulated schedule of the SMG/BtMG. Individual chemists' shops can opt out of providing them or imposing volume, frequency, or single-purchase limitations and other things of the same store. Plain codeine hydrochloride tablets as well as other non-injectable forms of codeine and its midrange derivatives can be dispensed in this way; the same goes for most chemical classes of benzodiazepines, the majority of non-barbiturate sedative/hypnotics, and at least a handful of barbiturates.


title: Codeine

text: Title 76 of the Schengen treaty has made it possible for countries within the signatory states to import and export drugs with various provisos, recording and ordering requirements, and various other rules.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is classed as an illegal drug in Greece, and individuals possessing it could conceivably be arrested, even if they were legitimately prescribed it in another country. It is sold only with a doctor's prescription (Lonarid-N, Lonalgal).


title: Codeine

text: In Hong Kong, codeine is regulated under Laws of Hong Kong, Dangerous Drugs Ordinance, Chapter 134, Schedule 1. It can be used legally only by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000 (HKD). The maximum penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and/or 7 years of jail time.


title: Codeine

text: However, codeine is available without prescription from licensed pharmacists in doses up to 0.1% (i.e. 5 mg/5ml)


title: Codeine

text: Codeine preparations require a prescription in India. A preparation of paracetamol and codeine is available in India. Codeine is also present in various cough syrups as codeine phosphate including chlorpheniramine maleate. Pure codeine is also available as codeine sulphate tablets. Codeine containing cough medicine has been banned in India with effect from 14 March 2016. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has found no proof of its efficacy against cough control.


title: Codeine

text: Preparations of codeine in Iran normally comes with paracetamol or guaifenesin, and can be purchased over-the-counter. Pure codeine is also available as codeine phosphate 30 mg tablets and special permit required to purchasing. Iran's deputy health minister reported that codeine combinations is Iran's best selling OTC medication.


title: Codeine

text: In Ireland, new regulations came into effect on 1 August 2010 concerning codeine, due to worries about the overuse of the drug. Codeine remains a semi non-prescriptive, over-the-counter drug up to a limit of 12.8 mg per pill, but codeine products must be out of the view of the public to facilitate the legislative requirement that these products "are not accessible to the public for self-selection". In practice, this means customers must ask pharmacists for the product containing codeine in name, and the pharmacist makes a judgement whether it is suitable for the patient to be using codeine, and that patients are fully advised of the correct use of these products. Products containing more than 12.8 mg codeine are available on prescription only.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine tablets or preparations require a prescription in Italy. Preparations of paracetamol and codeine are available in Italy as "Co-Efferalgan" and "Tachidol".


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is available over the counter at pharmacies, allowing up to 50 mg of codeine phosphate per day for adults.


title: Codeine

text: In Latvia codeine is sold over the counter in dosages up to 8 mg (with paracetamol, brand name Co-Codamol).


title: Codeine

text: The Maldives takes an infamously strict line on medicines, with many common drugs, notably anything with containing codeine being banned unless you have a notarized and authenticated doctor's prescription. Visitors breaking the rules, even inadvertently, have been deported or imprisoned.


title: Codeine

text: Nigeria in 2018 plans to ban the manufacture and import of cough syrup that include codeine as an ingredient. This is due to concerns regarding its use to get intoxicated.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is not allowed without a medical prescription. Codeine is sold under the name Farmacod and its concentration does not exceed 15 mg. There is a known combination of acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol and codeine phosphate hemihydrate named Aspaco that is allowed without a medical prescription but its case is signed with an exclamation red symbol which means that driving won't be allowed during treatment. There are no sanctions whether the drug is given without a prescription.


title: Codeine

text: According to ITAR-Tass and Austria Presse-Agentur, OTC availability of codeine products was rescinded nationwide in 2012 because of the discovery of the Krokodil method of underground desomorphine synthesis. Opponents of the move point out that codeine has not been available OTC in 22 of Russia's regions for years and the demand will call forth its own supply, meaning that only legitimate end users are negatively affected (activist quoted in Pravda story on issue).


title: Codeine

text: Codeine is available over the counter in South Africa. Certain pharmacies require people to write down their name and address to ensure they are not buying too much over a short period although many do not require this at all. According to Lochan Naidoo, the former president of the National Narcotics Control Board, making the drugs more difficult to obtain could lead to even worse problems where people in withdrawal would turn to illicit drugs to get their fix. Although codeine is freely available, South Africa has a fairly low annual prevalence rate of opiate use at 0.3% compared to the United States at 0.57% where all opiates are strictly regulated.


title: Codeine

text: Codeine preparations are available as over the counter pharmacy medicines in Sri Lanka. The most common preparation is Panadeine, which contains 500 mg of Paracetamol and 8 mg of Codeine. But cough syrup containing codeine and promethazine is banned, even with a prescription.


title: Codeine

text: The UAE takes an exceptionally strict line on medicines, with many common drugs, notably anything containing codeine being banned unless one has a notarized and authenticated doctor's prescription. Visitors breaking the rules, even inadvertently, have been deported or imprisoned. The US Embassy to the UAE maintains an unofficial list of what may not be imported.


title: Codeine

text: Neat codeine and higher-strength codeine formulations are generally prescription-only medicines (POM) meaning that the sale of such products is restricted under the Medicines Act 1968. Lower-strength products containing combinations of up to 12.8 mg of codeine per dosage unit, combined with paracetamol, ibuprofen or aspirin are available over the counter at pharmacies. Codeine linctus of 15 mg per 5 ml is also available at some pharmacies, although a purchaser would have to request it specifically from the pharmacist.


title: Codeine

text: Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 codeine is a Class B controlled substance or a Class A drug when prepared for injection. The possession of controlled substances without a prescription is a criminal offence. However, certain preparations of codeine are exempt from this restriction under Schedule 5 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001. It is thus legal to possess codeine without a prescription, provided that it is compounded with at least one other active or inactive ingredient and that the dosage of each tablet, capsule, etc. does not exceed 100 mg or 2.5% concentration in the case of liquid preparations. The exemptions do not to apply to any preparation of codeine designed for injection.


title: Codeine

text: In the United States, codeine is regulated by the Controlled Substances Act. Federal law dictates that codeine be a Schedule II controlled substance when used in products for pain-relief that contain codeine alone or more than 80 mg per dosage unit. Codeine without aspirin or acetaminophen (Tylenol) is very rarely available or prescribed in order to discourage abuse. Tablets of codeine in combination with aspirin or acetaminophen (paracetamol) and intended for pain relief are listed as Schedule II, requiring a physical paper-copy (aka triplicate) of the physician ordered prescription.


title: Codeine

text: Cough syrups are classed as Schedule III, IV or V, depending on formulation. For example, the acetaminophen/codeine antitussive liquid is a Schedule IV controlled substance.


title: Codeine

text: Some states have chosen to reclassify codeine preparations at a more restrictive schedule in order to lower the instances of its abuse. Minnesota, for instance, has chosen to reclassify Schedule V some codeine preparations (e.g. Cheratussin) as a Schedule II controlled substance.


title: Codeine

text: Substances in this schedule have a low potential for abuse relative to substances listed in Schedule IV and consist primarily of preparations containing limited quantities of certain narcotics.


title: Codeine

text: Examples of Schedule V substances include: cough preparations containing not more than 200 milligrams of codeine per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams (Robitussin AC®, Phenergan with Codeine®), and ezogabine.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Aaron James Ramsey (born 26 December 1990) is a Welsh professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Ligue 1 club Nice and the Wales national team. Ramsey mainly plays as a box-to-box midfielder, but has also been deployed on the left and right wings.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: He played as a schoolboy for Cardiff City, where he spent eight years in youth football, became the club's youngest ever first team player, and made 28 appearances (including loan spell) for the senior team – including the 2008 FA Cup Final. Ramsey moved to Arsenal in 2008 in a £5 million deal, where he quickly gained first-team experience. However, his career stalled significantly after he suffered a broken leg in a match against Stoke City in February 2010. After two loan spells away from Arsenal, he returned to full fitness and re-established himself as a regular starter during the 2011–12 season. He also represented Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Ramsey was a key player for Arsenal in the 2013–14 campaign, scoring 16 goals in all competitions, including the winner in the 2014 FA Cup Final against Hull City. He also played in the 2015 FA Cup Final, which Arsenal won, and scored a second FA Cup winning goal in 2017. On 1 July 2019, he joined Juventus after having signed a pre-contractual agreement, winning the league title during his first season. In 2022, he joined French side Nice.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey made his full international debut for Wales in 2008 and was part of their UEFA Euro 2016 campaign, where he helped his country to the semi-finals and was included in the Team of the Tournament. He was instrumental in securing qualification for UEFA Euro 2020, the country's second successive European tournament, and at the delayed tournament, Wales made it to the last 16. Ramsey was also a member of the squad that qualified for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first team to do so since 1958, which he described it as a "dream come true".


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: As a child, Ramsey attended Ysgol Gyfun Cwm Rhymni (Rhymney Valley Comprehensive School) in Caerphilly County Borough. Ramsey's first introduction to football was at the age of nine, when he attended an Urdd training session at Caerphilly. Before turning to football, he was a keen rugby player and athlete. As a schoolboy he played as a winger for Caerphilly R.F.C.s youth development programme, where he was approached by scouts from rugby league side St. Helens after playing in a youth match against them, but had already been signed by Cardiff City's youth academy. Ramsey was Welsh Schools' Athletic Association pentathlon champion in 2005 and was ranked 4th in Great Britain in the under 17 age group in 2006.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: He lived with his parents, Marlene and Kevin, and his brother, Josh, until moving to London where he was housemates with former Cardiff City teammate, Chris Gunter, who was then playing for Tottenham Hotspur. Ramsey is a fluent Welsh language speaker.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: After impressing in an Urdd tournament as a youngster he signed for Cardiff City, who beat off competition from Newcastle United, as a schoolboy at the age of eight, working his way through the club's youth system. After a few more years he eventually made his debut in the last home game of the 2006–07 Championship season, coming on to replace Paul Parry in the final minute of the 1–0 defeat to Hull City on 28 April 2007. In doing so, Ramsey became the youngest player to ever play for Cardiff City, aged just 16 years and 124 days, beating the previous record holder John Toshack. In June 2007, Cardiff turned down a bid of over £1 million for Ramsey from a London-based Premier League club. The club was not named, but it was widely believed that they continued to watch Ramsey at every available opportunity during the 2007–08 season. Cardiff also turned down a £1 million offer, although the deal was to start with a payment of £200,000 and rise depending on his future achievements, from Everton.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey made his first league appearance of the 2007–08 season on 6 October, when he came on as a late substitute for Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink in the 2–1 home win over Burnley. Ramsey signed his first professional contract in December 2007 and went on to make his first full professional start for Cardiff on 5 January in the FA Cup against Chasetown replacing the suspended Stephen McPhail. An impressive performance from Ramsey saw him head in the second Cardiff goal as they went on to win 3–1. Due to his performance against Chasetown, Ramsey was nominated for the Player of the Round award, eventually losing out to Coventry's Michael Mifsud. On 26 April, he scored his first league goal in a 3–3 draw against Burnley. He went on to make his first career league start three weeks later in a 3–1 win over Queens Park Rangers and began to establish himself in the first team, making several more starts in the Cardiff side. He made a total of 22 appearances during the season, his first full season of professional football, and played in five of the club's six FA Cup matches, including the final, becoming the second youngest player to play in an FA Cup Final after Curtis Weston, who played in the 2004 FA Cup Final for Millwall.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Following Ramsey's impressive performance in the 2–1 FA Cup quarter-final win over Middlesbrough it was revealed that Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had talked to Cardiff boss Dave Jones to inquire about Ramsey, who were later joined by Arsenal and Everton in following his progress. Ramsey in fact grew up a Manchester United fan, but in the end he decided not to join them. Cardiff chairman Peter Ridsdale told the BBC that Arsenal's bid of £5 million up front had been accepted. Arsenal's bid did not include a loan clause that would allow Ramsey to stay at Cardiff for another season. Cardiff assistant manager and former Arsenal player and coach Terry Burton, who was credited for having brought through Ramsey, also helped recommend him to Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger, having retained a longstanding connection to the club. During the transfer negotiations, Burton also advised that Ramsey join Arsenal, citing the similarity between the player and the club's overall style of play.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 10 June 2008, it was confirmed that after meeting officials from Arsenal, Everton and Manchester United, Ramsey had decided to join Arsenal, who paid Cardiff City a total of £4.8 million for the player. The move was completed on 13 June 2008 on what was said to be a long-term contract. The main reason he chose Arsenal ahead of the other clubs that pursued his signature was the approach of Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger, who flew him and his family to Switzerland to talk about the plans Wenger had for him and his potential future with Arsenal. Wenger described Ramsey as "a player with a fantastic engine, good build, good technique and good vision".


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey made his competitive debut for Arsenal in the Champions League third qualifying round against FC Twente on 13 August 2008 and his league debut a month later against Blackburn Rovers on 13 September 2008, marking it with an assist to Emmanuel Adebayor for Arsenal's fourth and Adebayor's third. On 23 September 2008 he completed 90 minutes in Arsenal's third round League Cup game against Sheffield United which Arsenal won 6–0, when he added two more assists to his season's tally, setting up Nicklas Bendtner and Carlos Vela. He scored his first goal for the club in their 5–2 victory away against Fenerbahçe in the group stages of the UEFA Champions League by shooting a long-range shot which hit the post and went in, becoming the fifth youngest scorer in Champions League history, and only the second player born in the 1990s to score a Champions League goal. Ramsey was named amongst a host of young players poised to shine in 2009 by Fifa.com. On 1 July 2009, he signed a new long-term contract at Arsenal.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 22 August 2009, Ramsey scored his first league goal in a one-on-one against goalkeeper David James as Arsenal beat Portsmouth 4–1 at Emirates Stadium and then set up Andrey Arshavin in a 3–1 home win over Celtic in the Champions League play-offs. In the League Cup fourth round win against Liverpool, on 28 October, he produced an impressive performance and set up Nicklas Bendtner earning himself the man of the match award.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey made his first Premier League start of the season on 7 November 2009 as Arsenal beat Wolverhampton Wanderers 4–1 at Molineux with Ramsey completing 90-minutes for the first time in the top-flight. Four days after the game, he was awarded the Welsh Young Player of the Year award. On 5 December 2009, Ramsey scored his second league goal of the season in a comfortable 2–0 victory over Stoke City. On 30 December, Ramsey went on to score his third goal of the season, along with an assist in the 4–1 victory against Portsmouth. On 3 January 2010, Ramsey scored a 78th-minute equaliser in the FA Cup third round tie against West Ham United at Upton Park. Arsenal went on to win the tie 2–1, with Eduardo scoring an 83rd-minute header. Ramsey went on to be named man of the match. Ramsey has been described by manager Arsène Wenger as: "An offence-minded Roy Keane" and "an all-round player, with a fantastic ability to cover distances."


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 27 February 2010, Arsenal played Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium, where a tackle by Stoke defender Ryan Shawcross caused a double fracture in Ramsey's lower right leg. Ramsey was hospitalised, and it was later confirmed that he had broken his tibia and fibula. No return date was initially given, but it was announced on 20 March that he started walking without his crutches. Ramsey signed a new long-term contract with Arsenal on 1 June 2010. He returned to training in October 2010. On 23 November 2010, Ramsey made his return to football for the Arsenal reserve team against the Wolverhampton Wanderers reserve team at Arsenal's London Colney training ground.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey was loaned out to Nottingham Forest on 25 November 2010 until 3 January 2011. The move was to allow him to gain match fitness. Ramsey made his Forest debut on 29 November 2010 as a 61st-minute substitute against Leicester City. He made his first start against Derby County in the East Midlands derby, where he played 60 minutes. The match ended 5–2 to Nottingham Forest. Due to adverse weather conditions, Ramsey was limited to just five appearances for Forest before returning to Arsenal in January 2011. Ramsey returned to Arsenal on 5 January 2011 before the club's FA Cup tie against Leeds United, in which he was an unused substitute. Ramsey was also an unused substitute at Portman Road on 12 January for the League Cup semi-final against Ipswich Town.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey returned to Cardiff City in a one-month loan move in order to gain match fitness, joining former Arsenal youngster Jay Emmanuel-Thomas who also joined the club on loan in January 2011. Ramsey was handed his first start for Cardiff against Reading. Ramsey again started for Cardiff in the South Wales derby against Swansea City where he provided an assist for Craig Bellamy in the game ending 1–0. Ramsey again completed 90 minutes for Cardiff in the game against Scunthorpe United and Burnley. A minor thigh strain ruled Ramsey out of the match against Nottingham Forest. He made his comeback against Leicester City, scoring in a 2–0 victory.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 25 February, Cardiff asked for a loan extension until the end of the season with a 24-hour call back option; however, Arsenal turned this offer down and Ramsey returned to Arsenal.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey ended the season with seven league appearances. He made his Arsenal return as a 72nd-minute substitute against Manchester United in the FA Cup which Arsenal lost 2–0. He made his first start since his injury for Arsenal on 19 March against West Bromwich Albion. On 1 May, Ramsey scored his first goal of the season in a 1–0 home Premier League victory over Manchester United.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 16 August, Ramsey made his first Champions League appearance of the season at home against Udinese. In the fourth minute of the match, he assisted Theo Walcott's goal that gave Arsenal the 1–0 advantage in the first leg of the match. Four days later, he played a league game at the Emirates Stadium against Liverpool where on the 78th minute of play, Ignasi Miquel's attempted clearance hit Ramsey and looped into the back of the net past Wojciech Szczęsny for an own goal. The game finished 2–0 to Liverpool.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 17 September, Ramsey provided the assist for Mikel Arteta as the team lost 4–3 away to Blackburn Rovers in a Premier League game. He was widely criticised for his performance lately for slowing down the tempo of the game and being indecisive in passing. However, he had a solid game during a convincing 3–0 Premier League win against Bolton Wanderers on 24 September. He provided an assist for the Arsenal captain Robin van Persie by a through ball in less than one minute after the half-time break. He made another important through pass to Walcott on the 54th minute that saw David Wheater sent off for pulling Walcott from the back.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 19 October, he scored a dramatic last minute winner against Marseille in an important Champions League group stage match. On 23 October, Ramsey assisted Gervinho for the first goal in a 3–1 win over Stoke City. On 11 February 2012, he scored the equaliser in a 2–1 win away to Sunderland.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey was a substitute for Arsenal's first four league games of the 2012–13 season. On 15 September, he replaced Francis Coquelin, before hitting the post in the buildup to Arsenal's fifth goal in a 6–1 win against Southampton. On 23 September, he made his first start of the season against defending champions Manchester City, impressing in the right flank role. On 3 October, Ramsey scored a chip shot with his right foot in a 3–1 win against Olympiacos in a Champions League group stage match.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 19 December 2012, it was announced that Ramsey, along with teammates Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, Kieran Gibbs, Jack Wilshere and Carl Jenkinson, had signed a new long-term contract with Arsenal. Due to his rise in form, he was voted man of the match in two consecutive games by the Arsenal fans on Arsenal.com against Norwich City and Everton. Ramsey was voted as Arsenal Player of the Month award by the fans. He followed this up by scoring his first league goal of the season in the 4–1 victory against Wigan Athletic, which saw the Lancashire-based club relegated from the Premier League.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey started the 2013–14 season well, scoring in the first leg of the Champions League play-off against Fenerbahçe and claiming the man of the match award. In the return leg, he scored twice to end the tie 5–0 on aggregate and secure Arsenal's place in the group stage. In the Premier League, Ramsey continued his fine form in Arsenal's 3–1 win over Fulham, helping Olivier Giroud score the first goal via a deflection, and being named man of the match. The absence of Mikel Arteta from Arsenal's midfield saw Arsène Wenger field Ramsey in a deeper midfield role as opposed to 2011–12, and Ramsey thrived in the new role, with another inspired midfield performance against Tottenham Hotspur in the North London derby on 1 September, where he was involved in the build-up play to Giroud's goal. He then scored twice against Sunderland on 14 September, with his first goal being a first-touch volley, and the second involving build-up play with Giroud and new signing Mesut Özil.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey continued his excellent form by scoring in Arsenal's 2–1 win over Marseille in the Champions League at the Stade Vélodrome and scoring the opener in a 3–1 Premier League win against Stoke City four days later. On 28 September, he was again named as the man of the match as he netted another goal and claimed an assist in the away game against Swansea City, which Arsenal won 2–1. Three days later, in a game against Napoli in a Champions League fixture, he set up Özil's first goal for Arsenal. Ramsey won the Premier League Player of the Month award for September.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 19 October, he scored a solo goal against Norwich City, which was his ninth goal for Arsenal in the season, before assisting the fourth Arsenal goal in a 4–1 win. His good form continued into November as he scored a spectacular long range shot from outside of the box in a 2–0 win against Liverpool on 2 November to put Arsenal five points clear at the top of the Premier League table with ten games played. He also scored a crucial second-half header four days later against Borussia Dortmund in a 1–0 away victory in the Champions League group stages, bringing his goal tally to 13 in 21 appearances for club and country. On 30 November, he scored two goals against his former club Cardiff City, and refused to celebrate out of respect. He received applause from Cardiff fans, with some even joining Arsenal fans in singing his name late on. On 26 December, he suffered a thigh strain in Arsenal's away fixture against West Ham United, eventually missing over three months of the season.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey's early season form saw him voted Arsenal's Player of the Month for four consecutive months between August and November 2013. On 18 March 2014, he signed a new contract extension with the "Gunners". On 6 April, Ramsey returned from injury as a substitute in Arsenal's 3–0 loss at Everton. On 12 April, he was named in the starting line-up for the first time since Boxing Day in the FA Cup semi-final against Wigan Athletic, playing 113 minutes before being substituted for Kim Källström. On 20 April, he scored once and was credited with two assists in Arsenal's 3–0 win away to Hull City. On 18 April, Ramsey was named as one of the six players on the shortlist for the PFA Young Player of the Year award, and on 11 May he scored a volley to help his side to a 2–0 win over Norwich City on the last day of the Premier League 2013–14 season, relegating their opponents. On 17 May, Ramsey scored the winning goal in the 109th minute of the 2014 FA Cup Final against Hull City, ending Arsenal's nine-year wait for a trophy.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 4 June 2014, Ramsey was named Arsenal's Player of the Season after his performance of the 2013–14 season with 58 percent of the votes.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey started the 2014–15 season by scoring Arsenal's second goal in their 3–0 victory of Manchester City in the Community Shield on 10 August. Six days later, in the club's first league match of the season, at home against Crystal Palace, he scored the winning goal in injury-time to secure a 2–1 comeback victory. On 19 August, in the first leg of Arsenal's Champions League play-off away to Beşiktaş, he was sent off for a second booking in a goalless draw. Four days later, he scored in 2–2 draw at Goodison Park against Everton.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 3 December, Ramsey assisted Alexis Sánchez's late winner against Southampton at home. The following league fixture saw him scoring a volley against Stoke City in a thrilling 3–2 defeat at the Britannia, ending a three-month goal drought in the process. On 9 December, he scored two goals against Galatasaray in Arsenal's last group stage match in the Champions League, helping Arsenal to a 4–1 win and second position in the group. On 4 May, Ramsey scored Arsenal's second goal in a 1–3 away league win at Hull City. On 30 May 2015, Ramsey was selected to start in the 2015 FA Cup Final, playing the full 90 minutes in a 4–0 win over Aston Villa at Wembley Stadium.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey scored his first goal of the 2015–16 season in a 3–0 win against Watford on 17 October at Vicarage Road. On 8 March, Ramsey suffered a thigh injury in a 4–0 away victory over Hull City in an FA Cup replay, and was ruled out for five weeks.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: After Mikel Arteta's departure, Ramsey was handed the number 8 jersey. On 7 January 2017, Ramsey scored his first goal of the 2016–17 season from outside the penalty area in a 1–2 away victory over Preston North End in the third round of the FA Cup. Ramsey scored his second goal of the season against non-league outfit Lincoln City in the quarter-finals of the FA Cup, rounding Lincoln's goalkeeper before drilling it into the net for Arsenal's last goal in a 5–0 victory. On 27 May 2017, he scored the winning goal for Arsenal in the 2017 FA Cup Final for a 2–1 win over Chelsea.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey started in Arsenal's opening 2017–18 season Premier League fixture against Leicester City, bringing the Gunner's back to level at 3–3 in the 83rd minute in an eventual 4–3 victory. On 22 October 2017, Ramsey scored Arsenal's fourth in a 2–5 away victory against Everton at Goodison Park. A week later on 28 October 2017, Ramsey scored the winner in a 2–1 win against Swansea City, slotting into the bottom left corner from a Sead Kolašinac pass via the right foot of Swansea goalkeeper Łukasz Fabiański. The goal meant that Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger was victorious in his 800th Premier League game in charge and also was Ramsey's 50th goal for Arsenal. On 3 February 2018, Ramsey scored his first career hat-trick in a 5–1 home victory against Everton. Ramsey scored another big goal for the Gunners, netting the second goal in their 0–2 win over A.C. Milan at San Siro in the Europa League round of 16 first leg tie on 8 March 2018. He made a smart run on the brink of half time, receiving a pass from Mesut Özil before rounding Milan keeper Gianluigi Donnarumma and slotting it into the empty net with great composure.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: After having one goal ruled out early on for offside, Ramsey scored a brace in the 4–1 quarter-final first leg victory over CSKA Moscow in the Europa League. The first a simple side-foot from a Héctor Bellerín cross, the second a brilliant instinctive volleyed flick over the goalkeeper. At the end of the season, he was voted by Arsenal fans as their player of the season, the second time he had received the honour.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 7 October 2018, Ramsey came off the bench and scored the third goal in a 5–1 victory against Fulham in the league. His goal was later voted as Premier League Goal of the Month for October. In February 2019, it was announced that Ramsey would move to Italian club Juventus in the summer. In April, he suffered a hamstring injury, ending his season and Arsenal career.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 11 February 2019, Ramsey signed a four-year contract with Juventus, which officially took effect on 1 July 2019. He would receive £400,000 a week making him the highest-earning British player ever based on basic salary. He made his debut as a substitute in a pre-season friendly. His official club debut came on 18 September, when he made a second-half substitute appearance in Juventus' opening Champions League fixture of the 2019–20 season, a 2–2 away draw against Atlético Madrid. He made his Serie A debut and first start for the club on 21 September, in a 2–1 home win over Verona, during which he also scored his first goal for the club.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 20 October 2020, Ramsey made his 50th Champions League appearance in a 2–0 away win over Dynamo Kyiv, becoming only the third Welsh male player to achieve this milestone in the competition after Ryan Giggs and Gareth Bale.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 31 January 2022, Ramsey signed on loan for Scottish Premiership champions Rangers, for the remainder of the 2021–22 season. While at Rangers, he scored twice in the league against Dundee and Celtic, and in the UEFA Europa League Final, he came on as a late extra-time substitute, only to have his penalty saved by Eintracht Frankfurt's Kevin Trapp in the resulting shootout. Three days later, he was an unused substitute in the Scottish Cup final, as Rangers won the Scottish Cup, defeating Hearts 2–0 after extra-time. On 26 July, Juventus announced the termination of his contract.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 1 August 2022, Ramsey signed for Nice on a free transfer. On 7 August, he scored the equaliser on his debut in a 1–1 draw against Toulouse.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey had his first taste of international action when he was called up for the Wales U17s in 2005. A part of the new wave of young talents to emerge from the Wales youth teams, he debuted for the U21 side on 21 August 2007 in a 4–3 away win over Sweden U21s several months shy of his seventeenth birthday, breaking former club mate Chris Gunter's record. Youth coach Brian Flynn revealed that Ramsey had been purposely held back in the U21s to help qualify for the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Championship but they lost a close contest to England U21s in the play-offs, where Ramsey himself scored a volley with his weaker foot in the second leg at Villa Park.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey made his debut for the Wales national football team on 19 November 2008, aged 17, playing 88 minutes of a 1–0 away win in Denmark. On 14 October 2009, he scored his first senior goal in the 2010 World Cup qualifier away at Liechtenstein from a free kick awarded for a trip on Gareth Bale. As the World Cup qualification campaign came to an end, he and 11 other senior internationals were recalled to Flynn's preliminary U21 squad on 30 October for a qualifier but later withdrew. On 6 November, Toshack also called him up for 14 November friendly against Scotland. Wales won 3–0 and Ramsey was involved in all of them – assisting David Edwards' opener, setting up Joe Ledley to assist the second and then scoring a solo effort. Ramsey was awarded the FAW's Young Player of the Year award that same month.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Manager Gary Speed appointed Ramsey as permanent captain of Wales, beginning with the match against England on 26 March 2011. This made him the youngest ever Wales captain at the age of 20 years 90 days, beating the record set by Mike England in 1964. He scored his first goal as captain in Wales' final Nations Cup match against Northern Ireland on 27 May 2011.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey was one of five Welshmen selected to compete at the 2012 Olympic Football Tournament for Great Britain. He featured in all three group games, the latter two as a starter. In the quarter-finals against South Korea on 4 August at Cardiff's Millennium Stadium, he equalised with a penalty kick and the match finished 1–1; he scored again in the penalty shootout which his team lost.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: In October 2012, Ashley Williams was appointed captain of Wales by Chris Coleman, replacing Ramsey after a run of defeats, but the manager said Ramsey would most likely be captain of Wales again in his career. On 22 March 2013, Ramsey scored an equalising 73rd-minute penalty in a 2–1 victory over fellow British rivals Scotland in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification fixture, however he received a red card for a foul on James McArthur during added time.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: On 31 May 2016, Ramsey was named in the 23-man Wales squad for Euro 2016. On 11 June, in Wales' opening match of the tournament, he set-up Hal Robson-Kanu's match-winning goal in a 2–1 win over Slovakia; this was Wales's first win in a major international football tournament in 58 years. On 20 June, in his team's final group match, he scored the opening goal of a 3–0 win over Russia, which saw Wales top their group; he also set-up the final goal of the match, which was scored by Gareth Bale. In the round of 16 match against Northern Ireland on 25 June, Ramsey once again contributed to a Welsh victory in the 75th minute of play; he played a pass to Bale, who then delivered a cross into the penalty area; defender Gareth McAuley deflected the ball into his own net, and Wales won the match 1–0. Ramsey was booked in injury-time for kicking the ball away after conceding a foul. In the quarter-final against Belgium on 1 July, Ramsey set up two goals in a 3–1 win which ultimately saw his nation advance to the semi-finals; however, he was booked for the second time in the tournament during the match, which ruled him out of the semi-final. Wales were eliminated from the tournament in the following match by eventual champions Portugal on 6 July. Ramsey finished the tournament as the joint-highest assist provider, with four assists, alongside Eden Hazard, and was named to the team of the tournament for his performances.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey missed the first three matches in Wales' qualification group for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but played the full 90 minutes for the other seven. He scored the opening goal in a 1–1 draw with Serbia and the second goal in a 2–0 win over Moldova, and assisted Tom Lawrence's goal against Georgia. Ultimately, Wales missed out on qualifying for the World Cup, as they lost to the Republic of Ireland in the final group match, with the Irish finishing above them in second place. When the two countries met again in the UEFA Nations League, Wales won the match 4–1, with Ramsey scoring the third goal. He missed much of the qualification group matches for UEFA Euro 2020 through injury, but he came off the bench to play thirty minutes against Azerbaijan and in the final group match, he scored a brace against Hungary to secure qualification. The following year, further injuries prevented him from making more than one appearance for Wales, and in 2021, he played in two friendlies, before being named in the 26-man Wales squad for Euro 2020, which was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He scored the opening goal in Wales's second group match on 16 June, a 2–0 win over Turkey; he helped his country qualify for the round of 16, in which they were beaten 4–0 by Denmark. Ramsey missed the September matches of Wales' qualification group for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and returned the next month, where he scored against the Czech Republic. He then went on to provide the assist for Kieffer Moore in a 1–0 win over Estonia, and scored another brace against Belarus. Wales finished second in their group behind Belgium, qualifying for the play-off semi-final. Ramsey played in the semi-final and the final, overcoming Austria and Ukraine, thus cementing their place in history as the first Welsh squad to qualify for a World Cup in 64 years. In November 2022, he was named in the 26-man Wales squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Ramsey played in all three group matches, but Wales finished bottom of their group.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey blends superior technique with a powerful running style, and is predominantly known for his offensive movement off the ball and his attacking capabilities as a midfielder, in particular his ability to make late runs into the penalty area, and score goals. In addition to his technical skills and offensive prowess, Ramsey has also been praised in the media for his energy, tenacity, and work-rate across the pitch. He is also a precise passer, and possesses good vision, which enables him to link-up with other players and create chances for teammates after winning back possession, in addition to scoring goals himself. Although his favoured role is in the centre of the pitch, as either a central or attacking midfielder, he is also capable of playing out wide, as a winger on either flank; he also been deployed in a deeper midfield position, or even in a box-to-box role on occasion. During his time at Juventus, he was deployed in a new position on occasion under manager Maurizio Sarri, and was fielded as an offensive-minded central midfielder, known as the "mezzala" role in Italian football jargon. Despite his ability, however, he has often struggled with injuries throughout his career.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: During the 2013–14 Premier League season, Ramsey developed into one of Arsenal's most influential players. Then-Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger has described Ramsey as a "complete midfielder", and stated: "I was a midfielder, and I would have loved to have had what he has. He can defend, he can attack, he can score goals. What more do you want?" Ramsey was rewarded for his outstanding form during the 2013–14 season by being named Arsenal's Player of the Season. Long known for his technical ability, during the 2013–14 Premier League season, Ramsey also developed into a strong runner with the ball. Wenger observed, "[Ramsey] is now brushing opponents off and running away from them with ease." Former Arsenal midfielder Ray Parlour said that Ramsey could "become as influential as Steven Gerrard".


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: In November 2013, Ramsey was ranked alongside Manchester City's Yaya Touré as the best central midfielder in the 2013–14 Premier League season. On 24 December 2013, Ramsey and Touré were reported to be the only two players in the Premier League to have completed more than 1,000 passes. Despite missing over three months of the 2013–14 Premier League, Ramsey was the Arsenal player who won the most tackles throughout the season. He was also the team's second-top scorer for the season (16 goals), and provided the second-highest number of assists for the season (8).


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: In December 2015, former Liverpool captain Gerrard hailed Ramsey as "the best attacking midfielder in the Premier League".


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey married Colleen Rowlands at Caldicot Castle in Monmouthshire, Wales on 8 June 2014. They have three children.


title: Aaron Ramsey

text: Ramsey is a supporter of the World Wildlife Fund and has spoken of his "passion" for animals and their conservation. In January 2014 Ramsey signed a modelling contract with Elite Model Management London. Ramsey has been sponsored by Adidas.


title: Simone de Beauvoir

text: Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir (, ; ; 9 January 1908 – 14 April 1986) was a French existentialist philosopher, writer, social theorist, and feminist activist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, and even though she was not considered one at the time of her death, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory.


title: Simone de Beauvoir

text: Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiographies, and monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues. She was known for her 1949 treatise "The Second Sex", a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism; and for her novels, including "She Came to Stay" (1943) and "The Mandarins" (1954). Her most enduring contribution to literature is her memoirs, notably the first volume, "Mémoires d'une jeune fille rangée" (1958), which has a warmth and descriptive power. She won the 1954 Prix Goncourt, the 1975 Jerusalem Prize, and the 1978 Austrian State Prize for European Literature. She was also known for her open, lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre.


title: Simone de Beauvoir

text: Beauvoir was born on 9 January 1908 into a bourgeois Parisian family in the 6th arrondissement. Her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a lawyer, who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise Beauvoir (née Brasseur), a wealthy banker's daughter and devout Catholic. Simone's sister, Hélène, was born two years later on June 6, 1910. The family struggled to maintain their bourgeois status after losing much of their fortune shortly after World War I, and Françoise insisted the two daughters be sent to a prestigious convent school.


title: Simone de Beauvoir

text: Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her father's encouragement; he reportedly would boast, "Simone thinks like a man!" Because of her family's straitened circumstances, she could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. She took this opportunity to take steps towards earning a living for herself.


title: Simone de Beauvoir

text: She first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the same secondary school. Although not officially enrolled, she sat in on courses at the École Normale Supérieure in preparation for the "agrégation" in philosophy, a highly competitive postgraduate examination that serves as a national ranking of students. It was while studying for it that she met "École Normale" students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu (who gave her the lasting nickname ""Castor"", or "beaver"). The jury for the "agrégation" narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of Beauvoir, who placed second and, at age 21, was the youngest person ever to pass the exam. Additionally, Beauvoir finished an exam for the certificate of "General Philosophy and Logic" second to Simone Weil.