title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: Higuaín was a member of Sergio Batista's Argentine squad for the 2011 Copa América on home soil, making one substitute appearance and one start in the group as Carlos Tevez was preferred at centre forward; Argentina advanced in second place behind Colombia. He started against Uruguay in the quarter-finals in Santa Fe, and equalised in the 17th minute by heading Lionel Messi's cross past goalkeeper Fernando Muslera; he later had another goal disallowed for offside. Higuaín scored in the penalty shoot-out after his shot had hit both posts, but Argentina lost the shoot-out 4–5.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: On 8 October 2011, Higuaín scored a hat-trick and assisted one goal in a 4–1 win against Chile. On 2 June 2012, he scored the second goal in their 2014 World Cup qualifying match and assisted one goal in Argentina's 4–0 victory over Ecuador.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: On 7 September 2012, Higuaín scored the second goal in their 2014 World Cup South American qualifier match and assisted one goal in Argentina's 3–1 victory over Paraguay. Then, on 11 September, Higuaín scored the equalizer for Argentina in a 1–1 draw with Peru in Lima.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: On 22 March 2013, Higuaín scored twice as Argentina beat Venezuela 3–0 to make him top scorer in the South American section of World Cup qualifying with nine goals. He ended the 2014 qualifying campaign as the joint third-top scorer in CONMEBOL, alongside Radamel Falcao and behind Messi and Luis Suárez.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: Higuaín was named by manager Alejandro Sabella in Argentina's 23-man squad for the 2014 World Cup in May. After appearing as a half-time substitute in Argentina's 2–1 defeat of Bosnia and Herzegovina at the Maracanã Stadium on 15 June, Higuaín exchanged passes with Messi to assist his captain for the winning goal. He was named in the starting line-up for the team's second match against Iran in Belo Horizonte on 21 June, which ended in a 1–0 victory to Argentina. On 5 July, he scored the only goal of the match in the 1–0 quarter-final victory over Belgium. In the final against Germany on 13 July, Higuaín shot wide on a one-on-one chance against Germany goalkeeper Manuel Neuer after being gifted an errant, headed back-pass from Toni Kroos, and had a goal disallowed for offside, as Germany eventually won the match 1–0 in extra time.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: With Sergio Agüero preferred as the lone centre-forward in a three-man Argentine attack, Higuaín made his first start of the 2015 Copa América in the final group match, against Jamaica in Viña del Mar. Winning his 50th cap, he scored the only goal of the game in the 11th minute when set up by Ángel Di María, sending Argentina through to the quarter-finals as group winners. On 30 June, he scored the final goal of Argentina's 6–1 win over Paraguay in the semi-finals, two minutes after coming on in place of Agüero. On 4 July, Higuaín was one of two Argentina players to fail to convert their kicks in a penalty shootout loss to Chile in the 2015 Copa América Final, blasting his attempt over the crossbar; during regulation time he had previously been provided with a late goalscoring opportunity, but failed to convert Ezequiel Lavezzi's low cross.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: At the Copa América Centenario in 2016, Higuaín was named to Gerardo Martino's 23-man Argentina squad, and was selected as his team's starting centre forward. On 18 June, he scored twice in the team's 4–1 quarter-final defeat of Venezuela. Three days later, he once again scored two goals as Argentina defeated the hosts United States 4–0 in the semi-final. He played in the final against Chile eight days later, a repeat of the previous year's final, as the "Albiceleste" once again lost in a penalty shootout following a 0–0 draw after extra time. Following the match, Higuaín once again came under criticism in the media for squandering a one on one opportunity for the third consecutive final with Argentina.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: During Argentina's troublesome qualifying campaign for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, Higuaín managed only one goal in nine appearances, and eventually lost his place in the team's starting line-up. In May 2018, however, Higuaín was included in Jorge Sampaoli's final 23-man Argentina squad for the tournament. He appeared in all three group matches for Argentina, but went scoreless throughout the competition, and did not feature in the round of 16 match against eventual champions France on 30 June, which saw Argentina eliminated from the World Cup following a 4–3 defeat.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: On 28 March 2019, in an interview with Fox Sports Argentina, Higuaín announced his retirement from international football, where he defended himself, commenting: "My era with the Selecc[í]on is over, now I will be watching the team from the outside, which I'm sure will make many people happy. So now that you can stop worrying if I'm here or not. I spoke to (Coach Lionel) Scaloni and told him my point of view. This is my decision and I think it will do me good. I want to enjoy more time with my family and I see they suffer when I am so roundly criticised. I am happy with the decision I have made. I played almost 8 years in the team, it's a lot, even if people don't take dimension." In total, he made 75 senior appearances for Argentina, scoring 31 goals. His final international appearance came in Argentina's 2–1 win over Nigeria on 26 June 2018, in their final group match of the 2018 World Cup, at the Krestovsky Stadium, Saint Petersburg.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: Nicknamed "El Pipita" or "Pipa", as was his father Jorge, who was also a footballer, Higuaín was a hardworking right-footed striker and a prolific goalscorer. He was known in particular for his great striking ability with either foot in the last 25 yards, as well as his opportunism and clinical finishing inside the penalty area, while his height, eye for goal, and strong physique made him a dangerous aerial presence in the box. A well-rounded striker, he also possessed good technical skills, and an ability to drop deep, link-up with teammates, hold up the ball, and lay it off to other players. His intelligent offensive movement off the ball and pace in the final third of the pitch made him an offensive threat during counter-attacks, and also allowed him to lose his markers and get on the end of passes, or create space for his teammates with his attacking runs. Although he mainly played as an out-and-out striker (which led him to be described as a "poacher" in the media earlier on in his career), because of his team-play and ability to build attacks or provide assists for teammates, he also operated in a deeper, more creative role on occasion, acting as a false nine, or even as a second striker. His playing style earned him comparisons with compatriots Hernán Crespo and Gabriel Batistuta.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: Despite his impressive scoring record, Higuaín was often criticised in the media for failing to deliver in the most important of matches for both club and country. Notable examples include poor performances in cup finals and crucial UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League matches during his tenures at Real Madrid, Napoli and Juventus, as well as notable missed chances for the Argentina national team in the 2014 World Cup Final, the 2015 Copa América Final and the Copa América Centenario Final. Moreover, Higuaín's record from the penalty spot was inconsistent throughout his career; in his early career, he was generally an accurate penalty taker, however his ability from spot kicks deteriorated as his career progressed.


title: Gonzalo Higuaín

text: Higuaín, along with global cover star Lionel Messi, featured on the Italian cover of EA Sports' multi-platform video game "FIFA 15".


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin "culex" meaning "gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by "mosca" and diminutive "-ito") is Spanish for "little fly". Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body, one pair of wings, one pair of halteres, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and elongated mouthparts.


title: Mosquito

text: The mosquito life cycle consists of egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages. Eggs are laid on the water surface; they hatch into motile larvae that feed on aquatic algae and organic material. These larvae are important food sources for many freshwater animals, such as dragonfly nymphs, many fish, and some birds such as ducks. The adult females of most species have tube-like mouthparts (called a proboscis) that can pierce the skin of a host and feed on blood, which contains protein and iron needed to produce eggs. Thousands of mosquito species feed on the blood of various hosts — vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some fish; along with some invertebrates, primarily other arthropods.


title: Mosquito

text: The mosquito's saliva is transferred to the host during the bite, and can cause an itchy rash. In addition, many species can ingest pathogens while biting, and transmit them to future hosts. In this way, mosquitoes are important vectors of parasitic diseases such as malaria and filariasis, and arboviral diseases such as yellow fever, Chikungunya, West Nile, dengue fever, and Zika. By transmitting diseases, mosquitoes cause the deaths of more people than any other animal taxon: over 700,000 each year. It has been claimed that almost half of the people who have ever lived have died of mosquito-vectored disease, but this claim is disputed, with more conservative estimates placing the death toll closer to 5% of all humans. Mosquitoes cannot live or function properly when the air temperature is below 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit). They are mostly active at 15–25 degrees Celsius (60–80 degrees Fahrenheit).


title: Mosquito

text: The oldest known mosquitoes are known from amber dating to the Late Cretaceous. Three species of Cretaceous mosquito are currently known, "Burmaculex antiquus" and "Priscoculex burmanicus" are known from Burmese amber from Myanmar, which dates to the earliest part of the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago. "Paleoculicis minutus", is known from Canadian amber from Alberta, Canada, which dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 79 million years ago. "Priscoculex burmanicus" can be definitively assigned to Anophelinae, one of the two subfamilies of mosquitoes alongside Culicinae, indicating the split between these two subfamilies occurred over 99 million years ago. Molecular estimates suggest that the split between the two subfamilies occurred 197.5 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic, but that major diversification did not take place until the Cretaceous.


title: Mosquito

text: The mosquito "Anopheles gambiae" is currently undergoing speciation into the M(opti) and S(avanah) molecular forms. Consequently, some pesticides that work on the M form no longer work on the S form.


title: Mosquito

text: Over 3,500 species of the Culicidae have already been described. They are generally divided into two subfamilies which in turn comprise some 43 genera. These figures are subject to continual change, as more species are discovered, and as DNA studies compel rearrangement of the taxonomy of the family. The two main subfamilies are the Anophelinae and Culicinae, with their genera as shown in the subsection below. The distinction is of great practical importance because the two subfamilies tend to differ in their significance as vectors of different classes of diseases. Roughly speaking, arboviral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever tend to be transmitted by Culicine species, not necessarily in the genus "Culex". Some transmit various species of avian malaria, but it is not clear that they ever transmit any form of human malaria. Some species transmit various forms of filariasis, much as many Simuliidae do.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematoceran flies: the Culicidae (from the Latin , genitive , meaning "midge" or "gnat"). Superficially, mosquitoes resemble crane flies (family Tipulidae) and chironomid flies (family Chironomidae).


title: Mosquito

text: An analysis by Matthews et al. 2018 suggests mosquito species all carry a large and diverse number of transposable elements.


title: Mosquito

text: As true flies, mosquitoes have one pair of wings, with distinct scales on the surface. Their wings are long and narrow, as are their long, thin legs. They have slender and dainty bodies of length typically 3–6mm, with dark grey to black coloring. Some species harbor specific morphological patterns. When at rest they tend to hold their first pair of legs outward. They are similar in appearance to midges (Chironomidae), another ancient family of flies. "Tokunagayusurika akamusi," for example, is a midge fly that looks very much like mosquitoes in that they also have slender and dainty bodies of similar colors, though larger in size. They also have only one pair of wings, but without scales on the surface. Another distinct feature to tell the two families of flies apart is the way they hold their first pair of legs – mosquitoes hold them outward, while midges hold them forward.


title: Mosquito

text: Like all flies, mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycles: egg, larva, pupa, and adult or imago. The first three stages—egg, larva, and pupa—are largely aquatic. Each of the stages typically lasts 5 to 14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature, but there are important exceptions. Mosquitoes living in regions where some seasons are freezing or waterless spend part of the year in diapause; they delay their development, typically for months, and carry on with life only when there is enough water or warmth for their needs. For instance, "Wyeomyia" larvae typically get frozen into solid lumps of ice during winter and only complete their development in spring. The eggs of some species of "Aedes" remain unharmed in diapause if they dry out, and hatch later when they are covered by water.


title: Mosquito

text: Eggs hatch to become larvae, which grow until they are able to change into pupae. The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface. Bloodsucking mosquitoes, depending on species, sex, and weather conditions, have potential adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to as long as several months. Some species can overwinter as adults in diapause.


title: Mosquito

text: In most species, adult females lay their eggs in stagnant water: some lay near the water's edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. Each species selects the situation of the water into which it lays its eggs and does so according to its own ecological adaptations. Some breed in lakes, some in temporary puddles. Some breed in marshes, some in salt-marshes. Among those that breed in salt water (such as "Opifex fuscus"), some are equally at home in fresh and salt water up to about one-third the concentration of seawater, whereas others must acclimatize themselves to the salinity. Such differences are important because certain ecological preferences keep mosquitoes away from most humans, whereas other preferences bring them right into houses at night.


title: Mosquito

text: Some species of mosquitoes prefer to breed in phytotelmata (natural reservoirs on plants), such as rainwater accumulated in holes in tree trunks, or in the leaf-axils of bromeliads. Some specialize in the liquid in pitchers of particular species of pitcher plants, their larvae feeding on decaying insects that had drowned there or on the associated bacteria; the genus "Wyeomyia" provides such examples — the harmless "Wyeomyia smithii" breeds only in the pitchers of "Sarracenia purpurea".


title: Mosquito

text: Some of the species of mosquitoes that are adapted to breeding in phytotelmata are dangerous disease vectors. In nature, they might occupy anything from a hollow tree trunk to a cupped leaf. Such species typically take readily to breeding in artificial water containers. Such casual puddles are important breeding places for some of the most serious disease vectors, such as species of "Aedes" that transmit dengue and yellow fever. Some with such breeding habits are disproportionately important vectors because they are well-placed to pick up pathogens from humans and pass them on. In contrast, no matter how voracious, mosquitoes that breed and feed mainly in remote wetlands and salt marshes may well remain uninfected, and if they do happen to become infected with a relevant pathogen, might seldom encounter humans to infect, in turn.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquito habits of oviposition, the ways in which they lay their eggs, vary considerably between species, and the morphologies of the eggs vary accordingly. The simplest procedure is that followed by many species of "Anopheles"; like many other gracile species of aquatic insects, females just fly over the water, bobbing up and down to the water surface and dropping eggs more or less singly. The bobbing behavior occurs among some other aquatic insects as well, for example mayflies and dragonflies; it is sometimes called "dapping". The eggs of "Anopheles" species are roughly cigar-shaped and have floats down their sides. Females of many common species can lay 100–200 eggs during the course of the adult phase of their life cycles. Even with high egg and intergenerational mortality, over a period of several weeks, a single successful breeding pair can create a population of thousands.


title: Mosquito

text: Some other species, for example members of the genus "Mansonia", lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under-surfaces of waterlily pads. Their close relatives, the genus "Coquillettidia", lay their eggs similarly, but not attached to plants. Instead, the eggs form layers called "rafts" that float on the water. This is a common mode of oviposition, and most species of "Culex" are known for the habit, which also occurs in some other genera, such as "Culiseta" and "Uranotaenia". "Anopheles" eggs may on occasion cluster together on the water, too, but the clusters do not generally look much like compactly glued rafts of eggs.


title: Mosquito

text: In species that lay their eggs in rafts, rafts do not form adventitiously; the female "Culex" settles carefully on still water with its hind legs crossed, and as it lays the eggs one by one, it twitches to arrange them into a head-down array that sticks together to form the raft.


title: Mosquito

text: "Aedes" females generally drop their eggs singly, much as "Anopheles" do, but not as a rule into water. Instead, they lay their eggs on damp mud or other surfaces near the water's edge. Such an oviposition site commonly is the wall of a cavity such as a hollow stump or a container such as a bucket or a discarded vehicle tire. The eggs generally do not hatch until they are flooded, and they may have to withstand considerable desiccation before that happens. They are not resistant to desiccation straight after oviposition, but must develop to a suitable degree first. After that, they can enter diapause for several months if they dry out. Clutches of eggs of the majority of mosquito species hatch as soon as possible, and all the eggs in the clutch hatch at much the same time. In contrast, a batch of "Aedes" eggs in diapause tends to hatch irregularly over an extended period of time. This makes it much more difficult to control such species than those mosquitoes whose larvae can be killed all together as they hatch. Some "Anopheles" species do also behave in such a manner, though not to the same degree of sophistication.


title: Mosquito

text: The mosquito larva has a well-developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax with no legs, and a segmented abdomen.


title: Mosquito

text: Larvae breathe through spiracles located on their eighth abdominal segments, or through a siphon, so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding on algae, bacteria, and other microbes in the surface microlayer.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquito larvae have been investigated as prey of other Dipteran flies. Species such as "Bezzia nobilis" within the family Ceratopogonidae have been observed in experiments to prey upon mosquito larvae.


title: Mosquito

text: They dive below the surface when disturbed. Larvae swim either through propulsion with their mouth brushes, or by jerky movements of their entire bodies, giving them the common name of "wigglers" or "wrigglers".


title: Mosquito

text: Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their skins to allow for further growth.


title: Mosquito

text: As seen in its lateral aspect, the mosquito pupa is comma-shaped. The head and thorax are merged into a cephalothorax, with the abdomen curving around underneath. The pupa can swim actively by flipping its abdomen, and it is commonly called a "tumbler" because of its swimming action. As with the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. They do not feed during this stage; typically they pass their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, say by a passing shadow, they nimbly swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae do. If undisturbed, they soon float up again.


title: Mosquito

text: After a few days or longer, depending on the temperature and other circumstances, the dorsal surface of its cephalothorax splits, and the adult mosquito emerges. The pupa is less active than the larva because it does not feed, whereas the larva feeds constantly.


title: Mosquito

text: The period of development from egg to adult varies among species and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Some species of mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as few as five days, but a more typical period of development in tropical conditions would be some 40 days or more for most species. The variation of the body size in adult mosquitoes depends on the density of the larval population and food supply within the breeding water.


title: Mosquito

text: Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.


title: Mosquito

text: Males typically live for about 5–7 days, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature, but usually takes two to three days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host-seeking.


title: Mosquito

text: The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses and predators.


title: Mosquito

text: The length of the adult is typically between 3 mm and 6 mm. The smallest known mosquitoes are around , and the largest around . Mosquitoes typically weigh around 5 mg. All mosquitoes have slender bodies with three segments: a head, a thorax and an abdomen.


title: Mosquito

text: The head is specialized for receiving sensory information and for feeding. It has eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors, as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. In all mosquito species, the antennae of the males in comparison to the females are noticeably bushier and contain auditory receptors to detect the characteristic whine of the females.


title: Mosquito

text: The compound eyes are distinctly separated from one another. Their larvae only possess a pit-eye ocellus. The compound eyes of adults develop in a separate region of the head. New ommatidia are added in semicircular rows at the rear of the eye. During the first phase of growth, this leads to individual ommatidia being square, but later in development they become hexagonal. The hexagonal pattern will only become visible when the carapace of the stage with square eyes is molted.


title: Mosquito

text: The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting, stinger-like proboscis used for feeding, and two sensory palps. The maxillary palps of the males are longer than their proboscises, whereas the females’ maxillary palps are much shorter. In typical bloodsucking species, the female has an elongated proboscis.


title: Mosquito

text: The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The insect wing is an outgrowth of the exoskeleton. The "Anopheles" mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at , traveling up to in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second.


title: Mosquito

text: The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development; the abdomen of a mosquito can hold three times its own weight in blood. This segment expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.


title: Mosquito

text: Typically, both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar, aphid honeydew, and plant juices, but in many species the mouthparts of the females are adapted for piercing the skin of animal hosts and sucking their blood as ectoparasites. In many species, the female needs to obtain nutrients from a blood meal before it can produce eggs, whereas in many other species, obtaining nutrients from a blood meal enables the mosquito to lay more eggs. A mosquito has a variety of ways of finding nectar or its prey, including chemical, visual, and heat sensors. Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars, and blood also supplies more concentrated nutrients, such as lipids, but the most important function of blood meals is to obtain proteins as materials for egg production.


title: Mosquito

text: When a female reproduces without such parasitic meals, it is said to practice autogenous reproduction, as in "Toxorhynchites"; otherwise, the reproduction may be termed anautogenous, as occurs in mosquito species that serve as disease vectors, particularly "Anopheles" and some of the most important disease vectors in the genus "Aedes". In contrast, some mosquitoes, for example, many "Culex", are partially anautogenous: they do not need a blood meal for their first cycle of egg production, which they produce autogenously; subsequent clutches of eggs are produced anautogenously, at which point their disease vectoring activity becomes operative.


title: Mosquito

text: Among humans, the feeding preferences of mosquitoes typically include: those with type O blood, heavy breathers, an abundance of skin bacteria, high body heat, and pregnant women. Individuals' attractiveness to mosquitoes also has a heritable, genetically-controlled component.


title: Mosquito

text: Female mosquitoes hunt their blood host by detecting organic substances such as carbon dioxide (CO) and 1-octen-3-ol ("mushroom alcohol", found in exhaled breath) produced from the host, and through visual recognition. Mosquitoes prefer some people over others. The preferred victim's sweat smells more attractive than others' because of the proportions of the carbon dioxide, octenol, and other compounds that make up body odor. The most powerful semiochemical that triggers the keen sense of smell of "Culex quinquefasciatus" is nonanal. Another compound identified in human blood that attracts mosquitoes is sulcatone or 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, especially for "Aedes aegypti" mosquitoes with the odor receptor gene Or4. A compound called carboxylic acids in human body odor is also found to attract mosquitoes. A large part of the mosquito's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration. In "Aedes", the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito exhibits a nonspecific searching behavior until the perception of a host's stimulants, then it follows a targeted approach.


title: Mosquito

text: Most mosquito species are crepuscular (dawn or dusk) feeders. During the heat of the day, most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for the evenings, although they may still bite if disturbed. Some species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito, are known to fly and feed during daytime.


title: Mosquito

text: Prior to and during blood feeding, blood-sucking mosquitoes inject saliva into the bodies of their source(s) of blood. This saliva serves as an anticoagulant; without it the female mosquito's proboscis might become clogged with blood clots. The saliva also is the main route by which mosquito physiology offers passenger pathogens access to the hosts' bloodstream. The salivary glands are a major target to most pathogens, whence they find their way into the host via the saliva.


title: Mosquito

text: A mosquito bite often leaves an itchy weal, a raised bump, on the victim's skin, which is caused by histamines trying to fight off the protein left by the attacking insect.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquitoes of the genus "Toxorhynchites" never drink blood. This genus includes the largest extant mosquitoes, the larvae of which prey on the larvae of other mosquitoes. These mosquito eaters have been used in the past as mosquito control agents, with varying success.


title: Mosquito

text: Many, if not all, blood-sucking species of mosquitoes are fairly selective feeders that specialise in particular host species, though they often relax their selectivity when they experience severe competition for food, defensive activity on the part of the hosts, or starvation. Some species feed selectively on monkeys, while others prefer particular kinds of birds, but they become less selective as conditions become more difficult. For example, "Culiseta melanura" sucks the blood of passerine birds for preference, and such birds are typically the main reservoir of the Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America. Early in the season while mosquito numbers are low, they concentrate on passerine hosts, but as mosquito numbers rise and the birds are forced to defend themselves more vigorously, the mosquitoes become less selective of hosts. Soon the mosquitoes begin attacking mammals more readily, thereby becoming the major vector of the virus, and causing epidemics of the disease, most conspicuously in humans and horses. Multiple mosquitoes' withdrawal of blood from a host can add up to a large volume. In rare cases, heavy mosquito densities have directly killed livestock as large as cattle and horses.


title: Mosquito

text: Even more dramatically, in most of its range in North America, the main vector for the Western equine encephalitis virus is "Culex tarsalis", because it is known to feed variously on mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Even fish may be attacked by some mosquito species if they expose themselves above water level, as mudskippers do.


title: Mosquito

text: In 1969 it was reported that some species of anautogenous mosquitoes would feed on the haemolymph of caterpillars although its nutritional value is questionable. Other observations include mosquitoes feeding on cicadas and mantids. In 2014, it was shown that malaria-transmitting mosquitoes actively seek out some species of caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph, and do so to the caterpillar's apparent physical detriment.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquito mouthparts are very specialized, particularly those of the females, which in most species are adapted to piercing skin and then sucking blood. Apart from bloodsucking, the females generally also drink assorted fluids rich in dissolved sugar, such as nectar and honeydew, to obtain the energy they need. For this, their blood-sucking mouthparts are perfectly adequate. In contrast, male mosquitoes are not bloodsuckers; they only drink sugary fluids. Accordingly, their mouthparts do not require the same degree of specialization as those of females.


title: Mosquito

text: Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis. More specifically, the visible part of the proboscis is the labium, which forms the sheath enclosing the rest of the mouthparts. When the mosquito first lands on a potential host, its mouthparts are enclosed entirely in this sheath, and it will touch the tip of the labium to the skin in various places. Sometimes, it will begin to bite almost straight away, while other times, it will prod around, apparently looking for a suitable place. Occasionally, it will wander for a considerable time, and eventually fly away without biting. Presumably, this probing is a search for a place with easily accessible blood vessels, but the exact mechanism is not known. It is known that there are two taste receptors at the tip of the labium which may well play a role.


title: Mosquito

text: The female mosquito does not insert its labium into the skin; it bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite. The tip of the labium remains in contact with the skin of the host, acting as a guide for the other mouthparts. In total, there are six mouthparts besides the labium: two mandibles, two maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labrum.


title: Mosquito

text: The mandibles and the maxillae are used for piercing the skin. The mandibles are pointed, while the maxillae end in flat, toothed "blades". To force these into the skin, the mosquito moves its head backwards and forwards. On one movement, the maxillae are moved as far forward as possible. On the opposite movement, the mandibles are pushed deeper into the skin by levering against the maxillae. The maxillae do not slip back because the toothed blades grip the skin.


title: Mosquito

text: The hypopharynx and the labrum are both hollow. Saliva with anticoagulant is pumped down the hypopharynx to prevent clotting, and blood is drawn up the labrum.


title: Mosquito

text: To understand the mosquito mouthparts, it is helpful to draw a comparison with an insect that chews food, such as a dragonfly. A dragonfly has two mandibles, which are used for chewing, and two maxillae, which are used to hold the food in place as it is chewed. The labium forms the floor of the dragonfly's mouth, the labrum forms the top, while the hypopharynx is inside the mouth and is used in swallowing. Conceptually, then, the mosquito's proboscis is an adaptation of the mouthparts that occur in other insects. The labium still lies beneath the other mouthparts, but also enfolds them, and it has been extended into a proboscis. The maxillae still "grip" the "food" while the mandibles "bite" it. The top of the mouth, the labrum, has developed into a channeled blade the length of the proboscis, with a cross-section like an inverted "U". Finally, the hypopharynx has extended into a tube that can deliver saliva at the end of the proboscis. Its upper surface is somewhat flattened so, when the lower part of the hypopharynx is pressed against it, the labrum forms a closed tube for conveying blood from the host.


title: Mosquito

text: For the mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent the vertebrate's physiological responses. The mosquito, as with all blood-feeding arthropods, has mechanisms to effectively block the hemostasis system with their saliva, which contains a mixture of secreted proteins. Saglin is a protein produced by the salivary glands of mosquitoes. Mosquito saliva acts to reduce vascular constriction, blood clotting, platelet aggregation, angiogenesis and immunity, and creates inflammation. Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anti-clotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding, and antimicrobial agents to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal. The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple, as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins. , scientists still were unable to ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in arthropod saliva. One promising application of components of mosquito saliva is the development of anti-clotting drugs, such as clotting inhibitors and capillary dilators, that could be useful for managing cardiovascular disease.


title: Mosquito

text: It is now well recognized that feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes, have an ability to modulate the immune response of the animals (hosts) on which they feed. The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host hemostatic and inflammatory/immunological responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. The mechanism for mosquito saliva-induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data have become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses TNF-α release, but not antigen-induced histamine secretion, from activated mast cells. Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of "Ae. aegypti" mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production, while the cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 are unaffected. Cellular proliferation in response to IL-2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with mosquito salivary gland extract. Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either "Ae. aegypti" or "Cx. pipiens" mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL-4 and IL-10 concurrent with suppressed IFN-γ production. Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in splenocytes up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response.


title: Mosquito

text: T cell populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing increased mortality and decreased division rates. Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T and B cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1/7 of the saliva in a single mosquito. Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody-specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL-10 expression.


title: Mosquito

text: A 2006 study suggests mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of interferon−α/β during early mosquito-borne virus infection. The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated "in vivo" by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN inducers or IFN itself, and different research suggests mosquito saliva exacerbates West Nile virus infection, as well as other mosquito-transmitted viruses.


title: Mosquito

text: Studies in humanized mice bearing a reconstituted human immune system have suggested potential impact of mosquito saliva in humans. Work published in 2018 from the Baylor College of Medicine using such humanized mice came to several conclusions, among them being that mosquito saliva led to an increase in natural killer T cells in peripheral blood; to an overall decrease in "ex vivo" cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs); changes to proportions of subsets of PBMCs; changes in the prevalence of T cell subtypes across organs; and changes to circulating levels of cytokines.


title: Mosquito

text: Most species of mosquito require a blood meal to begin the process of egg development. Females with poor larval nutrition may need to ingest sugar or a preliminary blood meal before their ovarian follicles can reach their resting stage. Once the follicles have reached the resting stage, digestion of a sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development. Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito withdraws her proboscis, and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood. This membrane keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. Like many Hemiptera and other insects that survive on dilute liquid diets, many adult mosquitoes must excrete unwanted aqueous fractions even as they feed. (See the photograph of a feeding "Anopheles stephensi": Note that the excreted droplet patently is not whole blood, being far more dilute). As long as they are not disturbed, this permits mosquitoes to continue feeding until they have accumulated a full meal of nutrient solids. As a result, a mosquito replete with blood can continue to absorb sugar, even as the blood meal is slowly digested over a period of several days. Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut of the female synthesizes proteolytic enzymes that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids. These are used as building blocks for the synthesis of vitellogenin, which are the precursors for egg yolk protein.


title: Mosquito

text: In the mosquito "Anopheles stephensi", trypsin activity is restricted entirely to the posterior midgut lumen. No trypsin activity occurs before the blood meal, but activity increases continuously up to 30 hours after feeding, and subsequently returns to baseline levels by 60 hours. Aminopeptidase is active in the anterior and posterior midgut regions before and after feeding. In the whole midgut, activity rises from a baseline of approximately three enzyme units (EU) per midgut to a maximum of 12 EU at 30 hours after the blood meal, subsequently falling to baseline levels by 60 hours. A similar cycle of activity occurs in the posterior midgut and posterior midgut lumen, whereas aminopeptidase in the posterior midgut epithelium decreases in activity during digestion. Aminopeptidase in the anterior midgut is maintained at a constant, low level, showing no significant variation with time after feeding. Alpha-glucosidase is active in anterior and posterior midguts before and at all times after feeding. In whole midgut homogenates, alpha-glucosidase activity increases slowly up to 18 hours after the blood meal, then rises rapidly to a maximum at 30 hours after the blood meal, whereas the subsequent decline in activity is less predictable. All posterior midgut activity is restricted to the posterior midgut lumen. Depending on the time after feeding, greater than 25% of the total midgut activity of alpha-glucosidase is located in the anterior midgut. After blood meal ingestion, proteases are active only in the posterior midgut. Trypsin is the major primary hydrolytic protease and is secreted into the posterior midgut lumen without activation in the posterior midgut epithelium. Aminopeptidase activity is also luminal in the posterior midgut, but cellular aminopeptidases are required for peptide processing in both anterior and posterior midguts. Alpha-glucosidase activity is elevated in the posterior midgut after feeding in response to the blood meal, whereas activity in the anterior midgut is consistent with a nectar-processing role for this midgut region.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquitoes are cosmopolitan (world-wide): they are in every land region except Antarctica and a few islands with polar or subpolar climates. Iceland is such an island, being essentially free of mosquitoes.


title: Mosquito

text: The absence of mosquitoes in Iceland and similar regions is probably because of quirks of their climate, which differs in some respects from mainland regions. At the start of the uninterrupted continental winter of Greenland and the northern regions of Eurasia and America, the pupa enters diapause under the ice that covers sufficiently deep water. The imago emerges only after the ice breaks in late spring. In Iceland, the weather is less predictable. In mid-winter it frequently warms up suddenly, causing the ice to break, but then to freeze again after a few days. By that time the mosquitoes will have emerged from their pupae, but the new freeze sets in before they can complete their life cycle. Any anautogenous adult mosquito would need a host to supply a blood meal before it could lay viable eggs; it would need time to mate, mature the eggs and oviposit in suitable wetlands. These requirements would not be realistic in Iceland and in fact the absence of mosquitoes from such subpolar islands is in line with the islands' low insect biodiversity; Iceland has fewer than 1,500 described species of insects, many of them probably accidentally introduced by human agency. In Iceland most ectoparasitic insects live in sheltered conditions or actually on mammals; examples include lice, fleas and bedbugs, in whose living conditions freezing is no concern, and most of which were introduced inadvertently by humans.


title: Mosquito

text: Some other aquatic Diptera, such as Simuliidae, do survive in Iceland, but their habits and adaptations differ from those of mosquitoes; Simuliidae for example, though they, like mosquitoes, are bloodsuckers, generally inhabit stones under running water that does not readily freeze and which is totally unsuited to mosquitoes; mosquitoes are generally not adapted to running water.


title: Mosquito

text: Eggs of species of mosquitoes from the temperate zones are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many even tolerate subzero temperatures. In addition, adults of some species can survive the winter by taking shelter in suitable microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.


title: Mosquito

text: Several flowers are pollinated by mosquitoes, including some members of the Asteraceae, Rosaceae and Orchidaceae.


title: Mosquito

text: In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause. Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd.


title: Mosquito

text: Worldwide introduction of various mosquito species over large distances into regions where they are not indigenous has occurred through human agencies, primarily on sea routes, in which the eggs, larvae, and pupae inhabiting water-filled used tires and cut flowers are transported. They have also been carried by personal vehicles, delivery trucks, trains, and aircraft. Man-made areas such as storm water retention basins, or storm drains also provide sprawling sanctuaries. Sufficient quarantine measures have proven difficult to implement. In addition, outdoor pool areas make a perfect place for them to grow.


title: Mosquito

text: In order for a mosquito to transmit a disease to the host there must be favorable conditions, referred to as "transmission seasonality". Seasonal factors that impact the prevalence of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases are primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation. A positive correlation between malaria outbreaks and these climatic variables has been demonstrated in China; and El Niño has been shown to impact the location and number of outbreaks of mosquito-borne diseases observed in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and India. Climate change impacts each of these seasonal factors and in turn impacts the dispersal of mosquitoes.


title: Mosquito

text: Climatology and the study of mosquito-borne disease have been developed only over the past 100 years. Historical records of weather patterns and distinct symptoms associated with mosquito-borne diseases can be utilized to trace the prevalence of these diseases in relation to the climate over longer time periods. Further, statistical models are being created to predict the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases using these records, and these models can be utilized in the field of public health in order to create interventions to reduce the impact of these predicted outcomes.


title: Mosquito

text: Two types of models are used to predict mosquito-borne disease spread in relation to climate: correlative models and mechanistic models. "Correlative models" focus primarily on vector distribution, and generally function in 3 steps. First, data is collected regarding geographical location of a target mosquito species. Next, a multivariate regression model establishes the conditions under which the target species can survive. Finally, the model determines the likelihood of the mosquito species to become established in a new location based on similar living conditions. The model can further predict future distributions based on environmental emissions data. "Mechanistic models" tend to be broader and include the pathogens and hosts in the analysis. These models have been used to recreate past outbreaks as well as predict the potential risk of a vector-borne disease based on an areas forecasted climate.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquito-borne diseases are currently most prevalent in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and India. An emergence in Europe was recently observed. A weighted risk analysis demonstrated associations to climate for 49% of infectious diseases in Europe including all transmission routes. One statistical model predicts by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be climatically suitable for malaria transmission "Plasmodium vivax" for 2 months of the year. By 2080 it is predicted that the same will be true for southern Scotland.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquitoes can act as vectors for many disease-causing viruses and parasites. Infected mosquitoes carry these organisms from person to person without exhibiting symptoms themselves. Mosquito-borne diseases include:


title: Mosquito

text: Potential transmission of HIV was originally a public health concern, but practical considerations and detailed studies of epidemiological patterns suggest that any transmission of the HIV virus by mosquitoes is at worst extremely unlikely.


title: Mosquito

text: Various species of mosquitoes are estimated to transmit various types of disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico, Russia, and much of Asia, with millions of resultant deaths. At least two million people annually die of these diseases, and the morbidity rates are many times higher still.


title: Mosquito

text: Methods used to prevent the spread of disease, or to protect individuals in areas where disease is endemic, include:


title: Mosquito

text: Since most such diseases are carried by "elderly" female mosquitoes, some scientists have suggested focusing on these to avoid the evolution of resistance.


title: Mosquito

text: Many measures have been tried for mosquito control, including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets, biological control with parasites such as fungi and nematodes, or predators such as fish, copepods, dragonfly nymphs and adults, and some species of lizard and gecko. Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males. Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement, solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance, have been explored.


title: Mosquito

text: According to an article in "Nature" discussing the idea of totally eradicating mosquitoes, "Ultimately, there seem to be few things that mosquitoes do that other organisms can’t do just as well—except perhaps for one. They are lethally efficient at sucking blood from one individual and mainlining it into another, providing an ideal route for the spread of pathogenic microbes." The control of disease-carrying mosquitoes may in the future be possible using gene drives.


title: Mosquito

text: Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short-term protection against mosquito bites. The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects. Some CDC-recommended repellents are picaridin, eucalyptus oil (PMD), and ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535). Pyrethrum (from "Chrysanthemum" species, particularly "C. cinerariifolium" and "C. coccineum") has been reviewed favorably in research published in 2021. Others are indalone, dimethyl phthalate, dimethyl carbate, and ethyl hexanediol.


title: Mosquito

text: Electronic insect repellent devices that produce ultrasounds intended to keep away insects (and mosquitoes) are marketed. No EPA or university study has shown that these devices prevent a human from being bitten by a mosquito.


title: Mosquito

text: Mosquito bites lead to a variety of mild, occasionally serious, and, rarely, life-threatening allergic reactions. These include ordinary wheal and flare reactions and mosquito bite allergies (MBA). The MBA, also termed hypersensitivity to mosquito bites (HMB), are excessive reactions to mosquito bites that are not caused by any toxin or pathogen in the saliva injected by a mosquito at the time it takes its blood-meal. Rather, they are allergic hypersensitivity reactions caused by the non-toxic allergenic proteins contained in the mosquito's saliva. Studies have shown or suggest that numerous species of mosquitoes can trigger ordinary reactions as well as MBA. These include "Aedes aegypti", "Aedes vexans", "Aedes albopictus", "Anopheles sinensis", "Culex pipiens", "Aedes communis", "Anopheles stephensi", "Culex quinquefasciatus", "Ochlerotatus triseriatus", and "Culex tritaeniorhynchus". Furthermore, there is considerable cross-reactivity between the salivary proteins of mosquitoes in the same family and, to a lesser extent, different families. It is therefore assumed that these allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species (or other biting insect).


title: Mosquito

text: The mosquito bite allergies are informally classified as 1) the Skeeter syndrome, i.e. severe local skin reactions sometimes associated with low-grade fever; 2) systemic reactions that range from high-grade fever, lymphadenopathy, abdominal pain, and/or diarrhea to, very rarely, life-threatening symptoms of anaphylaxis; and 3) severe and often systemic reactions occurring in individuals that have an Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease, Epstein-Barr virus-negative lymphoid malignancy, or another predisposing condition such as Eosinophilic cellulitis or chronic lymphocytic leukemia.


title: Mosquito

text: Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito's saliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions (types I and III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (type IV) to mosquito bites. Both reactions result in itching, redness and swelling. Immediate reactions develop within a few minutes of the bite and last for a few hours. Delayed reactions take around a day to develop, and last for up to a week.


title: Mosquito

text: Several anti-itch medications are commercially available, including those taken orally, such as diphenhydramine, or topically applied antihistamines and, for more severe cases, corticosteroids, such as hydrocortisone and triamcinolone. Aqueous ammonia (3.6%) has also been shown to provide relief.


title: Mosquito

text: Ancient Greek beast fables including "The Elephant and the Mosquito" and "The Bull and the Mosquito", with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately from Mesopotamia.


title: Mosquito

text: The peoples of Siberia have origin myths surrounding the mosquito. One Ostiak myth tells of a man-eating giant, "Punegusse", who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead. The hero eventually burns the giant, but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind.


title: Mosquito

text: Other myths from the Yakuts, Goldes (Nanai people), and Samoyed have the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon. Similar tales found in Native North American myth, with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man-eater, suggest a common origin. The Tatars of the Altai had a similar myth, thought to be of Native North American origin, involving the fragments of the dead giant, "Andalma-Muus", becoming mosquitoes and other insects.


title: Mosquito

text: Winsor McCay's 1912 film "How a Mosquito Operates" was one of the earliest works of animation, which has been described as far ahead of its time in technical quality. It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man.


title: Mosquito

text: The de Havilland Mosquito was a high-speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles.


title: Biryani

text: Biryani () is a mixed rice dish originating among the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. It is made with Indian spices, rice, and usually some type of meat (chicken, beef, goat, lamb, prawn, fish) or in some cases without any meat, and sometimes, in addition, eggs and potatoes.


title: Biryani

text: "Biryani" is one of the most popular dishes in South Asia, as well as among the diaspora from the region. Similar dishes are also prepared in other parts of the world such as in Iraq, Thailand, and Malaysia. "Biryani" is the single most-ordered dish on Indian online food ordering and delivery services.


title: Biryani

text: One theory states that it originated from "birinj" (), the Persian word for rice. Another theory states that it is derived from "biryan" or "beriyan" (), which means "to fry" or "to roast". It may alternatively be related to the Persian word "bereshtan" () which likewise means "to roast (onions)", as the dish is often prepared by flavouring rice with fried onions and meat, besides mild spices. Persian was used as an official language in different parts of medieval India by various Islamic dynasties.


title: Biryani

text: The exact origin of the dish is uncertain. In North India, different varieties of "biryani" developed in the Muslim centres of Delhi (Mughlai cuisine), Rampur, Lucknow (Awadhi cuisine) and other small principalities. In South India, where rice is more widely used as a staple food, several distinct varieties of "biryani" emerged from Hyderabad Deccan (where some believe the dish originated) as well as Tamil Nadu (Ambur, Thanjavur, Chettinad, Salem, Dindigal), Kerala (Malabar), Telangana, and Karnataka (Bhatkal) where Muslim communities were present.


title: Biryani

text: According to historian Lizzie Collingham, the modern "biryani" developed in the royal kitchens of the Mughal Empire (1526–1857) and is a mix of the native spicy rice dishes of India and the Persian "pilaf". Indian restaurateur Kris Dhillon believes that the dish originated in Persia, and was brought to India by the Mughals.


title: Biryani

text: Another theory claims that the dish was prepared in India before the first Mughal emperor Babur conquered India. The 16th-century Mughal text "Ain-i-Akbari" makes no distinction between "biryanis" and "pilaf" (or "pulao"): it states that the word "biryani" is of older usage in India. A similar theory, that "biryani" came to India with Timur's invasion, appears to be incorrect, because there is no record of "biryani" having existed in his native land during that period.


title: Biryani

text: According to Pratibha Karan, who wrote the book "Biryani", "biryani" is of Mughal origin, derived from "pilaf" varieties brought to the Indian subcontinent by Arab traders. She speculates that the "pulao" was an army dish in medieval India. Armies would prepare a one-pot dish of rice with whichever meat was available. Over time, the dish became "biryani" due to different methods of cooking, with the distinction between "pulao" and "biryani" being arbitrary.


title: Biryani

text: According to Vishwanath Shenoy, the owner of a "biryani" restaurant chain in India, one branch of "biryani" comes from the Mughals, while another was brought by the Arab traders to Malabar in South India.


title: Biryani

text: There are various apocryphal stories dating the invention to Shah Jahan's time but Rana Safvi, the distinguished historian, says she could only find a recipe from the later Mughal period, from Bahadur Shah Zafar's time. It is not her claim that there was no biryani before that; just that she has not found a recipe. Other historians who have gone through texts say that the first references to biryani only appear around the 18th century.


title: Biryani

text: "Pilaf" or "pulao", as it is known in the Indian subcontinent, is another mixed rice dish popular in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Opinions differ on the differences between "pulao" and "biryani", and whether actually there is a difference between the two.


title: Biryani

text: According to Delhi-based historian Sohail Hashmi, "pulao" tends to be plainer than "biryani," and consists of meat or vegetables cooked with rice with the bottom layered with potatoes or onions. "Biryani" contains more gravy (or "yakhni"), and is often cooked longer, leaving the meat (and vegetables, if present) more tender, and the rice more flavoured. "Biryani" is also cooked with additional dressings and often would have a light layer of socarrat at the bottom.


title: Biryani

text: Pratibha Karan states that while the terms are often applied arbitrarily, the main distinction is that a "biryani" consists of two layers of rice with a layer of meat (and vegetables, if present) in the middle, while the "pulao" is not layered.


title: Biryani

text: Ingredients for "biryani" vary according to the region and the type of meat and vegetables used. Meat (of either chicken, goat, beef, lamb, prawn or fish) is the prime ingredient with rice. As is common in dishes of the Indian subcontinent, vegetables are sometimes also used when preparing "biryani". Corn may be used depending on the season and availability. Navratan "biryani" tends to use sweeter, richer ingredients such as cashews, "kismis" and fruits, such as apples and pineapples.


title: Biryani

text: The spices and condiments used in biryani may include fennel seeds, "ghee" (clarified butter), nutmeg, mace, pepper, cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, bay leaves, coriander, mint, ginger, onions, tomatoes, green chilies, and garlic. The premium varieties include saffron.


title: Biryani

text: The main ingredient that usually accompanies the spices is chicken or goat meat; special varieties might use beef or seafood instead. The dish may be served with "dahi chutney" or "raita", "korma", curry, a sour dish of aubergine ("brinjal"), boiled egg, and salad.


title: Biryani

text: "Kacchi biryani" is technically much more demanding and time-consuming than "pakki biryani", for the following reasons:


title: Biryani

text: There are many types of "biryani", whose names are often based on their region of origin. For example, Sindhi "biryani" developed in the Sindh region of what is now Pakistan, and Hyderabadi "biryani" developed in the city of Hyderabad in South India.


title: Biryani

text: Some have taken the name of the shop that sells it, for example: "Haji Biriyani", "Haji Nanna Biriyani" in Old Dhaka, "Fakhruddin Biriyani" in Dhaka, Students "biryani" in Karachi, Lucky "biryani" in Bandra, Mumbai and Baghdadi "biryani" in Colaba, Mumbai. "Biryanis" are often specific to the Muslim communities where they originate; they are usually the defining dishes of those communities.


title: Biryani

text: Ambur/Vaniyambadi "biryani" is a variety cooked in the neighboring towns of Ambur and Vaniyambadi in the Tirupattur district of the northeastern part of Tamil Nadu, which has a high Muslim population. It was introduced by the Nawabs of Arcot who once ruled the area. It is typically made with "jeera samba" rice.


title: Biryani

text: The Ambur/Vaniyambadi "biryani" is accompanied with "dhalcha", a sour "brinjal" curry, and "pachadi" or "raitha" (sliced onions mixed with plain curd, tomato, chilies and salt). It has a distinctive aroma and is considered light on the stomach. The usage of spice is moderate and curd is used as a gravy base. It also has a higher ratio of meat to rice. Ambur-style "biriyani" is popular as street food all across South India.


title: Biryani

text: Beef "biryani", as the name implies, uses beef as the meat. In Hyderabad, it is famous as Kalyani "biryani", in which buffalo or cow meat is used. This meal was started after the Kalyani Nawabs of Bidar came to Hyderabad sometime in the 18th century. The Kalyani "biryani" is made with small cubes of beef, regular spices, onions and many tomatoes. It has a distinct tomato, "jeera" and "dhania" flavour. In Kerala, beef "biryani" is well known. The Bhatkali "biryani" is a special variant where the main ingredient is onion. Its variations include beef, goat, chicken, "titar", egg, fish, crab, prawn and vegetable "biryani".


title: Biryani

text: This is an integral part of the Navayath cuisine and a specialty of Bhatkal, a coastal town in Karnataka. Its origins are traced to the Persian traders who left behind not only "biryani" but a variation of "kababs" and Indian breads. In Bhatkali "biryani", the meat is cooked in an onion and green chili based "masala" and layered with fragrant rice. It has a unique spicy and heady flavour, and the rice is overwhelmingly white with mild streaks of orange.


title: Biryani

text: Though similar to those in Thalassery, this "biryani" differs with lingering after-notes of mashed onions laced with garlic. A few chilies and spices littered with curry leaves lends a unique flavour to Bhatkal "biryani". No oil is used.


title: Biryani

text: Chettinad "biryani" is famous in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is made of "jeeraka samba" rice, and smells of spices and "ghee". It is best taken with "nenju elumbu kuzhambu", a spicy and tangy goat meat gravy. The "podi kozhi" is usually topped with fried onions and curry leaves.


title: Biryani

text: "Degh ki biryani" is a typical "biryani" made from small cubes of beef or mutton. This "biryani" is famous in Parbhani and generally served at weddings.


title: Biryani

text: The meat is flavoured with ginger, garlic, red chili, cumin, "garam masala", fried onion and curd. This "biryani" is also known as "kachay gosht ki biryani" or "dum biryani", where the meat is marinated and cooked along with short grain and fine rice. It is left on a slow fire or "dum" for a fragrant and aromatic flavour.


title: Biryani

text: The Delhi version of "biryani" developed a unique local flavour as the Mughal kings shifted their political capital to the North Indian city of Delhi. Until the 1950s, most people cooked "biryani" in their home and rarely ate at eateries outside of their homes. Hence, restaurants primarily catered to travelers and merchants. Any region that saw more of these two classes of people nurtured more restaurants, and thus their own versions of "biryani". This is the reason why most shops that sold "biryani" in Delhi, tended to be near mosques such as Jama Masjid (for travellers) or traditional shopping districts (such as Chandni Chowk).


title: Biryani

text: Each part of Delhi has its own style of "biryani", often based on its original purpose, thus giving rise to Nizamuddin "biryani", Shahjahanabad "biryani", etc. Nizamuddin "biryani" usually had little expensive meat and spices as it was primarily meant to be made in bulk for offering at the Nizamuddin Dargah shrine and thereafter to be distributed to devotees. A non-"dum" "biryani", using many green chillies, popularized by the Babu Shahi Bawarchi shops located outside the National Sports Club in Delhi is informally called Babu Shahi "biryani". Another version of Delhi "biryani" uses "achaar" (pickles) and is called achaari "biryani".


title: Biryani

text: The city of Dhaka in Bangladesh is known for selling Chevon "Biryani", a dish made with highly seasoned rice and goat meat. The recipe includes: highly seasoned rice, goat meat, mustard oil, garlic, onion, black pepper, saffron, clove, cardamom, cinnamon, salt, lemon, "doi", peanuts, cream, raisins and a small amount of cheese (either from cows or buffalo). Haji "biryani" is a favourite among Bangladeshis living abroad. A recipe was handed down by the founder of one Dhaka restaurant to the next generation. Haji Mohammad Shahed claimed, "I have never changed anything, not even the amount of salt".


title: Biryani

text: Dhakaiya Kacchi "Biryani" is accompanied by "borhani", a salted mint drink made of yogurt, coriander, mint and salt.


title: Biryani

text: The Dindigul town of Tamil Nadu is noted for its "biryani", which uses a little curd and lemon juice for a tangy taste.


title: Biryani

text: Hyderabadi "biryani" is India’s most famous "biryani"; some say "biryani" is synonymous with Hyderabad. The crown dish of Hyderabadi Cuisine, Hyderabadi "biryani" developed under the rule of Asaf Jah I, who was first appointed as the governor of Deccan by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is made with "basmati" rice, spices and goat meat. Popular variations use chicken instead of goat meat. There are various forms of Hyderabadi "biryani", such as "kachay gosht ki biryani" or "dum biryani", where goat meat is marinated and cooked along with the rice. It is left on a slow fire or "dum" for a fragrant and aromatic flavour.


title: Biryani

text: Memoni "biryani" is an extremely spicy variety developed by the Memons of Gujarat-Sindh region in India and Pakistan. It is made with mutton, "dahi", fried onions, and potatoes, and fewer tomatoes compared to Sindhi "biryani". Memoni "biryani" also uses less food colouring compared to other "biryanis", allowing the rich colours of the various meats and rice (and vegetables, if present) to blend without too much orange colouring.


title: Biryani

text: Kalyani "biryani" is a typical "biryani" from the former state of Hyderabad Deccan. Also known as the "poor man's" Hyderabadi "biryani", Kalyani "biryani" is always made from small cubes of buffalo meat.


title: Biryani

text: The meat is flavoured with ginger, garlic, turmeric, red chili, cumin, coriander powder, and much onion and tomato. It is first cooked as a thick curry and then cooked along with rice. Then given "dum" (the Indian method of steaming in a covered pot).


title: Biryani

text: Kalyani "biryani" is supposed to have originated in Bidar during the reign of the Kalyani Nawabs, who migrated to Hyderabad after one of the Nawabs, Ghazanfur Jang married into the Asaf Jahi family. Kalyani "biryani" was served by the Kalyani Nawabs to all of their subjects who came from Bidar to Hyderabad and stayed or visited their "devdi" or noble mansion.


title: Biryani

text: Calcutta or Kolkata "biryani" evolved from the Lucknow style, when Awadh's last Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was exiled in 1856 to the Kolkata suburb of Metiabruz. Shah brought his personal chef with him. The Kolkata biriyani is characterized by the unique presence of potato in it, along with meat and egg ('dim' in Bengali). It is said that the Nawab, having is lost his kingdom, could not afford meat, so his chefs tried to compensate by adding potato. But serious historians have rejected this as a myth. When Wajid Ali Shah arrived in Kolkata, potato was an exotic vegetable in India and the former Nawab of Awadh, being a connoisseur of great food encouraged their chefs to try new ingredients in the dish. The Kolkata "biryani" is much lighter on spices but high on flavours.


title: Biryani

text: This type of "biryani" is popular in the Palakkad and Coimbatore regions. This was most commonly prepared by Rawther families in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This type of "biryani" is cooked in a different style. Goat meat is most commonly used and it is entirely different from Malabar "biryani".


title: Biryani

text: The exotic and aromatic Sindhi "biryani" is known in Pakistan for its spicy taste, fragrant rice and delicate meat. Sindhi "biryani" is a beloved staple in food menus of Pakistani and Sindhi cuisine. Sindhi "biryani" is prepared with meat and a mixture of basmati rice, vegetables and various spices. Sindhi "biryani" is often served by Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) on most of their international flights. A special version of Sindhi "biryani" sold by a shop in Karachi called the Students Center is popularly called "Students "biryani"."


title: Biryani

text: "Biryani" was brought into Sri Lanka by the South Indian Muslims who were trading in the Northern part of Sri Lanka and in Colombo in the early 1900s. In Sri Lanka, it is "Buryani", a colloquial word which generated from Buhari "Biryani". In many cases, Sri Lankan "biryani" is much spicier than most Indian varieties. Side dishes may include "acchar," Malay pickle, cashew curry and mint "sambol".


title: Biryani

text: Thalassery "biryani" is the variation of "biryani" found in the Indian state of Kerala. It is one of the many dishes of the Malabar Muslim community, and very popular.


title: Biryani

text: The ingredients are chicken, spices and the specialty is the choice of rice called "khyma". "Khyma" rice is generally mixed with "ghee". Although a large number of spices such as mace, cashew nuts, sultana raisins, fennel-cumin seeds, tomato, onion, ginger, garlic, shallot, cloves and cinnamon are used, there is only a small amount of chili (or chili powder) used in its preparation.


title: Biryani

text: A "pakki" "biryani", the Thalassery biryani uses a small-grained thin (not round) fragrant variety of rice known as "khyma" or "jeerakasala". The "dum" method of preparation (sealing the lid with dough ["maida"] or cloth and placing red-hot charcoal above the lid) is applied here to avoid scorched rice.


title: Biryani

text: In Myanmar (Burma), "biryani" is known in Burmese as "danpauk" or "danbauk" (), derived from the Persian term "dum pukht", which refers to a slow oven cooking technique. "Danbauk" is a mainstay at festive events such as Thingyan, weddings and donation feasts. Given "danbauk"'s South Asian origins, "danbauk" restaurants and chains have traditionally been owned by Muslims, but in recent decades Buddhist entrepreneurs have entered the market.


title: Biryani

text: Featured ingredients include: cashew nuts, yogurt, raisins and peas, chicken, cloves, cinnamon, saffron and bay leaf cooked in long-grain rice. In "danbauk", chicken specially seasoned with a "danbauk" masala spice mix, is cooked with the rice. "Danbauk" is typically eaten with a number of side dishes, including a fresh salad of sliced onions, julienned cabbage, sliced cucumbers, fermented limes and lemons, fried dried chilies, and soup. In recent decades, "danbauk" restaurants have innovated variations, including "ambrosia" "biryani" (), which features dried fruits and buttered rice.


title: Biryani

text: In Iraq and in the states of the Persian gulf, "biryani" (برياني: "biryani") is usually saffron-based with chicken usually being the meat or poultry of choice. It is popular throughout Iraq especially with Assyrians and Kurds. Most variations also include vermicelli, fried onions, fried potato cubes, almonds and raisins spread liberally over the rice. Sometimes, a sour/spicy tomato sauce is served on the side ("maraq").


title: Biryani

text: In Iran, during the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736), a dish called "Beriyan Polo" (Nastaliq script: ) was made with lamb or chicken, marinated overnight—with yogurt, herbs, spices, dried fruits like raisins, prunes or pomegranate seeds—and later cooked in a "tannour" oven, then served with steamed rice.


title: Biryani

text: A different dish called "biryan" is popular in Afghanistan. "Biryan" traces its origins to the same source as "biryani", and is today sold in Afghanistan as well as in Bhopal, India. "Biryan" is prepared by cooking "gosht" and rice together, but without the additional gravy ("yakhni") and other condiments that are used in "biryani". The Delhi-based historian Sohail Hashmi refers to the "biryan" as midway between "pulao" and "biryani". Afghani "biryani" tends to use much dry fruit such as raisins and lesser amounts of meat, often cut into tiny pieces.


title: Biryani

text: "Nasi kebuli" is an Indonesian spicy steamed rice dish cooked in goat meat broth, milk and "ghee". "Nasi kebuli" is descended from "kabuli palaw" which is an Afghani rice dish, similar to "biryani" served in the Indian subcontinent.


title: Biryani

text: Although Indonesia has authentic "nasi kebuli", Indonesia also inherited and has local-style of "biryani" which known as "nasi biryani" or "nasi briyani". "Nasi biryani" is popular among and often associated as Acehnese, Arab Indonesian, Indian Indonesian and Malay cuisine.


title: Biryani

text: "Nasi briyani" dishes are very popular in Malaysia and Singapore. As an important part of Malaysian and Singaporean Indian cuisines, they are popularized through mamak stalls, hawker centres, and food courts as well as fine dining restaurants.


title: Biryani

text: "Biryani" dishes are very popular in Mauritius especially at Hindu and Muslim weddings and festivities. It is also widely available at street food places.


title: Biryani

text: Kapampangan cuisine of the Philippines (often in Pampanga) features a special dish called "nasing biringyi" (chicken saffron rice), that is typically prepared only during special occasions such as weddings, family get-togethers or fiestas. It is not a staple of the Filipino diet as it is difficult to prepare compared to other usual dishes. "Nasing biringyi" is similar to the "nasi briyani" dish of Malaysia in style and taste. A version that has merged with the Filipino version of the Spanish "paella" is known as "bringhe".


title: Biryani

text: In the Cape Malay culture, a variation of "biryani" incorporates lentils as a key ingredient in the dish along with meat (usually beef, chicken, seafood or vegetables). The dish is made by cooking the rice and legumes and meat and gravy separately, then mixing it. Uncommonly, it is made using the "dum"-cooking method. The spices are similar to those used in the original Indian "biryani".


title: Biryani

text: "Biryani" in Thailand is commonly known as "khao mhok" (). It is commonly paired with chicken, beef or even fish and topped with fried garlic. The dish is common in Thai cuisine and often served with a green sour sauce.


title: Biryani

text: Tehari, tehri and tehari are various names for the vegetarian adaptation of Biryani but mainly classified as pulao. It was developed for the Hindu bookkeepers of the Muslim Nawabs. It is prepared by adding the potatoes to the rice, as opposed to the case of biryani, where the rice is added to the meat. In Kashmir, tehari is sold as street food. Tehari became more popular during World War II, when meat prices increased substantially and potatoes became the popular substitute in biryani.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Mena Alexandra Suvari (; born February 13, 1979) is an American actress, producer, fashion designer and model. After beginning her career as a model and guest-starring on several television shows, she made her film debut in the 1997 drama "Nowhere".


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari rose to international prominence with her appearances in the critically acclaimed comedy-drama "American Beauty" (1999), for which she received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actress, and in three of the "American Pie" films (1999–2001, 2012). Her other notable film credits include "Kiss the Girls" (1997), "Slums of Beverly Hills" (1998), "" (1999), "Loser" (2000), "Sugar & Spice", "The Musketeer" (both 2001), "Sonny" (2002), "Spun" (2003), "Trauma" (2004), "Beauty Shop", "Domino", "Rumor Has It" (all 2005), "Factory Girl" (2006), "Brooklyn Rules", "Stuck" (both 2007), "Day of the Dead" (2008), and "You May Not Kiss the Bride" (2010).


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari played recurring roles on the fourth season of the HBO drama series "Six Feet Under" (2004), for which she earned a Screen Actors Guild nomination, and on the second season of "Chicago Fire" (2013). She also portrayed Elizabeth Short in the anthology series "" (2011), and reprised the part in "" (2018). Her other television credits include the supernatural horror series "South of Hell" (2015) and the short-lived Paramount sitcom "American Woman" (2018).


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari has been a model for Lancôme cosmetics and print ads for Lancôme Paris Adaptîve, as well as a long-time supporter and activist for the Starlight Children's Foundation and the African Medical and Research Foundation. She is married and has one child.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari was born in Newport, Rhode Island on February 13, 1979, the daughter of nurse Candice (née Chambers) and psychiatrist Ando Ivar Süvari. Her mother is of Greek descent, while her father was an Estonian from Pärnu. She has five brothers Agu, Madis, Ando Junior, Sulev and Yuri (Jüri) and sister Mari-Ann. Suvari began modeling with Millie Lewis Models and Talent as a preteen and soon after appeared in a Rice-A-Roni commercial. The family later relocated to Charleston, South Carolina, where her brothers attended The Citadel. When Suvari was twelve, she was raped by her 16-year old boyfriend. Suvari was considering becoming an archaeologist, astronaut, or doctor when a modeling agency stopped by her all-girls school, Ashley Hall, to offer classes. By the time she started acting, she had been modeling for the New York-based Wilhelmina agency for five years. Suvari relocated to California and attended Providence High School in Burbank, graduating in 1997.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari began acting with guest appearances in television series such as "Boy Meets World" and "ER" at the ages of 15 and 16, respectively. She also appeared in a number of episodes of the show "High Incident", and played a girl infected with HIV in a one-episode appearance in "Chicago Hope". She made the transition to film with the role of Zoe in the 1997 independent coming-of-age drama "Nowhere", directed by Gregg Araki and co-starring James Duval, Rachel True, Heather Graham, and Ryan Phillippe. Also in 1997, she had a supporting part in the independent film "Snide and Prejudice", which premiered at the Cannes Film Festival, and had a brief part in the thriller "Kiss the Girls", opposite Morgan Freeman and Ashley Judd. She next appeared in the independent dramedy "Slums of Beverly Hills", as a teenaged neighbor of a Jewish girl struggling to grow up in the late 1970s. The film received a limited release, and has developed a cult following. Suvari met Natasha Lyonne on the set of "Slums", with whom she would later appear in the "American Pie" films. She subsequently played a teenager who commits suicide in the horror sequel "" (1999), and appeared as the daughter of an NTSB investigator in the disaster thriller NBC miniseries "Atomic Train" (1999), although both productions were panned by critics.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Her breakthrough came in 1999 with significant roles in two highly successful films —the teen sex comedy "American Pie" and the drama "American Beauty". In "American Pie", she starred with Jason Biggs, Shannon Elizabeth, Chris Klein, and Natasha Lyonne, portraying a virgin and innocent choir girl named Heather. While critical response was mixed, the film was a commercial success, grossing $235 million worldwide.


title: Mena Suvari

text: In "American Beauty", directed by Sam Mendes and co-starring Kevin Spacey, Annette Bening, Wes Bentley and Thora Birch, Suvari took on the role of Angela Hayes, a vain teenage girl who becomes the object of infatuation of a man experiencing a midlife crisis. "The New York Times" described her character as "stimulus enough for [Spacey's character] to wake up out of a marriage-long coma and start considering life's livelier possibilities". The film received widespread critical acclaim, and was the recipient of the Academy Award for Best Picture. "American Beauty" made $356 million globally and earned Suvari a BAFTA Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. Suvari and her "American Beauty" co-stars Wes Bentley and Thora Birch presented the 2000 Oscar for Best Documentary short subject.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari subsequently reunited with Jason Biggs in the romantic comedy "Loser" (2000), playing the love interest of a small-town, intelligent man. A lukewarm critical and commercial reception greeted the film, but "The New York Times" found Suvari to be "well matched with the handsome, unassuming Mr. Biggs. They're attractive without being offensively cute, and their characters manage to be genuinely nice without seeming bland or phony". She and Biggs also appeared in the music video for the song "Teenage Dirtbag" by American rock band Wheatus. The video was heavily based on their roles in "Loser". She then starred in the satirical comedy "American Virgin", as the daughter of an adult film director who agrees to lose her virginity onscreen to spite her father. The original working title of the film was "Live Virgin", but was changed to capitalize on Suvari's previous successes in "American Pie" and "American Beauty".


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari continued to act steadily, taking on roles in three 2001 feature films —"The Musketeer", "American Pie 2" and "Sugar & Spice". In the adventure action film "The Musketeer", she played a chambermaid and the love interest of the titular character, while "American Pie 2" saw her reprise her role from the first film. Like the original, the sequel was a commercial success, grossing $285 million globally. In the teen crime comedy "Sugar & Spice", Suvari portrayed one member of a group of cheerleaders who conspire and commit armed robbery. Although the film received negative reviews and only made $16.9 million worldwide, it has since become a cult favorite on home video.


title: Mena Suvari

text: In "Spun" (2002), an independent dramedy opposite Brittany Murphy and John Leguizamo about drug abuse, Suvari played an addict and the girlfriend of a drug dealer (Leguizamo). She subsequently appeared as a prostitute working in a New Orleans brothel in the small-scale drama "Sonny" (2002), the directorial debut of Nicolas Cage co-starring James Franco and Brenda Blethyn, and also starred opposite Colin Firth in the psychological thriller "Trauma" (2004), as the neighbour of a man who awakens from a coma. "Trauma" premiered on the film festival circuit, receiving mediocre reviews from critics, who compared it unfavorably to "Jacob's Ladder" and "Memento". In the fourth season of the acclaimed HBO serial "Six Feet Under", which aired in 2004, Suvari obtained the recurring role of a lesbian performance poet and artist named Edie. She and the cast eventually received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. She played supporting parts in five feature films the following year—"Standing Still", "Edmond", "Rumor Has It", "Domino", and "Beauty Shop".


title: Mena Suvari

text: In 2006, Suvari voiced the character of Aerith Gainsborough for the Square Enix–Disney video game "Kingdom Hearts II" and the English-language version of Square Enix's film "Final Fantasy VII Advent Children", which was released straight-to-DVD in North America and became one of the best-selling animated movies in the country. Opposite Katherine Heigl, Suvari starred in the independent comedy "Caffeine" (2006), playing the staff of a London coffeehouse, and in the biographical drama "Factory Girl" (2006), she played a friend and roommate of 1960s underground film star and socialite Edie Sedgwick (played by Sienna Miller). While "Caffeine" went unnoticed, "Factory Girl" received a limited theatrical release amid a negative critical response.


title: Mena Suvari

text: In the crime drama "Brooklyn Rules" (2007), directed by Michael Corrente and co-starring Freddie Prinze Jr., Alec Baldwin and Scott Caan, Suvari portrayed a society girl and the girlfriend of a man involved with the Brooklyn mafia in the 1980s. The film was released for selected theaters and received mixed reviews, but "Variety" remarked that Suvari, "who might have played [her part] as a cliché, gives a real performance". Her next film was the psychological thriller "Stuck", where she took on the role of a woman who commits a hit-and-run and leaves the victim clinging to his life in the windshield of her car. Inspired by the true story of the murder of Gregory Glenn Biggs, the film premiered at the Cannes Film Market, and while "Stuck" found a limited theatrical release, it was favorably received by critics and audiences. "Austin Chronicle" found the film to be "buoyed by queasy, easy performances" from Suvari and Rea, who were considered "well-matched in uneasy roles" by "Empire".


title: Mena Suvari

text: By the late 2000s, Suvari continued to act in smaller-scale projects, obtaining four back-to-back roles in films released throughout 2008, including one made-for-television film. "Day of the Dead", a remake of George A. Romero's horror film of the same name, saw her portray what was described as a "butch military leader capable of fending off a zombie holocaust", by "DVD Talk". The film received a straight-to-DVD release and was panned by critics. In "The Mysteries of Pittsburgh", a film adaptation of writer Michael Chabon's novel, Suvari played a strange girl who works at a book shop and becomes romantically involved with the well-mannered, intelligent son of a Jewish gangster. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and received a limited release. Website "Collider" felt that Suvari did a "decent job" in her "small" part, while Roger Ebert called her "pitch-perfect" in a "finally thankless role", as part of a mixed critical reception.


title: Mena Suvari

text: "The Garden of Eden", the film adaptation of Ernest Hemingway's novel, featured Suvari as a sexually confused and restless woman and one half of a couple who travel across Europe amid a deteriorating marriage. She shaved her head for the part, but used three wigs for the in-between stages; on which she remarked: "It was a bit strange. It was also very liberating at the same time [...] I am grateful for the experience I am happy that I got to do it at least once in my life. It was like its own psychological experiment. It was very empowering for me to go through and a challenging to experience how people perceive you". The film premiered at the Rome Film Festival and had a limited investors' screening in the UK. Reviews were negative for the film, with the "Los Angeles Times" calling it a "literary B-side turned into something not awful, just forgettable". Her last 2008 film was the Lifetime production "Sex and Lies in Sin City", about the events leading to the death of Las Vegas casino owner Ted Binion.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari made one-episode appearances in "Psych" in 2010, and in "The Cape" in 2011, and also had a two-episode arc as the Black Dahlia in "", the first season of the anthology horror series "American Horror Story". In the independent romantic comedy "You May Not Kiss the Bride" (2010), opposite Dave Annable, Katharine McPhee and Rob Schneider, Suvari starred as the psychotic assistant of a pet photographer. The film debuted at the Sonoma International Film Festival and was released for selected theaters and VOD, garnering largely negative reviews. "Blu-ray.com" considered the film to be "a noisy, unlikable distraction" that "depends on Suvari and Schneider to carry the comedy workload, which is about as appealing as it reads". In 2011, she also starred in the made-for-television film "No Surrender", as a writer having a deranged stalker, and in the B movie "Restitution", opposite Tom Arnold.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari returned to the "American Pie" franchise when she played for the third time her role of Heather in "American Reunion" (2012), revolving around the original protagonists as they approach middle age and prepare for a summer reunion. Reviewers found the film to be a "sweetly nostalgic comfort food" for fans of the franchise, and with a worldwide gross of $235 million, "American Reunion" emerged as Suvari's most-widely seen film since 2001's "American Pie 2". This film also marked her only wide release in the 2010s, as all of her recent previous and subsequent film productions —"The Knot" (2012), "Don't Blink" (2014), "The Opposite Sex" (2014), "Badge of Honor" (2015), and "Becks" (2017)— premiered on either festival circuits or digital markets.


title: Mena Suvari

text: In the romantic comedy "The Knot", Suvari starred as the soon-to-be-married daughter of a working-class couple, and in the mystery thriller "Don't Blink", Suvari played one in a group of friends who visit an empty remote resort and attempt to find out what happened to the other guests. In its review for the latter film, "FrightFest.co.uk" remarked: "[...] Suvari is wasted and not given a whole lot of screen time considering that her character is the one we're obviously supposed to latch onto". Suvari starred opposite Geoff Stults and Kristin Chenoweth in the romantic comedy "The Opposite Sex", as a young divorcee resenting men who meets a successful, driven attorney and womanizer. The small-scale thriller "Badge of Honor" saw her star as a detective caught up in the aftermath of a violent drug bust.


title: Mena Suvari

text: The independent romantic comedy "Becks" featured Suvari as the friend of a lesbian musician who moves back to St. Louis. Despite finding a limited audience, the film received positive reviews from critics. "The New York Times" felt that the film "exemplifies how small judgments in pace, performance and soundtrack can transcend modest trappings", while "The Washington Post" remarked: "[Lena] Hall and Suvari have a palpable chemistry, both musically and in their relationship".


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari continued to work steadily on television between films and throughout the decade; she obtained the regular role of a political consultant of a firefighter in the second season of the series "Chicago Fire" (2013), and took on the leading role of a demon-hunter for hire in the eight-episode supernatural series "South of Hell" (2015). All episodes of the show aired back-to-back and an eighth episode was made available only through iTunes. The series received generally negative reviews and brought an average of 122,000 viewers. "The Hollywood Reporter", commenting on Suvari, asserted: "[W]hile the prospect of playing [her role] seems like it ought to be enticing for Suvari, her more general interpretation appears to be closer to miserable discomfort, which may be related to either those contact lenses or the strangeness" in her portrayal.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Between 2016 and 2017, Suvari made guest appearances in the television series "Inside Amy Schumer", "Justice League Action", and "American Ninja Warrior", and starred in the made-for-television films "I'll Be Home For Christmas" and "", where she reprised her guest-starring role from the series and basis of the film. The sitcom "American Woman" features Suvari as one of three women discovering their own brand of independence amid the rise of second-wave feminism in the 1970s. The series premiered on June 8, 2018, on Paramount Network. The series was canceled after one season.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari is a model for Lancôme cosmetics and print ads for Lancôme Paris Adaptîve. She has also appeared in print ads for luxury accessories company Coach. She has appeared in commercials for Continental Sauces, Orange and Rice-A-Roni. Suvari has been featured in several fashion blogs and magazines such as "Seventeen", "Elle", "Cosmopolitan" (Hungary, Estonia and the US), "Details", "Rolling Stone", "Vogue", "Marie Claire", "Nylon", "Vanity Fair", "Glamour, Tatler" and "Lucky". She is a frequent guest star at New York Fashion Week, among other fashion events.


title: Mena Suvari

text: "People" magazine published an article about her titled "All-American Girl" in 1999. She was chosen as the most "patriotic" artist of 2000 by "Entertainment Weekly", making allusion to her three consecutive films with the word "American" on their titles: "American Pie" (1999), "American Beauty" (1999) and "American Virgin" (2000).


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari has worked several times with the Natural Resources Defense Council, designing with the group a scarf line called ECHO, which was unveiled at Bloomingdales in Manhattan. She remarked: "I've always been into fashion and I wanted to design something to give to charity". She has also played on the World Poker Tour in the Hollywood Home games for the Starlight Children's Foundation, and is active in female empowerment issues, being involved with several charities whose cause is breast cancer, the "End Violence Against Women" campaign, and tours high schools as a "Circle Of Friends" spokesperson, encouraging teenagers to quit smoking. Suvari is a long-time supporter and activist for the African Medical and Research Foundation, and has visited Africa to work on "small-income-generating and water-and-sanitation projects" with the organization.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari married German-born cinematographer Robert Brinkmann on March 4, 2000. Brinkmann was 17 years her senior. On April 24, 2005, she filed for legal separation, citing irreconcilable differences; the divorce was finalized in May 2005.


title: Mena Suvari

text: In 2007 Suvari began dating Italian Canadian concert promoter Simone Sestito, whom she met at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival. Suvari and Sestito became engaged in July 2008 during a vacation to Jamaica. They were married on June 26, 2010, in a private chapel in Rome. On January 13, 2012, Suvari filed for divorce from him in Los Angeles, citing irreconcilable differences and listing November 1, 2011 as the date of separation. The divorce was finalized in October 2012.


title: Mena Suvari

text: In late 2017 Suvari became a vegan. Since then she has only used cruelty-free and environmentally friendly products, as well as sustainable clothing.


title: Mena Suvari

text: Suvari married set decorator Michael Hope in October 2018. On October 16, 2020, they announced that they were expecting their first child. In April 2021 it was announced that she had given birth to a boy named Christopher.