title: Warriors (novel series)

text: "Warriors: The Broken Code" is the seventh sub-series, consisting of "Lost Stars" (9 April 2019), "The Silent Thaw" (29 October 2019), "Veil of Shadows" (7 April 2020), "Darkness Within" (10 November 2020), "The Place of No Stars" (6 April 2021), and "A Light in the Mist" (9 November 2021). During an unexplained period of silence from StarClan, Bramblestar, leader of ThunderClan, falls ill, and ShadowClan medicine cat Shadowsight receives a vision telling him to let Bramblestar lose a life in order for him to heal. After losing said life, a warrior of ThunderClan named Bristlefrost notices that Bramblestar has begun behaving erratically. Over the course of the series, it is revealed that Bramblestar's body has been possessed by a spirit cat, referred to as the impostor. Shadowsight visits the Dark Forest and discovers Bramblestar's spirit has been trapped. Eventually, a battle ends with the impostor's capture. Squirrelflight realizes the identity of the spirit who has taken over Bramblestar's body: Ashfur, a cat who loved her to the point of obsession. It is also revealed that he has blocked the connection between the living Clans and StarClan. Ashfur then takes Squirrelflight with him to the Dark Forest, where it is revealed that he has taken control of all the spirits of cats who have died since he possessed Bramblestar. Bristlefrost, Shadowsight, and a SkyClan warrior named Rootspring all enter the Dark Forest, where they help Bramblestar's spirit take his body back. After returning to the living Clans, more warriors are again sent to the Dark Forest to defeat Ashfur. A battle ensues, and it ends in the deaths of Bristlefrost and Ashfur. The living cats who ventured into the Dark Forest reunite with StarClan, where they question the warrior code. Ultimately, the Clans are given three moons to rewrite the warrior code so that it may serve the Clans better.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: "Warriors: A Starless Clan" is the eighth sub-series, consisting of "River" (5 April 2022), "Sky" (1 November 2022), "Shadow" (4 April 2023), and three unnamed installments. It revolves around the Clans trying to rewrite the code they live by, and the issues that arise from such a daunting task. The series is written from the viewpoints of Nightheart, a ThunderClan warrior, Sunbeam, a ShadowClan warrior, and Frostpaw, a RiverClan medicine cat apprentice.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Super Editions are stand-alone books in the "Warriors" series that are about 500 pages long, approximately double the length of a regular "Warriors" book. The first Super Edition was "Firestar's Quest", detailing Firestar's journey to rebuild SkyClan, the long-lost fifth Clan of the forest. Other super editions include "Bramblestar's Storm", describing newly appointed ThunderClan leader Bramblestar learning to lead his Clan through hardship, "Yellowfang's Secret", which tells the story of a ShadowClan medicine cat whose son eventually murders his own father and nearly destroys his entire Clan with his vicious conquests, and "Bluestar's Prophecy", which tells the story of Bluestar, ThunderClan's leader before Firestar. There have been 15 Super Editions published thus far, with the most recent, "Onestar's Confession", having been released in September 2022. Each Super Edition contains an exclusive manga chapter at the end. The Super Editions include:


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The authors have also produced multiple "field guides", which include short stories, lists, and art that further detail various aspects of the series' universe. Each installment is usually about 150 pages long. The field guides include:


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Several series of original English-language manga were produced by HarperCollins with Tokyopop. With the shutdown of Tokyopop, subsequent manga volumes have been published under the HarperCollins name alone. The manga series consists of several sub-series, "Graystripe's Adventure", "Tigerstar and Sasha", "Ravenpaw's Path", and "SkyClan and the Stranger", each with three books, as well as the stand-alone book, "The Rise of Scourge", all by Dan Jolley. Starting with "A Shadow in RiverClan", these books were instead marketed as graphic novels and are standalone volumes instead of being parts of trilogies. The mangas include:


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Several novellas have also been written by Erin Hunter and were originally published only in e-book format. They were subsequently published in anthology volumes of three novellas each, starting with "Legends of the Clans". The novellas include:


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The first book of the series, "Into the Wild", was generally well-received, with reviewers calling it a "spine-tingling", "thoroughly engrossing", and "exciting... action-packed adventure". One reviewer praised the authors for "creating an intriguing world... and an engaging young hero". However, another criticized the characters and imagined world as being "neither... consistent nor compelling".


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The manga has also earned praise: a reviewer for "Children's Bookwatch" noted that "Into the Woods" "ends on a tense cliffhanger, leaving the reader in anxious anticipation for more... "Into the Woods"... is especially recommended for cat lovers everywhere". Its sequel, "Escape from the Forest", was also well reviewed: a reviewer for "Publishers Weekly" believed that girls would benefit from reading about Sasha leaving the powerful Tigerstar due to his "growing violence". The art was also praised, with the reviewer writing that "Hudson's artwork brings Sasha's emotional journey to life, showing each moment of fear, anxiety, contentment, and joy. The cat's-eye perspective of many of the panels, in addition, add a dramatic, energizing element to the book". The reviewer also wrote that "a twist at the end will leave fans eager for the next installment of Sasha's saga", and that the book would appeal to young adults trying to find their place in the world. Lisa Goldstein for "School Library Journal" also gave the book a positive review, writing that the plot would attract new fans and appeal to old fans. The reviewer also wrote that "though the cover claims that this is a 'manga', the straightforward illustrations are drawn in a simple, realistic style".


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The large number of characters involved in the series has often been seen as a negative point; though one reviewer compared the "huge cast" to that of a Greek drama, others wrote that it was "hard to follow" and "a little confusing". The characters have also been criticized as being "somewhat flat" and "limited essentially to each individual's function within the clan".


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: As one reviewer put it, the cats in the series are "true to their feline nature", leading some critics to jokingly comment that the books will "leave readers eyeing Puss a bit nervously", and wondering "what dreams of grandeur may haunt the family cat". However, this realism also means that the series contains a relatively large amount of violence, with one critic stating that it is "not for the faint of heart". Several critics have compared "Warriors" to Brian Jacques' "Redwall" series, though one commented that it was "not as elegantly written". "The New York Times" called the series a "hit with young readers", specifically because of its "sprawling universe", and the series appeared on the "New York Times" Best Seller list for a total of 117 weeks, as of 24 November 2013.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: "Into the Wild" was nominated for the Pacific Northwest Library Association's 2006 Young Reader's Choice Awards but lost to Christopher Paolini's "Eragon". It was also listed on "Booklist"s Top 10 fantasy books for youth in 2003 and was a Book Sense 76 Pick. "The Sight" was nominated for the best Middle Readers book in Amazon's Best Books of the Year (2007) and placed sixth out of the ten nominees, with six percent of the total votes. It was also nominated for the Children's Choice Book Awards. In 2006, "Warriors" also received an honourable mention for the best book series for "Publishers Weekly's" "On the Cuff" awards.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Holmes has said that one of the good things about writing a book about cats is that "we can tackle difficult human issues such as death, racial intolerance, and religious intolerance [without seeming so heavy]".


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The series often revolves around forbidden love. These relationships are not allowed for various reasons: some involve medicine cats, who are not allowed to have mates according to the medicine cat code, while others develop between cats in different Clans, which is also forbidden by the warrior code (for example, Graystripe of ThunderClan and Silverstream of RiverClan). Holmes said that another central theme of the series is "faith and spirituality" regarding StarClan. All books in the series feature the influence of StarClan, not just as the cats think of them, but in terms of prophecies delivered by StarClan which inevitably come true. Some scenes take place within StarClan's realm, with no living cats present. Thus, the existence of an afterlife and the influence of spirits who have passed on and yet retain their earthly identities is integral to all of the plot arcs in the series. Another idea explored in the novels is the reactions of different faiths when meeting each other. For example, the Tribe of Rushing Water, which believes in different spiritual ancestors than the Clans, is introduced in "Moonrise". In an author chat, Holmes explained that the books never say that either the Clans or the Tribe of Rushing Water is right about faith because both are "equally valid". This leads to fear and suspicion between them because they are afraid of things they do not understand. Holmes remarked that "ignorance is a very scary thing!" Non-belief is also explored in the storylines through characters, like Cloudtail and Mothwing, who do not believe in StarClan.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Another theme is that characters can be a mix of good and evil. Holmes has said she is fascinated by these "shades of gray" in personalities. Her example of this was when Bluestar, a noble and honorable cat, gave up her kits for her own ambitions. Another example she gave of this is how antagonist Tigerstar, even with all of his faults, is still courageous and fiercely loyal. Similarly, Holmes has also connected the theme to Brambleclaw and how nobody knew whether he was good or evil. A third major theme, often referred to as nature versus nurture, explores whether a character is born the way he or she will be, or if other extrinsic factors shape that. For example, Brambleclaw's father is the evil Tigerstar, but Brambleclaw eventually demonstrates that he is not evil himself, despite initial suspicion from Clanmates due to his father's legacy. This ties into the "shades of gray" theme.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: A reviewer for "Publishers Weekly" noted that friendship and responsibility are taught to characters in the novels, while another reviewer pointed out the idea that, just as Clan cats shun house cats for their soft life, people should realize that it is necessary to experience hardship in life. A Storysnoops reviewer noted that one of the themes was that "it doesn't matter where you come from, only who you are inside". In "Dawn", the importance of cooperation is explored. The four Clans, normally hostile to each other, are forced to work together in order to find a new home. Other themes that have been pointed out deal with family, loss, honor, bravery, death, loyalty, and following rules.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: All of the "Warriors" books except for the manga (excluding "A Shadow in RiverClan") have been published as hardcovers, and the majority of them have also been published as paperbacks, audiobooks, and e-books. The "New Prophecy" audiobooks are spoken by Nanette Savard, whose performance has been praised by reviewers. A reviewer for "AudioFile" wrote: "Nanette Savard brings out the youth of the cats who are struggling to help their clan survive and to protect each other from outside danger". The "Omen of the Stars" audiobooks are spoken by voice actress Veronica Taylor.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The "Warriors" series was first published in the United States and United Kingdom. The editions published of the first two series—"Warriors" and "Warriors: The New Prophecy"—in the United Kingdom had slight variations in cover design from their United States counterparts. "Warriors" is also sold in New Zealand, Australia, and Canada. Translations into other languages such as Czech, Norwegian, Lithuanian, Finnish, Japanese, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, and Korean have also been published. The first six books have been published in Italy and Latin America, and the first five series in Germany and the Netherlands. Fans also exist in Trinidad and Singapore. The first two books have been published in Poland.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The "Warriors" website previously featured "Warriors" screensavers, videos on topics such as the process of writing a manga book, and quizzes. In addition, there were browser-based games including the "New Prophecy Adventure" and the "Warriors Adventure Game". An additional game for the website was planned for release in 2010, but was never released despite a report of having completed first-round testing. It has been stated that there is no plan for an official video game, but if one were to be made, it would likely be based on a movie adaptation of the "Warriors" series. Many fans have resorted to making their own games and websites, many of these sites being play-by-post role-playing game forums. The website was later re-designed and is now accessible via both browser and an official mobile application. Much of the old content was not carried over to the new version of the website, though a new character creation game and an updated version of the family tree have been added.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: On 20 October 2016, Victoria Holmes announced that Alibaba Pictures had bought the production rights for a film adaptation with David Heyman as producer, and a movie poster was released. On 14 May 2018, it was announced that STX Entertainment had come on board to co-produce the "Warriors" film, with STX board member Gigi Pritzker working alongside Heyman. It was also announced that screenwriters Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger would write the screenplay for the movie. No director or release date has yet been announced for the film, and no information has been released since.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: The first short story written by Erin Hunter is "Spottedleaf's Honest Answer", in which the spirit of former ThunderClan medicine cat Spottedleaf discusses her love for Firestar. In the process, the story provides readers with information on events that occurred in the "Warriors" series from "Into the Wild" to "Firestar's Quest".


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: On 20 January 2009, another short story, "The Clans Decide," was released on the "Warriors Ultimate Leader Election" site, starring Firestar, who won an election through an online fan vote conducted in recognition of US President Obama's Inauguration Day. In the story, cats from the four Clans vote on whether or not the Clans should work together to survive a tough winter; the cats ultimately vote in favor of working together.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Two short stories, "After Sunset: The Right Choice?" and "The Elders' Concern", were previously available through the defunct "Warriors" mobile application. "The Elders' Concern" has been noted to contain timeline errors. Taking place after Bluestar's selection of Fireheart for deputy, the story details the elder Halftail waking the other elders to discuss his discontent with the decision with them. In "After Sunset: The Right Choice?", Brambleclaw, after killing his half-brother Hawkfrost to save Firestar (as depicted in "Sunset"), worries about Firestar's reaction, but Firestar turns out to be proud of him. Additionally, in 2009, an educator's guide was released.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: Written by Victoria Holmes for a tour, a play titled "After Sunset: We Need to Talk" was first premiered on 28 April 2007 at the Secret Garden bookstore in Seattle, Washington. It details a meeting between Leafpool of ThunderClan and Crowfeather of WindClan after the events of "Sunset". The script was released to the public on the old official site for the "Warriors" series.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: During a fundraising event in Russellville, Arkansas, "Brightspirit's Mercy" was performed by various high school drama students. The second of two plays by Erin Hunter, "Brightspirit's Mercy" is about Jaypaw, Lionblaze, and Hollyleaf. In the play, the characters go to a Gathering where it is obvious all of the Clans except for ThunderClan are starving. Three cats from StarClan appear to them: Brightspirit and her parents, Shiningheart and Braveheart, characters created on "Wands and Worlds", a fantasy fiction forum, in memory of a 10-year-old "Warriors" fan, Emmy Grace Cherry, and her parents, Dana and Jimmy Cherry, all three of whom were killed in a tornado in February 2007. They tell the three young cats that they must help feed the other Clans. Jaypaw is easily convinced, but Hollyleaf and Lionblaze are harder to win over. Eventually, they agree and hunt, then wait at the WindClan border for a patrol. Ashfoot, WindClan's deputy, accepts the gift, but Breezepaw, too proud to have help from another Clan, refuses to eat it. Jaypaw, Lionblaze, and Hollyleaf then head towards another Clan's territory.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: In the Chinese translation of the series, "3-D trading cards" are packaged in each book. The 3-D effect is produced using stereoscopic lenticular printing. These cards feature pictures of the cats on the center of the book cover and their Chinese and English names, and biographical information on the back. In 2019, when the official "Warriors" Hub app was released, several pieces of official, licensed merchandise were released as well. This included Clan-themed posters, pins, bracelets, bookmarks, stationery, figurines, necklaces, bags, and shirts. Small plush heads and full-sized plush toys of various characters have also been produced, as well as small figurines.


title: Warriors (novel series)

text: On 30 June 2011, an official iOS application and Android application was released on the iTunes App Store and Google Play Store. It contained information about the books in the series, profiles of the Clans and major characters (including app-exclusive information), an interactive timeline and maps, two application-exclusive short stories, a trivia game, and a list of all the "Warriors" books that had been released at that point. The app was eventually removed from the App Store. In 2019, an updated "Warriors" app was released, through which one could access blogs and analysis written by the editors of the series, shop for merchandise, browse fanart, and vote in polls, some of which affect the plot of the "Warriors" series.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: The Line () is a linear smart city under construction in Saudi Arabia in Neom, Tabuk Province, which is designed to have no cars, streets or carbon emissions. The city is part of Saudi Vision 2030 project, which Saudi Arabia claims will create 460,000 jobs and add $48 billion to the country's GDP. The Line is planned to be the first development in Neom, a $500 billion project. The city's plans anticipate a population of 9 million. Excavation work had started along the entire length of the project by October 2022.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: The project has faced criticism over its impact on the environment and the current population of the area, as well as doubts about its technological and economic viability.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: The Line is planned to be long, preserving 95% of the nature within Neom. It will stretch from the Red Sea approximately to the city of Tabuk, on the Hejaz railway. It is intended that it will have nine million residents, resulting in a population density of 260,000 people per square kilometer. By comparison, Manila, the world's most densely populated city in 2020, had a density of 44,000/km. The Line's plan consists of two mirrored buildings with an outdoor space inbetween, having a total width of and a total height of .


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: The city will be powered entirely by renewable energy. It will consist of three layers, one on the surface for pedestrians, one underground for infrastructure, and another underground for transportation.Artificial intelligence will monitor the city and use predictive and data models to find ways to improve daily life for its citizens, with residents being paid for submitting data to The Line.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: The estimated building cost is US$100–200 billion (– billion SAR), with some estimates as high as $1 trillion. It is claimed by the Saudi government that it will create 460,000 jobs, spur economic diversification, and contribute 180 billion SAR (US$ billion) to domestic GDP by 2030.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: The plan for The Line was announced on January 10, 2021, by Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman in a presentation that was broadcast on state television. Earthworks began in October 2021 and the first residents were expected to move in during 2024. , the first phase of the project was scheduled to be completed in 2030.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, also Chairman of the NEOM Board of Directors, released a statement and promotional video on July 25, 2022, which led to more widespread media coverage of the project. This raised questions about the merits of the design and environmental issues, with critics concerned that the project would create a "dystopian" and "artificial" facility that had already displaced the Huwaitat indigenous tribe and would impact the migration of birds and wildlife.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: In October 2022, drone footage released by Ot Sky confirmed that construction on The Line was under way and extensive excavation works were taking place along the entire length of the project.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: In an interview with "Dezeen", associate professor Marshall Brown at Princeton University said he believed that in such large-scale urban planning, it would be difficult to achieve the slick, futuristic aesthetic seen in the concept art because of the large number of factors involved. Hélène Chartier of C40 Cities compared The Line to other, unrealized, linear city projects, such as the 1882 design by Soria and a 1965 proposal for a linear settlement in New Jersey.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: Dutch architect Winy Maas said that while he would love to live in such an environment, its profile as seen in the concept art was monotonous and he believed it would facilitate unfavorable wind flow through the interior. He praised the overall concept for tackling densification and heat regulation inside the city. Philip Oldfield of the University of New South Wales said that the quality of life would probably come down to whether the city was well-managed, rather than to its visual flair.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: Oldfield said the project would have a carbon footprint of about 1.8 gigatonnes of CO equivalent in the glass, steel, and concrete, because "you cannot build a 500-metre-tall building out of low-carbon materials". He said the 170-km profile would create a large-scale barrier to adjacent ecosystems and migratory species similar to that created by highways, and the mirrored exterior façade would be dangerous for birds.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: Digital rights researchers such as Vincent Mosco suggested that the city's data collection scheme could make it a "surveillance city", because of arrangements that would distort consent to sharing data, and because Saudi Arabia's poor human rights record might imply potential misuse of data. Joseph Bradley said that the Neom coordinators were resolving privacy issues, and that Saudi Arabia had a personal data protection law.


title: The Line, Saudi Arabia

text: Aside from the merits of the projected city, there was also scrutiny of the actions of the Saudi government in pursuing the project. In October 2022, Shadli, Ibrahim and Ataullah al-Huwaiti, of the Howeitat tribe, were sentenced to death when they refused to vacate their village as part of the NEOM megaproject. Shadli al-Huwaiti was the brother of Abdul Rahim al-Huwaiti, who was shot dead by security forces in April 2020 in his home in Al-Khariba, in the part of Tabuk province earmarked for NEOM, after he posted videos on social media opposing the displacement of local residents to make way for the project.


title: Codependency

text: In sociology, codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behavior such as addiction, poor mental health, immaturity, irresponsibility, or under-achievement.


title: Codependency

text: Definitions of codependency vary, but typically include high self-sacrifice, a focus on others' needs, suppression of one's own emotions, and attempts to control or fix other people's problems. People who self-identify as codependent exhibit low self-esteem, but it is unclear whether this is a cause or an effect of characteristics associated with codependency. Codependency is not limited to married, partnered, or romantic relationships, as co-workers, friends, and family members can be codependent as well.


title: Codependency

text: The term “codependency” most likely developed in Minnesota in the late 1970s from “co-alcoholic”, when alcoholism and other drug dependencies were grouped together as “chemical dependency.” The term is most often identified with Alcoholics Anonymous and the realization that the Alcoholism was not solely about the addict but also about the family and friends who constitute a network for the alcoholic.


title: Codependency

text: The term “codependent” was first used to describe how family members and friends might interfere with the recovery of a person affected by a substance use disorder by "overhelping". Application of the concept of codependency was driven by the self-help community.


title: Codependency

text: In 1986, Psychiatrist Timmen Cermak wrote "Diagnosing and Treating Co-Dependence: A Guide for Professionals". In that book and an article published in the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, Cermak argued unsuccessfully for the inclusion of codependency as a separate personality disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-III-R. He found that the condition could affect people close to people with any mental disorder, not just addiction.


title: Codependency

text: Melody Beattie popularized the concept of codependency in 1986 with the book "Codependent No More" which sold eight million copies. Drawing on her personal experience with substance abuse and caring for someone with it, she also interviewed people helped by Al-Anon. She released new editions in 1992 and 2022. Beattie's work formed the underpinning of a twelve-step organisation called Co-Dependents Anonymous, founded in 1986, although the group does not endorse any definition of or diagnostic criteria for codependency.


title: Codependency

text: Codependency has no established definition or diagnostic criteria within the mental health community. It has not been included as a condition in any edition of the DSM or ICD.


title: Codependency

text: Codependency carries three potential levels of meaning. First, it can describe a didactic tool that, once explained to families, helps them normalize the feelings that they are experiencing and allows them to shift their focus from the dependent person to their own dysfunctional behavior patterns. Second, it can describe a psychological concept, a shorthand means of describing and explaining human behavior. Third, it can describe a psychological disorder, implying that there is a consistent pattern of traits or behaviors across individuals that can create significant dysfunction.


title: Codependency

text: Discussion of codependency tends to focus on the disease model of the term, although there is no agreement that codependency is a disorder at all, or how such a disease entity might be defined or diagnosed. In an early attempt to define codependency as a diagnosable disorder, Timmen Cermak wrote, "Co-dependence is a recognisable pattern of personality traits, predictably found within most members of chemically dependent families, which are capable of creating sufficient dysfunction to warrant the diagnosis of Mixed Personality Disorder as outlined in DSM III." Timmen proceeded to list the traits he identified in self-suppressing supporting partners of people with chemical dependence or disordered personalities, and to provide a DSM-style set of diagnostic criteria.


title: Codependency

text: In her self-help book, Melody Beattie proposes that, "The obvious definition [of codependency] would be: being a partner in dependency. This definition is close to the truth but still unclear." Beattie elaborates, "A codependent person is one who has let another person's behaviour affect him or her, and who is obsessed with controlling that person's behaviour." Another self-help author, Darlene Lancer, asserts that "A codependent is a person who can’t function from his or her innate self and instead organizes thinking and behavior around a substance, process, or other person(s)." Lancer includes all addicts in her definition. She believes a "lost self" is the core of codependency.


title: Codependency

text: Co-Dependents Anonymous, a self-help organization for people who seek to develop healthy and functional relationships, "offer[s] no definition or diagnostic criteria for codependence", but provides a list of "patterns and characteristics of codependence" that can be used by laypeople for self-evaluation. The organization identifies patterns that may occur in codependency.


title: Codependency

text: The Medical Subject Heading utilized by the United States National Library of Medicine describes codependency as "A relational pattern in which a person attempts to derive a sense of purpose through relationships with others."


title: Codependency

text: Under theories of codependency as a psychological disorder, the codependent partner in a relationship is often described as displaying self-perception, attitudes and behaviors that serve to increase problems within the relationship instead of decreasing them. It is often suggested that people who are codependent were raised in dysfunctional families or with early exposure to addiction behavior, resulting in their allowance of similar patterns of behavior by their partner.


title: Codependency

text: Codependent relationships are often described as being marked by intimacy problems, dependency, control (including caretaking), denial, dysfunctional communication and boundaries, and high reactivity. There may be imbalance within the relationship, where one person is abusive or in control or supports or enables another person's addiction, poor mental health, immaturity, irresponsibility, or under-achievement.


title: Codependency

text: Under this conception of codependency, the codependent person's sense of purpose within a relationship is based on making extreme sacrifices to satisfy their partner's needs. Codependent relationships signify a degree of unhealthy "clinginess" and needy behavior, where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy. One or both parties depend on their loved one for fulfillment. The mood and emotions of the codependent are often determined by how they think other individuals perceive them (especially loved ones). This perception is self-inflicted and often leads to clingy, needy behavior which can hurt the health of the relationship.


title: Codependency

text: Codependency may occur within the context of relationships with people with diagnosable personality disorders.


title: Codependency

text: In the dysfunctional family the child learns to become attuned to the parent's needs and feelings instead of the other way around. Parenting is a role that requires a certain amount of self-sacrifice and giving a child's needs a high priority. A parent can be codependent toward their own child. Generally, a parent who takes care of their own needs (emotional and physical) in a healthy way will be a better caretaker, whereas a codependent parent may be less effective, or may even do harm to a child. Codependent relationships often manifest through enabling behaviors, especially between parents and their children. Another way to look at it is that the needs of an infant are necessary but temporary, whereas the needs of the codependent are constant. Children of codependent parents who ignore or negate their own feelings may become codependent.


title: Codependency

text: With no consensus as to how codependency should be defined, and with no recognized diagnostic criteria, mental health professionals hold a range of opinions about the diagnosis and treatment of codependency. Caring for an individual with a physical addiction is not necessarily treating a pathology. The caregiver may only require assertiveness skills and the ability to place responsibility for the addiction on the other. There are various recovery paths for individuals who struggle with codependency. For example, some may choose cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy, sometimes accompanied by chemical therapy for accompanying depression. There also exist support groups for codependency, such as Co-Dependents Anonymous (CoDA), Al-Anon/Alateen, Nar-Anon, and Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACoA), which are based on the twelve-step program model of Alcoholics Anonymous, Celebrate Recovery and Life Recovery a Christian 12 step Bible-based group. Many self-help guides have been written on the subject of codependency.


title: Codependency

text: It has been proposed that, in attempts to recover from codependency, go from being overly passive or overly giving to being overly aggressive or excessively selfish. Therapists may seek to help a client develop a balance through healthy assertiveness, which leaves room for being a caring person and also engaging in healthy caring behavior, while minimizing selfishness, bully, or behaviors that might reflect conflict addiction. Developing a permanent stance of being a victim (having a victim mentality) does not constitute recovery from codependency. A victim mentality could also be seen as a part of one's original state of codependency (lack of empowerment causing one to feel like the "subject" of events rather than being an empowered actor). Someone truly recovered from codependency would feel empowered and like an author of their life and actions rather than being at the mercy of outside forces. A victim mentality may also occur in combination with passive–aggressive control issues. From the perspective of moving beyond victim-hood, the capacity to forgive and let go (with exception of cases of very severe abuse) could also be signs of real recovery from codependency, but the willingness to endure further abuse would not.


title: Codependency

text: It is theorized that unresolved patterns of codependency may lead to more serious problems like alcoholism, drug addiction, eating disorders, sex addiction, psychosomatic illnesses, and other self-destructive or self-defeating behaviors. People with codependency may be more likely to attract further abuse from aggressive individuals (such as those with BPD or NPD), more likely to stay in stressful jobs or relationships, less likely to seek medical attention when needed and are also less likely to get promotions and tend to earn less money than those without codependency patterns. For some people, the social insecurity caused by codependency may progress into full-blown social anxiety disorders like social phobia, avoidant personality disorder or painful shyness. Other stress-related disorders like panic disorder, depression or PTSD may also be present.


title: Codependency

text: Codependency is not a diagnosable mental health condition, there is no medical consensus as to its definition, and there is no evidence that codependency is caused by a disease process. Without clinical definition, the term is easily applicable to many behaviors and has been overused by some self-help authors and support communities. In an article in Psychology Today, clinician Kristi Pikiewicz suggested that the term "codependency" has been overused to the point of becoming a cliché, and labeling a patient as codependent can shift the focus on how their traumas shaped their current relationships.


title: Codependency

text: Some scholars and treatment providers assert should be understood as a positive impulse gone awry, and challenge the idea that interpersonal behaviors should be conceptualized as addictions or diseases, and the pathologizing of personality characteristics associated with women. A study of the characteristics associated with codependency found that non-codependency was associated with masculine character traits, while codependency was associated with negative feminine traits, such as being self-denying, self-sacrificing,


title: Eve Best

text: Emily "Eve" Best (born 31 July 1971) is an English actress and director. She is known for her television roles as Dr. Eleanor O'Hara in the Showtime series "Nurse Jackie" (2009–13), First Lady Dolley Madison in the "American Experience" television special (2011), and Monica Chatwin in the BBC miniseries "The Honourable Woman" (2014). She also played Wallis Simpson in the 2010 film "The King's Speech".


title: Eve Best

text: Best won the 2006 Olivier Award for Best Actress for playing the title role in "Hedda Gabler". She made her Broadway debut in the 2007 revival of "A Moon for the Misbegotten", winning the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play, and receiving the first of two nominations for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play; the second was for the revival of "The Homecoming" in 2008. She returned to Broadway in the 2015 revival of "Old Times". She was cast as Princess Rhaenys Targaryen in HBO’s "House of the Dragon".


title: Eve Best

text: Best grew up in Ladbroke Grove, London, the daughter of a design journalist and an actress. Her early performances were with the W11 Opera children's opera company in London at the age of nine. She attended Wycombe Abbey Girls' School before going on to Lincoln College, Oxford, where she studied English. After graduating from Oxford where she had appeared in Oxford University Dramatic Society productions and performed at the Edinburgh Festival, she made her professional debut as Beatrice in "Much Ado About Nothing" at the Southwark Playhouse.


title: Eve Best

text: After working on the London fringe, Best trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London. After graduating in 1999 she appeared in a revival of "'Tis Pity She's a Whore" at the Young Vic for which she won both the "Evening Standard" and Critics' Circle best newcomer awards; she adopted her grandmother's name as a stage name, as an Emily Best was already registered with British Actors' Equity Association.


title: Eve Best

text: Best won a Laurence Olivier Award for playing the title role in "Hedda Gabler" and was nominated for the same award the following year for her performance as Josie in Eugene O'Neill's play "A Moon for the Misbegotten" at the Old Vic Theatre in London.


title: Eve Best

text: In early 2007, she starred in a Sheffield Crucible production of "As You Like It" which played for a short time at the RSC's Swan Theatre in Stratford as part of their Complete Works season. In the same year she performed in the Broadway transfer of "A Moon for the Misbegotten" for which she was nominated for a Tony Award as Best Actress in a Play.


title: Eve Best

text: Best appeared in Harold Pinter's "The Homecoming" at the Cort Theatre in New York, which co-starred Ian McShane, Raúl Esparza and Michael McKean. Daniel Sullivan directed the 20-week limited engagement, which ran until 13 April 2008. She once again appeared as Beatrice in a critically acclaimed production of "Much Ado About Nothing" at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in 2011, playing opposite Charles Edwards as Benedick and starred in the Old Vic production of The Duchess of Malfi in 2012. She made her directorial debut with a production of Macbeth at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in 2013.


title: Eve Best

text: Television appearances include "Prime Suspect: The Final Act" (2006), "Waking the Dead (2004)," "Shackleton (2002)", and "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries (2005)".


title: Eve Best

text: She appeared as Lucrece in the Naxos audiobook version of Shakespeare's "The Rape of Lucrece". She also starred in a 2000 BBC Radio 4 production of "Emma".


title: Eve Best

text: Best co-starred as Dr. Eleanor O'Hara in the Showtime dark comedy series "Nurse Jackie", that premiered in June 2009. She played the Duchess of Windsor – Wallis Simpson – in "The King's Speech", starring Colin Firth and Geoffrey Rush.


title: Eve Best

text: Best also co-starred as Sally Ride, the first American woman in space, alongside William Hurt in "The Challenger Disaster", a British made for TV dramatization of the Rogers Commission set up to investigate the 1986 Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster.


title: Eve Best

text: In summer 2014 Best played Cleopatra, the leading role in the Shakespeare's Globe version of "Antony and Cleopatra". She returned to Broadway in the 2015 revival of the Pinter play "Old Times", opposite Clive Owen and Kelly Reilly. She played headmistress Farah Dowling in "".


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Young Frankenstein is a 1974 American comedy horror film directed by Mel Brooks. The screenplay was co-written by Brooks and Gene Wilder. Wilder also starred in the lead role as the title character, a descendant of the infamous Dr. Victor Frankenstein. Peter Boyle portrayed the monster. The film co-stars Teri Garr, Cloris Leachman, Marty Feldman, Madeline Kahn, Kenneth Mars, Richard Haydn, and Gene Hackman.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: The film is a parody of the classic horror film genre, in particular the various film adaptations of Mary Shelley's 1818 novel "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus" produced by Universal Pictures in the 1930s. Much of the lab equipment used as props was created by Kenneth Strickfaden for the 1931 film "Frankenstein". To help evoke the atmosphere of the earlier films, Brooks shot the picture entirely in black and white, a rarity in the 1970s, and employed 1930s-style opening credits and scene transitions such as iris outs, wipes, and fades to black. The film also features a period score by Brooks' longtime composer John Morris.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: A critical favorite and box-office hit, "Young Frankenstein" ranks No. 28 on "Total Film" magazine's readers' "List of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films of All Time", No. 56 on Bravo's list of the "100 Funniest Movies", and No. 13 on the American Film Institute's list of the 100 funniest American movies. In 2003, it was deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the United States National Film Preservation Board, and selected for preservation in the Library of Congress National Film Registry. It was later adapted by Brooks and Thomas Meehan as a stage musical. The film received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Sound and Best Adapted Screenplay, the latter of which was a nomination shared with Wilder and Brooks.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: On its 40th anniversary, Brooks considered it by far his finest (although not his funniest) film as a writer-director.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Dr. Frederick Frankenstein is a lecturing physician at an American medical school and engaged to Elizabeth, a socialite. He becomes exasperated when anyone brings up the subject of his grandfather Victor Frankenstein, the infamous mad scientist with whom he does not want to be associated, and insists that his surname is pronounced "Fronkensteen". When a solicitor informs him that he has inherited his family's estate in Transylvania after the death of his great-grandfather, the Baron Beaufort von Frankenstein, Frederick travels to Europe to inspect the property. At the Transylvania train station, he is met by a hunchbacked, bug-eyed servant named Igor, whose own grandfather worked for Victor; and a beautiful, young, female assistant named Inga. Hearing that the professor pronounces his name "Fronkensteen", Igor insists that his name is pronounced "Eyegor", rather than the traditional "Eegor".


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Arriving at the estate, Frederick meets Frau Blücher, the intimidating housekeeper. After discovering the secret entrance to Victor's laboratory and reading his private journals, Frederick decides to resume his grandfather's experiments in re-animating the dead. He and Igor steal the corpse of a recently executed criminal, and Frederick sets to work experimenting on the large corpse. He sends Igor to steal the brain of a deceased "scientist and saint", Hans Delbrück. Startled by his own reflection, Igor drops and ruins Delbrück's brain. Taking a second brain labeled "Abnormal", Igor returns with it, and Frederick transplants it into the corpse, thinking he has transplanted Delbrück's brain.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Frederick brings the creature to life by electrical charges during a lightning storm. The creature takes its first steps, but, frightened by Igor lighting a match, he attacks Frederick and nearly strangles him before he is sedated. Meanwhile, unaware of the creature's existence, the townspeople gather to discuss their unease at Frederick continuing his grandfather's work. Inspector Kemp, a one-eyed police official with a prosthetic arm, whose German accent is so thick that even his own countrymen cannot understand him, proposes to visit the doctor, whereupon he demands assurance that Frankenstein will not create another monster. Returning to the lab, Frederick discovers Blücher setting the creature free. She reveals the monster's love of violin music and her own romantic relationship with Frederick's grandfather. The creature is enraged by sparks from a thrown switch and escapes the castle.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: While roaming the countryside, the monster has encounters with a young girl and a blind hermit, references to 1931's "Frankenstein" and 1935's "Bride of Frankenstein", respectively. Frederick recaptures the monster and locks himself in a room with him. He calms the monster's homicidal tendencies with flattery and a promise to guide him to success, embracing his heritage as a Frankenstein. At a theater full of illustrious guests, Frederick shows "The Creature" following simple commands. The demonstration continues with Frederick and the monster, both in top hats and tuxedos, performing the musical number "Puttin' On the Ritz". A stage light suddenly explodes and frightens the monster, interrupting the performance. The audience boo and throw vegetables at the monster, who becomes enraged and charges into the audience, where he is captured and chained by police. Back in the laboratory, Inga attempts to comfort Frederick, and they fornicate on the suspended reanimation table.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: The monster escapes from prison the same night that Frederick's fiancée Elizabeth arrives unexpectedly for a visit. The monster takes her captive as he flees. Elizabeth falls in love with the creature due to his "enormous Schwanzstucker". While the townspeople hunt for the monster, Frederick plays the violin to lure his creation back to the castle and recaptures him. Just as the Kemp-led mob storms the laboratory, Frankenstein transfers some of his stabilizing intellect to the creature, who reasons with and placates the mob. Elizabeth, with her hair styled after that of the female creature from "Bride of Frankenstein", marries the now erudite and sophisticated monster; while Inga, in bed with Frederick, asks what her new husband got in return during the transfer procedure. Frederick growls wordlessly and embraces Inga who, as Elizabeth did when abducted by the monster, sings the refrain "Ah, Sweet Mystery of Life".


title: Young Frankenstein

text: In one of the scenes of a village assembly, one of the authority figures says that he already knows what Frankenstein is up to based on five previous experiences. This is a reference to the first five Universal films. In a Gene Wilder DVD interview, he says the film is based on "Frankenstein" (1931), "The Bride of Frankenstein" (1935), "Son of Frankenstein" (1939) and "The Ghost of Frankenstein" (1942).


title: Young Frankenstein

text: In a 2016 interview with "Creative Screenwriting", Brooks elaborated on the writing process. He recalled,


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Little by little, every night, Gene and I met at his bungalow at the Bel Air Hotel. We ordered a pot of Earl Grey tea coupled with a container of cream and a small kettle of brown sugar cubes. To go with it we had a pack of British digestive biscuits. And step-by-step, ever so cautiously, we proceeded on a dark narrow twisting path to the eventual screenplay in which good sense and caution are thrown out the window and madness ensues.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Brooks and Wilder argued over the sequence where Frankenstein and his creation perform "Puttin' on the Ritz". Brooks felt it would be too silly to have the monster sing and dance, but eventually yielded to Wilder's arguments in defense of the sequence.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Unlike in many of his other films, Brooks does not appear onscreen in a significant role in "Young Frankenstein", though he recorded several voice parts and portrays a German villager in one short scene. In 2012, Brooks explained why:


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Brooks and producer Michael Gruskoff originally agreed a deal with Columbia Pictures but Columbia wouldn't agree to a budget of more than $1.75 million whereas Brooks wanted at least $2.3 million. Columbia also weren't happy making it in black and white so Brooks and Gruskoff instead went to 20th Century Fox for distribution after they agreed to a higher budget.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Principal photography began on February 19, 1974, and wrapped on May 3, 1974. To recreate the visual style of the old Universal horror films, Brooks shot the film in black-and-white, employed vintage style opening credits, used wipes and irises for scene transitions, and even used the original Kenneth Strickfaden lab equipment from the 1931 "Frankenstein".


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Marty Feldman added a comic twist to his character, by deliberately swapping which side the hump on his back was located; when Doctor Frankenstein asks him about it, Igor replies simply: "What hump?" Wilder had written the role specifically for Feldman.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: "Young Frankenstein" was a box office success upon release. The film grossed $86.2 million on a $2.78 million budget.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: "Young Frankenstein" received critical acclaim from critics and currently holds a 94% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The consensus reads, "Made with obvious affection for the original, "Young Frankenstein" is a riotously silly spoof featuring a fantastic performance by Gene Wilder."


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called the film "Mel Brooks' funniest, most cohesive comedy to date," adding, "It would be misleading to describe 'Young Frankenstein,' written by Mr. Wilder and Mr. Brooks, as astoundingly witty, but it's a great deal of low fun of the sort that Mr. Brooks specializes in." Roger Ebert gave the film a full four stars, calling it Brooks' "most disciplined and visually inventive film (it also happens to be very funny)." Gene Siskel gave the film three stars out of four and wrote, "Part homage and part send-up, 'Young Frankenstein' is very funny in its best moments, but they're all too infrequent." "Variety" declared, "The screen needs one outrageously funny Mel Brooks film each year, and "Young Frankenstein" is an excellent followup for the enormous audiences that howled for much of 1974 at "Blazing Saddles".'"


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" praised the film as "a likable, unpredictable blending of slapstick and sentiment." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post," who disliked "Blazing Saddles", reported being "equally untickled" with "Young Frankenstein" and wrote that "Wilder and Brooks haven't dreamed up a funny plot. They simply rely on the old movie plots to get them through a rambling collection of scene parodies and a more or less constant stream of puns, double entendres and other verbal rib-pokers and thigh-slappers." Tom Milne of the UK's "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote in a mixed review that "all too often Brooks resorts to the most clichéd sort of "Carry On" smut" and criticized Marty Feldman's "grotesquely unfunny mugging," but praised a couple of sequences (the flower-throwing scene and the Monster's encounter with the blind man) as "very close to brilliance" and called Peter Boyle as the Monster "one of the undiluted pleasures of the film (and the only actor ever to suggest that he might play the part as well as Karloff)."


title: Young Frankenstein

text: In his book "Comedy-Horror Films: A Chronological History, 1914-2008", Bruce G. Hallenbeck lauded many of "Young Frankenstein"s scenes as classic comedy moments, and also praised the attention to detail the film shows in paying heartfelt homage to the classic horror films it references. He summed up that ""Young Frankenstein" is a movie for film buffs, but written, directed and performed in such a way that average Joes and Josephines can enjoy it just as much for its outrageous and wacky humor."


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Igor's line "walk this way" in the film inspired the song of the same name by Aerosmith. According to Gene Wilder, the joke was added while shooting the scene by Mel Brooks, inspired by the old "talcum powder" joke. A partially contradictory account appears in "eyE Marty", Feldman's posthumously published autobiography: Feldman recalls spontaneously doing the "walk this way" shtick to make his colleagues laugh, with Brooks then insisting, despite Wilder's and Feldman's reservations, that it stay in the film.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: "Young Frankenstein" became available on DVD on November 3, 1998. The film was then released on DVD for the second time on September 5, 2006. The film was then released on DVD for the third time on September 9, 2014, as a 40th anniversary edition along with a Blu-ray release.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: Brooks adapted the film into a musical of the same name which premiered in Seattle at the Paramount Theatre and ran from August 7 to September 1, 2007. The musical opened on Broadway at the Foxwoods Theatre (then the Hilton Theatre) on November 8, 2007 and closed on January 4, 2009. It was nominated for three Tony Awards, and starred Roger Bart, Sutton Foster, Shuler Hensley, Megan Mullally, Christopher Fitzgerald, and Andrea Martin.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: The musical version was to be used as the basis of a live broadcast event on the ABC network in the last quarter of 2020, with Brooks producing, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Young Frankenstein

text: James Van Hise. "Films Fantastique presents "Young Frankenstein"". "Rocket's Blast Comicollector" #146 (Nov. 1978), pp.6-14. On the writing, pre-production and filming of the picture.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Robert Michael Mapplethorpe (; November 4, 1946 – March 9, 1989) was an American photographer, best known for his black-and-white photographs. His work featured an array of subjects, including celebrity portraits, male and female nudes, self-portraits, and still-life images. His most controversial works documented and examined the gay male BDSM subculture of New York City in the late 1960s and early 1970s. A 1989 exhibition of Mapplethorpe's work, titled "Robert Mapplethorpe: The Perfect Moment", sparked a debate in the United States concerning both use of public funds for "obscene" artwork and the Constitutional limits of free speech in the United States.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Mapplethorpe was born in the Floral Park neighborhood of Queens, New York, the son of Joan Dorothy (Maxey) and Harry Irving Mapplethorpe, an electrical engineer. He was of English, Irish, and German descent, and grew up as a Catholic in Our Lady of the Snows Parish. Mapplethorpe attended Martin Van Buren High School, graduating in 1963. He had three brothers and two sisters. One of his brothers, Edward, later worked for him as an assistant and became a photographer as well. He studied for a Bachelor of Fine Arts from the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, where he majored in Graphic Arts, though he dropped out in 1969 before finishing his degree.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Mapplethorpe lived with his girlfriend Patti Smith from 1967 to 1972, and she supported him by working in bookstores. They created art together, and maintained a close friendship throughout Mapplethorpe's life.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Mapplethorpe took his first photographs in the late 1960s or early 1970s using a Polaroid camera. He also designed and sold his own jewelry, which was worn by Warhol superstar Joe Dallesandro.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In 1972, Mapplethorpe met art curator Sam Wagstaff, who would become his mentor, lover, patron, and lifetime companion. In the mid-1970s, Wagstaff acquired a Hasselblad medium-format camera and Mapplethorpe began taking photographs of a wide circle of friends and acquaintances, including artists, composers, and socialites. During this time, he became friends with New Orleans artist George Dureau, whose work had such a profound impact on Mapplethorpe that he restaged many of Dureau's early photographs. From 1977 until 1980, Mapplethorpe was the lover of writer and "Drummer" editor Jack Fritscher, who introduced him to the Mineshaft (a members-only BDSM gay leather bar and sex club in Manhattan). Mapplethorpe took many pictures of the Mineshaft and was at one point its official photographer (... "After dinner I go to the Mineshaft.")


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: By the 1980s, Mapplethorpe's subject matter focused on statuesque male and female nudes, delicate flower still lifes, and highly formal portraits of artists and celebrities. Mapplethorpe's first studio was at 24 Bond Street in Manhattan. In the 1980s, Wagstaff bought a top-floor loft at 35 West 23rd Street for Robert, where he resided, also using it as a photo-shoot studio. He kept the Bond Street loft as his darkroom. In 1988, Mapplethorpe selected Patricia Morrisroe to write his biography, which was based on more than 300 interviews with celebrities, critics, lovers, and Mapplethorpe himself.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Mapplethorpe died at the age of 42 due to complications from HIV/AIDS in a Boston hospital on March 9, 1989. His body was cremated. His ashes are interred at St. John's Cemetery, Queens in New York City, at his mother's grave-site, etched "Maxey".


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Nearly a year before his death, the ailing Mapplethorpe helped found the Robert Mapplethorpe Foundation, Inc. His vision for the Foundation was that it would be "the appropriate vehicle to protect his work, to advance his creative vision, and to promote the causes he cared about". Since his death, the Foundation has not only functioned as his official estate and helped promote his work throughout the world, but has also raised and donated millions of dollars to fund medical research in the fight against AIDS and HIV infection. In 1991 the Foundation received the Large Nonprofit Organization of the Year award as part of the Pantheon of Leather Awards. The Foundation donated $1 million towards the 1993 establishment of the Robert Mapplethorpe Residence, a six-story townhouse for long-term residential AIDS treatment on East 17th Street in New York City, in partnership with Beth Israel Medical Center. The residence closed in 2015 citing financial difficulties. The Foundation also promotes fine art photography at the institutional level. The Foundation helps determine which galleries represent Mapplethorpe's art. In 2011, the Robert Mapplethorpe Foundation donated the , spanning from 1970 to 1989, to the Getty Research Institute.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Mapplethorpe worked primarily in a studio, and almost exclusively in black and white, with the exception of some of his later work and his final exhibit "New Colors". His body of work features a wide range of subjects and the greater part of his work is on erotic imagery. He would refer to some of his own work as pornographic, with the aim of arousing the viewer, but which could also be regarded as high art. His erotic art explored a wide range of sexual subjects, depicting the BDSM subculture of New York in the 1970s, portrayals of black male nudes, and classical nudes of female bodybuilders. One of the black models he worked with regularly was Derrick Cross, whose pose for the self-titled image in 1983 has been compared to the "Farnese Hercules." Mapplethorpe was a participant observer for much of his erotic photography, participating in the sexual acts which he was photographing and engaging his models sexually.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Other subjects included flowers, especially orchids and calla lilies, children, statues, and celebrities and other artists, including Andy Warhol, Louise Bourgeois, Deborah Harry, Kathy Acker, Richard Gere, Peter Gabriel, Grace Jones, Amanda Lear, Laurie Anderson, Iggy Pop, Philip Glass, David Hockney, Cindy Sherman, Joan Armatrading, and Patti Smith. Smith was a longtime roommate of Mapplethorpe and a frequent subject in his photography, including a stark, iconic photograph that appears on the cover of Smith's first album, "Horses". His work often made reference to religious or classical imagery, such as a 1975 portrait of Patti Smith from 1986 which recalls Albrecht Dürer's 1500 self-portrait. Between 1980 and 1983, Mapplethorpe created over 150 photographs of bodybuilder Lisa Lyon, culminating in the 1983 photobook "Lady, Lisa Lyon", published by Viking Press and with text by Bruce Chatwin.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In the summer of 1989, a traveling solo exhibit by Mapplethorpe brought national attention to the issues of public funding for the arts, as well as questions of censorship and the obscene. The Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., had agreed to be one of the host museums for the tour. Mapplethorpe decided to show his latest series that he explored shortly before his death. Titled "Robert Mapplethorpe: The Perfect Moment", the show included photographs from his X Portfolio, which featured images of urophagia, gay BDSM and a self-portrait with a bullwhip inserted in his anus. It also featured photos of two children with exposed genitals. The show was curated by Janet Kardon of the Institute of Contemporary Art (ICA). The ICA was awarded a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts to support Mapplethorpe's exhibit at the Corcoran Gallery of Art. The Corcoran cancelled the show, terminating its contract with the ICA, because it did not want to get involved in the political issues that it raised, but instead the gallery was pulled into the controversy, which "intensified the debate waged both in the media and in Congress surrounding the NEA's funding of projects perceived by some individuals...to be inappropriate." The hierarchy of the Corcoran and several members of the United States Congress were upset when the works were revealed to them, due to the homoerotic and sadomasochistic themes of some of the work. Though much of his work throughout his career had been regularly displayed in publicly funded exhibitions, conservative and religious organizations such as the American Family Association seized on this exhibition to vocally oppose government support for what they called "nothing more than the sensational presentation of potentially obscene material."


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In June 1989, pop artist Lowell Blair Nesbitt became involved in the censorship issue. Nesbitt, a long-time friend of Mapplethorpe, revealed that he had a $1.5-million bequest to the museum in his will, but publicly promised that if the museum refused to host the exhibition, he would revoke the bequest. The Corcoran refused and Nesbitt bequeathed the money to the Phillips Collection instead. After the Corcoran refused the Mapplethorpe exhibition, the underwriters of the exhibition went to the nonprofit Washington Project for the Arts, which showed all the images in its space from July 21 to August 13, 1989, to large crowds. In 1990, the Contemporary Arts Center in Cincinnati, which had also shown the exhibit, and Dennis Barrie, were charged with obscenity; photographs that depicted men in sadomasochistic poses were the basis of charges that the museum and its director had pandered obscenity. They were found not guilty by a jury.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: According to the ICA, "The Corcoran's decision sparked a controversial national debate: Should tax dollars support the arts? Who decides what is 'obscene' or 'offensive' in public exhibitions? And if art can be considered a form of free speech, is it a violation of the First Amendment to revoke federal funding on grounds of obscenity? To this day, these questions remain very much at issue." Mapplethorpe became something of a cause célèbre for both sides of the American culture war. However, prices for many of the Mapplethorpe photographs doubled and even tripled as a consequence of all the attention. The artist's notoriety supposedly also helped the posthumous sale at Christie's auction house of Mapplethorpe's own collection of furniture, pottery, silver and works by other artists, which brought about $8 million.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In 1998, the University of Central England was involved in a controversy when a library book by Mapplethorpe was confiscated. A final-year undergraduate student was writing a paper on the work of Mapplethorpe and intended to illustrate the paper with a few photographs made from "Mapplethorpe", a book of the photographer's work. She took the film to a local shop to be developed and the staff there informed West Midlands Police because of the unusual nature of the images. The police confiscated the library book from the student and informed the university that two photographs in the book would have to be removed. If the university agreed to the removal (which it did not) the book would be returned. The two photographs, which were deemed possibly prosecutable as obscenity, were "Helmut and Brooks, NYC, 1978", which shows anal fisting, and "Jim and Tom, Sausalito, 1977", which is of a man clad in a dog collar, a leather mask and trousers, urinating into another man's mouth." After a delay of about six months, the affair came to an end when Peter Knight, the Vice-Chancellor of the university, was informed that no legal action would be taken. The book was returned to the university library without removal of the photographs.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: The 1986 solo exhibition "Black Males" and the subsequent book "The Black Book" sparked controversy for their depiction of black men. The images, erotic depictions of black men, were widely criticized for being exploitative. The work was largely phallocentric and sculptural, focusing on segments of the subject's bodies. His purported intention with these photographs and the use of black men as models was the pursuit of the Platonic ideal. Mapplethorpe's initial interest in the black male form was inspired by films like "Mandingo" and the interrogation scene in "Cruising," in which an unknown black character enters the interrogation room and slaps the protagonist across the face.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Criticism was the subject of a work by American conceptual artist Glenn Ligon," Notes on the Margins of the Black Book" (1991–1993). Ligon juxtaposes Mapplethorpe's 91 images of black men in the 1988 publication "Black Book" with critical texts and personal reactions about the work to complicate the racial undertones of the imagery.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: American poet and activist Essex Hemphill also expressed criticism in his anthology "Brother to Brother" (1991). Although he believed that Mapplethorpe's work reflected exceptional talent, Hemphill also believed that it displayed a lack of concern for gay black men, "except as sexual subjects".


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In 1992, author Paul Russell dedicated his novel "Boys of Life" to Mapplethorpe, as well as to Karl Keller and Pier Paolo Pasolini.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: When "Mapplethorpe: A Biography" by Patricia Morrisroe was published by Random House in 1995, the "Washington Post Book World" described it as "Mesmerizing ... Morrisroe has succeeded in re-creating the photographer's world of light and dark." Art critic Arthur C. Danto, writing in "The Nation", praised it as "utterly admirable ... The clarity and honesty of Morrisroe's portrait are worthy of its subject."


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In September 1999, Arena Editions published "Pictures," a monograph that reintroduced Mapplethorpe's sex pictures. In 2000, "Pictures" was seized by two South Australian plain-clothes detectives from an Adelaide bookshop in the belief that the book breached indecency and obscenity laws. Police sent the book to the Canberra-based Office of Film and Literature Classification after the state Attorney-General's Department deftly decided not to get involved in the mounting publicity storm. Eventually, the OFLC board agreed unanimously that the book, imported from the United States, should remain freely available and unrestricted.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In May 2007, American writer, director, and producer James Crump directed the documentary film "Black White + Gray", which premiered at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival. It explores the influence Mapplethorpe, curator Sam Wagstaff, and Patti Smith had on the 1970s art scene in New York City.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In September 2007, Prestel published "Mapplethorpe: Polaroids", a collection of 183 of approximately 1,500 existing Mapplethorpe polaroids. This book accompanies an exhibition by the Whitney Museum of American Art in May 2008.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In 2008, Robert Mapplethorpe was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of the 2015 LGBT History Month.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: Patti Smith's 2010 memoir "Just Kids" focuses on her relationship with Mapplethorpe. The book won the 2010 National Book Award for Nonfiction.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In June 2016, Belgian fashion designer Raf Simons debuted his men's Spring 2017 collection inspired by Mapplethorpe's work and featuring several of his photographs printed onto shirts, jackets, and smocks.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: The American documentary film, "," was released in 2016. It was directed and executive produced by Randy Barbato and Fenton Bailey, and produced by Katharina Otto-Bernstein.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In January 2016, filmmaker Ondi Timoner announced that she was directing a feature about him, "Mapplethorpe," with Matt Smith in the lead role. The film premiered on April 22, 2018, at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York City.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In 2019 and 2020, the Guggenheim Museum in New York City hosted "Implicit Tensions", an exhibition of many of Mapplethorpe's works.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In collaboration with the Mapplethorpe Foundation, jeweler Gaia Repossi created a jewelry collection inspired by Mapplethorpe in 2021.


title: Robert Mapplethorpe

text: In 2017, a 1987 Mapplethorpe self-portrait platinum print was auctioned for £450,000, making it the most expensive Mapplethorpe photograph ever sold.


title: Financial endowment

text: A financial endowment is a legal structure for managing, and in many cases indefinitely perpetuating, a pool of financial, real estate, or other investments for a specific purpose according to the will of its founders and donors. Endowments are often structured so that the inflation-adjusted principal or "corpus" value is kept intact, while a portion of the fund can be (and in some cases must be) spent each year, utilizing a prudent spending policy.


title: Financial endowment

text: Endowments are often governed and managed either as a nonprofit corporation, a charitable foundation, or a private foundation that, while serving a good cause, might not qualify as a public charity. In some jurisdictions, it is common for endowed funds to be established as a trust independent of the organizations and the causes the endowment is meant to serve. Institutions that commonly manage endowments include academic institutions (e.g., colleges, universities, and private schools); cultural institutions (e.g., museums, libraries, and theaters); service organizations (e.g., hospitals, retirement homes; the Red Cross); and religious organizations (e.g., churches, synagogues, mosques).


title: Financial endowment

text: Private endowments are some of the wealthiest entities in the world, notably private higher education endowments. Harvard University's endowment (valued at $53.2 billion ) is the largest academic endowment in the world. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is one of the wealthiest private foundations as of 2019 with endowment of $46.8 billion .


title: Financial endowment

text: Most private endowments in the United States are governed by the Uniform Prudent Management of Institutional Funds Act which is based in part on the concept of donor intent that helps define what restrictions are imposed on the principal and earnings of the fund. Endowments in the United States are commonly categorized in one of four ways:


title: Financial endowment

text: Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a particular subject are common; in some places a donor could fund a trust exclusively for the support of a pet. Ignoring the restriction is called "invading" the endowment. But change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donor's intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative "as near as possible" to the donor's intent.


title: Financial endowment

text: The earliest endowed chairs were established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD 176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the major schools of philosophy: Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, and Epicureanism. Later, similar endowments were set up in some other major cities of the Empire.


title: Financial endowment

text: The earliest universities were founded in Europe, Asia and Africa. Their endowment by a prince or monarch and their role in training government officials made early Mediterranean universities similar to Islamic madrasas, although madrasas were generally smaller, and individual teachers, rather than the madrasa itself, granted the license or degree.


title: Financial endowment

text: Waqf (; ), also known as 'hubous' (حُبوس) or "mortmain" property, is a similar concept from Islamic law, which typically involves donating a building, plot of land or other assets for Muslim religious or charitable purposes with no intention of reclaiming the assets. The donated assets may be held by a charitable trust.


title: Financial endowment

text: The two oldest known "waqfiya" (deed) documents are from the 9th century, while a third one dates from the early 10th century, all three within the Abbasid Period. The oldest dated "waqfiya" goes back to 876 CE, concerns a multi-volume Qur'an edition and is held by the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul. A possibly older "waqfiya" is a papyrus held by the Louvre Museum in Paris, with no written date but considered to be from the mid-9th century.


title: Financial endowment

text: The earliest known waqf in Egypt, founded by financial official Abū Bakr Muḥammad bin Ali al-Madhara'i in 919 (during the Abbasid period), is a pond called Birkat Ḥabash together with its surrounding orchards, whose revenue was to be used to operate a hydraulic complex and feed the poor. In India, wakfs are relatively common among Muslim communities and are regulated by the Central Wakf Council and governed by Wakf Act 1995 (which superseded Wakf Act 1954).


title: Financial endowment

text: Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will frequently control an endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to a general endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships (also known as named chairs), and endowed scholarships or fellowships.


title: Financial endowment

text: The practice of endowing professorships began in the modern European university system in England in 1502, when Lady Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and grandmother to the future king Henry VIII, created the first endowed chairs in divinity at the universities of Oxford (Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity) and Cambridge (Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity). Nearly 50 years later, Henry VIII established the Regius Professorships at both universities, this time in five subjects: divinity, civil law, Hebrew, Greek, and physic—the last of those corresponding to what are now known as medicine and basic sciences. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships.


title: Financial endowment

text: Private individuals also adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, more recently held by the celebrated physicist Stephen Hawking.


title: Financial endowment

text: In the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment. The use of endowment funding is strong in the United States and Canada but less commonly found outside of North America, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also been created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States.


title: Financial endowment

text: An endowed professorship (or endowed chair) is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund specifically set up for that purpose. Typically, the position is designated to be in a certain department. The donor might be allowed to name the position. Endowed professorships aid the university by providing a faculty member who does not have to be paid entirely out of the operating budget, allowing the university to either reduce its student-to-faculty ratio, a statistic used for college rankings and other institutional evaluations, or direct money that would otherwise have been spent on salaries toward other university needs. In addition, holding such a professorship is considered to be an honour in the academic world, and the university can use them to reward its best faculty or to recruit top professors from other institutions.


title: Financial endowment

text: An endowed faculty fellow is a position permanently paid for to recruit and retain new and/or junior (and above) professors who have already demonstrated superior teaching and research. The donor might be allowed to name the faculty fellowship. A faculty fellow appointment cultivates confidence and institutional loyalty, keeping the institution competitive over hiring and retention of talents.


title: Financial endowment

text: An endowed scholarship is tuition (and possibly other costs) assistance that is permanently paid for with the revenue of an endowment fund specifically set up for that purpose. It can be either merit-based or need-based (the latter is only awarded to those students for whom the college expense would cause their family financial hardship) depending on university policy or donor preferences. Some universities will facilitate donors' meeting the students they are helping. The amount that must be donated to start an endowed scholarship can vary greatly.


title: Financial endowment

text: Fellowships are similar, although they are most commonly associated with graduate students. In addition to helping with tuition, they may also include a stipend. Fellowships with a stipend may encourage students to work on a doctorate. Frequently, teaching or working on research is a mandatory part of a fellowship.


title: Financial endowment

text: A foundation (also a charitable foundation) is a category of nonprofit organization or charitable trust that will typically provide funding and support for other charitable organizations through grants, but may engage directly in charitable activities. Foundations include public charitable foundations, such as community foundations, and private foundations which are typically endowed by an individual or family. The term foundation though may also be used by organizations not involved in public grant-making.


title: Financial endowment

text: A financial endowment is typically overseen by a board of trustees and managed by a trustee or team of professional managers. Typically, the financial operation of the endowment is designed to achieve the stated objectives of the endowment.


title: Financial endowment

text: In the United States, typically 4–6% of the endowment's assets are spent every year to fund operations or capital spending. Any excess earnings are typically reinvested to augment the endowment and to compensate for inflation and recessions in future years. This spending figure represents the proportion that historically could be spent without diminishing the principal amount of the endowment fund.


title: Financial endowment

text: The case of Leona Helmsley is often used to illustrate the downsides of the legal concept of donor intent as applied to endowments. In the 2000s, Helmsley bequested a multi-billion dollar trust to "the care and welfare of dogs". This trust was estimated at the time to total 10 times more than the combined 2005 assets of all registered animal-related charities in the United States.


title: Financial endowment

text: In 1914, Frederick Goff sought to eliminate the "dead hand" of organized philanthropy and so created the Cleveland Foundation: the first community foundation. He created a corporately structured foundation that could utilize community gifts in a responsive and need-appropriate manner. Scrutiny and control resided in the "live hand" of the public as opposed to the "dead hand" of the founders of private foundations.


title: Financial endowment

text: Research published in the American Economic Review indicates that major academic endowments often act in times of economic downturn in a way opposite of the intention of the endowment. This behavior is referred to as endowment hoarding, reflecting the way that economic downturns often lead to endowments decreasing their payouts rather than increasing them to compensate for the downturn.


title: Financial endowment

text: Large U.S.-based college and university endowments, which had posted large, highly publicized gains in the 1990s and 2000s, faced significant losses of principal in the 2008 economic downturn. The Harvard University endowment, which held $37 billion in June 2008, was reduced to $26 billion by mid-2009. Yale University, the pioneer of an approach that involved investing heavily in alternative investments such as real estate and private equity, reported an endowment of $16 billion as of September 2009, a 30% annualized loss that was more than predicted in December 2008. At Stanford University, the endowment was reduced from $17 billion to $12 billion as of September 2009. Brown University's endowment fell 27 percent to $2.04 billion in the fiscal year that ended June 30, 2009. George Washington University lost 18% in that same fiscal year, down to $1.08 billion.


title: Financial endowment

text: In Canada, after the financial crisis in 2008, University of Toronto reported a loss of 31% ($545 million) of its previous year-end value in 2009. The loss is attributed to over-investment in hedge funds.


title: Financial endowment

text: Critics like Justice Funders’ Dana Kawaoka-Chen call for "redistributing all aspects of well-being, democratizing power, and shifting economic control to communities.". Endowment repatriation refers to campaigns that acknowledge the history of human and natural resource exploitation that is inherent to many large private funds. Repatriation campaigns ask for private endowments to be returned to the control of the people and communities that have been most affected by labor and environmental exploitation and often offer ethical frameworks for discussing endowment governance and repatriation.


title: Financial endowment

text: After the Heron Foundation's internal audit of its investments in 2011 uncovered an investment in a private prison that was directly contrary to the foundation's mission, they developed and then began to advocate for a four-part ethical framework to endowment investments conceptualized as Human Capital,


title: Financial endowment

text: Another example is the Ford Foundation's co-founding of the independent Native Arts and Culture Foundation in 2007. The Ford Foundation provided a portion of the initial endowment after self-initiated research into the foundation's financial support of Native and Indigenous artists and communities. This results of this research indicated "the inadequacy of philanthropic support for Native arts and artists", related feedback from an unnamed Native leader that "[o]nce [big foundations] put the stuff in place for an Indian program, then it is not usually funded very well. It lasts as long as the program officer who


title: Financial endowment

text: had an interest and then goes away" and recommended that an independent endowment be established and that "[n]ative leadership is crucial".


title: Financial endowment

text: Another approach to reforming endowments is the use of divestment campaigns to encourage endowments to not hold unethical investments. One of the earliest modern divestment campaigns was Disinvestment from South Africa which was used to protest apartheid policies. By the end of apartheid, more than 150 universities divested of South African investments, although it is not clear to what extent this campaign was responsible for ending the policy.


title: Financial endowment

text: A proactive version of divestment campaigns is impact investing, or mission investing which refers to investments "made into companies, organizations, and funds with the intention to generate a measurable, beneficial social or environmental impact alongside a financial return." Impact investments provide capital to address social and environmental issues.


title: Financial endowment

text: Generally, endowment taxes are the taxation of financial endowments that are otherwise not taxed due to their charitable, educational, or religious mission. Endowment taxes are sometimes enacted in response to criticisms that endowments are not operating as nonprofit organizations or that they have served as tax shelters, or that they are depriving local governments of essential property and other taxes.


title: TNT equivalent

text: TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The is a unit of energy defined by that convention to be , which is the approximate energy released in the detonation of a metric ton (1,000 kilograms) of TNT. In other words, for each gram of TNT exploded, (or 4184 joules) of energy is released.


title: TNT equivalent

text: This convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosive materials, of which TNT is a typical example, although other conventional explosives such as dynamite contain more energy.


title: TNT equivalent

text: The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of a nuclear weapon. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has been used to characterize the energy released in asteroid impacts.


title: TNT equivalent

text: Alternative values for TNT equivalency can be calculated according to which property is being compared and when in the two detonation processes the values are measured.


title: TNT equivalent

text: Where for example the comparison is by energy yield, an explosive's energy is normally expressed for chemical purposes as the thermodynamic work produced by its detonation. For TNT this has been accurately measured as 4686 J/g from a large sample of air blast experiments, and theoretically calculated to be 4853 J/g.


title: TNT equivalent

text: But, even on this basis, comparing the actual energy yields of a large nuclear device and an explosion of TNT can be slightly inaccurate. Small TNT explosions, especially in the open, don't tend to burn the carbon-particle and hydrocarbon products of the explosion. Gas-expansion and pressure-change effects tend to "freeze" the burn rapidly. A large open explosion of TNT may maintain fireball temperatures high enough so that some of those products do burn up with atmospheric oxygen.


title: TNT equivalent

text: Such differences can be substantial. For safety purposes a range as wide as has been stated for a gram of TNT upon explosion.


title: TNT equivalent

text: So, one can state that a nuclear bomb has a yield of 15 kt (); but an actual explosion of a pile of TNT may yield (for example) due to additional carbon/hydrocarbon oxidation not present with small open-air charges.


title: TNT equivalent

text: These complications have been sidestepped by convention. The energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie.


title: TNT equivalent

text: The relative effectiveness factor (RE factor) relates an explosive's demolition power to that of TNT, in units of the TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent: The greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive.


title: TNT equivalent

text: This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubane's RE factor of 2.38, it would take only 1.0/2.38 (or 0.42) kg of it to do the same job. Using PETN, engineers would need 1.0/1.66 (or 0.60) kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1.0/0.74 (or 1.35) kg or 1.0/0.32 (or 3.125) kg, respectively.


title: TNT equivalent

text: Calculating a single RE factor for an explosive is, however, impossible. It depends on the specific case or use. Given a pair of explosives, one can produce 2× the shockwave output (this depends on the distance of measuring instruments) but the difference in direct metal cutting ability may be 4× higher for one type of metal and 7× higher for another type of metal. The relative differences between two explosives with shaped charges will be even greater. The table below should be taken as an example and not as a precise source of data.


title: William Barr

text: William Pelham Barr (born May 23, 1950) is an American attorney who served as the 77th and 85th United States attorney general in the administrations of Presidents George H. W. Bush and Donald Trump.


title: William Barr

text: Born and raised in New York City, Barr was educated at the Horace Mann School, Columbia University, and George Washington University Law School. From 1971 to 1977, Barr was employed by the Central Intelligence Agency. He then served as a law clerk to judge Malcolm Richard Wilkey of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. In the 1980s, Barr worked for the law firm Shaw, Pittman, Potts & Trowbridge, with one year's work in the White House of the Ronald Reagan administration dealing with legal policies. Before becoming attorney general in 1991, Barr held numerous other posts within the Department of Justice, including leading the Office of Legal Counsel (OLC) and serving as deputy attorney general. From 1994 to 2008, Barr did corporate legal work for GTE and its successor company Verizon Communications, which made him a multimillionaire. From 2009 to 2018, Barr served on the board of directors for Time Warner.


title: William Barr

text: Barr is a longtime proponent of the unitary executive theory of nearly unfettered presidential authority over the executive branch of the U.S. government. In 1989, Barr, as the head of the OLC, justified the U.S. invasion of Panama to arrest Manuel Noriega. As deputy attorney general, Barr authorized an FBI operation in 1991 which freed hostages at the Talladega federal prison. An influential advocate for tougher criminal justice policies, Barr as attorney general in 1992 authored the report "The Case for More Incarceration", where he argued for an increase in the United States incarceration rate. Under Barr's advice, President George H. W. Bush in 1992 pardoned six officials involved in the Iran–Contra affair.


title: William Barr

text: Barr became attorney general for the second time in 2019. During his term, he received criticism from many for his handling of several challenges, including his letter on the Mueller report, interventions in the convictions and sentences of former advisors to President Trump, Roger Stone and Michael Flynn, his order of the federal government to resume federal executions after 17 years, and allegations of political interference in the removal of Geoffrey Berman from his Southern District of New York attorney position in a matter pertaining to the indictment of Turkish bank Halkbank, a bank with close personal ties to Recep Tayyip Erdogan. On December 1, 2020, Barr stated FBI and Justice Department investigations found no evidence of irregularities that would have changed the outcome of the presidential election. Barr is the second person to ever serve two non-consecutive terms as U.S. Attorney General, with John J. Crittenden being the first.


title: William Barr

text: Barr was born in New York City in 1950. His father, Donald Barr, taught English literature at Columbia University before becoming headmaster of the Dalton School in Manhattan and later the Hackley School in Tarrytown, New York, both members of the Ivy Preparatory School League. Barr's mother, Mary Margaret ("née" Ahern), also taught at Columbia. Barr's father was Jewish and raised in Judaism but later converted to Christianity and joined the Catholic Church. His mother is of Irish ancestry. Barr was raised as a Catholic. Barr was the second of four sons, and his younger brother Stephen Barr is a professor of physics at the University of Delaware.


title: William Barr

text: Barr grew up on New York City's Upper West Side. As a child, he attended a Catholic grammar school, Corpus Christi School, and then the non-sectarian Horace Mann School. After high school, he attended Columbia University, where he majored in government and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1971. Barr was also an active member in the Sigma Nu fraternity. He did two additional years of graduate study at Columbia, receiving a Master of Arts in government and Chinese studies in 1973. While at Columbia, Barr opposed anti-Vietnam War occupation protests by students on campus.


title: William Barr

text: After moving to Washington, D.C., to work as an intelligence analyst for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Barr entered the evening student program at George Washington University Law School. He graduated in 1977 with a Juris Doctor with highest honors.


title: William Barr

text: Barr worked for the CIA from 1971 to 1977 while attending graduate school and law school. He was first hired as a summer intern for two years. During his law school years he was an analyst in the Intelligence Directorate division from 1973 to 1975, and then transitioning to an assistant in the Office of Legislative Counsel and an agency liaison to Congress from 1975 to 1977.


title: William Barr

text: After graduating from law school in 1977, Barr spent one year as a law clerk to Judge Malcolm Wilkey of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit. He then joined the law firm of Shaw, Pittman, Potts & Trowbridge (now Pillsbury Winthrop Shaw Pittman) from 1978 to 1982 and again from 1983 to 1989, after serving as Deputy Assistant Director for Legal Policy on the domestic policy staff at the Reagan White House from May 1982 to September 1983.


title: William Barr

text: In 1989, at the beginning of his administration, President George H. W. Bush appointed Barr to the U.S. Department of Justice as Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel (OLC), an office which functions as the legal advisor for the President and executive agencies. Barr was known as a strong defender of presidential power. He wrote an advisory opinion justifying the U.S. invasion of Panama and arrest of Manuel Noriega. He wrote legal justifications for the practice of rendition, so that the FBI could enter onto foreign soil without the consent of the host government to apprehend fugitives wanted by the United States government for terrorism or drug-trafficking. Barr declined a congressional request for the full 1989 opinion, but instead provided a document that "summarizes the principal conclusions". Congress subpoenaed the opinion, and its public release after Barr's departure from the Justice Department showed he had omitted significant findings in the opinion from his summary document.