title: Andy Reid

text: Hired as the head coach of the Chiefs in 2013, Reid helped revitalize the struggling franchise. He helped end the eight-game playoff losing streak that began in 1993. In ten seasons with Kansas City, he has led them to successful seasons with eight postseason appearances, six division titles, four consecutive AFC Championship Games, two Super Bowl appearances, and a Super Bowl title in Super Bowl LIV–the franchise's first in 50 years and Reid's first as a head coach.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid was born in Los Angeles on March 19, 1958. He attended John Marshall High School and worked as a vendor at Dodger Stadium as a teenager. He also played youth sports in East Hollywood at Lemon Grove Recreation Center; Pete Arbogastwas one of his coaches. Arbogast is the radio announcer for the USC football team, and was the radio play-by-play announcer for the Cincinnati Bengals. In 1971 at age 13, Reid was on "Monday Night Football" participating in the Punt, Pass, and Kick competition; he was already so large that he wore the jersey of Les Josephson (6'1", 207 pounds). Reid played offensive tackle at Glendale Community College in Glendale, California, then at Brigham Young University from 1978 to 1980 where he was a teammate of Jim McMahon and Tom Holmoe. His senior year at BYU, Reid won the 1980 Holiday Bowl.


title: Andy Reid

text: After graduating from BYU in 1981, he spent one year as a graduate assistant on the school's football coaching staff. He spent the next nine years as an offensive line coach with four colleges, including in 1986 with Northern Arizona University when he coached Frank Pollack, who went on to play for six seasons with the San Francisco 49ers.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid was hired as an assistant coach by the Green Bay Packers in 1992, the same year quarterback Brett Favre became a member of that team. In 1995, he became the assistant offensive line and tight ends coach, where he helped lead the 1996 team to a Super Bowl XXXI win over the New England Patriots. Reid was named the Packers' quarterbacks coach in 1997, replacing Marty Mornhinweg, who left to be the offensive coordinator for his predecessor in Green Bay, Steve Mariucci. Mariucci originally wanted Reid to be his offensive coordinator in San Francisco, but Packers head coach Mike Holmgren prevented the move.


title: Andy Reid

text: Following a league-worst 3–13 season in 1998, the Philadelphia Eagles fired then head coach Ray Rhodes and began a comprehensive search for a replacement. The Eagles initially considered hiring Mike Holmgren, Reid's boss in Green Bay, to replace Rhodes, but Holmgren instead chose to join the Seattle Seahawks as head coach. Holmgren, however, urged Eagles owner Jeff Lurie to hire Reid. Simultaneously, Eagles' president Joe Banner felt that the team needed a detail-oriented head coaching after the team's steady decline under Rhodes. As Banner began his search for a new head coach, he asked other teams' general managers for names of coaches that players complained were excessively detail-oriented; Reid's name surfaced, and Reid emerged as a leading candidate for the Eagles' head coaching job.


title: Andy Reid

text: Consistent with his reputation for a focus on football details, Reid arrived at his interview with the Eagles with a five-inch thick book he developed on how he would go about running the team if given the job. The Eagles hired Reid on January 11, 1999; he was the second-youngest head coach in the league after Jon Gruden and the first then to be hired as a head coach without first having served as an offensive or defensive coordinator. Some in the Philadelphia news media criticized the hiring, citing the availability of other candidates who had already served previously as successful head coaches.


title: Andy Reid

text: As he set about leading the Eagles, one of Reid's first major decisions was drafting dual-threat quarterback Donovan McNabb in the first round with the second overall pick, though Reid started former Packers' backup Doug Pederson in the first nine games of the 1999 season. In Reid's first season in Philadelphia, the Eagles improved their record by two games over 1998, finishing 5–11. Among the five wins was the team's first road victory in 19 games, a 20–16 road victory over the Chicago Bears on October 17. In 2000, the Eagles posted an 11–5 regular-season record and won their first playoff game since the 1995 season, beating the Tampa Bay Buccaneeers in Philadelphia on New Year's Eve.


title: Andy Reid

text: In 2001, Reid's Eagles won the first of four consecutive NFC East titles, the longest such streak in franchise history, and advanced to the conference championship game in , , and , losing this game on the first three occasions. The 2003 team qualified for postseason play after opening the season with two losses, both at home, and was also the first NFL team ever to reach the conference title round of the playoffs after having been shut out at home on opening day. The 2004 team was the second NFC East squad to defeat all of its division rivals (New York Giants, Dallas Cowboys, and Washington Redskins) twice during the same regular season (the Dallas Cowboys did it in 1998). The 2004 Eagles clinched the NFC #1-seed with a 13–1 record and proceeded to rest their starters for the final two games. After three straight NFC Championship losses, the team beat the Atlanta Falcons by a score of 27–10 and made it to Super Bowl XXXIX but fell to the New England Patriots 24–21.


title: Andy Reid

text: In 2001, Reid was named executive vice president of football operations of the Eagles, effectively making him the team's general manager. Although the Eagles had general managers after 2005 (Tom Heckert from 2005 to 2010 and Howie Roseman from 2010 until Reid's departure), Reid had the final say on football matters.


title: Andy Reid

text: The 2005 season was difficult for Reid as he sought to deal with wide receiver Terrell Owens' flamboyant persona, which forced Reid to permanently deactivate him midway through the 2005 season. A couple of weeks later quarterback Donovan McNabb suffered a season-ending injury, leaving the Eagles without the services of two of their star players. The Eagles lost eight of their last ten games and finished 6–10. On the bright side, with their third win of the season – a 23–20 win over the Oakland Raiders – Reid passed Greasy Neale to become the winningest coach in franchise history.


title: Andy Reid

text: The Eagles enjoyed a rollercoaster campaign under Reid in 2006. The season appeared to be lost by October with another season-ending injury to McNabb, turning a 4–1 start into a mid-season breakdown which left the team 5–5. After an embarrassing 45–21 defeat at the hands of the Indianapolis Colts, the Eagles were on the verge of elimination from the playoffs. Reid coached backup quarterback, Jeff Garcia, and the 5–6 Eagles, to victories over a slew of NFC rivals including the Carolina Panthers, Washington Redskins, New York Giants, and Dallas Cowboys. The Eagles, at 10–6, won the NFC East division title, as well as an NFC wild card game against the New York Giants. Their season ended at the hands of an opportune New Orleans Saints team in the NFC Divisional Round.


title: Andy Reid

text: In the 2008 season, Reid's 9–6–1 Eagles managed to knock off the defending Super Bowl Champions, the New York Giants, in the divisional game, leading the Eagles to a fifth NFC Championship game, where they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32–25. He coached the NFC to a 30–21 win in the 2009 Pro Bowl. However, the team was devastated by the loss of Jim Johnson, who had been the defensive coordinator for Reid's entire career and had helped turn the Eagles into one of the NFL's elite defenses.


title: Andy Reid

text: In the 2009 season, Reid failed to win a first-round post-season game for the first time in his career, with his 11–5 Eagles being eliminated by the first place Dallas Cowboys by a score of 34–14 in the Wild Card Round. Over the offseason, the Eagles traded longtime starting quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Redskins. After Week 2 of the 2010 season, Reid named Michael Vick the starting quarterback of the Eagles.


title: Andy Reid

text: In the 2010 season, Reid led the Eagles to 10–6 record in the regular season and qualified for the playoffs. In the Wild Card Round against the Green Bay Packers, the Eagles fell 21–16.


title: Andy Reid

text: In the 2012 season, Reid and the Eagles struggled to a 4–12 record, the worst of his head coaching tenure. The year also marked the first time the Eagles missed the postseason in consecutive years under Reid. On December 31, 2012, the day after the season ended with an embarrassing 42–7 loss to the New York Giants, Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie announced that Reid's contract would not be renewed. Reid was the longest-tenured head coach in the NFL prior to his release. Reid provided encouragement to his successor as Eagles head coach, Chip Kelly.


title: Andy Reid

text: Lurie said that Reid's induction into the Philadelphia Eagles Hall of Fame was inevitable, and players gave their former coach a standing ovation during his last meeting with them. During his 14-year tenure with the Eagles, Reid compiled the best win total (120), winning percentage (.609) and playoff victory total (10) in team history. He captured six division titles and five trips to the NFC Championship game. During this period, no other franchise earned more divisional playoff round appearances (7) and only Bill Belichick's New England Patriots exceeded Philadelphia's (5) conference championship game appearances with (6). Despite his success, however, Reid was ultimately unable to lead the Eagles to a Super Bowl title.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid sent 19 players to 44 Pro Bowl appearances, the highest total for any team in the NFL during that period. None of these players had ever appeared in a Pro Bowl before Reid was hired.


title: Andy Reid

text: Since 1990, only fourteen first-time head coaches remained with their original team for eight or more years: Reid (1999–2012), Tennessee's Jeff Fisher (1994–2010), Brian Billick (1999–2007 with Baltimore), Bill Cowher (1992–2006 with Pittsburgh), Dennis Green (1992–2001 with Minnesota), Tom Coughlin (1995–2002 with Jacksonville), Jack Del Rio (2003–2011 with Jacksonville), Cincinnati's Marvin Lewis (2003–2018), Green Bay's Mike McCarthy (2006–2018), New Orleans's Sean Payton (2006–2021), Pittsburgh's Mike Tomlin (2007–present), Baltimore's John Harbaugh (2008–present), Dallas's Jason Garrett (2011–2019), and Minnesota's Mike Zimmer (2014–2021).


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid expected the Eagles to not extend him and was already preparing to hire a new coaching staff. Three teams reportedly had airplanes in Philadelphia to fly him to interviews. On January 4, 2013, Reid reached a five-year contract agreement to become the head coach of the Chiefs. On the same day, the Chiefs fired general manager Scott Pioli. Originally, Reid's contract made him the final authority in football matters, the same power he had in Philadelphia. A week later, however, the Chiefs hired John Dorsey, who had previously worked with Reid as an assistant in Green Bay, as general manager. Reid and Chiefs owner Clark Hunt announced that Dorsey would have the final say in personnel matters. On the same day, Hunt announced that Reid and Dorsey would report to him on an equal basis; in the past Chiefs coaches reported to the general manager.


title: Andy Reid

text: In Reid's first game as head coach, the Chiefs beat the Jacksonville Jaguars 28–2. It was the widest margin of victory for the Chiefs on opening day since they defeated the Denver Broncos in 1963 by a score of 59–7.


title: Andy Reid

text: In Week 3, Reid returned to Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia for a "Thursday Night Football" game between the Chiefs and his former team, the Philadelphia Eagles. As Reid walked out onto the field before the game started, the crowd gave him a standing ovation. The Chiefs went on to win 26–16 and Reid received a Gatorade shower from his team.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid went on to lead the Chiefs to a 9–0 record to start the season, tied for the best start in franchise history. Despite losing five of their last seven games, the Chiefs finished with an 11–5 record to clinch a wild card spot in the AFC playoffs. In the , they were defeated by the Indianapolis Colts 45–44 after surrendering a 28-point lead in the third quarter.


title: Andy Reid

text: Under Reid, the Chiefs would again obtain a winning record in the 2014 season, finishing 9–7. However, they failed to qualify for the playoffs.


title: Andy Reid

text: In 2015, the Chiefs were in danger of missing the playoffs for a second consecutive year after they lost five straight games to begin the season 1–5. Reid accepted the blame for his team's poor start and his future with the Chiefs was called into question. However, the Chiefs won every remaining regular-season game, finishing with an 11–5 record and a wild card spot in the AFC playoffs. Reid would go on to lead the Chiefs to their first playoff win since the 1993 season in a of the Houston Texans, but the team was defeated 20–27 in their against the New England Patriots. Prior to the loss, the Chiefs posted an eleven-game winning streak, which is the best in franchise history. Reid was criticized for his clock management near the end of the game, calling no timeouts in a late fourth-quarter drive that cut the Patriots' 27–13 lead down to a touchdown, but took the Chiefs 5 minutes and 16 seconds to score and left them with only a minute and 13 seconds to try and tie the game.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid improved in the regular season with the 2016 Chiefs, who finished with a 12–4 record and clinched their division for the first time since 2010, as well as for the first time under Reid. The Chiefs went undefeated against their AFC West rivals to secure the division title on a tiebreaker with the 12–4 Oakland Raiders and obtain a first-round bye in the playoffs as the AFC's second seed. The bye was the Chiefs' first since 2003.


title: Andy Reid

text: Despite the team's regular-season success, the Chiefs were eliminated in the for a second consecutive year in an 16–18 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. Although the Chiefs were able to prevent the Steelers from scoring any touchdowns, they were unable to match the six field goals Pittsburgh converted.


title: Andy Reid

text: The Chiefs started strong during the 2017 season, winning their first five games to become the NFL's last remaining undefeated team, including a victory against defending Super Bowl champions New England Patriots in the kickoff game. After their strong start, the Chiefs lost six of their next seven games, resulting in Reid conceding playcalling duties to offensive coordinator Matt Nagy. Nevertheless, the Chiefs won their last four games to finish 10–6 and clinch the AFC West for a second consecutive year, the first back-to-back division titles in franchise history. However, the team ultimately suffered a sixth consecutive home playoff loss in a 21–22 defeat against the Tennessee Titans in the . Despite holding a 21–3 lead at halftime, the Chiefs were shut out during the second half as the Titans scored 19 unanswered points to win the game.


title: Andy Reid

text: 2018 saw new success for Reid and the Chiefs. Aided by the MVP season of quarterback Patrick Mahomes in his first year as the primary starter, the Chiefs finished the regular season as AFC's top seed for the first time since 1997 and the first time with Reid as head coach by matching 2016's 12–4 record. Reid also extended the franchise record for consecutive division titles through clinching the AFC West for a third straight year. The Chiefs subsequently ended their home playoff losing streak by defeating the Indianapolis Colts 31–13 in the Divisional Round, the first postseason win at home since 1994. With the victory, the Chiefs hosted the AFC Championship for the first time in franchise history, which they lost 37–31 to the eventual Super Bowl LIII champion New England Patriots in overtime.


title: Andy Reid

text: During the season, Reid recorded his 200th victory to become one of only nine NFL head coaches to win 200 games. With his 206th win at the end of the regular season, Reid also surpassed Marty Schottenheimer for the most wins of an NFL head coach to not win a championship.


title: Andy Reid

text: The Chiefs again finished 12–4 in 2019 to win the AFC West for a fourth consecutive year and after defeating the Houston Texans 51–31 in the Divisional Round, hosted the AFC Championship for a second consecutive year. Upon securing an appearance in Super Bowl LIV with their 35–24 victory over the Tennessee Titans, Reid became one of only seven head coaches to lead two different franchises to a Super Bowl and the Chiefs made their first Super Bowl appearance since Super Bowl IV in 1970. The 15-year gap between Reid's first and second Super Bowls is the second longest after Dick Vermeil's 19 years. The Chiefs went on to defeat the San Francisco 49ers 31–20, earning the franchise their first Super Bowl victory in 50 years and Reid's first as a head coach.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid signed a contract extension with the Chiefs during their bye week in the 2020 season. At the time, the Chiefs were leading the AFC West with an 8–1 record. Three weeks later, they became the first AFC team to secure a playoff berth for the season. Kansas City finished with a league-best 14–2 record to secure the AFC's top seed. The 14–2 record marked the best in franchise history, in addition to being Reid's best as a head coach. During the postseason, the Chiefs defeated the Cleveland Browns 22–17 in the divisional round and the Buffalo Bills 38–24 in the AFC Championship to advance to Super Bowl LV against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, their second consecutive Super Bowl appearance. The game ended in a 9–31 loss, with the Chiefs failing to score a touchdown and losing by double-digits for the first time under Mahomes.


title: Andy Reid

text: Following a Week 4 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles in 2021, Reid became the first NFL head coach to win 100 games with two different franchises. However, the Chiefs began the season 3–4, their first losing record since 2015. Nevertheless, they won nine of their 10 remaining games (including an eight-game winning streak) to clinch the AFC West and the AFC's #2 seed. Reid also won his 227th game to surpass Curly Lambeau as the NFL's fifth-most winningest coach. In the playoffs, the Chiefs advanced to their fourth consecutive AFC Championship Game after defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers and Buffalo Bills, making Reid the first head coach to lead two different franchises to four consecutive conference championship games. The Chiefs lost the game 24–27 to the Cincinnati Bengals in overtime after surrendering a 21–3 lead, which was tied with the 2006 Indianapolis Colts' comeback against the New England Patriots as the largest in a conference championship.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid is married with five children, including three sons and two daughters. Reid and his family are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.


title: Andy Reid

text: Reid's oldest son, Garrett, died of a heroin overdose on August 5, 2012. Britt, his youngest son, served under his father until he was not offered a new contract after the 2020 season following his arrest.


title: Abby Elliott

text: Abby Elliott is an American actress and comedian who was a cast member on "Saturday Night Live" from 2008 to 2012 and has since starred on the Bravo comedy "Odd Mom Out" and the NBC sitcom "Indebted". She is the daughter of actor/comedian Chris Elliott and sister of Bridey Elliott.


title: Abby Elliott

text: Elliott was born in New York City, the elder of two children. She is the daughter of Paula Niedert, a talent coordinator, and actor/comedian Chris Elliott. Her grandfather was radio comedian Bob Elliott. Her younger sister is actress Bridey Elliott; they were both raised in Wilton, Connecticut. She attended high school at Immaculate High School in Danbury, Connecticut, where she acted in school plays and musicals. After graduating from Immaculate High School in 2005, she attended Marymount Manhattan College in New York City but dropped out during her first semester.


title: Abby Elliott

text: Elliott took comedy classes at The Groundlings and eventually began training and performing in various sketch comedy shows at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre (UCB) in Los Angeles.


title: Abby Elliott

text: In 2006, Elliott appeared with supporting roles for the pilots "You've Reached the Elliotts" and "Chrissy: Plain & Simple", both sitcoms that star her father, Chris Elliott. While at UCBT, she frequently performed with The Midnight Show sketch troupe. She has also occasionally performed comedy with her sister Bridey. Before joining the cast of "SNL", Elliott had also done guest voices roles on "King of the Hill" and "Minoriteam". She has also been featured in a number of "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" sketches such as "Jersey Floor" and "Studio 6-Bee". Elliott made her film debut with a small role in "No Strings Attached", and has since had supporting roles in the films "High Road" and "Fun Size".


title: Abby Elliott

text: After leaving "SNL" in 2012, Elliott has made guest appearances on television programs such as "2 Broke Girls", "How I Met Your Mother", "Happy Endings", and "Inside Amy Schumer". From 2015 to 2017, she co-starred on the Bravo series "Odd Mom Out". In 2020, she starred in the Fran Drescher sitcom "Indebted" on NBC.


title: Abby Elliott

text: Elliott joined the cast of "SNL" midway through the 2008–2009 season (season 34), in November 2008, following the departure of Amy Poehler. She is the third generation of her family to have been featured on "SNL" (the second to be hired as a cast member, and her tenure on the show was longer than both her father and grandfather). Her father, Chris Elliott, was an "SNL" cast member during the 1994–1995 season (season 20) and her grandfather, Bob Elliott, was one half of the popular comedy duo Bob & Ray. Bob Elliott co-starred on a Christmas episode in the 1978–1979 season (season 4).


title: Abby Elliott

text: In 2010, Elliott dated fellow "Saturday Night Live" cast member Fred Armisen. They ended their relationship in September 2011.


title: Abby Elliott

text: Elliott married television writer Bill Kennedy on September 3, 2016. They have a daughter, Edith Pepper Kennedy.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Theodore Roosevelt III ( ), often known as Theodore Jr.(September 13, 1887 – July 12, 1944) was an American government, business, and military leader. He was the eldest son of President Theodore Roosevelt and First Lady Edith Roosevelt. Roosevelt is known for his World War II service, including the directing of troops at Utah Beach during the Normandy landings, for which he received the Medal of Honor.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was educated at private academies and Harvard University; after his 1909 graduation from college, he began a successful career in business and investment banking. Having gained pre-World War I army experience during his attendance at a Citizens' Military Training Camp, at the start of the war he received a reserve commission as a major. He served primarily with the 1st Division, took part in several engagements including the Battle of Cantigny, and commanded the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry as a lieutenant colonel. After the war, Roosevelt was instrumental in the forming of The American Legion.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: In addition to his military and business careers, Roosevelt was active in politics and government. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1921–1924), Governor of Puerto Rico (1929–1932), and Governor-General of the Philippines (1932–1933). He resumed his business endeavors in the 1930s, and was Chairman of the Board of American Express Company, and vice-president of Doubleday Books. Roosevelt also remained active as an Army reservist, attending annual training periods at Pine Camp, and completing the Infantry Officer Basic and Advanced Courses, the Command and General Staff College, and refresher training for senior officers. He returned to active duty for World War II with the rank of colonel, and commanded the 26th Infantry. He soon received promotion to brigadier general as assistant division commander of the 1st Infantry Division.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: After serving in the Operation Torch landings in North Africa and the Tunisia Campaign, followed by participation in the Allied invasion of Sicily, Roosevelt was assigned as assistant division commander of the 4th Infantry Division. In this role, he led the first wave of troops ashore at Utah Beach during the Normandy landings in June 1944. He died in France of a heart attack the following month; at the time of his death, he had been recommended for the Distinguished Service Cross to recognize his heroism at Normandy. The recommendation was subsequently upgraded, and Roosevelt was a posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Ted was the eldest son of President Theodore Roosevelt and First Lady Edith Kermit Carow. He was born at the family estate in Cove Neck, Oyster Bay, New York, when his father was just starting his political career. As a son of President Theodore Roosevelt, he has been referred to as "Jr", but he was actually Theodore III and one of his own sons was Theodore IV. His siblings were brothers Kermit, Archie, and Quentin; sister Ethel; and half-sister Alice. As an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, and through his ancestor Cornelius Van Schaack Jr., Ted was a descendant of the Schuyler family.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Like all the Roosevelt children, Ted was tremendously influenced by his father. In later life, Ted recorded some of these childhood recollections in a series of newspaper articles written around the time of World War I. One day when he was about nine, his father gave him a rifle. When Ted asked if it was real, his father loaded it and shot a bullet into the ceiling.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: When Ted was a child, his father initially expected more of him than of his siblings. The burden almost caused him to suffer a nervous breakdown.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: In one article, Ted recalled his first time in Washington, "...when father was civil service commissioner I often walked to the office with him. On the way down he would talk history to me—not the dry history of dates and charters, but the history where you yourself in your imagination could assume the role of the principal actors, as every well-constructed boy wishes to do when interested. During every battle we would stop and father would draw out the full plan in the dust in the gutter with the tip of his umbrella. Long before the European war had broken over the world father would discuss with us military training and the necessity for every man being able to take his part."


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: The Roosevelt boys attended private schools; Ted went to The Albany Academy, and then Groton School. Before he went to college, he thought about going to military school. Although not naturally called to academics, he persisted and graduated from Harvard College in 1909, where, like his father, he joined the Porcellian Club.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: After graduating from college, Ted entered the business world. He took positions in the steel and carpet businesses before becoming branch manager of an investment bank. He had a flair for business and amassed a considerable fortune in the years leading up to World War I and on into the 1920s. The income generated by his investments positioned him well for a career in politics after the War.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: With the outbreak of World War I in Europe in August 1914, American leaders had heightened concern about their nation's readiness for military engagement. Only the month before, Congress had authorized the creation of an Aviation Section in the Signal Corps. In 1915, Major General Leonard Wood, President Roosevelt's former commanding officer during the Spanish–American War, organized a summer camp at Plattsburgh, New York, to provide military training for business and professional men, at their own expense.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: This summer training program provided the base of a greatly expanded junior officers' corps when the United States entered World War I. During that summer, many well-heeled young men from some of the finest east coast schools, including three of the four Roosevelt sons, attended the military camp. When the United States entered the war, in April 1917, the armed forces offered commissions to the graduates of these schools based on their performance. The National Defense Act of 1916 continued the student military training and the businessmen's summer camps. It placed them on a firmer legal basis by authorizing an Officers' Reserve Corps and a Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC).


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: After the United States declaration of war on Germany, when the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was organizing, Theodore Roosevelt wired Major General John "Black Jack" Pershing, the newly appointed commander of the AEF, asking if his sons could accompany him to Europe as privates. Pershing accepted, but, based on their training at Plattsburgh, Archie was offered a commission with rank of second lieutenant, while Ted was offered a commission and the rank of major. Quentin had already been accepted into the Army Air Service. Kermit volunteered with the British in the area of present-day Iraq.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: With a reserve commission in the army (like Quentin and Archibald), soon after World War I started, Ted was called up. When the United States declared war on the German Empire, Ted volunteered to be one of the first soldiers to go to the Western Front. There, he was recognized as the best battalion commander in his division, according to the division commander. Roosevelt braved hostile fire and gas and led his battalion in combat. So concerned was he for his men's welfare that he purchased combat boots for the entire battalion with his own money. He eventually commanded the 26th Regiment in the 1st Division as a lieutenant colonel. He fought in several major battles, including America's first victory at the Battle of Cantigny.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Ted was gassed and wounded at Soissons during the summer of 1918. In July of that year, his youngest brother Quentin was killed in combat. Ted received the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions during the war, which ended on November 11, 1918 at 11:00 am. France conferred upon him the Chevalier Légion d'honneur on March 16, 1919. Before the troops came home from France, Ted was one of the founders of the soldiers' organization that developed as The American Legion. The American Legion "Post Officers Guide" recounts Ted's part in the organization's founding:


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: When the American Legion met in New York City, Roosevelt was nominated as its first national commander, but he declined, not wanting to be thought of as simply using it for political gain. In his view, acceptance under such circumstances could have discredited the nascent organization and himself and harmed his chances for a future in politics.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Ted resumed his reserve service between the wars. He attended the annual summer camps at Pine Camp and completed both the Infantry Officer's Basic and Advanced Courses, and the Command and General Staff College. By the beginning of World War II, in September 1939, he was eligible for senior commissioned service.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: After service in World War I, Roosevelt began his political career. Grinning like his father, waving a crumpled hat, and like his father, shouting "bully", he participated in every national campaign that he could, except when he was Governor-General of the Philippines. Elected as a member of the New York State Assembly (Nassau County, 2nd D.) in 1920 and 1921, Roosevelt was one of the few legislators who opposed the expulsion of five Socialist assemblymen in 1920. Anxiety about Socialists was high at the time.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: On March 10, 1921, Roosevelt was appointed by President Warren G. Harding as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He oversaw the transferring of oil leases for federal lands in Wyoming and California from the Navy to the Department of Interior, and ultimately, to private corporations. Established as the Navy's petroleum reserves by President Taft, the properties consisted of three oil fields: Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 3, Teapot Dome Field, Natrona County, Wyoming; and Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1 at Elk Hills Oil Field and Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 2 Buena Vista Oil Field, both in Kern County, California. In 1922, Albert B. Fall, U.S. Secretary of the Interior, leased the Teapot Dome Field to Harry F. Sinclair of Sinclair Consolidated Oil Company, and the field at Elk Hills, California, to Edward L. Doheny of Pan American Petroleum & Transport Company, both without competitive bidding.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: During the transfers, while Roosevelt was Assistant Secretary of the Navy, his brother Archie was vice president of the Union Petroleum Company, the export auxiliary subsidiary of the Sinclair Consolidated Oil. The leasing of government reserves without competitive bidding, plus the close personal and business relationships among the players, led to the deal being called the Teapot Dome scandal. The connection between the Roosevelt brothers could not be ignored.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: After Sinclair sailed for Europe to avoid testifying in Congressional hearings, G. D. Wahlberg, Sinclair's private secretary, advised Archibald Roosevelt to resign to save his reputation. The Senate Committee on Public Lands held hearings over a period of six months to investigate the actions of Fall in leasing the public lands without the required competitive bidding. Although both Archibald and Ted Roosevelt were cleared of all charges by the Senate Committee on Public Lands, their images were tarnished.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: At the 1924 New York state election, Roosevelt was the Republican nominee for Governor of New York. His cousin Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) spoke out on Ted's "wretched record" as Assistant Secretary of the Navy during the oil scandals. In return, Ted said of FDR: "He's a maverick! He does not wear the brand of our family." Eleanor Roosevelt, more closely related to Ted by blood but married to FDR, had been infuriated by these remarks. She dogged Ted on the New York State campaign trail in a car fitted with a "papier-mâché" bonnet shaped like a giant teapot that was made to emit simulated steam, and countered his speeches with those of her own, calling him immature.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: She would later decry these methods, admitting that they were below her dignity but saying that they had been contrived by Democratic Party "dirty tricksters." Ted's opponent, incumbent governor Alfred E. Smith, defeated him by 105,000 votes. Ted never forgave Eleanor for her stunt, though his elder half-sister Alice did, and resumed their formerly close friendship. These conflicts served to widen the split between the Oyster Bay (TR) and Hyde Park (FDR) wings of the Roosevelt family.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Along with his brother, Kermit, Roosevelt spent most of 1929 on a zoological expedition and was the first Westerner known to have shot a panda. In September 1929, President Herbert Hoover appointed Roosevelt as Governor of Puerto Rico, and he served until 1932. (Until 1947, when it became an electoral office, this was a political appointee position.) Roosevelt worked to ease the poverty of the people during the Great Depression. He attracted money to build secondary schools, raised money from American philanthropists, marketed Puerto Rico as a location for manufacturing, and made other efforts to improve the Puerto Rican economy.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: He worked to create more ties to U.S. institutions for mutual benefit. For instance, he arranged for Cayetano Coll y Cuchi to be invited to Harvard Law School to lecture about Puerto Rico's legal system. He arranged for Antonio Reyes Delgado of the Puerto Rican Legislative Assembly to speak to a conference of Civil Service Commissioners in New York City. Roosevelt worked to educate Americans about the island and its people, and to promote the image of Puerto Rico in the rest of the U.S.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was the first American governor to study Spanish and tried to learn 20 words a day. He was fond of local Puerto Rican culture and assumed many of the island's traditions. He became known as "El Jíbaro de La Fortaleza" ("The Hillbilly of the Governor's Mansion") by locals. In 1931 he appointed Carlos E. Chardón, a mycologist, as the first Puerto Rican to be Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Impressed with his work in Puerto Rico, President Hoover appointed Roosevelt as Governor-General of the Philippines in 1932. During his time in office, Roosevelt acquired the nickname "One Shot Teddy" among the Filipino population, in reference to his marksmanship during a hunt for tamaraw (wild pygmy water buffalo).


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: In the 1932 United States presidential election, when Franklin D. Roosevelt challenged Hoover for the presidency, Alice begged Ted to return from the Philippines to aid the campaign. Roosevelt announced to the press on August 22, 1932, that "Circumstances have made it necessary for me to return for a brief period to the United States... I shall start for the Philippines again the first week in November... While there I hope I can accomplish something."


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: The reaction of many in the U.S. press was so negative that within a few weeks, Governor-General Roosevelt arranged to stay in Manila throughout the campaign. U.S. Secretary of War Patrick J. Hurley cabled Ted, "The President has reached the conclusion that you should not leave your duties for the purpose of participating in the campaign... He believes it to be your duty to remain at your post." Roosevelt resigned as Governor-General after the election of FDR as president, as the new administration would appoint their own people. He thought that the potential for war in Europe meant another kind of opportunity for him. Using his father's language, he wrote to his wife as he sailed for North Africa, saying that he had done his best and his fate was now "at the knees of the gods."


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: During the 1932 presidential campaign of his cousin FDR, Roosevelt said, "Franklin is such poor stuff it seems improbable that he should be elected President." When Franklin won the election and Ted was asked just how he was related to FDR, Ted quipped "fifth cousin, about to be removed."


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: In 1935, he returned to the United States and first became a vice president of the publishing house Doubleday, Doran & Company. He next served as an executive with American Express. He also served on the boards of numerous non-profit organizations. He was invited by Irving Berlin to help oversee the disbursement of royalties for Berlin's popular song, "God Bless America," to charity. While living again in New York, the Roosevelts renewed old friendships with playwright Alexander Woollcott and comedian Harpo Marx.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: He was also mentioned as a potential candidate for the 1936 Republican presidential nomination, but did not mount a campaign. Had he received the 1936 Republican presidential nomination, he would have faced off against his cousin Franklin in the general election. After Alf Landon received the Republican presidential nomination, Roosevelt was also mentioned as a candidate for vice president, but that nomination went to Frank Knox. Roosevelt was also mentioned as a candidate for Governor of New York in 1936, but made no effort to become an active candidate.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: In 1940, during World War II (although the United States had not yet entered the war and remained neutral) Roosevelt attended a military refresher course offered to many businessmen as an advanced student, and was promoted to colonel in the Army of the United States.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt's wife personally asked Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to return him to a combat unit despite his past hospitalization. Although Marshall typically refused such political favoritism he remarked that he would make an exception "if what you wanted was a more dangerous job than what you had" and agreed. Roosevelt returned to active duty in April 1941 and was given command of the 26th Infantry Regiment, part of the 1st Infantry Division, the same unit he fought with in World War I. Late in 1941, he was promoted to the one-star general officer rank of brigadier general.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Upon his arrival in North Africa, Roosevelt became known as a general who often visited the front lines. He had always preferred the heat of the battle to the comfort of the command post, and this attitude would culminate in his actions in France on D-Day.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt led the 26th Infantry in an attack on Oran, Algeria, on November 8, 1942, as part of Operation Torch, the Allies' invasion of North Africa. During 1943, he was the Assistant Division Commander (ADC) of the 1st Infantry Division in the campaign in North Africa under Major General Terry Allen. He was cited for the Croix de Guerre by the military commander of French Africa, General Alphonse Juin:


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt collaborated with and was a friend of his commander, the hard-fighting, hard-drinking Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr. Their unorthodox approach to warfare did not escape the attention of Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the Seventh Army commander in Sicily, and formerly the II Corps commander. Patton disapproved of such officers who "dressed down" and were seldom seen in regulation field uniforms, and who placed little value in Patton's spit-shined ways in the field. Patton thought them both un-soldierly for it and wasted no opportunity to send derogatory reports on Allen to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO). Roosevelt was also treated by Patton as "guilty by association" for his friendship and collaboration with the highly unorthodox Allen. When Allen was relieved of command of the 1st Division and reassigned, so was Roosevelt.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: After criticizing Allen in his diary on July 31, 1943, Patton noted that he had asked permission of Eisenhower "to relieve both Allen and Roosevelt on the same terms, on the theory of rotation of command", and added, concerning Roosevelt, "there will be a kick over Teddy, but he has to go, brave but otherwise, no soldier." Later, however, upon hearing of the death of Roosevelt, Patton wrote in his diary that Roosevelt was "one of the bravest men I've ever known", and a few days later served as a pallbearer at his funeral.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was also criticized by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, the II Corps commander, who ultimately relieved both Roosevelt and Allen. In both of his autobiographies – "A Soldier's Story (1951)" and "A General's Life" – Bradley claimed that relieving the two generals was one of his most unpleasant duties of the war. Bradley felt that Allen and Roosevelt were guilty of "loving their division too much" and that their relationship with their soldiers was having a generally bad effect on the discipline of both the commanders and the men of the division.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was assistant commander of the 1st Infantry Division at Gela during the Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, commanded Allied Forces in Sardinia, and fought on the Italian mainland. He was the chief liaison officer to the French Expeditionary Corps in Italy for General Eisenhower, and repeatedly made requests of Eisenhower for combat command.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: In February 1944, Roosevelt was assigned to England to help lead the Normandy invasion and appointed Deputy Division Commander of the 4th Infantry Division. After several verbal requests to the division's Commanding General (CG), Major General Raymond "Tubby" Barton, to go ashore on D-Day with the Division were denied, Roosevelt sent a written petition:


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Barton approved Roosevelt's written request with much misgiving, stating that he did not expect Roosevelt to return alive.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was the only general on D-Day to land by sea with the first wave of troops. At 56, he was the oldest man in the invasion, and the only one whose son also landed that day; Captain Quentin Roosevelt II was among the first wave of soldiers at Omaha Beach.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Brigadier General Roosevelt was one of the first soldiers, along with Captain Leonard T. Schroeder Jr., off his landing craft as he led the 8th Infantry Regiment and 70th Tank Battalion landing at Utah Beach. Roosevelt was soon informed that the landing craft had drifted south of their objective, and the first wave of men was a mile off course. Walking with the aid of a cane and carrying a pistol, he personally made a reconnaissance of the area immediately to the rear of the beach to locate the causeways that were to be used for the advance inland. He returned to the point of landing and contacted the commanders of the two battalions, Lieutenant Colonels Conrad C. Simmons and Carlton O. MacNeely, and coordinated the attack on the enemy positions confronting them. Opting to fight from where they had landed rather than trying to move to their assigned positions, Roosevelt's famous words were, "We'll start the war from right here!"


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: These impromptu plans worked with complete success and little confusion. With artillery landing close by, each follow-on regiment was personally welcomed on the beach by a cool, calm, and collected Roosevelt, who inspired all with humor and confidence, reciting poetry and telling anecdotes of his father to steady the nerves of his men. Roosevelt pointed almost every regiment to its changed objective. Sometimes he worked under fire as a self-appointed traffic cop, untangling traffic jams of trucks and tanks all struggling to get inland and off the beach. One GI later reported that seeing the general walking around, apparently unaffected by the enemy fire, even when clods of earth fell down on him, gave him the courage to get on with the job, saying if the general is like that it cannot be that bad.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: When Major General Barton, the commander of the 4th Infantry Division, came ashore, he met Roosevelt not far from the beach. He later wrote:


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: By modifying his division's original plan on the beach, Roosevelt enabled its troops to achieve their mission objectives by coming ashore and attacking north behind the beach toward its original objective. Years later, Omar Bradley was asked to name the single most heroic action he had ever seen in combat. He replied, "Ted Roosevelt on Utah Beach."


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Following the landing, Roosevelt utilized a Jeep named "Rough Rider", which was the nickname of his father's regiment raised during the Spanish–American War. Before his death, Roosevelt was appointed as Military Governor of Cherbourg.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Throughout World War II, Roosevelt suffered from health problems. He had arthritis, mostly from old World War I injuries, and walked with a cane. He also had heart trouble, which he kept secret from army doctors and his superiors.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: On July 12, 1944, a little over one month after the landing at Utah Beach, Roosevelt died of a heart attack in France. He was living at the time in a converted sleeping truck, captured a few days before from the Germans. He had spent part of the day in a long conversation with his son, Captain Quentin Roosevelt II, who had also landed at Normandy on D-Day. He was stricken at about 10:00 pm, attended by medical help, and died at about midnight. He was fifty-six years old. On the day of his death, he had been selected by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, now commanding the U.S. First Army, for promotion to the two-star rank of major general and command of the 90th Infantry Division. These recommendations were sent to General Eisenhower, now the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. Eisenhower approved the assignment, but Roosevelt died before the battlefield promotion.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was initially buried at Sainte-Mère-Église. Photographs show that his honorary pallbearers were generals, including Omar N. Bradley, George S. Patton, Raymond O. Barton, Clarence R. Huebner, Courtney Hicks Hodges, and J. Lawton Collins, the VII Corps commander. Later, Roosevelt was buried at the American cemetery in Normandy, initially created for the Americans killed in Normandy during the invasion. His younger brother, Second Lieutenant Quentin Roosevelt, had been killed in action as a pilot in France during World War I and was initially buried near where he had been shot down in that war. In 1955, his family had his body exhumed and moved to the Normandy cemetery, where he was re-interred beside his brother. Ted also has a cenotaph near the grave of his parents at Youngs Memorial Cemetery in Oyster Bay, while Quentin's original gravestone was moved to Sagamore Hill.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Roosevelt was originally recommended for the Distinguished Service Cross by General Barton. The recommendation was upgraded at higher headquarters to the Medal of Honor, which was approved, and which Roosevelt was posthumously awarded on 21 September 1944.


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: On June 20, 1910, Roosevelt married Eleanor Butler Alexander (1888–1960), daughter of Henry Addison Alexander and Grace Green. Ted and Eleanor had four children: Grace (1911–1994), Theodore (1914–2001), Cornelius (1915–1991), and Quentin (1919–1948).


title: Theodore Roosevelt Jr.

text: Theodore Roosevelt Jr. is honored in the scientific names of two species of Caribbean lizards: "Anolis roosevelti" and "Sphaerodactylus roosevelti". Both species were named and described in 1931 by American herpetologist Chapman Grant, a grandson of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant.


title: Cooperative

text: A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.


title: Cooperative

text: Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion.


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956.


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets.


title: Cooperative

text: Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label.


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefits. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, only trading with the external communities. In alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context. The roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide. In the English-speaking world, post-feudal forms of cooperation between workers and owners that are expressed today as "profit sharing" and "surplus sharing" arrangements existed as far back as 1795. The key ideological influence on the Anglosphere branch of the cooperative movement, however, was a "rejection" of the charity principles that underpinned welfare reforms when the British government radically revised its Poor Laws in 1834. As both state and church institutions began to routinely distinguish between the 'deserving' and 'undeserving' poor, a movement of friendly societies grew throughout the British Empire based on the principle of mutuality, committed to self-help in the welfare of working people.


title: Cooperative

text: In 1761, the Fenwick Weavers' Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education. In 1810, Welsh social reformer Robert Owen, from Newtown in mid-Wales, and his partners purchased the New Lanark mill from Owen's father-in-law, David Dale, and proceeded to introduce better labour standards, including discounted retail shops where profits were passed on to his employees. Owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, although ultimately unsuccessful. In 1828, William King set up a newspaper, "The Cooperator", to promote Owen's thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton.


title: Cooperative

text: Also in 1810, Rev. Henry Duncan of the Ruthwell Presbyterian Church in Dumfriesshire, Scotland founded a friendly society to create a cooperative depository institution at which his poorest parishioners could hold savings accounts accruing interest for sickness and old-age, which was the first established savings bank that would be merged into the Trustee Savings Bank between 1970 and 1985. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is usually considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops, following the 'Rochdale Principles'. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford. Within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom.


title: Cooperative

text: "Spolok Gazdovský" ("The Association of Administrators" or "The Association of Farmers") founded in 1845 by Samuel Jurkovič, was the first cooperative in Europe (Credit union). The cooperative provided a cheap loan from funds generated by regular savings for members of the cooperative. Members of cooperative had to commit to a moral life and had to plant two trees in a public place every year. Despite the short duration of its existence, until 1851, it thus formed the basis of the cooperative movement in Slovakia. Slovak national thinker Ľudovít Štúr said about the association: ""We would very much like such excellent constitutions to be established throughout our region. They would help to rescue people from evil and misery. A beautiful, great idea, a beautiful excellent constitution!""


title: Cooperative

text: Other events such as the founding of a friendly society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor and consumer movements.


title: Cooperative

text: Friendly Societies established forums through which one member, one vote was practiced in organisation decision-making. The principles challenged the idea that a person should be an owner of property before being granted a political voice. Throughout the second half of the nineteenth century (and then repeatedly every twenty years or so) there was a surge in the number of cooperative organisations, both in commercial practice and civil society, operating to advance democracy and universal suffrage as a political principle. Friendly Societies and consumer cooperatives became the dominant form of organization amongst working people in Anglosphere industrial societies prior to the rise of trade unions and industrial factories. Weinbren reports that by the end of the 19th century, over 80% of British working age men and 90% of Australian working age men were members of one or more Friendly Society.


title: Cooperative

text: From the mid-nineteenth century, mutual organisations embraced these ideas in economic enterprises, firstly amongst tradespeople, and later in cooperative stores, educational institutes, financial institutions and industrial enterprises. The common thread (enacted in different ways, and subject to the constraints of various systems of national law) is the principle that an enterprise or association should be owned and controlled by the people it serves, and share any surpluses on the basis of each member's cooperative contribution (as a producer, labourer or consumer) rather than their capacity to invest financial capital.


title: Cooperative

text: The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed (1895) by the cooperative movement. It includes the World Council of Credit Unions. The International Cooperative Alliance was founded in London, England on 19 August 1895 during the 1st Cooperative Congress. In attendance were delegates from cooperatives from Argentina, Australia, Belgium, England, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, India, Italy, Switzerland, Serbia, and the US. A second organization formed later in Germany: the International Raiffeisen Union. In the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association (NCBA CLUSA; the abbreviation of the organization retains the initials of its former name, Cooperative League of the USA) serves as the sector's oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country and that consumers have access to cooperatives in the marketplace.


title: Cooperative

text: In 1945 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his invention of the AIV silage. This invention improved milk production and created a method of preserving butter, the AIV salt, which led to increased Finnish butter exports. He had started his career in chemistry in Valio, a cooperative of dairy farmers in which he headed the research department for 50 years and where all his major inventions were first put to practice.


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperative banks were first to adopt online banking. Stanford Federal Credit Union was the first financial institution to offer online internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994. In 1996 OP Financial Group, also a cooperative bank, became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe.


title: Cooperative

text: By 2004 a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, the United States Federation of Worker Cooperatives.


title: Cooperative

text: The cooperative movement has been fueled globally by ideas of economic democracy. Economic democracy is a socioeconomic philosophy that suggests an expansion of decision-making power from a small minority of corporate shareholders to a larger majority of public stakeholders. There are many different approaches to thinking about and building economic democracy. Anarchists are committed to libertarian socialism and have focused on local organization, including locally managed cooperatives, linked through confederations of unions, cooperatives and communities. Marxists, who as socialists have likewise held and worked for the goal of democratizing productive and reproductive relationships, often placed a greater strategic emphasis on confronting the larger scales of human organization. As they viewed the capitalist class to be politically, militarily and culturally mobilized for the purpose of maintaining an exploitable working class, they fought in the early 20th century to appropriate from the capitalist class the society's collective political capacity in the form of the state. Though they regard the state as an unnecessarily oppressive institution, Marxists considered appropriating national and international-scale capitalist institutions and resources (such as the state) to be an important first pillar in creating conditions favorable to solidaristic economies. With the declining influence of the USSR after the 1960s, socialist strategies pluralized, though economic democratizers have not as yet established a fundamental challenge to the hegemony of global neoliberal capitalism.


title: Cooperative

text: Since 2002, ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions could be distinguished by use of a .coop domain. In 2014, ICA introduced the Global Cooperative Marque for use by ICAs Cooperative members and by WOCCU's Credit Union members so they can be further identified by their coop ethical consumerism label. The marque is used today by thousands of cooperatives in more than a hundred countries.


title: Cooperative

text: The .coop domain and Co-operative Marque were designed as a new symbol of the global cooperative movement and its collective identity in the digital age. The Co-operative Marque and domain is reserved just for co-operatives, credit unions and organisations that support co-operatives; is distinguished by its ethical badge that subscribes to the seven ICA Cooperative Principles and Co-op Values. Co-ops can be identified on the Internet through the use of the .coop suffix of internet addresses. Organizations using .coop domain names must adhere to the basic co-op values.


title: Cooperative

text: A cooperative is a legal entity owned and democratically controlled by its members. Members often have a close association with the enterprise as producers or consumers of its products or services, or as its employees. The legal entities have a range of social characteristics. Membership is open, meaning that anyone who satisfies certain non-discriminatory conditions may join. Economic benefits are distributed proportionally to each member's level of participation in the cooperative, for instance, by a dividend on sales or purchases, rather than according to capital invested. Cooperatives may be classified as either "worker", "consumer", "producer", "purchasing" or "housing" cooperatives. They are distinguished from other forms of incorporation in that profit-making or economic stability are balanced by the interests of the community.


title: Cooperative

text: There are specific forms of incorporation for cooperatives in some countries, e.g. Finland and Australia. Cooperatives may take the form of companies limited by shares or by guarantee, partnerships or unincorporated associations. In the UK they may also use the industrial and provident society structure. In the US, cooperatives are often organized as non-capital stock corporations under state-specific cooperative laws. Cooperatives often share their earnings with the membership as dividends, which are divided among the members according to their participation in the enterprise, such as patronage, instead of according to the value of their capital shareholdings (as is done by a joint stock company).


title: Cooperative

text: The cooperative share capital or co-operative share capital (in short "cooperative capital" or "co-operative capital") is the form of capital that the cooperative accumulates from the paid participation shares of its members. The total amount of participation shares the paid to the cooperative constitutes the cooperative capital. The co-operative share capital is usually non-withdrawable and indivisible to the cooperative members.


title: Cooperative

text: "Capital and the Debt Trap" reports that "cooperatives tend to have a longer life than other types of enterprise, and thus a higher level of entrepreneurial sustainability". This resilience has been attributed to how cooperatives share risks and rewards between members, how they harness the ideas of many and how members have a tangible ownership stake in the business. Additionally, "cooperative banks build up counter-cyclical buffers that function well in case of a crisis," and are less likely to lead members and clients towards a debt trap (p. 216). This is explained by their more democratic governance that reduces perverse incentives and subsequent contributions to economic bubbles.


title: Cooperative

text: A 2013 report by ILO concluded that cooperative banks outperformed their competitors during the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The cooperative banking sector had 20% market share of the European banking sector, but accounted for only 7 per cent of all the write-downs and losses between the third quarter of 2007 and first quarter of 2011. Cooperative banks were also over-represented in lending to small and medium-sized businesses in all of the 10 countries included in the report.


title: Cooperative

text: A 2013 report published by the UK Office for National Statistics showed that in the UK the rate of survival of cooperatives after five years was 80 percent compared with only 41 percent for all other enterprises. A further study found that after ten years 44 percent of cooperatives were still in operation, compared with only 20 percent for all enterprises.


title: Cooperative

text: A 2012 report published by The European Confederation of cooperatives and worker-owned enterprises active in industry and services showed that in France and Spain, worker cooperatives and social cooperatives "have been more resilient than conventional enterprises during the economic crisis".


title: Cooperative

text: In a 2007 study by the World Council of Credit Unions, the five-year survival rate of cooperatives in the United States was found to be 90% in comparison to 3-5% for traditional businesses. Credit unions, a type of cooperative bank, had five times lower failure rate than other banks during the financial crisis and more than doubled lending to small businesses between 2008 and 2016, from $30 billion to $60 billion, while lending to small businesses overall during the same period declined by around $100 billion. Public trust in credit unions stands at 60%, compared to 30% for big banks and small businesses are five times less likely to be dissatisfied with a credit union than with a big bank.


title: Cooperative

text: A 2010 report by the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export in Québec found that the five-year survival rate and ten-year survival rate of cooperatives in Québec to be 62% and 44% respectively compared to 35% and 20% for conventional firms. Another report by the BC-Alberta Social economy Research Alliance found that the three-year survival rate of cooperatives in Alberta to be 81.5% in comparison to 48% for traditional firms. Another report by the aforementioned Research Alliance found that in British Columbia, the five-year survival rates for cooperatives between 2000 and 2010 to be 66.6% in comparison to conventional businesses that had 43% and 39% in the years 1984 and 1993 respectively


title: Cooperative

text: The top 300 largest cooperatives were listed in 2007 by the International Co-operative Alliance. 80% were involved in either agriculture, finance, or retail and more than half were in the United States, Italy, or France.


title: Cooperative

text: A consumers' cooperative is a business owned by its customers. Members vote on major decisions and elect the board of directors from among their own number. The first of these was set up in 1844 in the North-West of England by 28 weavers who wanted to sell food at a lower price than the local shops.


title: Cooperative

text: Retail cooperatives are retailers, such as grocery stores, owned by their customers. They should not be confused with retailers' cooperatives, whose members are retailers rather than consumers. In Denmark, Singapore, Italy, and Finland the company with the largest market share in the grocery store sector is a consumer owned cooperative. In Switzerland both the largest and the second largest retailer are consumer owned cooperatives.


title: Cooperative

text: A housing cooperative is a legal mechanism for ownership of housing where residents either own shares (share capital co-op) reflecting their equity in the cooperative's real estate or have membership and occupancy rights in a not-for-profit cooperative (non-share capital co-op), and they underwrite their housing through paying subscriptions or rent.


title: Cooperative

text: Members of a building cooperative (in Britain known as a self-build housing cooperative) pool resources to build housing, normally using a high proportion of their own labor. When the building is finished, each member is the sole owner of a homestead, and the cooperative may be dissolved.


title: Cooperative

text: This collective effort was at the origin of many of Britain's building societies, which however, developed into "permanent" mutual savings and loan organisations, a term which persisted in some of their names (such as the former "Leeds Permanent"). Nowadays such self-building may be financed using a step-by-step mortgage which is released in stages as the building is completed. The term may also refer to worker cooperatives in the building trade.


title: Cooperative

text: A utility cooperative is a type of consumers' cooperative that is tasked with the delivery of a public utility such as electricity, water or telecommunications services to its members. Profits are either reinvested into infrastructure or distributed to members in the form of "patronage" or "capital credits", which are essentially dividends paid on a member's investment into the cooperative. In the United States, many cooperatives were formed to provide rural electrical and telephone service as part of the New Deal. "See Rural Utilities Service".


title: Cooperative

text: In the case of electricity, cooperatives are generally either generation and transmission (G&T) co-ops that create and send power via the transmission grid or local distribution co-ops that gather electricity from a variety of sources and send it along to homes and businesses.


title: Cooperative

text: In Tanzania, it has been proven that the cooperative method is helpful in water distribution. When the people are involved with their own water, they care more because the quality of their work has a direct effect on the quality of their water.


title: Cooperative

text: Credit unions are cooperative financial institutions owned and controlled by their members. Credit unions provide the same financial services as banks but are considered not-for-profit organizations and adhere to cooperative principles.


title: Cooperative

text: Credit unions originated in mid-19th-century Germany through the efforts of pioneers Franz Herman Schulze'Delitzsch and Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen. The concept of financial cooperatives crossed the Atlantic at the turn of the 20th century, when the "caisse populaire" movement was started by Alphonse Desjardins in Quebec, Canada. In 1900, from his home in Lévis, he opened North America's first credit union, marking the beginning of the Mouvement Desjardins. Eight years later, Desjardins provided guidance for the first credit union in the United States, where there are now about 7,950 active status federally insured credit unions, with almost 90 million members and more than $679 billion on deposit.


title: Cooperative

text: Financial cooperatives hold a significant market share in Europe and Latin America, as well as a few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. They also have a strong presence in Asia, Australia, and the United States. According to the World Council of Credit Unions (WOCCU), there were 68,882 financial cooperatives in 109 countries in 2016, serving more than 235 million members, with total assets exceeding 1.7 trillion dollars. It is worth noting that the WOCCU's data do not include some major financial cooperative networks in Europe, such as Germany, Finland, France, Denmark, and Italy. In many high-income economies, financial cooperatives hold significant market shares of the banking sector.


title: Cooperative

text: According to the European Association of Cooperative Banks, the market share of cooperative banks in the Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) credit market by the end of 2016 was 37% in Finland, 45% in France, 33% in Germany, 43% in the Netherlands, and 22% in Canada. In Germany, Volksbanken-Raiffeisen banks have a market share of approximately 21% of domestic credit and domestic deposits. In the Netherlands, Rabobank holds 34% of deposits, and in France cooperative banks (Crédit Agricole, Crédit Mutuel and BPCE Group) possess more than 59% of domestic credit and 61% of domestic deposits. In Finland, OP financial group holds 35% and 38% of domestic credit and deposits, respectively, and in Canada, Desjardins holds around 42% of domestic deposits and 22% of domestic credit.


title: Cooperative

text: There are many types of cooperative financial institutions with different names across the world, including financial cooperatives ('cooperativa financiera' is the Spanish term used in Latin America), cooperative banks, credit unions, and savings and credit cooperatives ('cooperativa de ahorro y crédito' in Spanish or 'coopérative d’épargne et de credit' in French-speaking countries).


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperative banking networks, which were nationalized in Eastern Europe, work now as real cooperative institutions. In Poland, the SKOK ("Spółdzielcze Kasy Oszczędnościowo-Kredytowe") network has grown to serve over 1 million members via 13,000 branches, and is larger than the country's largest conventional bank.


title: Cooperative

text: In Scandinavia, there is a clear distinction between mutual savings banks (Sparbank) and true credit unions (Andelsbank).


title: Cooperative

text: The oldest cooperative banks in Europe, based on the ideas of Friedrich Raiffeisen, are joined together in the 'Urgenossen'.


title: Cooperative

text: A worker cooperative or producer cooperative is a cooperative owned and democratically controlled by its "worker-owners". There are no outside owners in a "pure" workers' cooperative, only the workers own shares of the business, though hybrid forms exist in which consumers, community members or capitalist investors also own some shares. In practice, control by worker-owners may be exercised through individual, collective or majority ownership by the workforce, or the retention of individual, collective or majority voting rights (exercised on a one-member one-vote basis). A worker cooperative, therefore, has the characteristic that the majority of its workforce owns shares, and the majority of shares are owned by the workforce. Membership is not always compulsory for employees, but generally only employees can become members either directly (as shareholders) or indirectly through membership of a trust that owns the company.


title: Cooperative

text: The impact of political ideology on practice constrains the development of cooperatives in different countries. In India, there is a form of workers' cooperative which insists on compulsory membership for all employees and compulsory employment for all members. That is the form of the Indian Coffee Houses. This system was advocated by the Indian communist leader A. K. Gopalan. In places like the UK, common ownership (indivisible collective ownership) was popular in the 1970s. Cooperative Societies only became legal in Britain after the passing of Slaney's Act in 1852. In 1865 there were 651 registered societies with a total membership of well over 200,000. There are now more than 400 worker cooperatives in the UK, Suma Wholefoods being the largest example with a turnover of £24 million.


title: Cooperative

text: "Business and employment cooperatives" (BECs) are a subset of worker cooperatives that represent a new approach to providing support to the creation of new businesses.


title: Cooperative

text: Like other business creation support schemes, BEC's enable budding entrepreneurs to experiment with their business idea while benefiting from a secure income. The innovation BECs introduce is that once the businesses are established, the entrepreneurs are not forced to leave and set up independently, but can stay and become full members of the cooperative. The micro-enterprises then combine to form one multi-activity enterprise whose members provide a mutually supportive environment for each other.


title: Cooperative

text: BECs thus provide budding business people with an easy transition from inactivity to self-employment, but in a collective framework. They open up new horizons for people who have ambition but who lack the skills or confidence needed to set off entirely on their own – or who simply want to carry on an independent economic activity but within a supportive group context.


title: Cooperative

text: A "purchasing cooperative" is a type of cooperative arrangement, often among businesses, to agree to aggregate demand to get lower prices from selected suppliers. Retailers' cooperatives are a form of purchasing cooperative.


title: Cooperative

text: "Agricultural service cooperatives" provide various services to their individual farming members, and to "agricultural production cooperatives", where production resources such as land or machinery are pooled and members farm jointly.


title: Cooperative

text: Agricultural supply cooperatives aggregate purchases, storage, and distribution of farm inputs for their members. By taking advantage of volume discounts and utilizing other economies of scale, supply cooperatives bring down members' costs. Supply cooperatives may provide seeds, fertilizers, chemicals, fuel, and farm machinery. Some supply cooperatives also operate machinery pools that provide mechanical field services (e.g., plowing, harvesting) to their members. Examples include the American cranberry-and-grapefruit cooperative Ocean Spray, collective farms in socialist states and the kibbutzim in Israel.


title: Cooperative

text: Producer cooperatives have producers as their members, and provide services involved in moving a product from the point of production to the point of consumption. Unlike worker cooperatives, they allow businesses with multiple employees to join. Agricultural cooperatives and fishery cooperatives are such examples.


title: Cooperative

text: Agricultural marketing cooperatives operate a series of interconnected activities involving planning production, growing and harvesting, grading, packing, transport, storage, food processing, distribution and sale. Agricultural marketing cooperatives are often formed to promote specific commodities.


title: Cooperative

text: Commercially successful agricultural marketing cooperatives include India's Amul (dairy products), which is the world's largest producer of milk and milk products, Dairy Farmers of America (dairy products) in the United States, and Malaysia's FELDA (palm oil).


title: Cooperative

text: Producer cooperatives may also be organized by small businesses for pooling their savings and accessing capital, for acquiring supplies and services, or for marketing products and services.


title: Cooperative

text: Producer cooperatives among urban artisans were developed in the mid-19th-century in Germany by Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch, who also promoted changes to the legal system (the Prussian "Genossenschaftsgesetz" of 1867) that facilitated such cooperatives. At about the same time, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen developed similar cooperatives among rural people.


title: Cooperative

text: Multi-stakeholder cooperatives include representation from different stakeholder groups, such as both consumers and workers.


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests. Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal but not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization. External societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies that have moved to adopt the multi-stakeholder cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to "make visible" the increasing contribution of social economy organizations.


title: Cooperative

text: A particularly successful form of multi-stakeholder cooperative is the Italian "social cooperative", of which some 11,000 exist. "Type A" social cooperatives bring together providers and beneficiaries of a social service as members. "Type B" social cooperatives bring together permanent workers and previously unemployed people who wish to integrate into the labor market. They are legally defined as follows:


title: Cooperative

text: The SCIC – "Société coopérative d'intérêt collective" (co-operative society of collective interest) is a type of multi-stakeholder co-operative structure introduced in France in 1982. A SCIC must have at least three different categories of members, including users and employees. Other stakeholder groups that may be represented are volunteers, public authorities and other individual or corporate supporters. Voting is on a ‘one member, one vote’ basis, though voting in colleges is also provided for under certain circumstances.


title: Cooperative

text: SCICs must have a ‘general interest’ objective. Public bodies can subscribe for up to 20% of the capital. The status allows an association to convert into a co-operative without having to change its legal form. The relative rigidity of the structure, combined with the government's failure to grant tax relief, has limited its take-up.


title: Cooperative

text: Multi-stakeholder co-operatives also exist in the retail sector. An example is Färm, a Belgian wholefood retailing cooperative founded in 2015 which favours organic and local produce. It operates 16 shops, of which 11 are in Brussels.


title: Cooperative

text: The cooperative brings together all the participants in the food chain from farm to fork, represented by six different categories of members:


title: Cooperative

text: Each member has one vote. The members elect the board of 10 at the annual general meeting. Each category of members has at least one board member to represent them.


title: Cooperative

text: An innovative governance provision ensure that one group of members can dominate the others. In practice board decisions are taken by consensus. In the event of a vote, each director has one vote, and except where the cooperative's registered or internal rules provide otherwise, decisions are taken by simple majority of those present or represented. But in the event of a tie, if the votes of a group of voters all belong to the same category, the votes of the other categories prevail.


title: Cooperative

text: To ensure that members are committed to the cooperative's values, vision and objectives, to guarantee its long-term finance and to limit financial speculation, shares are not transferable for a period of four years.


title: Cooperative

text: New generation cooperatives (NGCs) are an adaptation of traditional cooperative structures to modern, capital intensive industries. They are sometimes described as a hybrid between traditional co-ops and limited liability companies or public benefit corporations. They were first developed in California and spread and flourished in the US Mid-West in the 1990s. They are now common in Canada where they operate primarily in agriculture and food services, where their primary purpose is to add value to primary products. For example, producing ethanol from corn, pasta from durum wheat, or gourmet cheese from goat's milk.


title: Cooperative

text: A platform cooperative, or platform co-op, is a cooperatively owned, democratically governed business that establishes a computing platform, and uses a protocol, website or mobile app to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Platform cooperatives are an alternative to venture capital-funded platforms insofar as they are owned and governed by those who depend on them most—workers, users, and other relevant stakeholders. Proponents of platform cooperativism claim that, by ensuring the financial and social value of a platform circulate among these participants, platform cooperatives will bring about a more equitable and fair digitally mediated economy in contrast with the extractive models of corporate intermediaries. Platform cooperatives differ from traditional cooperatives not only due to their use of digital technologies, but also by their contribution to the commons for the purpose of fostering an equitable social and economic landscape.


title: Cooperative

text: A volunteer cooperative is a cooperative that is run by and for a network of volunteers, for the benefit of a defined membership or the general public, to achieve some goal. Depending on the structure, it may be a collective or mutual organization, which is operated according to the principles of cooperative governance. The most basic form of volunteer-run cooperative is a voluntary association. A lodge or social club may be organized on this basis. A volunteer-run co-op is distinguished from a worker cooperative in that the latter is by definition employee-owned, whereas the volunteer cooperative is typically a non-stock corporation, volunteer-run consumer co-op or service organization, in which workers and beneficiaries jointly participate in management decisions and receive discounts on the basis of sweat equity.


title: Cooperative

text: In some cases, cooperative societies find it advantageous to form cooperative federations in which all of the members are themselves cooperatives. Historically, these have predominantly come in the form of cooperative wholesale societies, and cooperative unions. Cooperative federations are a means through which cooperative societies can fulfill the sixth Rochdale Principle, cooperation among cooperatives, with the ICA noting that "Cooperatives serve their members most effectively and strengthen the cooperative movement by working together through local, regional and international structures."


title: Cooperative

text: A second common form of cooperative federation is a cooperative union, whose objective (according to Gide) is "to develop the spirit of solidarity among societies and... in a word, to exercise the functions of a government whose authority, it is needless to say, is purely moral." Co-operatives UK and the International Cooperative Alliance are examples of such arrangements.


title: Cooperative

text: In some countries with a strong cooperative sector, such as the UK, cooperatives may find it advantageous to form political groupings to represent their interests. The British Co-operative Party, the Canadian Cooperative Commonwealth Federation and United Farmers of Alberta are prime examples of such arrangements.


title: Cooperative

text: The British cooperative movement formed the Co-operative Party in the early 20th century to represent members of consumers' cooperatives in Parliament, which was the first of its kind. The Co-operative Party now has a permanent electoral pact with the Labour Party meaning someone cannot be a member if they support a party other than Labour. Plaid Cymru also run a credit union that is constituted as a co-operative, called the 'Plaid Cymru Credit Union'. UK cooperatives retain a strong market share in food retail, insurance, banking, funeral services, and the travel industry in many parts of the country, although this is still significantly lower than other business models.


title: Cooperative

text: Former leader of the British Labour Party Jeremy Corbyn has publicly expressed support for worker cooperatives.


title: Cooperative

text: Since cooperatives are based on values like self-help, democracy, equality, equity, and solidarity, they can play a particularly strong role in empowering women, especially in developing countries. Cooperatives allow women who might have been isolated and working individually to band together and create economies of scale as well as increase their own bargaining power in the market. In statements in advance of International Women's Day in early 2013, President of the International Cooperative Alliance, Dame Pauline Green, said, "Cooperative businesses have done so much to help women onto the ladder of economic activity. With that comes community respect, political legitimacy and influence."


title: Cooperative

text: However, despite the supposed democratic structure of cooperatives and the values and benefits shared by members, due to gender norms on the traditional role of women, and other instilled cultural practices that sidestep attempted legal protections, women suffer a disproportionately low representation in cooperative membership around the world. Representation of women through "active" membership (showing up to meetings and voting), as well as in leadership and managerial positions is even lower.


title: Cooperative

text: , the number of memberships in cooperatives reached one billion, and so the organizational structure and movement has seeped into popular culture.


title: Cooperative

text: However, in comparison with the number of co-operatives, they are rarely the subject of literature. Among these, Ken Follett mentions their role in working-class life during the First World War in "Fall of Giants" (2010), the first volume of his "Century Trilogy":


title: Cooperative

text: The local grocery was a co-operative store, sharing profits among its customers. Such shops were popular in South Wales, although no one knew how to pronounce Co-op, variations ranging from "cop" to "quorp".


title: Cooperative

text: Less seriously, in "Murder in the Collective", Barbara Wilson sets a murder mystery among radical printing collectives in Seattle, while Frances Madeson's 2007 comic novel "Cooperative Village" is set in the eponymous housing co-operative in New York.


title: Cooperative

text: In the HBO drama television series "The Wire", several drug dealers create a democratic alliance called the New Day Co-Op with the interests of cutting back on violence and increasing business.


title: Cooperative

text: "Co-opoly: The Game of Cooperatives" is a popular board game by TESA Collective played around the world that challenges players to work together to start and run a cooperative and overcome major hurdles.


title: Cooperative

text: Cooperatives feature prominently in the Martian economy in Kim Stanley Robinson's "Mars" trilogy and in a speculative future Earth economy in his novel The Ministry for the Future.


title: Proportional representation

text: Proportional representation (PR) refers to a type of electoral system under which subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. The concept applies mainly to geographical (e.g. states, regions) and political divisions (political parties) of the electorate. The essence of such systems is that all votes cast - or almost all votes cast - contribute to the result and are actually used to help elect someone—not just a plurality, or a bare majority—and that the system produces mixed, balanced representation reflecting how votes are cast.


title: Proportional representation

text: "Proportional" electoral systems mean proportional to "vote share" and "not" proportional to population size. For example, the US House of Representatives has 435 districts which are drawn so roughly equal or "proportional" numbers of people live within each district, yet members of the House are elected in first-past-the-post elections: first-past-the-post is "not" proportional by vote share.


title: Proportional representation

text: The most prevalent forms such methods require either a more general pooling of votes (as most party-list systems use and MMP systems use in conjunction with single-member or multi-member districts) or the use of multiple-member voting districts as is used in Single transferable voting.


title: Proportional representation

text: MMP in New Zealand uses country-wide party vote tallies to assess how many additional members parties will get.


title: Proportional representation

text: PR systems that achieve the highest levels of proportionality tend to use as general pooling as possible (often country-wide) or districts with large numbers of seats. A pooling of votes to elect more than a hundred members is used in Angola, for example. STV though has never been used to elect more than 21 in a single contest to this point in history.


title: Proportional representation

text: Under STV, districts usually have 5 to 9 seats. With nine seats, any voting block with at least ten percent of the vote in the district takes at least one seat.


title: Proportional representation

text: STV works with districts having more than ten seats as well - a district with 42 seats (21 filled in any one election) is in use today (NSW, Australia) covering a whole state. In such a case any voting group in NSW with about five percent of the vote takes one seat or more.


title: Proportional representation

text: The most widely used families of PR electoral systems are "party-list PR", used in 85 countries, "mixed-member PR" (MMP), used in 7 countries, and "single transferable vote" (STV), used in Ireland, Malta and Australian Senate.


title: Proportional representation

text: Due to factors such as electoral thresholds and the use of small constituencies, as well as manipulation tactics such as party splitting and gerrymandering, perfect proportionality is rarely achieved under these systems. Nonetheless, they approximate proportionality much better than other systems.


title: Proportional representation

text: Some jurisdictions use leveling seats (top-up) to compensate for the dis-proportional results produced in single-member districts (such as New Zealand's MMP) or to polish the fairness produced in multi-member districts (such as in Denmark's MMP). Other jurisdictions use additional seats to produce specific results - such as the election of women (to address the gender proportionality) and to ensure that the party with more than half the votes has more than half the seats.


title: Proportional representation

text: Proportional electoral systems always have to allow for multiple winners. To achieve their intended effect, there (usually) needs to be more than one seat in each district. Elections for a single president cannot be based on proportional representation, but a legislative body (assembly, parliament) may be elected proportionally. In the European Parliament for instance, each member state has a number of seats that is (roughly) proportional to its population, enabling geographical proportional representation. Almost all European countries also have political proportional representation (ideological proportional representation to the degree that parties honestly describe their goals): When "n"% of the electorate support a particular political party or set of candidates as their favorite, then roughly "n"% of seats are allotted to that party or those candidates. All proportional systems aim to provide some form of equal representation for votes, but may differ in their approaches on how they achieve this.


title: Proportional representation

text: Party list PR, the most commonly used version of proportional representation, involves parties in the election process. Voters do not primarily vote for candidates (persons), but for "electoral lists" (or "party lists"), which are lists of candidates that parties put forward. The mechanism that allocates seats to the parties/lists is how these systems achieve proportionality. Once this is done, the candidates who take the seats are based on the order in which they appear on the list. This is the basic, closed list version of list PR.


title: Proportional representation

text: An example election where the assembly has 200 seats to be filled is presented below. Every voter votes for the list created by their favourite party and the results of the election are as follows (popular vote). Under party-list PR, every party gets a number of seats proportional to their share of the popular vote.


title: Proportional representation

text: This is done by a proportional formula/method, for example the D'Hondt method (also called the Jefferson method). Votes and seats often cannot be mathematically perfectly allocated, so some amount of rounding has to be done. The various methods deal with this in different ways, although the difference is reduced if there are many seats ― for example, if the whole country is one district. Party list PR is also more complicated in reality than in the example, as countries often use more than one district, multiple tiers (e.g. local, regional and national), open lists or an electoral threshold.