title: Suffragette

text: Many suffragists at the time, and some historians since, have argued that the actions of the militant suffragettes damaged their cause. Opponents at the time saw evidence that women were too emotional and could not think as logically as men. Historians generally argue that the first stage of the militant suffragette movement under the Pankhursts in 1906 had a dramatic mobilising effect on the suffrage movement. Women were thrilled and supportive of an actual revolt in the streets. The membership of the militant WSPU and the older NUWSS overlapped and were mutually supportive. However, a system of publicity, Ensor argues, had to continue to escalate to maintain its high visibility in the media. The hunger strikes and force-feeding did that, but the Pankhursts refused any advice and escalated their tactics. They turned to systematic disruption of Liberal Party meetings as well as physical violence in terms of damaging public buildings and arson. Searle says the methods of the suffragettes harmed the Liberal Party but failed to advance women's suffrage. When the Pankhursts decided to stop their militancy at the start of the war and enthusiastically support the war effort, the movement split and their leadership role ended. Suffrage came four years later, but the feminist movement in Britain permanently abandoned the militant tactics that had made the suffragettes famous.


title: Suffragette

text: After Emmeline Pankhurst's death in 1928, money was raised to commission a statue, and on 6 March 1930 the statue in Victoria Tower Gardens was unveiled. A crowd of radicals, former suffragettes and national dignitaries gathered as former Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin presented the memorial to the public. In his address, Baldwin declared: In 1929 a portrait of Emmeline Pankhurst was added to the National Portrait Gallery's collection. In 1987 her former home at 62 Nelson Street, Manchester, the birthplace of the WSPU, and the adjoining Edwardian villa (no. 60) were opened as the Pankhurst Centre, a women-only space and museum dedicated to the suffragette movement. Christabel Pankhurst was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1936, and after her death in 1958 a permanent memorial was installed next to the statue of her mother. The memorial to Christabel Pankhurst consists of a low stone screen flanking her mother's statue with a bronze medallion plaque depicting her profile at one end of the screen paired with a second plaque depicting the "prison brooch" or "badge" of the WSPU at the other end. The unveiling of this dual memorial was performed on 13 July 1959 by the Lord Chancellor, Lord Kilmuir. The Pankhurst's name and image and those of 58 other women's suffrage supporters are etched on the plinth of the statue of Millicent Fawcett in Parliament Square, London that was unveiled in 2018.


title: Suffragette

text: In 1903, the Australian suffragist Vida Goldstein adopted the WSPU colours for her campaign for the Senate in 1910 but got them slightly wrong since she thought that they were purple, green and lavender. Goldstein had visited England in 1911 at the behest of the WSPU. Her speeches around the country drew huge crowds and her tour was touted as "the biggest thing that has happened in the women movement for sometime in England". The correct colours were used for her campaign for Kooyong in 1913 and also for the flag of the Women's Peace Army, which she established during World War I to oppose conscription. During International Women's Year in 1975 the BBC series about the suffragettes, Shoulder to Shoulder, was screened across Australia and Elizabeth Reid, Women's Adviser to Prime Minister Gough Whitlam directed that the WSPU colours be used for the International Women's Year symbol. They were also used for a first-day cover and postage stamp released by Australia Post in March 1975. The colours have since been adopted by government bodies such as the National Women's Advisory Council and organisations such as Women's Electoral Lobby and other women's services such as domestic violence refuges and are much in evidence each year on International Women's day.


title: Suffragette

text: The colours of green and heliotrope (purple) were commissioned into a new coat of arms for Edge Hill University in Lancashire in 2006, symbolising the university's early commitment to the equality of women through its beginnings as a women-only college.


title: Suffragette

text: During the 1960s, the memory of the suffragettes was kept alive in the public consciousness by portrayals in film, such as the character Mrs Winifred Banks in the 1964 Disney musical film "Mary Poppins" who sings the song


title: Suffragette

text: "Sister Suffragette" and Maggie DuBois in the 1965 film "The Great Race". In 1974 The BBC TV series "Shoulder to Shoulder" portraying events in the British militant suffrage movement, concentrating on the lives of members of the Pankhurst family was shown around the world. And in the 21st century the story of the suffragettes was brought to a new generation in the BBC television series "Up the Women", the 2015 graphic novel trilogy "" and the 2015 film "Suffragette".


title: Suffragette

text: In recognition of having meetings at the Royal Albert Hall in London, the Suffragettes were inducted into the Hall's Walk of Fame in 2018, making them one of the first eleven recipients of a star on the walk, joining Eric Clapton, Winston Churchill, Muhammad Ali and Albert Einstein, among others who were viewed as "key players" in the building's history.


title: Suffragette

text: In February 2019, female Democrat members of the US Congress dressed predominantly in white when attending President Trump's State of the Union address. The choice of one of the colours associated with the suffragettes was to signify the women's solidarity.


title: Suffragette

text: The achievement of women's voting rights for elections to the House of Commons did not secure votes for all British women. Despite it being explicitly asserted in the Royal charters of the Virginia Company (in 1607) and its spin-ff, the Somers Isles Company (in 1615), that those who chose to settle in England's colonies and their descendants would receive the same enfranchisement as if they had been born in England, the British Government has never created voting districts for the British Parliament in any colony, effectively disenfranchising the women and men of the British Overseas Territories. Local representative governments were created in a number of colonies, starting with Virginia (1619) and Bermuda, or the Somers Isles (1620), but enfranchisement of women for elections to the British Parliament did not necessarily compel the local assemblies to grant women the vote and the struggle would continue.


title: Suffragette

text: The Oxford English Dictionary has this, "Originally a generic term, "suffragist" came to refer specifically to those advocates of women's suffrage who campaigned through peaceful, constitutional measures, in distinction to the "suffragettes" who employed direct action and civil disobedience."


title: Dominic Chianese

text: Dominic Chianese (; born February 24, 1931) is an American actor, singer, and musician. He is best known for his roles as Corrado "Junior" Soprano on the HBO series "The Sopranos" (1999–2007), Johnny Ola in "The Godfather Part II" (1974), and Leander in "Boardwalk Empire" (2011–2013).


title: Dominic Chianese

text: Chianese was born in the Bronx, New York. His father was a bricklayer. His paternal grandfather immigrated to the United States from Naples in 1904 and settled in the Bronx. Chianese graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1948.


title: Dominic Chianese

text: After a decade of attending college and appearing in off-Broadway theatre, Chianese attended his first professional acting class at HB Studio in Manhattan, with renowned teacher Walt Witcover. Drama and musical theater became Chianese's passion. His first Broadway show was "Oliver!" in 1965. He has continued to perform in Broadway theatre, Off Broadway, and regional theatre. To supplement income in the dry periods, he played rhythm guitar and sang in taverns and restaurants, and also served as the master of ceremonies at the open microphone night at Gerdes Folk City in Greenwich Village. Chianese's first television credit occurred when George C. Scott recommended him for a role in the acclaimed series "East Side/West Side". In 1974, Francis Ford Coppola cast Chianese as Johnny Ola in "The Godfather Part II", which sparked a film career, culminating in several films (and plays) with Al Pacino.


title: Dominic Chianese

text: Before being cast in "The Godfather Part II", Chianese worked for the Drug Commission of New York State as a recreational worker in a rehabilitation center. He taught guitar to women who were serving time for drug-related crimes.


title: Dominic Chianese

text: In 2010, Chianese received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor in recognition of his humanitarian efforts.


title: Dominic Chianese

text: Chianese is an accomplished tenor and musician. He released a CD titled "Hits" in 2000, on which he sings American and Italian songs, that he recorded in Nashville. He performed Salvatore Cardillo's sentimental classic "Core 'ngrato" ("Ungrateful Heart"), on the third-season finale of "The Sopranos" (episode 3.13, "Army of One"). In 2003, Chianese, along with AOL Music, released a second CD titled "Ungrateful Heart", which features 16 classic Neapolitan songs. In the 2000s he played in a mandolin quartet weekly at the Hotel Edison, New York City.


title: Dominic Chianese

text: Chianese appeared as a guest actor on the HBO series "Boardwalk Empire" for three seasons as Leander Whitlock, a retired lawyer and power broker.


title: Dominic Chianese

text: In December 2018, Chianese and co-author Matthew Sargent published a biography of Chianese, titled "Twelve Angels: The Women Who Taught Me How to Act, Live, and Love".


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Sukhoi Su-17 ("izdeliye" S-32) is a variable-sweep wing fighter-bomber developed for the Soviet military. Its NATO reporting name is "Fitter". Developed from the Sukhoi Su-7, the Su-17 was the first variable-sweep wing aircraft to enter Soviet service. Two subsequent Sukhoi aircraft, the Su-20 and Su-22, have usually been regarded as variants of the Su-17. The Su-17/20/22 series has had a long career and has been operated by many other air forces of including the Russian Federation, other former Soviet republics, the former Warsaw Pact, countries in the Arab world, Angola and Peru.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Shortly after the Su-7 fighter-bomber was put into service, the Sukhoi Design Bureau was ordered to develop a deep modernization program for the aircraft in the early 1960s. The program would be aimed primarily at updating on-board avionics and the takeoff/landing performance characteristics. The concept of variable-geometry wings - something gaining wider attention at that time - was adopted as well. The program was to be led by Sukhoi's head designer, Nikolay Zyrin.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Seeking to improve low-speed and take-off/landing performance of the Su-7B fighter-bomber, in 1963 the Sukhoi OKB with input from TsAGI created a variable-sweep wing technology demonstrator. The S-22I (also known as the Su-7IG, NATO designation "Fitter-B"), converted from a production Su-7BM, had fixed inner portions of the wing with movable outer segments which could be swept to 28°, 45°, or 62°. The S-22I first took off, with Vladimir Ilyushin at the controls on 2 August 1966. It was later publicly demonstrated to the public at the air parade in Domodedovo in July 1967. Flight testing revealed that the new configuration improved both the take-off/landing characteristics and the range and endurance of the aircraft. Handling was also generally better than the fixed wing Su-7, with the exception that there was no longer any buffeting at high angles of attack to warn of imminent stall. The aircraft was ordered into serial production in 1969 by a joint resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers. The design of the Su-7IG was modified further, eventually with enough difference to justify the S-32 internal designation. The S-32 first took off on July 1, 1969, with Yevgeny Kukushev at the controls.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Serial production of the Su-17 started at the Yuri Gagarin Aviation Factory (now KnAAPO) in 1969. The 523rd Aviation Regiment, of the Far East Military Okrug, was the first unit to receive the Su-17. The Su-17 was produced until 1990, at a total of 2867 units produced.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Su-17 largely resembles its predecessor, the Su-7, with weight-saving measures added at the cost of combat survivability, an example of which is the removal of armored protection for the pilot.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The prototype S-22I differed little from the Su-7 except for the wing, being essentially a technology demonstrator for the variable-geometry wing. It was later lost in an accident.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Following the S-22I, two pre-production prototypes were constructed, designated the S32-1 and the S32-2, respectively. The two aircraft mounted updated avionics, and replaced the older AP-28I-2 autopilot with the newer SAU-22 automatic control system.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The next series of prototypes were the Su-7-85, with 85 indicating the batch number, continued from that of the Su-7. The batch of ten aircraft incorporated a completely redesigned fuselage, a streamlined cockpit (similar to that of the Su-7U), extra and more accessible maintenance hatches, and an upwards-opening canopy. The front of the cockpit was protected with a windshield and two electrically heated side windows. The first three aircraft of the 86th batch that followed further incorporated clear windshields with warm air blown at it, taken from the 9th stage of the engine compressor. However, this new windshield was dropped in favor of the more traditional glazed windshield following tests by the 4th Combat Use and Retraining of Air Force Personnel Center in Lipetsk.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Su-7-85 was equipped with a modified KS4-S32 ejection seat, capable of safely ejecting the pilot at speeds above 140–170 km/h in the event of an accident.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The fuel system of the Su-17 was modified from that of the Su-7 as well - fuel was now stored in three lightweight tanks, with provisions for up to four disposable auxiliary tanks each with 600 litres of capacity (itself used on the Su-7B), or two PTB-1150 tanks with 1150 litres each, mounted on "wet" pylons underneath the fuselage.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The wing was largely unmodified from that mounted on the S-22I prototype. The stationary part of the wing being half as long as the rotating part. With wings at maximum sweep, the Su-17 would look virtually identical to the Su-7. A slide-out flap was installed on the stationary part of the wing, while a slat, a rotating flap and aileron are mounted on the rotating part. The sweep angle of the wing could be configured between 30° and 63°. The horizontal and vertical tails are swept at 55°.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Flight control was assisted by non-reversing hydraulic boosters, the BU-220DL2 and -220DP2 for the left and right ailerons, the BU-250L and -250P for the stabilizers and the BU-250DRP for the rudder. The flight control systems are spring loaded to provide a feedback force on the stick and the rudder pedals.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: There are three independent hydraulic systems installed on the Su-17 - an actuating system and two booster systems, each with its own hydraulic pump. The actuating hydraulic system was responsible for adjusting the sweep angle of the wing, deploying/retracting the landing gear, the flaps and slats, adjusting the intake ramps, the flight control mechanisms used by the SAU-22 autopilot, and the steering front wheel. The booster systems are responsible for controlling the flight surfaces. Both systems operate in parallel to ensure safe operation in the event of one of them failing. The remaining operational system would still provide power to all the flight surfaces, albeit at half the power. The Nr 1 booster system also feeds the GM-40 hydraulic motor driving the rotary parts of the wing. All hydraulic systems are fed with the AMG-10 hydraulic fluid, with a standard operating pressure of 215 kgf/cm for the booster systems and 210 for the actuating system.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: A pneumatic system with a 150kgf/cm pressure operates the normal and emergency brakes on the landing gear as well as the emergency landing gear/flaps deployment system, and was responsible for charging the two NR-30 cannons mounted on the aircraft, pressurizing the cockpit, opening/closing the canopy and pressurizing the hydraulic fluid tanks.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Su-17 was powered by a modified Lyulka AL-7F1-250 with a slightly uprated thrust of 9600 kgf on afterburners. It was equipped with a compressor actuator with redundancy, and a system for intake adjustment. The aircraft would need to be disassembled into two halves to replace its engine. Jettisonable SPRD-110 RATO boosters are available to facilitate take-off on short runways, providing a momentary thrust of up to 3000 kgf.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On-board electronics are fed by a 28V DC circuit and a 115V, 400 Hz single-phase AC circuit, fed by two GS-12T DC generators, an SGO-8TF AC generator and a 20NKBN25 nickel–cadmium battery.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Su-17 has the ability to carry free-fall nuclear bombs with a BDZ-56FNM bomb rack. A special code device would also be installed in the cockpit, mandating a correct code input before the bomb could be armed and released, to prevent unauthorized uses of nuclear weaponry. The aircraft also has a toss bombing capability for nuclear weapon delivery, with which it could approach the target, initiate a steep climb and release the bomb when pointing almost upright, and then activate afterburners to escape the blast radius. A special IAB-500 bomb was made specifically for practicing such a bombing technique.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Su-17M3/4 were used during the First Chechen War alongside Sukhoi Su-24s and Sukhoi Su-25s in ground attack and reconnaissance missions.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: In a move to eliminate single-engine strike aircraft from its inventory, the Russian Air Force retired its last Su-17M4 along with its fleet of MiG-23/27s in 1998.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Soviets supplied the communist government of Angola with 12 Su-20Ms in 1982 or 1983, which formed the basis of the 15th FS. The squadron suffered a swift loss of at least six aircraft – most in mishaps – by 1985, and three more by 1988, and had only two aircraft left when it was reinforced with another Soviet batch of 14 Su-22M-4Ks and two Su-22UM-3Ks in 1989–90 (incorporated into the 26th Air Regiment, based in Moçâmedes). A second shipment from Belarus in 1999 consisted of two Su-22UBs and four Su-22Ms, and a third one from Slovakia in 1999–2001 consisted of 10 Su-22M-4s and one Su-22UM-3K.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: These aircraft saw heavy use in the war against UNITA. From the aforementioned losses, which can not be classified as mishaps or combat attrition, only an Su-20M, serialled C510 was reportedly downed in 1987 and a better-documented case occurred on 6 November 1994 when an Su-22 based at Catumbela was shot down by a surface-to-air missile launched by UNITA during a raid against Huambo. The pilot managed to eject and flee naked after stripping off his flight suit.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: From 22 September 1980 to 20 August 1988, during the Iran–Iraq War, Iraq used Su-17 export versions (Su-20 and Su-22) alongside older Su-7s. They were mostly used in ground-attack and close air support roles. Iranian Grumman F-14 Tomcats shot down 21 Su-20/-22s, that have been confirmed by western sources. Eighteen Su-20/-22s were also shot down by Iranian McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs. and three by Iranian Northrop F-5s. On 20 October 1980 an Iraqi Su-20 shot down an Iranian F-4E with its 30 mm cannons.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Official Iraqi accounts show no loss of Su-20 aircraft throughout the war against the Kurds and Iran. Twenty Su-22M2s, two Su-22M3s and seven Su-22M4s were lost during the war with Iran, the majority to anti-aircraft fire sustained during low level bombing raids against the Iranian front lines.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: In 1991, during the Gulf War, Iraqi Su-22s saw limited active service because the Iraqi regime distrusted the Iraqi Air Force (IQAF). On 7 February 1991, two Su-20/22s and one Su-7 were shot down by United States Air Force McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagles using AIM-7 air-to-air missiles when the IQAF was moving its aircraft to Iran. Many more were destroyed on the ground by coalition air forces or evacuated to Iran and were never returned.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On 20 and 22 March 1991, two other Su-20/22s were downed by a USAF F-15C during Operation Provide Comfort that started soon after the war.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Two Libyan Su-22s were shot down in the Gulf of Sidra incident by United States Navy Grumman F-14 Tomcats on 19 August 1981. One Su-22 launched a K-13 missile head-on at one of the F-14s from an estimated 300-meter (984-foot) closing distance, however the missile was evaded. Both were then downed by AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On 8 October 1987, in the aftermath of the Chadian–Libyan conflict, an Su-22 was shot down by a FIM-92A launched by Chadian forces. The pilot, Capt. Diya al-Din, ejected and was captured. He was later granted political asylum by the French government. During the recovery operation, a Libyan Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23MS was shot down by a FIM-92A.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: A Libyan Su-22 crashed near Benghazi on 23 February 2011. The crew members, Captain Attia Abdel Salem al Abdali and his copilot, Ali Omar Gaddafi, were ordered to bomb the city in response to the Libyan Civil War. They refused, bailing out of the aircraft and parachuting to the ground. Su-22s were heavily used by the Libyan loyalist forces against the insurgent forces from mid February up to mid March 2011, when the international mission started and the no fly zone was imposed. Among other missions, Su-22s also attacked Anti-Gaddafi positions in Bin Jawad in early March 2011 as government forces retook the town.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Peru was the only export customer of the type in the Americas. In 1980 a Peruvian Su-22 intercepted an alleged UFO over Arequipa.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On 24 April 1992, Peruvian Su-22s attacked a Lockheed C-130H Hercules of the United States Air Force's 310th Airlift Squadron which was intercepted at sea, west of Lima, injuring six of the 14 crew members. Crew member Joseph C. Beard Jr., was killed, when he was blown from the cabin at 18,500 feet, and crew member Ronald Hetzel sustained severe injuries, with his chest blown open and his jugular vein severed. The incident caused an almost year-long interruption to the US anti-drug Air Bridge Denial Program and the establishment of a Joint Air Operation Center at Howard Air Force Base in Panama.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: During the 1995 Cenepa War between Peru and Ecuador, two Peruvian Sukhoi Su-22s were lost, when on 10 February, two Ecuadorian Air Force Mirage F1JAs, piloted by Maj. R. Banderas and Capt. C. Uzcátegui, were directed over five targets approaching the disputed Cenepa valley. After making visual contact, the Mirages launched their missiles, claiming two Peruvian Su-22As shot down, while a Kfir claimed a further Cessna A-37 Dragonfly. Peru, however, denied that the two Su-22As were shot down by Mirages, stating that one was struck by Ecuadorian anti-aircraft artillery during a low flying ground-attack mission and the second crashed because of an engine fire.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Su-22s flew 45 sorties into the combat zone. A 20-strong force of Su-22s was also set up at El Pato as a retaliatory force should Ecuador decide to attack the coastal port.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On 19 August 2003, a Polish Air Force Su-22M4K was accidentally shot down by friendly fire during an exercise by a Polish 2K12 Kub missile battery. The aircraft was flying 21 km from the coast over the Baltic Sea near Ustka. The pilot ejected and was rescued after two hours in the water. In 2012, Poland was investigating the replacement of its Su-22s with three squadrons of unmanned aerial vehicles.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: As of 2014 the Polish Air Force was planning to retain the Su-22s in service. The decision was hoped to have a positive impact on Polish industry, as the WZL nr 2 repair facility in Bydgoszcz would maintain the remaining aircraft under contract to the Air Force. The decision would also allow the Air Force to retain the well-trained ground crews and pilots operating the aircraft. The Poles consider the Su-22 easier to maintain and repair than the other main combat aircraft types currently in Polish service (mainly the MiG-29 and the F-16). They also suffer from fewer malfunctions and other problems (high, 70–75% non-error index). It is also the only aircraft in Polish inventory equipped for electronic intelligence, warfare, and support of ground systems. The Polish Air Force had retained a large stockpile of air-to-ground weapons for use with the Su-22. By some estimates, the cost of destroying these resources would be higher than the projected cost of continuing Su-22 operations. It was decided that starting from 2015, only 12 Su-22M4s and 4-6 Su-22UM3Ks out of 32 remaining would undergo a refit, increasing their lifespan for another ten years. For economical reasons the aircraft are not modernized, apart from fitting an additional RS-6113-2 C2M radio with a blade antenna on the top, but they receive a new grey multishade camouflage, similar to other Polish aircraft.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Several Polish Su-20s and Su-22s have since been donated to various museums, including the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, the Armament Museum in Poznań, the Museum of Polish Arms in Kołobrzeg and the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków. Other were placed on monuments or donated to schools as technical aids.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Syrian Air Force (SyAAF) used Su-20/-22s to attack Israeli forces in the Yom Kippur War and 1982 Lebanon War. Several Su-20/-22s were shot down by the Israeli Air Force. From mid-2012, in the Syrian Civil War, Syrian Air Force Su-22s were involved in combat operations against Syrian insurgents. Videos showed Su-22s using unguided munitions like other SyAAF fixed wing aircraft; mostly general-purpose bombs, cluster bombs and incendiary bombs and unguided rockets. Attack tactics were low to medium-altitude flat bombing runs with pull up after rocketing or bombing, with decoy flares deployed for self-defense. As of the end of 2015, the SyAAF Su-22s suffered a limited number of losses compared to the SyAAF MiG-21 and MiG-23 during the same period. The first confirmed loss of an SyAAF Su-22 was recorded on 14 February 2013, when rebel forces shot it down using a MANPADS. On 18 June 2017, a US F/A-18E Super Hornet engaged and shot down an SyAAF Su-22 for dropping munitions on US-backed forces. According to the wingman of the Super Hornet that made the kill, the Syrian pilot was able to eject and was later returned to the Syrian government. On 24 July 2018, an SyAAF Su-22 which entered Israeli air space was shot down by two Israeli Patriot missiles. Other Syrian Su-22 jets were downed during the ongoing civil war.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On 11 August 2009, Yemeni armed forces started Operation Scorched Earth in northern Yemen to fight the Houthis.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: The Yemeni Air Force backed the army with air raids on rebel-held positions. On 5 October 2009, a Yemeni Su-22 crashed, with the rebels claiming to have shot it down.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: Earlier on 2 October, the Yemeni revolutionaries said they shot down a "MiG-21" while again the military insisted technical problems caused the crash.


title: Sukhoi Su-17

text: On 8 November, a third Yemeni fighter aircraft, reported to be a Sukhoi, was destroyed. Again the military claimed it crashed due to technical problems, while the Yemeni rebels claimed they shot it down. The pilot ejected and was recovered by friendly forces. The Yemeni Air force once again used Sukhoi aircraft during the Arab Spring uprising. On 28 September 2011, a Yemeni Air Force Su-22 was shot down by tribesmen opposed to the rule of President Saleh. The government confirmed that rebels were responsible for the shoot-down, and that the pilot had been captured. On February 19, 2013, a Yemeni Su-22 on a training mission crashed for unknown reasons into Sana'a, killing 12 civilians. On May 13, 2013, another Yemen Su-22 on a training mission crashed in Sana'a, killing the pilot.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: Michelle Gomez (born 23 November 1966) is a Scottish actress. She gained recognition for her roles in the comedy series "The Book Group" (2002–2003), "Green Wing" (2004–2007), and "Bad Education" (2012–2013). She went on to appear as Missy in the long-running British science fiction series "Doctor Who" (2014–2017), for which she was nominated for the BAFTA TV Award for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: Gomez received further recognition and acclaim for her roles as Lilith / Madam Satan and Mary Wardwell in the Netflix supernatural horror series "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina" (2018–2020) and as Miranda Croft in the HBO Max dark comedy thriller series "The Flight Attendant" (2020–2022).


title: Michelle Gomez

text: Gomez was born in Glasgow to Tony and May Gomez. Her father is originally from Montserrat and is of Portuguese descent. He was a photographer. Her mother ran a modelling agency.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: From the moment she saw a production of "Kiss Me, Kate" at the age of seven, Gomez wanted to be an actress, which her parents encouraged. She attended Shawlands Academy from 1978 to 1983 and trained at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: Gomez's first major role was in the 1998 film "The Acid House", based on three Irvine Welsh short stories. She went on to star in the cult Channel 4 comedy drama "The Book Group" before landing her role as staff liaison officer Sue White in the Channel 4 comedy "Green Wing". She played Michelle in "Carrie and Barry" for the BBC (which coincidentally was first broadcast the same night as "Green Wing"), and starred as PC Sally Bobbins in the BBC 2 sitcom "Feel the Force". She appeared in "Gunslinger's Revenge".


title: Michelle Gomez

text: In 2005, Gomez appeared in the film "Chromophobia". In 2006, she starred in the film "The Good Housekeeping Guide". In 2007 she starred in a drama by Irvine Welsh and Dean Cavanagh called "Wedding Belles", and starred in "Boeing-Boeing" at the Comedy Theatre in London. Also in 2007, she guest-starred in the "Doctor Who" audio play "Valhalla". In 2008 she joined the Royal Shakespeare Company, and performed as Kate in "The Taming of the Shrew" at the Courtyard Theatre and the Novello Theatre.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: In 2012, Gomez starred in the British film "The Wedding Video", portraying the psychologically unstable wedding planner. In the same year, she appeared in the British comedy series "Bad Education", portraying the deputy-head Isobel Pickwell, which returned for a second series in 2013. In 2014, she began producing comedy sketches as "Heather" an agony aunt for YouTube channel Wildseed Studios.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: She had a recurring role in series 8 – 10 of "Doctor Who" as a character called Missy. Her true identity was revealed in the Series 8 two-part finale "Dark Water" / "Death in Heaven" as a female incarnation of the Master, the Doctor's longstanding nemesis. Gomez reprised the role in the opening two-part story of the ninth series "The Magician's Apprentice" / "The Witch's Familiar" and again in the show's tenth series, which began broadcasting in April 2017. In May 2017, Gomez stated that it would be her last series in the role.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: Gomez's portrayal of Missy earned her a nomination for the Best Actress (Television) award at the 2015 British Academy Scotland Awards. Later, Gomez also received a nod as Best Supporting Actress at the British Academy Television Awards.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: In 2018, Gomez was cast as Lilith / Madam Satan and Mary Wardwell in the Netflix series "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina". She later appeared as Miranda Croft in the HBO Max dark comedy thriller series "The Flight Attendant" in November 2020. The show was later renewed for a second season, slated to be released in late 2022.


title: Michelle Gomez

text: In 2021, Gomez was cast in season 3 of "Doom Patrol" as Madame Rouge. She also provided the voice of Morag in "The Loud House Movie".


title: Michelle Gomez

text: Gomez has been married to actor Jack Davenport since 1 May 2000. She gave birth to their son in 2010.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Chronicle is a 2012 American found footage superhero thriller film directed by Josh Trank with a screenplay by Max Landis from a story they both co-wrote. It follows three Seattle high school seniors, bullied Andrew (Dane DeHaan), his cousin Matt (Alex Russell), and more popular Steve (Michael B. Jordan), who form a bond after gaining telekinetic powers from an unknown object and using them for fun, although Andrew begins going down a darker path.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: "Chronicle" premiered at the Gérardmer Film Festival on January 28, 2012, and released in the United States on February 3, 2012 by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed $126.6 million at the international box office, against a budget of $15 million. The film received generally positive reviews with praise for the premise, and received a nomination for Best Science Fiction Film at the 39th Saturn Awards.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Friendless Seattle teenager Andrew Detmer endures frequent abuse from bullies and his alcoholic father, Richard, while also coping with his loving mother Karen's battle with cancer. He begins to videotape his life. His cousin, Matt Garetty, invites him to a party to help him mingle, but his filming causes an altercation with an attendee who throws his drink in Andrew's face. Popular student Steve Montgomery finds a crying Andrew outside the party, and asks him to come record a large hole he and several partygoers came across in the woods. Accompanied by a drunken Matt, they journey through a small tunnel where they discover a glowing crystalline object, which causes inexplicable phenomena as they approach it. As the object begins to react violently, Matt is thrown backwards against a wall by an unseen force, Steve develops a nosebleed and the camera shorts out.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Weeks later, Andrew, Matt, and Steve have developed telekinetic abilities. They develop a close friendship, using their abilities to play and record pranks, which goes too far after Andrew telekinetically pushes a motorist off the road and into a nearby pond. After the trio barely manage to save the man's life, Matt realizes how dangerous their powers can be and insists that they restrict use of them, particularly against living beings or when they are angry. This traumatic event marks the first turning point in the film, specifically through the eyes of Andrew.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: After discovering they can fly, the friends agree to fly around the world together following graduation, with Andrew in particular desiring to visit Tibet because of its peaceful nature. Steve encourages Andrew to enter the school talent show, where the latter amazes his fellow students by disguising his powers as a magic act. Andrew relishes his newfound popularity at a house party, but the night ends in disaster when a drunken Andrew goes upstairs to have sex with a classmate who he subsequently vomits on. Steve, who has taken over the camera from Matt after the latter leaves the party with an old flame, films the aftermath of the incident as an angry and humiliated Andrew yells on.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: As Karen's condition worsens, Andrew becomes increasingly withdrawn and aggressive. When Richard strikes him during an argument, Andrew violently repels him and flees the house. Steve and Matt suffer nosebleeds—indicating when the others are overexerting their powers—and Steve flies out to find Andrew sobbing in the middle of a storm. He attempts to console him, but Andrew becomes increasingly frustrated before Steve is suddenly struck by lightning and killed. Some days later, Andrew denies responsibility when confronted by Matt at Steve's funeral, but privately begs for forgiveness at Steve's grave the next day, believing that his powers are taking over him and he misses him.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Due to the incident at the party as well as Steve's death, Andrew's relationship with Matt grows strained and he is once again ostracized at school. After using his powers to rip teeth out of a bully's mouth in front of a crowd of other students when he is taunted about the party, Andrew begins to identify as an apex predator and rationalizes that he should not feel guilty for using his powers to hurt those weaker than him. Desperate to pay for his mother's medication, Andrew disguises himself with his father's firefighter gear and uses his powers to steal money. While robbing a gas station, he inadvertently causes an explosion that puts him in the hospital. At his bedside, a distraught Richard informs an unconscious Andrew that Karen has died and angrily blames Andrew for her death. As his father is about to strike him, Andrew awakens and abruptly grabs his arm before blowing out the wall of the room.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Elsewhere, while at a birthday party, Matt experiences a severe nosebleed and senses Andrew is in trouble. Seeing a news alert on TV about a mysterious explosion downtown, he and his girlfriend, Casey, head to the hospital. As they arrive on scene, Andrew flies out of the hospital room, dangling his father before unceremoniously dropping him. Matt flies up and saves Richard, lowering him to the ground, before attempting to reason with Andrew. However, Andrew is too far gone in his rage and attacks Matt. Their fight takes them across the city, crashing through buildings and hurling vehicles. Eventually, the two exhaust themselves and wind up in a plaza where police surround them. Andrew's rage reaches a breaking point and he begins to destroy the buildings around him. Realizing that Andrew can't be stopped or reasoned with, Matt reluctantly impales Andrew with a spear from a nearby statue, killing him instantly. Despite his injuries, Matt is able to fly away before the police can reach him.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Some time later, Matt lands in Tibet with Andrew's camera, tearfully apologizing to him and vowing to use his powers for good and find out what happened to them. He points the camera at a Tibetan monastery in the distance before flying away, leaving the camera behind.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Josh Trank had conceived the idea for "Chronicle" in high school and spent the following years generating ideas for the film. Up-and-coming screenwriter Jeremy Slater had collaborated with Trank while working on an unmade spec script. By 2010, Slater had moved on, leading to Trank contacting Max Landis, who agreed to co-write the film. The first draft of the script was written in three weeks after Landis had pitched the film behind Trank's back. Trank's original draft had the character of Steve being hit by a plane and dying in the middle of the second act. Landis removed this from his revisions, which "solved the entire second act". 20th Century Fox bought the rights to the project and greenlit the film with Trank serving as director in January 2011.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: For budgetary reasons, the film was shot primarily in Cape Town, South Africa, with Film Afrika Worldwide, as well as in Vancouver, Canada. Trank cited the films "Akira", "Carrie" and "The Fury" as influences on "Chronicle". Filming started in May 2011 and continued for eighteen weeks, ending in August 2011. Cinematographer Matthew Jensen used the Arri Alexa video camera to shoot the film and Angenieux Optimo and Cook s4 lenses. Postproduction techniques were used to give it a "found footage" look. A cable cam rig was used for a shot in which the character Andrew levitates his camera 120 feet into the air. The Arri Alexa camera was mounted on a skateboard to simulate Andrew's camera sliding across a floor. Stuntmen were suspended from crane wire rigs for flying scenes, with green screen special effects used for closeups of the actors. Andrew's video camera in the movie is a Canon XL1 MiniDV, and he later switches to an HD camera that resembles a Canon Vixia HF M30. His "Seattle" bedroom is actually a set that was constructed on a film studio stage in Cape Town. Because in South Africa, vehicles drive on the left side of the road and have steering wheels on the right side, American-style vehicles had to be shipped in for the production. DVD dailies were provided to the director and cinematographer by the Cape Town firm HD Hub.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: According to Josh Trank, Max Landis was banned from set during production and Trank has not spoken to him since 2012. Trank confirmed this on Twitter in light of Landis' sexual and emotional abuse accusations.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: "Chronicle" opened in 2,907 theaters in the United States and Canada on February 3, 2012. Box office watchers expected the film to gross $15 million for its opening weekend, the Super Bowl weekend, while Fox projected to receive around $8 million. By its first day the film had earned an estimated $8.65 million and finished the weekend as the top film with $22 million, surpassing "The Woman in Black" ($21 million) and "The Grey" ($9.5 million) to become the fourth-highest Super Bowl debut. "Chronicle" opened as a number one hit internationally, opening in 33 foreign markets such as Australia, China, and the United Kingdom, where it earned the most with $3.5 million. The film grossed $64.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $62 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $126.6 million. "Chronicle" was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on May 15, 2012. The film was released on DVD and a special "Lost Footage" edition for Blu-ray, which contains additional footage that was not shown in theaters.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews and an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, ""Chronicle" transcends its found-footage gimmick with a smart script, fast-paced direction, and engaging performances from the young cast." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 69 out of 100 based on reviews from 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: "Chicago Sun-Times" film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying, "From [the] deceptively ordinary beginning, Josh Trank's "Chronicle" grows into an uncommonly entertaining movie that involves elements of a superhero origin story, a science-fiction fantasy and a drama about a disturbed teenager.” "Empire" critic Mark Dinning gave the film four stars out of five, saying that it is "a stunning superhero/sci-fi that has appeared out of nowhere to demand your immediate attention." "Total Film" gave the film a five-star review (denoting 'outstanding'): "Believable then bad-ass, it isn't wholly original but it does brim with emotion, imagination and modern implication." Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote: "Despite a gimmicky premise, "Chronicle" fuels its action with characters you can laugh with, understand and even take to heart." Peter Debruge of "Variety" wrote: "Unlike other mock documentaries, which unconvincingly pass themselves off as real, "Chronicle" cleverly embraces the format as shorthand for a new kind of naturalism, inviting audiences to suspend disbelief and join in the fantasy of being able to do anything with their minds." Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "A clever twist on superpowers and hand-held filmmaking that stumbles before the ending."


title: Chronicle (film)

text: On the negative side, Andrew Schenker of "Slant Magazine" gave the film two stars out of four, saying that the film, "offers up little more than a tired morality play about the dangers of power, rehashing stale insights about the narcissism of the documentary impulse."


title: Chronicle (film)

text: The film was nominated for Best Science Fiction Film at 39th Saturn Awards, but lost to "The Avengers".


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Following its successful release, steps toward production of a sequel were taken. Fox hired Landis to write the script for it, but the involvement of Trank as director was unclear. It was reported in October 2012 that Fox was not happy with the script, but in April 2013, Landis said that Fox liked the script—which would be darker in tone—and production was moving along. However, in July 2013, Landis stated that new writers had taken over to write the film, and in March 2014, Fox hired Jack Stanley to write.


title: Chronicle (film)

text: Trank commented in 2020 that following the experience of making "Chronicle", he was never on board with a sequel. While he thought the sequel script was "fine", he felt that it had "nothing to do with why I wanted to do" the original film, and he did what he could to stall progress on it. "I really didn't ever want to see "Chronicle 2" happen. That was my worst nightmare. First of all, I'm not doing it. Second, if somebody else does it, then you know it's gonna be a piece of shit."


title: Chronicle (film)

text: In August 2021, a female-led sequel was officially announced by producer John Davis. It would supposedly be set 10 years after the events of the first film and deal with topics such as fake news and coverups.


title: Masada

text: Masada ( ', "fortress") is an ancient fortification in the Southern District of Israel situated on top of an isolated rock plateau, akin to a mesa. It is located on the eastern edge of the Judaean Desert, overlooking the Dead Sea east of Arad.


title: Masada

text: Herod the Great built two palaces for himself on the mountain and fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE.


title: Masada

text: According to Josephus, the siege of Masada by Roman troops from 73 to 74 CE, at the end of the First Jewish–Roman War, ended in the mass suicide of the 960 Sicarii rebels who were hiding there. However, the archaeological evidence relevant to a mass suicide event is ambiguous at best and rejected entirely by some scholars.


title: Masada

text: During 2005 to 2007 and 2009 to 2012, it was the second-most popular, behind the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo. The site attracts around 750,000 visitors a year.


title: Masada

text: The cliff of Masada is, geologically speaking, a horst. As the plateau abruptly ends in cliffs steeply falling about to the east and about to the west, the natural approaches to the fortress are very difficult to navigate. The top of the mesa-like plateau is flat and rhomboid-shaped, about by . Herod built a high casemate wall around the plateau totalling in length, reinforced by many towers. The fortress contained storehouses, barracks, an armory, a palace, and cisterns that were refilled by rainwater. Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates.


title: Masada

text: Almost all historical information about Masada comes from the first-century Jewish Roman historian Josephus.


title: Masada

text: Josephus writes that the site was first fortified by Hasmonean ruler Alexander Jannaeus in the first century BCE. However, so far no Hasmonean-period building remains could be identified during archaeological excavations.


title: Masada

text: Josephus further writes that Herod the Great captured it in the power struggle that followed the death of his father Antipater in 43 BCE. It survived the siege of the last Hasmonean king Antigonus II Mattathias, who ruled with Parthian support.


title: Masada

text: According to Josephus, between 37 and 31 BCE, Herod the Great built a large fortress on the plateau as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt, and erected there two palaces, with an endless supply of food.


title: Masada

text: In 66 CE, a group of Jewish rebels, the Sicarii, overcame the Roman garrison of Masada with the aid of a ruse. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, additional members of the Sicarii fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountaintop after slaughtering the Roman garrison. According to Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist Jewish splinter group antagonistic to a larger grouping of Jews referred to as the Zealots, who carried the main burden of the rebellion. Josephus said that the Sicarii raided nearby Jewish villages including Ein Gedi, where they massacred 700 women and children.


title: Masada

text: In 73 CE, the Roman governor of Iudaea, Lucius Flavius Silva, headed the Roman legion X "Fretensis" and laid siege to Masada. Another source gives the year of the siege of Masada as 73 or 74 CE. The Roman legion surrounded Masada, building a circumvallation wall and then a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau. According to Dan Gill, geological investigations in the early 1990s confirmed earlier observations that the 114 m (375 ft) high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock. The ramp was complete in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16. The Romans employed the X Legion and a number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000 (of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men), in crushing Jewish resistance at Masada. A giant siege tower with a battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp. According to Josephus, when Roman troops entered the fortress, they discovered that its defenders had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide or killed each other, 960 men, women, and children in total. Josephus wrote of two stirring speeches that the Sicari leader had made to convince his men to kill themselves. Only two women and five children were found alive.


title: Masada

text: Josephus presumably based his narration upon the field commentaries of the Roman commanders that were accessible to him.


title: Masada

text: There are discrepancies between archaeological findings and Josephus' writings. Josephus mentions only one of the two palaces that have been excavated, refers only to one fire, though many buildings show fire damage, and claims that 960 people were killed, though the remains of at most 28 bodies have been found. Some of the other details that Josephus gives, were correct – for instance, he describes the baths that were built there, the fact that the floors in some of the buildings ‘were paved with stones of several colours’, and that many pits were cut into the living rock to serve as cisterns. Yadin found some partially intact mosaic floors which meet that description.


title: Masada

text: Masada was last occupied during the Byzantine period, when a small church was established at the site. The church was part of a monastic settlement identified with the monastery of Marda known from hagiographical literature. This identification is generally accepted by researchers. The Aramaic common noun "marda", "fortress", corresponds in meaning to the Greek name of another desert monastery of the time, Kastellion, and is used to describe that site in the "vita" (biography) of St Sabbas, but it is used as a proper name only for the monastery at Masada, as can be seen from the "vita" of St Euthymius.


title: Masada

text: An almost inaccessible cave, dubbed Yoram Cave, located on the sheer southern cliff face 100 m below the plateau, has been found to contain numerous plant remains, of which 6,000-year-old barley seeds were in such good state of preservation that their genome could be sequenced. This is the first time that this succeeded with a Chalcolithic plant genome, which is also the oldest one sequenced so far. The result helped determine that the earliest domestication of barley, dated elsewhere in the Fertile Crescent to 10,000 years ago, happened further north up the Jordan Rift Valley, namely in the Upper Jordan Valley in northern Israel. The Yoram Cave seeds were found to be fairly different from the wild variety, proof for an already advanced process of domestication, but very similar to the types of barley still cultivated in the region – an indication for remarkable constancy. Considering the difficulty in reaching the cave, whose mouth opens some 4 m above the exposed access path, the researchers have speculated that it was a place of short-term refuge for Chalcolithic people fleeing an unknown catastrophe.


title: Masada

text: The site of Masada was identified in 1838 by Americans Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, and in 1842, American missionary Samuel W. Wolcott and the English painter W. Tipping were the first moderns to climb it. After visiting the site several times in the 1930s and 1940s, Shmarya Guttman conducted an initial probe excavation of the site in 1959.


title: Masada

text: Masada was extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archaeologist and former military Chief-of-Staff Yigael Yadin.


title: Masada

text: Due to the remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site remained largely untouched by humans or nature for two millennia.


title: Masada

text: Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. The synagogue, storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored.


title: Masada

text: Water cisterns two-thirds of the way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to conserve enough water for such a long time.


title: Masada

text: The Roman attack ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with eight Roman siege camps just outside this wall. The Roman siege installations as a whole, especially the attack ramp, are the best preserved of their kind, and the reason for declaring Masada a UNESCO World Heritage site.


title: Masada

text: Inside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription "ma'aser cohen" (, tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls: parts of Deuteronomy and of the Book of Ezekiel including the vision of the "dry bones" ( and ), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. In other loci, fragments were found of the books of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, and Sirach, as well as of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice.


title: Masada

text: In the area in front of the Northern Palace, 11 small ostraca were recovered, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Ya'ir" () and could be short for Eleazar ben Ya'ir, the commander of the fortress. The other 10 names may be those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus.


title: Masada

text: The remains of a maximum of 28 people were unearthed at Masada, possibly 29 including a foetus. The skeletal remains of 25 individuals were found in a cave outside and below the southern wall. The remains of another two males and a female were found in the bathhouse of the Northern Palace.


title: Masada

text: Of the bathhouse remains, the males were variously estimated to have been of an age of either 40 and 20–22, or 22 and 11–12; or based on dental remains, between 16–18 of age. One estimate for the female's age was 17–18 years. However, the skeletal remains of the males were incomplete, and only the hair (a full head of hair with braids) but no bones of the female were found. Forensic analysis showed the hair had been cut from the woman's head with a sharp instrument while she was still alive, a practice prescribed for captured women in the Bible () and the 2nd-century BCE Temple Scroll, while the braids indicate that she was married. Based on the evidence, anthropologist Joe Zias and forensic scientist Azriel Gorski believe the remains may have been Romans whom the rebels captured when they seized the garrison.


title: Masada

text: As to the sparse remains of 24 people found in the southern cave at the base of the cliff, excavator Yigael Yadin was unsure of their ethnicity; however, the rabbinical establishment concluded that they were remains of the Jewish defenders, and in July 1969, they were reburied as Jews in a state ceremony. Carbon dating of textiles found with the remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the revolt, and pig bones were also present (occasionally occurring for Roman burials due to pig sacrifices); this indicates that the remains may belong to non-Jewish Roman soldiers or civilians who occupied the site before or after the siege. Zias also questioned whether as many as 24 individuals were present, since only 4% of that number of bones was recovered.


title: Masada

text: A 2,000-year-old Judean date palm seed discovered during archaeological excavations in the early 1960s was successfully germinated into a date plant, popularly known as "Methuselah" after the longest-living figure in the Hebrew Bible. At the time, it was the oldest known germination, remaining so until a new record was set in 2012. As of September 2016, it remains the oldest germination from a seed.


title: Masada

text: The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the fifth and sixth centuries have been excavated on the plateau.


title: Masada

text: Yadin's team could detect no architectural remains of the Hasmonean period, the only findings firmly dated to this period being the numerous coins of Alexander Jannaeus. Researchers have speculated that the southwestern block of the Western Palace and the auxiliary buildings east and south of it could be Hasmonean, relying on similarities to the Twin Palaces at Jericho. However, their excavators could make no archaeological discovery able to support this presumption.


title: Masada

text: According to Shaye Cohen, archaeology shows that Josephus' account is "incomplete and inaccurate". Josephus writes of only one palace; archaeology reveals two. His description of the northern palace contains several inaccuracies, and he gives exaggerated figures for the height of the walls and towers. Josephus' account is contradicted by the "skeletons in the cave, and the numerous separate fires".


title: Masada

text: According to Josephus, the siege of Masada by Roman troops from 73 to 74 CE, at the end of the First Jewish–Roman War, ended in the mass suicide of the 960 Sicarii rebels who were hiding there. However, the archaeological evidence relevant to this event is ambiguous and rejected entirely by some scholars. Eric Cline also believes that Josephus is retelling a similar event that happened to him during the Siege of Yodfat. There he and another soldier, the last survivors, decided to surrender rather than have one kill the other.


title: Masada

text: In 2007, the Masada Museum in Memory of Yigael Yadin opened at the site, in which archeological findings are displayed in a theatrical setting. Many of the artifacts exhibited were unearthed by Yadin and his archaeological team from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1960s.


title: Masada

text: The archaeological site is situated in the Masada National Park, and the park requires an entrance fee (even if by hiking). There are two hiking paths, both very steep:


title: Masada

text: Hikers frequently start an hour before sunrise, when the park opens, to avoid the mid-day heat, which can exceed in the summer. In fact, the hiking paths are often closed during the day in the summer because of the heat. Visitors are encouraged to bring drinking water for the hike up, as water is available only at the top.


title: Masada

text: Alternatively, for a higher fee, visitors can take a cable car (the Masada cableway, opens at 8 am) to the top of the mesa.


title: Masada

text: A light-and-sound show is presented on some summer nights on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman Ramp path).


title: Masada

text: In May 2015, 20-year old American tourist Briana McHam fell 25 feet on Masada's Snake Path, after she became separated from her Florida State University tour group and went off the marked trail. Following an hour and a half search, Magen David Adom personnel found her unresponsive and suffering from dehydration. After failed attempts to resuscitate, she was declared dead at the scene.


title: Masada

text: An example of Herodian architecture, Masada was the first site Herod the Great fortified after he gained control of his kingdom.


title: Masada

text: The first of three building phases completed by Herod began in 35 BCE. During the first phase the Western Palace was built, along with three smaller palaces, a storeroom, and army barracks. Three columbarium towers and a swimming pool at the south end of the site were also completed during this building phase.


title: Masada

text: The original center of the Western Palace was square and was accessed through an open courtyard on the northwest corner of the building. The courtyard was the central room of the Western Palace and directed visitors into a portico, used as a reception area for visitors. Visitors were then led to a throne room. Off the throne room was a corridor used by the king, with a private dressing room, which also had another entrance way that connected to the courtyard through the mosaic room. The mosaic room contained steps that led to a second floor with separate bedrooms for the king and queen.


title: Masada

text: The second building phase in 25 BCE included an addition to the Western Palace, a large storage complex for food, and the Northern Palace. The Northern Palace is one of Herod's more lavish palace-fortresses, and was built on the hilltop on the north side of Masada and continues two levels down, over the end of the cliffs. The upper terrace of the Northern Palace included living quarters for the king and a semicircular portico to provide a view of the area. A stairway on the west side led down to the middle terrace that was a decorative circular reception hall. The lower terrace was also for receptions and banquets. It was enclosed on all four sides with porticos and included a Roman bathhouse.


title: Masada

text: In 15 BCE, during the third and final building phase, the entire site of Masada – except for the Northern Palace – was enclosed by a casemate wall, which consisted of a double wall with a space between that was divided into rooms by perpendicular walls; these were used as living chambers for the soldiers and as extra storage space. The Western Palace was also extended for a third time to include more rooms for the servants and their duties.


title: Masada

text: The Masada story was the inspiration for the "Masada plan" devised by the British during the Mandate era. The plan was to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, to stop Erwin Rommel's expected drive through the region in 1942. The plan was abandoned following Rommel's defeat at El Alamein.


title: Masada

text: The chief of staff of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Moshe Dayan, initiated the practice of holding the swearing-in ceremony of Israeli Armoured Corps soldiers who had completed their "tironut" (IDF basic training) on top of Masada. The ceremony ended with the declaration: "Masada shall not fall again." The soldiers climbed the Snake Path at night and were sworn in with torches lighting the background. These ceremonies are now also held at various other memorable locations, including the Armoured Corps Memorial at Latrun, the Western Wall and Ammunition Hill in Jerusalem, Akko Prison, and training bases.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The Indianapolis 500, formally known as the Indianapolis 500-Mile Race, and commonly called the Indy 500, is an annual automobile race held at Indianapolis Motor Speedway (IMS) in Speedway, Indiana, United States, an enclave suburb of Indianapolis. The event is traditionally held over Memorial Day weekend, usually the last weekend of May.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: It is contested as part of the IndyCar Series, the top level of American open-wheel car racing, a formula colloquially known as "Indy car racing". The track itself is nicknamed the "Brickyard", as the racing surface was paved in brick in the fall of 1909. One yard of brick remains exposed at the start/finish line.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The event, billed as "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing", is considered part of the Triple Crown of Motorsport along with the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Monaco Grand Prix, with which it typically shares a date.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The official attendance is not disclosed by Speedway management, but the permanent seating capacity is upwards of 250,000, and infield patrons raise the race-day attendance to approximately 300,000.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The inaugural race was held in 1911 and was won by Ray Harroun. The event celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2011, and the 100th running was held in 2016. The event was put on hiatus twice, from 1917 to 1918 due to World War I and from 1942 to 1945 due to World War II. In two different periods, the race was part of FIA World Championships; between 1925 and 1928, the World Manufacturers' Championship and between 1950 and 1960, the World Drivers' Championship.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Marcus Ericsson is the current champion. The most successful drivers are A. J. Foyt, Al Unser Sr., Rick Mears and Hélio Castroneves, each of whom has won the race four times. The active driver with the most victories is Hélio Castroneves. Rick Mears holds the record for most career pole positions with six. The most successful car owner is Roger Penske, owner of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Team Penske, which has 18 total wins and 18 poles. Penske also has five wins at the IndyCar Grand Prix, held on the combined road course.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The event is steeped in tradition, in pre-race ceremonies, post-race celebrations, and race procedure. The most noteworthy and most popular traditions are the 33-car field lining up three-wide for the start, the annual singing of the chorus of "Back Home Again in Indiana," and the victory lane bottle of milk. Also unique is that qualifying requires the driver to complete four, rather than one, timed laps. Qualifying has a separate weekend.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex was built in 1909 as a gravel-and-tar track and hosted a smattering of small events, including ones for motorcycles. The first long-distance event, in "fearful conditions," was the 100-lap Prest-O-Lite Trophy in 1909, won by Bob Burman in a Buick. The breakup of the track surface led to two fatal accidents in the first two long-distance events (a and , which was shortened to after two severe wrecks).


title: Indianapolis 500

text: That these spectacles had attracted 15,000 paying customers (and crowds of up to 40,000) persuaded principal owner Carl G. Fisher to spend $155,000 on repaving the track with 3.2 million bricks; he also added a concrete wall around the track's circumference. During the 1910 Decoration Day weekend, the first events on the newly paved circuit drew 60,000 spectators; Ray Harroun won the Wheeler-Schebler Trophy in a Marmon.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The crowds grew progressively smaller for the rest of the season, however, so the track owners chose to focus on a single race, and considered a 24-hour contest, in the fashion of Le Mans, or a event. They decided on , the estimated distance a race car could run before dark descended on the track, and a spectacular purse of $25,000, equivalent to of pure gold. The combination allowed the track to rapidly acquire a privileged status for automobile races.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The first "500" was held at the Speedway in 1911 on Decoration Day, May 30, (as it was known from its inception in 1868 to 1967, when federal law made "Memorial Day" the official name), run to a maximum engine size formula. It saw a field of 40 starters, with Harroun piloting a Marmon Model 32-based "Wasp" racer—outfitted with his invention, the rear-view mirror. Harroun (with relief from Cyrus Patschke) was declared the winner, although Ralph Mulford protested the official result. Eighty thousand spectators were in attendance, and an annual tradition had been established. Many considered Harroun to be a hazard during the race, as he was the only driver in the race driving without a riding mechanic, who checked the oil pressure and let the driver know when traffic was coming.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In 1912, the purse was raised to $50,000, the field was limited to 33 (where it remains), and a riding mechanic was made mandatory. This second event was won by Joe Dawson in a National, after Ralph de Palma's Mercedes broke. Although the first race was won by an American driver at the wheel of an American car, European makers such as the Italian Fiat or French Peugeot companies soon developed their vehicles to try to win the event, which they did from 1912 to 1919. The 1913 event saw a change to a maximum engine size.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: After World War I, the native drivers and manufacturers regained their dominance of the race, and engineer Harry Miller set himself up as the most competitive of the post-war builders. His technical developments allowed him to be indirectly connected to a history of success that would last into the mid-1970s.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: For musical entertainment before the start of the race, the Purdue All-American Marching Band has been the host band of the race since 1919. In 1946, American operatic tenor and car enthusiast James Melton started the tradition of singing "Back Home Again in Indiana" with the Purdue Band before the race when asked to do so on the spur of the moment by Speedway president Tony Hulman. This tradition has continued through the years, notably by actor and singer Jim Nabors from 1972 until 2014. Nabors announced in 2014, citing health-related reasons, that the 2014 Indy 500 would be the last at which he would sing the song. In 2015, the a cappella group Straight No Chaser sang the song before the race, and in the two races held after Nabors' retirement (and before he became the regular singer), the singing of the song was done on a rotating basis, with the Spring 2014 winner of "The Voice" Josh Kaufman performing in 2016. However, the Speedway has returned to a standard singer starting in 2017, with Jim Cornelison doing it for three races as of the 2019 race.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Following the European trends, engine sizes were limited to during 1920–1922, for 1923–1925, and in 1926–1929. The 1920 race was won by Gaston Chevrolet in a Frontenac, prepared by his brothers, powered by the first eight-cylinder engine to win the 500. For 1923, riding mechanics were no longer required. A supercharged car, ID, first won the race in 1924. In 1925, Pete DePaolo was the first to win at an average over , with a speed of .


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In the early 1920s, Miller built his 3.0-liter (183 in) engine, inspired by the Peugeot Grand Prix engine which had been serviced in his shop by Fred Offenhauser in 1914, installing it in Jimmy Murphy's Duesenberg and allowing him to win the 1922 edition of the race. Miller then created his own automobiles, which shared the 'Miller' designation, which, in turn, were powered by supercharged versions of his 2.0- and 1.5-liter (122 and 91 in) engine single-seaters, winning four more races for the engine up to 1929 (two of them, 1926 and 1928, in Miller chassis). The engines powered another seven winners until 1938 (two of them, 1930 and 1932, in Miller chassis), then ran at first with stock-type motors before later being adjusted to the international 3.0-liter formula.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: After purchasing the Speedway in 1927, Eddie Rickenbacker prohibited supercharging and increased the displacement limit to , while also re-introducing the riding mechanic.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In 1935, Miller's former employees, Fred Offenhauser and Leo Goossen, had already achieved their first win with the soon-to-become famous 4-cylinder Offenhauser or "Offy" engine. This motor was forever connected with the Brickyard's history with a to-date record total of 27 wins, in both naturally aspirated and supercharged form, and winning a likewise record-holding 18 consecutive years between 1947 and 1964.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Meanwhile, European manufacturers, gone from the Indianapolis 500 for nearly two decades, made a brief return just before World War II, with the competitive Maserati 8CTF allowing Wilbur Shaw to become the first driver to win consecutively at Indianapolis, in 1939 and 1940. With the 500 having been a part of the World Drivers' Championship between 1950 and 1960, Ferrari made a discreet appearance at the 1952 event with Alberto Ascari, but European entries were few and far between during those days. Among the Formula One drivers who did drive at the speedway was five-time world champion Argentinian Juan Manuel Fangio, though he failed to qualify for the 1958 race.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: It was not until the Indianapolis 500 was removed from the World Championship calendar that European entries made their return. In 1963, technical innovator Colin Chapman brought his Team Lotus to Indianapolis for the first time, attracted by the large monetary prizes, far bigger than the usual at a European event. Racing a mid-engined car, Scotsman Jim Clark was second in his first attempt in 1963, dominated in 1964 until suffering suspension failure on lap 47, and completely dominated the race in 1965, a victory which also interrupted the success of the Offy, and giving the 4.2-liter Ford V8 its first success at the race. The following year, 1966, saw another British win, this time Graham Hill in a Lola-Ford.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The Offenhauser engine was also paired with a European maker, McLaren, obtaining three wins for the chassis, one with the Penske team in 1972 with driver Mark Donohue, and two for the McLaren works team in 1974 and 1976 with Johnny Rutherford. This was also the last time the Offy would win a race, its competitiveness steadily decreasing until its final appearance in 1983. American drivers continued to fill the majority of entries at the Brickyard in the following years, but European technology had taken over. Starting in 1978, most chassis and engines were European, with the only American-based chassis to win during the CART era being the Wildcat and Galmer (which was technically built in Bicester, England) in 1982 and 1992, respectively. Ford and Chevrolet engines were built in the UK by Cosworth and Ilmor, respectively.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Fernando Alonso was the most recent active Formula One driver to race at the Indy 500-mile race, in 2017. Before that, no active F1 driver had competed in the Indy 500 since 1984.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: After foreign cars became the norm, foreign drivers began competing in the Indianapolis 500 regularly, choosing the United States as their primary base for their motor racing activities. Brazilian Emerson Fittipaldi, Italian Teo Fabi, and Colombian Roberto Guerrero were able to obtain good outings in the 1980s, as was Dutchman Arie Luyendyk. In 1993, reigning Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell shocked the racing world by leaving Formula One for CART. While he came in only third in the 500, he won the 1993 CART championship. Foreign-born drivers became a regular fixture of Indianapolis in the years to follow. Despite the increase in foreign drivers commonly being associated with the CART era, four of the first six Indianapolis 500 winners were non-American drivers.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In 2009, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway began a three-year-long "Centennial Era" to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the opening of the track (1909), and the 100th anniversary of the first Indy 500 (1911). As a gesture to the nostalgic "Centennial Era" celebration (2009–2011), tickets for the 2009 race donned the moniker "93rd 500 Mile International Sweepstakes". It is the first time since 1980 that the "Sweepstakes" title has been used. In May 2009, the ordinal (93rd) was used very sparingly, and for the first time since 1981, was not identified on the annual logo. Instead, in most instances in print, television, and radio, the race was referred to as the "2009 Indianapolis 500". Since the race was not held during the United States' participation in the two World Wars (1917–1918, 1942–1945), the advertised Centennial Era occurred during the 93rd to 95th runnings. To avoid confusion between the 100th anniversary, and the actual number of times the race has been run, references to the ordinal during the "Centennial Era" were curtailed.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In the 2014 meeting, the road course became part of the race meeting for the first time. The GMR Grand Prix road course event, and the three upper tiers of Road to Indy, participated in road course events at the Speedway during the first week of activities.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Four local actors were hired to portray the Founding Four of James Allison, Carl Fisher, Frank Wheeler, and Arthur Newby during multiple Centennial Era events and the 100th race. Harold Hefner (Allison), Tom Harrison (Fisher), Jeff Angel (Wheeler), and Matthew Allen (Newby).


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In 2020, the race was delayed for the first time from its usual Memorial Day running to August due to the COVID-19 pandemic. There was no audience in attendance, so as to comply with pandemic guidelines. The road course race was moved to the NASCAR weekend in July (which led to an IndyCar road course race added to the NASCAR weekend permanently in 2021), and the support races on the road course moved to its own September weekend. As races were cancelled because of local restrictions, the Speedway added two more road course races in October as part of the Intercontinental GT Challenge meeting, where attendance was capped to 10,000 per event.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The race was originally advertised as the "International 500-Mile Sweepstakes Race" from 1911 to 1916. However, from its inception, the race has been widely known as the Indianapolis 500 or, more simply as "the 500". In 1919, the race was referred to as the "Liberty Sweepstakes" following WWI. From 1920 to 1980, the race officially reverted to the "International Sweepstakes" moniker, as printed on the tickets and other paraphernalia, with slight variations over the years.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Following WWII, the race was commonly recognized as "The 500", "The 500-Mile Race", "Indianapolis 500-Mile Race", "Indianapolis 500", or the simple form "Indy 500". Usually the ordinal (e.g. "50th") preceded it. Often the race was also advertised on the radio as the "Annual Memorial Day race," or similar variations.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: For the 1981 race, the name "65th Indianapolis 500-Mile Race" was officially adopted, with all references as the "International Sweepstakes" dropped. Since 1981, the race has been formally advertised in this fashion, complete with a unique annual logo with the ordinal almost always included. Around that same time, in the wake of the 1979 entry controversy, and the formation of CART, the race changed to an invitational event, rather than an Open, rendering the "sweepstakes" description inappropriate.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: For nearly a century, the race eschewed any sort of naming rights or title sponsor, a move, though uncommon in the modern sports world, that was well-received by fans. This tradition finally ended in 2016 when a presenting sponsor, PennGrade, was added for the first time. In the 21st century, the facility has also slowly added sponsorship ads on the retaining walls and infield grass. The ESPN-produced ABC telecast of the event did not recognize this sponsorship and instead had Firestone Tires as its presenting sponsorship.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The Borg-Warner Trophy, introduced in 1936, proclaims the event as the "Indianapolis 500-Mile Race", with no reference at all to the name "International Sweepstakes".


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The Indianapolis 500 is held annually at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a oval circuit. The track is a rounded rectangle, with four distinct turns of identical dimensions, connected by four straightaways (two long straightaways and two "short chutes"). Traditionally, the field consists of 33 starters, aligned in a starting grid of eleven rows of three cars apiece. Drivers race 200 laps, counter-clockwise around the circuit, for a distance of . Since its inception in 1911, the race has always been scheduled on or around Memorial Day. Since 1974, the race has been specifically scheduled for the Sunday of Memorial Day weekend. The Sunday of Memorial Day weekend is widely considered one of the most important days on the motorsports calendar, as it is the day of the Indianapolis 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and (usually) the Monaco Grand Prix. Practice and time trials are held in the two weeks leading up to the race, while miscellaneous preliminary testing is held as early as April.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The race is the most prestigious event of the IndyCar calendar, and one of the oldest and most important automobile races. It has been reported to be the largest single-day sporting event in the world. Likewise, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway itself is regarded as the world's largest sporting facility in terms of capacity. The total purse exceeded $13 million in 2011, with over $2.5 million awarded to the winner, making it one of the richest cash prize funds in sports.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Similar to NASCAR's Daytona 500, the Indianapolis 500 is typically held early in the IndyCar Series season. That is unique to most sports where major events are usually at the end of the respective season. Currently, the Indy 500 is the sixth event of the 17-race IndyCar schedule. From the 1970s to the 1990s, Indianapolis was often the second or third race of the season, and as late as the 1950s, it was sometimes the first championship event of the year. Due to the high prestige of the Indianapolis 500—rivaling or even surpassing the season championship—it is not uncommon for some teams and drivers to focus heavily on preparing for that race during the early part of the season, and not focus fully on the championship battle until after Indy.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Due to safety issues such as aquaplaning, the race is not held in wet conditions. In the event of a rain delay, the race will be postponed until rain showers cease, and the track is sufficiently dried. If rain falls during the race, officials can end the race and declare the results official if more than half of the scheduled distance (i.e., 101 laps) has been completed. The Indianapolis 500, as well as other IndyCar Series races, does not utilize the green–white–checker finish in case of a late-race yellow. The race can be (and in the past has been) finished under caution. However, officials may call for a late-race red flag to ensure a green-flag finish, an option that was used in 2014, 2019, and 2022. The circuit lacks lights, therefore lateness can become a factor in the cases of lengthy delays.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The event is contested by "Indy cars", a formula of professional-level, single-seat, open cockpit, open-wheel, purpose-built race cars. As of 2020, all entrants utilize 2.2L V6, twin-turbocharged engines, tuned to produce a range of . Chevrolet and Honda are the current engine manufacturers involved in the sport. Dallara is at present the sole chassis supplier to the series. Firestone, which has a deep history in the sport, dating back to the first 500, is currently the exclusive tire provider.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The traditional 33-car starting field at Indianapolis is larger than the fields at the other IndyCar races. The field at Indy typically consists of all of the full-time IndyCar Series entries (roughly 20–22 cars), along with roughly 10–15 part-time or "Indy-only" entries. The "Indy-only" entries, also known as "One-offs", may be an extra car added to an existing full-time team, or a part-time team altogether that does not enter any of the other races, or enters only a few selected races. The "Indy-only" drivers may come from a wide range of pedigrees but are usually experienced Indy car competitors who either lack a full-time ride, are former full-time drivers who have elected to drop down to part-time status, or occasional one-off drivers from other racing disciplines. It is not uncommon for some drivers (particularly former Indy 500 winners) to quit full-time driving during the season, but race solely at Indy for numerous years afterward before entering full retirement.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Technical specifications for the Indianapolis 500 are currently written by IndyCar. Rules are generally the same as every other IndyCar race. In the past, particularly during the era in which USAC sanctioned the Indy 500 (but CART sanctioned the other Indy car races), rules at Indy slightly differed at times. The result, for example, would be a particular chassis or engine configuration being legal at Indy, but not so at the CART-sanctioned events. This was rather commonplace in the 1980s and early 1990s, when "stock-block" engines (namely the V-6 Buick) were allotted an increased level of turbocharger boost by USAC at Indy, compared to the purpose-built V-8 quad-cam engines. While the "stock block" engines were technically legal in CART competition, they were not given the increased boost advantage, which effectively rendered them uncompetitive, and precluded their use by teams. The most famous manifestation of the USAC rules disparity was the Ilmor-built Mercedes-Benz 500I engine fielded by Roger Penske in 1994.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Teams may enter up to two machines under a given car number—the "primary" car and a "backup" car. The backup car is identified by the letter "T". For example, the two cars for the #2 team would be numbered #2 and #2T. Both cars may be practiced during the month, but due to engine lease rules, they must share the same engine. It is not uncommon for teams to prefer their backup car, if it is deemed faster, or for other strategic reasons. Additionally, as the month wears on, a "T car" may be split off into a separate entry, and reassigned a new number, or be sold to another team.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: All cars must pass a rigorous technical inspection before receiving a sticker signifying that the car is eligible to practice. Various criteria include minimum weight, dimensions, and approved parts, particularly safety equipment. Before and after qualification attempts, cars must pass another inspection. The pre-qualifying inspection is focused on safety aspects and is done on the pit lane qualifying queue. It is relatively brief, due to the time constraints of the qualifying procedure. The post-qualifying inspection is much more stringent and lengthy, taking place in the garage area. It is to detect deviations from the performance guidelines set forth by the league, and cars can and have been fined or outright disqualified if they fail inspection.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: During the race, work on the car is permitted, but it is usually limited to routine pit stop work (changing tires and refueling) and minor adjustments (wing angles, etc.) Pit stop activity is rigorously rehearsed by the crews and in modern times, routine pits stops are regularly completed in under ten seconds. Other more involved work, such as replacing damaged bodywork (wings, nose cones, etc.), can also be completed quickly by the crews. More lengthy repairs are allowed, and since 1998 teams are permitted to return to the garage area to make repairs. However, there are limitations to the extent of repair work allowed and the practicality of such work. Teams are not allowed to change engines, and since 1933 a rule has been in place where teams are not allowed to add oil. In addition, the officials designate a certain lap after which off-track cars being serviced/repaired are no longer permitted to return to the race.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Throughout the years, the race has used several different qualifying procedures. The current four-lap (ten-mile) qualifying distance was first introduced in 1920 and has been used every year since 1939.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Presently, qualifying occurs on over two days. On Day 1, positions 13-30 (or 13-33 if there are only 33 entries) have their position set with all other positions set on Day 2. Following Fast Friday practice, all cars are entered into a blind draw for the qualifying order.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: For each attempt, cars are allowed two warm-up laps. At that time, a member of the team is stationed at the north end of the main stretch. He or she must wave a green flag, signaling an attempt, or else the car will be waved off. The attempt can be waved off during any of the four laps by the team, driver, or race officials. (The series will wave off the run if it is obvious the run will not be fast enough to qualify and it is getting late in the day.) If an attempt is waved off after the run starts, the attempt counts and the previous time is still forfeited unless race officials waved off the attempt because of weather. Weather can and often does affect qualifying and can result in last-minute format changes.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: From 1911 to 1955, the race was organized under the auspices of the AAA Contest Board. Following the 1955 Le Mans disaster, AAA dissolved the Contest Board to concentrate on its membership program aimed at the general motoring public. Speedway owner Tony Hulman founded USAC in 1956, which took over sanctioning of the race and the sport of Championship racing.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: From 1950 to 1960, the Indianapolis 500 also counted toward the FIA's World Championship of Drivers (now synonymous with Formula One), although few drivers participated in the other races of that series. Italian driver Alberto Ascari was the only European-based driver to race in the 500 during its World Championship years. His appearance in 1952 in a Ferrari was also the only time a Ferrari has ever appeared in the race. Juan Manuel Fangio practiced at the track in 1958 but declined an offer to race.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Control issues of monetary prizes and squabbles over technical regulations caused conflict in the 1970s. Soon after the death of Tony Hulman in 1977, and the loss of several key USAC officials in a 1978 plane crash, several key team owners banded together and formed CART in late 1978 to sanction the sport of Indy car racing.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The Indianapolis 500 itself, however, remained under the sanctioning control of USAC. It became the lone top-level race the body still sanctioned, as it ultimately dropped all other Indy car races (as well as their stock car division) to concentrate on sprints and midgets. For the next three years, the race was not officially recognized on the CART calendar, but the CART teams and drivers comprised the field. By 1983, an agreement was made for the USAC-sanctioned Indy 500 to be recognized on the CART calendar and the race awarded points towards the CART championship.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Despite the CART/USAC divide, from 1983 to 1995 the race was run in relative harmony. CART and USAC occasionally quarreled over relatively minor technical regulations but utilized the same machines and the CART-based teams and driver comprised the bulk of the Indy 500 entries each year.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In 1994, Speedway owner Tony George announced plans for a new series, to be called the Indy Racing League, with Indy 500 as its centerpiece. George announced that he intended to reverse the tide of dramatic cost increases, the decreasing number of ovals in the CART series, and to allow for more opportunity for drivers from USAC sprint-car ranks. Detractors accused George of using the 500 as leverage to allow the Speedway to gain complete control of the sport of open-wheel racing in the United States.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In response to CART's 1996 schedule that put several races in direct conflict with the first Indy Racing League events, George announced that 25 of the 33 starting positions at the 1996 Indy 500 would be reserved for the top 25 cars in IRL points standings. This effectively left eight starting positions open to the CART-regulars that chose not to participate in the IRL races and would be the first time that not all 33 spots were open for qualification in the history of the race. CART refused to compromise on the schedule conflicts, skip the IRL races required to accumulate the qualifying points, boycott the race, and stage a competing event, the U.S. 500, on the same day at Michigan. Veteran Buddy Lazier won a competitive but crash-filled 1996 Indy 500. Two CART teams, Walker Racing and Galles Racing, competed in the Indianapolis 500 to fulfill sponsor obligations and were welcomed without incident. The U.S. 500, meanwhile was marred by a crash on the pace laps that forced ten teams to use backup cars.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: For 1997, new rules for less expensive cars and "production-based" engines were put into place. The move made it such that the IRL utilized different and incompatible equipment from CART; no CART-based teams would enter the Indy 500 for the next three years. CART would run a 300-mile race Gateway International Raceway on the Saturday of Memorial Day weekend from 1997–1999 to avoid a conflict.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In 2000, Target Chip Ganassi Racing, still a CART-mainstay, decided to compete at Indianapolis with drivers Jimmy Vasser and Juan Pablo Montoya. On race day, Montoya dominated the event, leading 167 of the 200 laps to victory. In 2001, Penske Racing returned and won the race with driver Hélio Castroneves. Penske and Castroneves repeated with a win in 2002.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: By 2003, Ganassi, Penske and Andretti Green defected to the IRL permanently. CART went bankrupt later in the year, and its rights and infrastructure were purchased by remaining car owners, and it became the Champ Car World Series. The two series continued to operate separately through 2007. In early 2008, the two series were unified to create a single open-wheel championship after a 12-year split being run under Indy Racing League/IMS control—known as the IndyCar Series.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: The 2012 race was the return of Turbocharged engines for the first time since 1996 with the use of the Dallara DW12 chassis and 2.2 L V-6 single-turbo and twin-turbocharged engines.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: In the 1960s and early 1970s, the Indy 500 and the World 600 (now known as the Coca-Cola 600) at Charlotte Motor Speedway were held on different days of the week. A handful of NASCAR regulars participated in both events in the same year, including Bobby Allison, Donnie Allison, Cale Yarborough, and Lee Roy Yarbrough. From 1974 to 1992, the two events were scheduled for the same day and same starting time, making participation in both impossible. A few stock car drivers during that time, namely Neil Bonnett in 1979, nevertheless still attempted to qualify at Indy, even if that meant skipping Charlotte altogether.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: From 1994 to 2014, several NASCAR drivers were able to compete in both the Indy 500 and the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte on the same day. Since 1993, the Coca-Cola 600 has been scheduled in the evening the same day as the Indy 500. The effort has been known as "Double Duty".


title: Indianapolis 500

text: After the Indy 500, drivers would catch a helicopter directly from the Speedway to Indianapolis International Airport. From there they would fly to Concord Regional Airport, and ride a helicopter to the NASCAR race. John Andretti, Tony Stewart, and Robby Gordon attempted the feat, with Kurt Busch being the latest in 2014. In 2001, Tony Stewart became the first driver to complete the full race distance (1,100 miles) in both races on the same day.


title: Indianapolis 500

text: For 2005, the start of Indianapolis was pushed back to 1 p.m. EDT to improve television ratings. This significantly closed the window for a driver to be able to race both events on the same day. (The race's original starting time had been set at 11 a.m. EST to 12 noon EDT—because in 1911, race promoters estimated it would take six hours to complete the event, and they did not want the race to finish too close to dinnertime. Nowadays, the race is routinely completed in under three-and-a-half hours.)


title: Indianapolis 500

text: Two drivers, Mario Andretti and A. J. Foyt, have won the Indianapolis 500 and the Daytona 500. Foyt also won the 24 Hours of Daytona and 12 Hours of Sebring, America's premier endurance races, as well as the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Foyt won Le Mans in 1967, about one month after winning his third Indy 500. Andretti won the Formula One World Championship and is a three-time Sebring winner (he also won the 6-hour version of Daytona). Indianapolis 500 winner Johnny Rutherford once won one of the Daytona 500 qualifying races. In 2010, Chip Ganassi became the first car owner to win the Daytona and Indianapolis 500s in the same year, with Jamie McMurray winning the Daytona 500 and Dario Franchitti winning the Indianapolis 500.