title: Turbofan

text: The second phase of the FAA's Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise (CLEEN) program is targeting for the late 2020s reductions of 33% fuel burn, 60% emissions and 32 dB EPNdb noise compared with the 2000s state-of-the-art.


title: Turbofan

text: In summer 2017 at NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, Pratt has finished testing a very-low-pressure-ratio fan on a PW1000G, resembling an open rotor with fewer blades than the PW1000G's 20.


title: Turbofan

text: The weight and size of the nacelle would be reduced by a short duct inlet, imposing higher aerodynamic turning loads on the blades and leaving less space for soundproofing, but a lower-pressure-ratio fan is slower.


title: Turbofan

text: UTC Aerospace Systems Aerostructures will have a full-scale ground test in 2019 of its low-drag Integrated Propulsion System with a thrust reverser, improving fuel burn by 1% and with 2.5-3 EPNdB lower noise.


title: Turbofan

text: Safran can probably deliver another 10–15% in fuel efficiency through the mid-2020s before reaching an asymptote, and next will have to introduce a breakthrough: to increase the bypass ratio to 35:1 instead of 11:1 for the CFM LEAP, it is demonstrating a counterrotating open rotor unducted fan (propfan) in Istres, France, under the European Clean Sky technology program.


title: Turbofan

text: Modeling advances and high specific strength materials may help it succeed where previous attempts failed.


title: Turbofan

text: When noise levels will be within current standards and similar to the Leap engine, 15% lower fuel burn will be available and for that Safran is testing its controls, vibration and operation, while airframe integration is still challenging.


title: Turbofan

text: For GE Aviation, the energy density of jet fuel still maximises the Breguet range equation and higher pressure ratio cores; lower pressure ratio fans, low-loss inlets and lighter structures can further improve thermal, transfer and propulsive efficiency.


title: Turbofan

text: Under the U.S. Air Force’s Adaptive Engine Transition Program, adaptive thermodynamic cycles will be used for the sixth-generation jet fighter, based on a modified Brayton cycle and Constant volume combustion.


title: Turbofan

text: Rotating and static ceramic matrix composite (CMC) parts operates hotter than metal and are one-third its weight.


title: Turbofan

text: With $21.9 million from the Air Force Research Laboratory, GE is investing $200 million in a CMC facility in Huntsville, Alabama, in addition to its Asheville, North Carolina site, mass-producing silicon carbide matrix with silicon-carbide fibers in 2018.


title: Turbofan

text: CMCs will be used ten times more by the mid-2020s: the CFM LEAP requires 18 CMC turbine shrouds per engine and the GE9X will use it in the combustor and for 42 HP turbine nozzles.


title: Turbofan

text: Rolls-Royce Plc aim for a 60:1 pressure ratio core for the 2020s Ultrafan and began ground tests of its gear for and 15:1 bypass ratios.


title: Turbofan

text: Nearly stoichiometric turbine entry temperatures approaches the theoretical limit and its impact on emissions has to be balanced with environmental performance goals.


title: Turbofan

text: Open rotors, lower pressure ratio fans and potentially distributed propulsion offer more room for better propulsive efficiency.


title: Turbofan

text: Exotic cycles, heat exchangers and pressure gain/constant volume combustion can improve thermodynamic efficiency.


title: Turbofan

text: Current Rolls-Royce engines have a 72–82% propulsive efficiency and 42–49% thermal efficiency for a TSFC at Mach 0.8, and aim for theoretical limits of 95% for open rotor propulsive efficiency and 60% for thermal efficiency with stoichiometric turbine entry temperature and 80:1 overall pressure ratio for a TSFC


title: Turbofan

text: As teething troubles may not show up until several thousand hours, the latest turbofans technical problems disrupt airlines operations and manufacturers deliveries while production rates are rising sharply.


title: Turbofan

text: Trent 1000 cracked blades grounded almost 50 Boeing 787s and reduced ETOPS to 2.3 hours down from 5.5, costing Rolls-Royce plc almost $950 million.


title: Turbofan

text: PW1000G knife-edge seal fractures have caused Pratt & Whitney to fall way behind in deliveries, leaving about 100 engineless A320neos waiting for their powerplants.


title: Turbofan

text: The CFM LEAP introduction was smoother but a ceramic composite Turbine coating is prematurely lost, necessitating a new design, causing 60 A320neo engine removal for modification, as deliveries are up to six weeks late.


title: Turbofan

text: On a widebody, Safran estimates 5–10% of fuel could be saved by reducing power intake for hydraulic systems, while swapping to electrical power could save 30% of weight, as initiated on the Boeing 787, while Rolls-Royce plc hopes for up to 5%.


title: Turbofan

text: The turbofan engine market is dominated by General Electric, Rolls-Royce plc and Pratt & Whitney, in order of market share. General Electric and SNECMA of France have a joint venture, CFM International. Pratt & Whitney also have a joint venture, International Aero Engines with Japanese Aero Engine Corporation and MTU Aero Engines of Germany, specializing in engines for the Airbus A320 family. Pratt & Whitney and General Electric have a joint venture, Engine Alliance selling a range of engines for aircraft such as the Airbus A380.


title: Turbofan

text: For airliners and cargo aircraft, the in-service fleet in 2016 is 60,000 engines and should grow to 103,000 in 2035 with 86,500 deliveries according to Flight Global. A majority will be medium-thrust engines for narrow-body aircraft with 54,000 deliveries, for a fleet growing from 28,500 to 61,000. High-thrust engines for wide-body aircraft, worth 40–45% of the market by value, will grow from 12,700 engines to over 21,000 with 18,500 deliveries. The regional jet engines below 20,000 lb (89 kN) fleet will grow from 7,500 to 9,000 and the fleet of turboprops for airliners will increase from 9,400 to 10,200. The manufacturers market share should be led by CFM with 44% followed by Pratt & Whitney with 29% and then Rolls-Royce and General Electric with 10% each.


title: Turbofan

text: In the 1970s, Rolls-Royce/SNECMA tested a M45SD-02 turbofan fitted with variable-pitch fan blades to improve handling at ultralow fan pressure ratios and to provide thrust reverse down to zero aircraft speed. The engine was aimed at ultraquiet STOL aircraft operating from city-centre airports.


title: Turbofan

text: In a bid for increased efficiency with speed, a development of the "turbofan" and "turboprop" known as a propfan engine was created that had an unducted fan. The fan blades are situated outside of the duct, so that it appears like a turboprop with wide scimitar-like blades. Both General Electric and Pratt & Whitney/Allison demonstrated propfan engines in the 1980s. Excessive cabin noise and relatively cheap jet fuel prevented the engines being put into service. The Progress D-27 propfan, developed in the U.S.S.R., was the only propfan engine equipped on a production aircraft.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Eric Emerson Schmidt (born April 27, 1955) is an American businessman and software engineer known for being the CEO of Google from 2001 to 2011, executive chairman of Google from 2011 to 2015, executive chairman of Alphabet Inc. from 2015 to 2017, and Technical Advisor at Alphabet from 2017 to 2020.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: As an intern at Bell Labs, Schmidt in 1975 was co-author of Lex, a software program to generate lexical analysers for the Unix computer operating system. From 1997 to 2001, he was chief executive officer (CEO) of Novell. He has served on various other boards in academia and industry, including the Boards of Trustees for Carnegie Mellon University, Apple, Princeton University, and Mayo Clinic.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2008, during his tenure as Google chairman, Schmidt campaigned for Barack Obama, and subsequently became a member of Obama's President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, with Eric Lander. Lander later became Joe Biden's science advisor. In the meantime, Schmidt had left Google, and founded philanthropic venture Schmidt Futures, in 2017. Under Schmidt's tenure, Schmidt Futures provided the compensation for two science-office employees in the Office of Science and Technology Policy.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: As of April 2022, "Bloomberg Billionaires Index" ranked Schmidt as the 54th-richest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of $25.1 billion.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt was born in Falls Church, Virginia, and grew up in Falls Church and Blacksburg, Virginia. He is one of three sons of Eleanor, who had a master's degree in psychology, and Wilson Emerson Schmidt, a professor of international economics at Virginia Tech and Johns Hopkins University, who worked at the U.S. Treasury Department during the Nixon Administration. Schmidt spent part of his childhood in Italy as a result of his father's work and has stated that it had changed his outlook.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt graduated from Yorktown High School in the Yorktown neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia, in 1972, after earning eight varsity letter awards in long-distance running. He attended Princeton University, starting as an architecture major and switching to electrical engineering, earning a Bachelor of Science in Engineering degree in 1976.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: From 1976 to 1980, Schmidt resided at the International House Berkeley, where he met his future wife, Wendy Boyle.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 1979, at the University of California, Berkeley, Schmidt earned an M.S. degree for designing and implementing a network (Berknet) linking the campus computer center with the CS and EECS departments. There, he also earned a PhD degree in 1982 in EECS, with a dissertation about the problems of managing distributed software development and tools for solving these problems.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Early in his career, Schmidt held a series of technical positions with IT companies including Byzromotti Design, Bell Labs (in research and development), Zilog, and Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).


title: Eric Schmidt

text: During his summers at Bell Labs, he and Mike Lesk wrote Lex, a program used in compiler construction that generates lexical-analyzers from regular-expression descriptions.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 1983, Schmidt joined Sun Microsystems as its first software manager. He rose to become director of software engineering, vice president and general manager of the software products division, vice president of the general systems group, and president of Sun Technology Enterprises.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: During his time at Sun, he was the target of two notable April Fool's Day pranks. In the first, his office was taken apart and rebuilt on a platform in the middle of a pond, complete with a working phone and workstation on the corporate Ethernet network. The next year, a working Volkswagen Beetle was taken apart and re-assembled in his office.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In April 1997, Schmidt became the CEO and chairman of the board of Novell. He presided over a period of decline at Novell where its IPX protocol was being replaced by open TCP/IP products, while at the same time Microsoft was shipping free TCP/IP stacks in Windows 95, making Novell much less profitable. In 2001, he departed after the acquisition of Cambridge Technology Partners.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Google founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin interviewed Schmidt. Impressed by him, they recruited Schmidt to run their company in 2001 under the guidance of venture capitalists John Doerr and Michael Moritz.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In March 2001, Schmidt joined Google's board of directors as chair, and became the company's CEO in August 2001. At Google, Schmidt shared responsibility for Google's daily operations with founders Page and Brin. Prior to the Google initial public offering, Schmidt had responsibilities typically assigned to the CEO of a public company and focused on the management of the vice presidents and the sales organization. According to Google, Schmidt's job responsibilities included "building the corporate infrastructure needed to maintain Google's rapid growth as a company and on ensuring that quality remains high while the product development cycle times are kept to a minimum."


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Upon being hired at Google, Eric Schmidt was paid a salary of $250,000 and an annual performance bonus. He was granted 14,331,703 shares of Class B common stock at $0.30 per share and 426,892 shares of Series C preferred stock at purchase price of $2.34.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2004, Schmidt and the Google founders agreed to a base salary of US$1 (which continued through 2010) with other compensation of $557,465 in 2006, $508,763 in 2008, and $243,661 in 2009. He did not receive any additional stock or options in 2009 or 2010.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2007, "PC World" ranked Schmidt as the first on its list of the 50 most important people on the Web, along with Google co-founders Page and Brin.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt is one of a few people who became billionaires (in United States dollars) based on stock options received as employees in corporations of which they were neither the founders nor relatives of the founders, such as Meg Whitman.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In its 2011 'World's Billionaires' list, "Forbes" ranked Schmidt as the 136th-richest person in the world, with an estimated wealth of $7 billion.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: On January 20, 2011, Google announced that Schmidt would step down as the CEO of Google but would take new title as executive chairman of the company and act as an adviser to co-founders Page and Brin. Google gave him a $100 million equity award in 2011 when he stepped down as CEO. On April 4, 2011, Page replaced Schmidt as the CEO.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: On December 21, 2017, Schmidt announced he would be stepping down as the executive chairman of Alphabet. Schmidt stated that "Larry, Sergey, Sundar and I all believe that the time is right in Alphabet's evolution for this transition."


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In February 2020, Schmidt left his post as technical advisor of Alphabet after 19 years with the company.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In March 2016 it was announced that Eric Schmidt would chair a new advisory board for the Department of Defense, titled the Defense Innovation Advisory Board. The advisory board serves as a forum connecting mainstays in the technology sector with those in the Pentagon.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: To avoid potential conflicts of interest within the role, where Schmidt retained his role as technical adviser to Alphabet, and where Google's bidding for the multi-million dollar Pentagon cloud contract, the Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure, or JEDI, was ongoing: Schmidt screened emails and other communications, stating, "“There’s a rule: I’m not allowed to be briefed” about Google or Alphabet business as it relates to the Defense Department". He exited the position November 2020.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: From 2019 to 2021, Schmidt chaired the National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence with Robert O. Work.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: While working at Google, Schmidt was involved in activities that later became the subject of the High-Tech Employee Antitrust Litigation case that resulted in a settlement of $415 million paid by Adobe, Apple, Google and Intel to employees. In one incident, after receiving a complaint from Steve Jobs of Apple, Schmidt sent an email to Google's HR department saying; "I believe we have a policy of no recruiting from Apple and this is a direct inbound request. Can you get this stopped and let me know why this is happening? I will need to send a response back to Apple quickly so please let me know as soon as you can. Thanks Eric". Schmidt's email led to a recruiter for Google being "terminated within the hour" for not having adhered to the illegal scheme. Under Schmidt, there was a "Do Not Call list" of companies Google would avoid recruiting from. According to a court filing, another email exchange shows Google's human resources director asking Schmidt about sharing its no-cold-call agreements with competitors. Schmidt responded that he preferred it be shared "verbally, since I don't want to create a paper trail over which we can be sued later?"


title: Eric Schmidt

text: On August 28, 2006, Schmidt was elected to Apple Inc.'s board of directors, a position he held until August 2009.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt sat on the boards of trustees of Carnegie Mellon University and Princeton University. He taught at Stanford Graduate School of Business in the 2000s. Schmidt serves on the boards of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, the Khan Academy, and "The Economist".


title: Eric Schmidt

text: New America is a non-profit public-policy institute and think tank, founded in 1999. Schmidt succeeded founding chairman James Fallows in 2008 and served as chairman until 2016.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Founded in 2010 by Schmidt and Dror Berman, Innovation Endeavors is an early-stage venture capital. The fund, based in Palo Alto, California, invested in companies such as Mashape, Uber, Quixey, Gogobot, BillGuard, and Formlabs.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In July 2020, Schmidt started working with the US government to create a tech college as part of an initiative to educate future coders, cyber-security experts and scientists.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt was an informal advisor and major donor to Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign, and began campaigning the week of October 19, 2008, on behalf of the candidate. He was mentioned as a possible candidate for the Chief Technology Officer position, which Obama created in his administration, and Obama considered him for Commerce Secretary. After Obama won in 2008, Schmidt became a member of President Obama's transition advisory board and then a member of the United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). Schmidt has served on Google's government relations team.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt has proposed that the easiest way to solve all of the domestic problems of the United States at once is by a stimulus program that rewards renewable energy and, over time, attempts to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Secretary of Defense Ash Carter appointed Schmidt as chairman of the DoD Innovation Advisory Board announced March 2, 2016. It will be modeled like the Defense Business Board and will facilitate the Pentagon at becoming more innovative and adaptive.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt is an investor in The Groundwork, a start-up company associated with Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign. For example, it charged the campaign $177,000 in the second quarter of 2015. By May 2016, the campaign had spent $500,000 on it.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt is an investor in Timshel, another start up company associated with Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign. Timshel is the parent company of The Groundwork.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: The Schmidt Family Foundation was established in 2006 by Wendy Schmidt and Eric Schmidt to address issues of sustainability and the responsible use of natural resources.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt and his wife established the Eric & Wendy Schmidt Data Science for Social Good Fellowship, a University of Chicago summer school program for aspiring data scientists.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: The Schmidt Family Foundation's subsidiaries include ReMain Nantucket and the Marine Science and Technology Foundation; its main charitable program is the 11th Hour Project. The foundation has also awarded grants to the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Energy Foundation.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: The foundation is the main funder of the Schmidt Ocean Institute, which supports oceanographic research by operating .


title: Eric Schmidt

text: The Schmidts, working with Hart Howerton, a San Francisco architectural firm that specializes in large-scale land use, have inaugurated several projects on the island of Nantucket that seek to sustain the unique character of the island and to minimize the impact of seasonal visitation on the island's core community.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Mrs. Schmidt offered the prize purse of the Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X CHALLENGE, a challenge award for the efficient capturing of crude oil from seawater motivated by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2009, Eric and Wendy Schmidt endowed the Schmidt Transformative Technology Fund at Princeton University with $25 million. The Fund's purpose is to support research and technology in the natural sciences and engineering, encouraging collaboration across disciplines. It awarded $1.2 million in grants in 2010 and $1.7 million in grants in 2012.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Created in partnership with the Rhodes Trust, the Schmidt Science Fellows program is part of a $100 million commitment to drive scientific leadership and interdisciplinary research. The program features a Global Meeting Series including exclusive sessions at world-leading institutions including Oxford, Cambridge, MIT, and Harvard. Fellows receive a stipend to participate in postdoctoral study which differs from their existing expertise.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: An initiative of Schmidt Futures and the Rhodes Trust, which aims to increase the opportunity for exceptional young people worldwide to serve others throughout their lives. The program, which will find and elevate young people between the ages of 15 and 17 from around the world, will be designed to encourage a lifetime of service and learning by providing support that could include scholarships, career services, and funding opportunities


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt has claimed that Google's use of artificial distinctions to avoid paying billions of pounds in corporation tax otherwise owed by its UK operations is "capitalism" and that he was "very proud of it".


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Publicly Schmidt stated that, as paraphrased by "CNN"/"Money", "there has to be a trade-off between privacy concerns and functionality." His explanations referenced "Don't Be Evil".


title: Eric Schmidt

text: During an interview aired on December 3, 2009, on the CNBC documentary "Inside the Mind of Google," Schmidt was asked, "People are treating Google like their most trusted friend. Should they be?" He replied: "I think judgment matters. If you have something that you don't want anyone to know, maybe you shouldn't be doing it in the first place. But if you really need that kind of privacy, the reality is that search engines, including Google, do retain this information for some time. And it's important, for example, that we are all subject in the United States to the Patriot Act. It is possible that information could be made available to the authorities."


title: Eric Schmidt

text: At the Techonomy conference on August 4, 2010, Schmidt expressed that technology is good. And he said that the only way to manage the challenges is "much greater transparency and no anonymity." Schmidt also stated that in an era of asymmetric threats, "true anonymity is too dangerous." However, at the 2013 Hay Festival, Schmidt expressed concern that sharing of personal information was too rampant and could have a negative effect, particularly on teenagers, stating that "we have never had a generation with a full photographic, digital record of what they did", declaring that "We have a point at which we [Google] forget information we know about you because it is the right thing to do. There are situations in life that it's better that they don't exist."


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2013, Schmidt stated that the government surveillance in the United States was the "nature of our society" and that he was not going to "pass judgment on that". However, on the revelation that the NSA has been secretly spying on Google's data centers worldwide, he called the practice "outrageous" and criticized the NSA's collection of Americans phone records.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In August 2010, Schmidt clarified his company's views on network neutrality: "I want to be clear what we mean by Net neutrality: What we mean is if you have one data type like video, you don't discriminate against one person's video in favor of another. But it's okay to discriminate across different types. So you could prioritize voice over video. And there is general agreement with Verizon and Google on that issue."


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In January 2013, Schmidt and Jared Cohen, director of Google Ideas visited North Korea along with former New Mexico governor Bill Richardson. The trip was highly publicized and controversial due to the ongoing tension between North Korea and the United States. On August 10, 2013, North Korea announced an indigenous smartphone, named Arirang, that may be using the Google Android operating system.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In March 2013, Schmidt visited Myanmar, which had been ruled by a military junta for decades and is transitioning to a democracy. During his visit, Schmidt spoke in favor of free and open Internet use in the country, and was scheduled to meet with the country's president.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In January 2015, Schmidt and Jared Cohen, director of Google Ideas, met with Pope Francis to discuss technology and society. This was the first meeting between the Pope and a technology leader, which was subsequently followed by other tech leaders visiting the Vatican.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2013, Schmidt and Jared Cohen, director of the Google Ideas think tank, published "The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business", which discusses the geopolitical implications of increasingly widespread Internet use and access to information. The book was inspired by an essay in "Foreign Affairs" magazine the two co-wrote in 2010. He also wrote the preface to "The Startup Game: Inside the Partnership between Venture Capitalists and Entrepreneurs", by William H. Draper, III.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2014, Schmidt co-authored the New York Times best-selling book "How Google Works" with Jonathan Rosenberg, former Senior Vice President of Products at Google and current advisor to Google CEO Larry Page, and Alan Eagle. The book is a collection of the business management lessons learned over the course of Schmidt and Rosenberg's time leading Google. In his book, Eric Schmidt argues that successful companies in the technology-driven internet age should attract smart and creative employees and create an environment where they can thrive. He argues that the traditional business rules that make a company successful have changed; companies should maximize freedom and speed, and decision-making should not lie in the hands of the few. Schmidt also emphasizes that individuals and small teams can have a massive impact on innovation.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Dating back to early 1990s and dubbed "Schmidt's Law" by George Gilder when Schmidt predicted that the network will become the computer. Schmidt's Law states: "When the network becomes as fast as the backplane of your computer, the computer hollows out, its components dispersing across the Web, its value migrating to search and sort functions."


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In October 2020, Schmidt stated that social networking services are "amplifiers for idiots and crazy people" and that this was not what the Big Tech firms intended when creating them.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt was on the list of ARTnews's 200 top art collectors in 2008. Schmidt denied that he was an art collector, despite his involvement in art, in 2019.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: He is a member of the Bilderberg Group and attends the annual Bilderberg conferences regularly. He also has a listed membership with the Trilateral Commission. He is a member of the International Advisory Board at the Blavatnik School of Government, University of Oxford.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: Schmidt is an active member of the Berggruen Institute's 21st Century Council, and its board of directors.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2014, he had a cameo appearance in the film "Dumb and Dumber To", starring Jim Carrey and Jeff Daniels. He also had a cameo appearance in the HBO show "Silicon Valley".


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In June 1980, Schmidt married Wendy Susan Boyle (born 1955 in Short Hills, New Jersey). They lived in Atherton, California, in the 1990s. They have a daughter, Sophie, and had another, Alison, who died in 2017 from an illness. A number of Schmidt's outside relationships have attracted publicity, but he continues philanthropic efforts in the name of him and his wife.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In January 2013, Schmidt visited North Korea with his daughter Sophie, Jared Cohen, and former New Mexico governor Bill Richardson.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In 2015, Schmidt acquired a 20% stake in D.E. Shaw & Co. Schmidt is also an investor in CargoMetrics, another quant hedge fund.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In April 2015, Schmidt delivered the commencement address at Virginia Tech, located in Schmidt's childhood home of Blacksburg, Virginia. This came on the heels of Schmidt making a $2 million donation to Virginia Tech's College of Engineering. Schmidt's philanthropy is the result of his longstanding friendship with Virginia Tech's former president Paul Torgersen. His donation funded the Paul and Dorothea Torgersen Dean's Chair in Engineering.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In September 2020, Schmidt purchased Montecito Mansion, a 22,000-square-foot estate overlooking Santa Barbara, for $30.8 million.


title: Eric Schmidt

text: In November 2020, "Recode" reported that Schmidt is finalizing his plan to become a citizen of Cyprus. He is one of the highest-profile people to take advantage of the immigrant investor programs that offers a "passport-for-sale". This passport can be used to enter and live in any country of the European Union.


title: Stratovolcano

text: A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and periodic intervals of explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions, although some have collapsed summit craters called calderas. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite), with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as .


title: Stratovolcano

text: Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite stratified structure, built up from sequential outpourings of erupted materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes. Two famous examples of stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa in Indonesia, known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883, and Vesuvius in Italy, whose catastrophic eruption in AD 79 buried the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives. In modern times, Mount St. Helens in Washington State, USA and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths.


title: Stratovolcano

text: The existence of stratovolcanoes on other bodies of the Solar System has not been conclusively demonstrated. One possible exception is the existence of some isolated massifs on Mars, for example the Zephyria Tholus.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Stratovolcanoes are common at subduction zones, forming chains and clusters along plate tectonic boundaries where oceanic crust is drawn under continental crust (continental arc volcanism, e.g. Cascade Range, Andes, Campania) or another oceanic plate (island arc volcanism, e.g. Japan, Philippines, Aleutian Islands). The magma forming stratovolcanoes rises when water trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths. The water freed from the rock lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its lighter density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber within the crust below the stratovolcano.


title: Stratovolcano

text: The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a matter of research. Possible mechanisms include:


title: Stratovolcano

text: These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as sector collapse, earthquakes, or interactions with groundwater. Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of the flank of a volcano collapses in a massive landslide) can trigger eruption only of a very shallow magma chamber. Magma differentiation and thermal expansion also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Whatever the precise mechanism, the pressure in the magma chamber increases to a critical point where the roof of the magma chamber fractures, and the contents of the magma chamber are provided with a path to the surface through which to erupt.


title: Stratovolcano

text: In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo, typically erupt with explosive force: the magma is too stiff to allow easy escape of volcanic gases. As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the vent and the opening of the crater, the magma degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Since 1600 CE, nearly 300,000 people have been killed by volcanic eruptions. Most deaths were caused by pyroclastic flows and lahars, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine ash, fragmented lava, and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over . Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean. In March to April 1982, three explosive eruptions of El Chichón in the State of Chiapas in southeastern Mexico, caused the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history. Villages within of the volcano were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, killing more than 2,000 people.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Two Decade Volcanoes that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On June 15, Mount Pinatubo spewed an ash cloud into the air and produced huge pyroclastic surges and lahar floods that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo, located in Central Luzon just west-northwest from Manila, had been dormant for 6 centuries before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century. Also in 1991, Japan's Unzen Volcano, located on the island of Kyushu about east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new lava dome at its summit. Beginning in June, the repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as . Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people—the worst volcanic disaster in the nation's history.


title: Stratovolcano

text: The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum with thick deposits of pyroclastic surges and lava flows. Although the death toll is estimated between 13,000 and 26,000 remains, the exact number is still unclear. Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most dangerous volcanoes, due to its capacity for powerful explosive eruptions combined with the high population density of the surrounding Metropolitan Naples area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants).


title: Stratovolcano

text: Apart from possibly affecting the climate, volcanic clouds from explosive eruptions also pose a serious hazard to aviation safety. For example, during the 1982 eruption of Galunggung in Java, British Airways Flight 9 flew into the ash cloud, suffering temporary engine failure and structural damage. During the past two decades, more than 60 airplanes, mostly commercial airliners, have been damaged by in-flight encounters with volcanic ash. Some of these encounters have resulted in the power loss of all engines, necessitating emergency landings. Luckily, to date no crashes have happened because of jet aircraft flying into volcanic ash. Ashfalls are a threat to health when inhaled and ash is also a threat to property with enough accumulation. An accumulation of is sufficient to cause most buildings to collapse. Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash, caused by the collapse of an eruptive column or by being laterally expelled from the partial collapse of a volcanic edifice or lava dome during explosive eruptions, can generate devastating pyroclastic flows or surges, which can sweep off everything in their paths.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans and animals because the highly viscous lava moves slowly enough for everyone to flee out of the path of flow. The lava flows are more of a threat to property. However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava. Nyiragongo is very dangerous because its magma has an unusually low silica content, making it quite fluid. Fluid lavas are typically associated with the formation of broad shield volcanoes such as those of Hawaii, but Nyiragongo has very steep slopes down which lava can flow at up to . Lava flows could melt down ice and glaciers that accumulated on the volcano's crater and upper slopes, generating massive lahar flows. Rarely, generally fluid lava could also generate massive lava fountains, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a block which can result in highly explosive eruptions.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Volcanic bombs are extrusive igneous rocks ranging from the size of books to small cars, that are explosively ejected from stratovolcanoes during their climactic eruptive phases. These "bombs" can travel over away from the volcano, and present a risk to buildings and living beings while shooting at very high speeds (hundreds of kilometers/miles per hour) through the air. Most bombs do not themselves explode on impact, but rather carry enough force to have destructive effects as if they exploded.


title: Stratovolcano

text: Lahars (from a Javanese term for volcanic mudflows) are mixtures of volcanic debris and water. Lahars usually come from two sources: rainfall or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic elements, such as lava. Depending on the proportion and temperature of water to volcanic material, lahars can range from thick, gooey flows that have the consistency of wet concrete to fast-flowing, soupy floods. As lahars flood down the steep sides of stratovolcanoes, they have the strength and speed to flatten or drown everything in their paths. Hot ash clouds, lava flows and pyroclastic surges ejected during 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia melted snow and ice atop the high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar flooded the city of Armero and nearby settlements, killing 25,000 people.


title: Stratovolcano

text: As per the above examples, while the Unzen eruptions have caused deaths and considerable local damage in the historic past, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was global. Slightly cooler-than-usual temperatures were recorded worldwide, with brilliant sunsets and intense sunrises attributed to the particulates; this eruption lofted particles high into the stratosphere. The aerosols that formed from the sulfur dioxide (SO), carbon dioxide (CO), and other gases dispersed around the world. The SO mass in this cloud—about 22 million tons—combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) formed droplets of sulfuric acid, blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the troposphere and ground. The cooling in some regions is thought to have been as much as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F). An eruption the size of Mount Pinatubo tends to affect the weather for a few years; the material injected into the stratosphere gradually drops into the troposphere, where it is washed away by rain and cloud precipitation.


title: Stratovolcano

text: A similar, but extraordinarily more powerful phenomenon occurred in the cataclysmic April 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora on Sumbawa island in Indonesia. The Mount Tambora eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures by as much as 3.5 °C (6.3 °F). In the year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced sharply cooler temperatures during the summer. In parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, 1816 was known as the "Year Without a Summer", which caused a considerable agricultural crisis and a brief but bitter famine, which generated a series of distresses across much of the affected continents.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje (, ; born 22 August 1967) is an English actor, director, and former fashion model known for his roles as Lock-Nah in "The Mummy Returns", Nykwana Wombosi in "The Bourne Identity", Heavy Duty in "", Kurse in "", Killer Croc in "Suicide Squad", Mr. Eko in "Lost", Malko in the fifth season of the HBO series "Game of Thrones", and Dave Duerson in the NFL biopic drama "Concussion".


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: Akinnuoye-Agbaje's feature directorial debut, "Farming", wrapped production in 2017 and had its world premiere at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: Akinnuoye-Agbaje was born in Islington, London, to Nigerian parents of Yoruba origin, who were students in the UK. When he was six weeks old, his biological parents gave him up to a white working-class family in Tilbury, Essex. His foster parents had at least ten African children, including Akinnuoye-Agbaje's two sisters, living in their house at certain points. His foster father made a living as a lorry driver and struggled to support the family financially.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: When he was eight years old, his biological parents brought him back to Nigeria but, as he was unable to speak the Yoruba language and unable to assimilate, he was returned to Tilbury shortly thereafter. The brief exposure to Nigeria left him struggling to reconcile his heritage with the distinctly British culture and environment he was raised in. As a young boy, he was subject to continual racial abuse in the white neighbourhood he grew up. After enduring repeated physical attacks by local skinheads, he earned their respect by standing up to them and eventually aligned forces with them. At 16 years old, his birth parents sent him to a boarding school in Surrey where he ultimately attempted suicide before coming to terms with his background and turning his life around.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: He went on to earn his Bachelor's from the University of London at large and subsequently a Master's in Law from King's College London. While a university student, Akinnuoye-Agbaje worked in a clothes shop where he was introduced to the world of modelling. On March 17, 2017, he was awarded an Honorary PhD by Princess Anne, Chancellor of the University of London.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: Akinnuoye-Agbaje's modelling career led him to Hollywood, where he began his acting career with a 1995 role in "Congo".


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: His best-known acting roles have been as the imposing convict Simon Adebisi in the 1990s HBO prison series "Oz" and as Mr. Eko on ABC's survivor drama "Lost". Film roles include "The Bourne Identity", in which he played a deposed African dictator, Hitu the police officer in "", Lock-Nah in "The Mummy Returns", and Heavy Duty in "". He was also featured in the video for singer-songwriter Grayson Hugh's hit "Talk It Over", which was in heavy rotation in 1989 on MTV and VH-1.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: In 2009, Akinnuoye-Agbaje was in talks with Marvel Studios to play the superhero Black Panther in a proposed film of the same name. In an interview, he stated his excitement about the possibility, saying that "the timing is so right" for a black superhero, and "while I'm in my prime, this is the time... I'm going to keep knocking on their door." In 2014 Marvel did announce a Black Panther film, though with Chadwick Boseman in the title role.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: He guest starred in the second episode of season 8 of "Monk", and played Derek Jameson in the 2011 film "The Thing". He portrayed Kurse in the Marvel Studios film "". He portrayed the character Malko in the fifth season of "Game of Thrones". In 2015 it was reported that Akinnuoye-Abaje voices the lead character of "Bilal", a film about the life of Bilal Ibn Rabah set to be released in the second half of the year. In 2016, he co-starred in the DC Comics film "Suicide Squad", as the Batman villain Killer Croc.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: In 2012, Akinnuoye-Agbaje stated that he had been developing a film about his life story, which he also planned to direct. The film is called "Farming", in reference to the practise of Nigerian parents "farming out" their children to white UK families. In May 2017, he announced that casting on the film had begun with Damson Idris in the lead role as Enitan, Kate Beckinsale playing his abusive, neglectful foster mother and Gugu Mbatha-Raw as his teacher and mentor. The film went on to win the prestigious Michael Powell Award at the Edinburgh Film Festival for Best British Feature and Best Performance in a British Feature for Idris.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: Akinnuoye-Agbaje lives in Los Angeles. He is a Nichiren Buddhist and a member of the Soka Gakkai International Buddhist association.


title: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje

text: Akinnuoye-Agbaje asked to be written off "Lost", citing a desire to return to London after his foster parents' deaths and to direct a film there. He is a supporter of Arsenal F.C.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: The Brown Bunny is a 2003 experimental road drama film written, directed, produced, photographed and edited by Vincent Gallo. Starring Gallo and Chloë Sevigny, it tells the story of a motorcycle racer on a cross-country drive who is haunted by memories of his former lover. It was photographed with handheld 16 mm cameras in various locations throughout the United States, including New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Ohio, Missouri, Utah, Nevada, and California. Following a world premiere at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival, the film garnered a great deal of media attention because of an explicit scene where Sevigny performs unsimulated fellatio on Gallo, as well as a feud between Gallo and the film critic Roger Ebert, who stated that "The Brown Bunny" was the worst film in the history of Cannes, although he later gave a re-edited version his signature "thumbs up".


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Motorcycle racer Bud Clay undertakes a cross-country drive, following a race in New Hampshire, in order to participate in a race in California. All the while he is haunted by memories of his former lover, Daisy. On his journey he meets three women, but Bud seems to be a lost soul, and he is unable to form an emotional connection with any of them. He first meets Violet at a gas station in New Hampshire and convinces her to join him on his trip. They stop at her home in order to get her clothes, but he drives off as soon as she enters the house.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Bud's next stop is the home of Daisy's parents, the location of Daisy's brown bunny. Daisy's mother does not remember Bud, who grew up in the house next door, nor does she remember having visited Bud and Daisy in California. Next, Bud stops at a pet shelter, where he asks about the life expectancy of rabbits (he is told it is about five or six years). At a highway rest stop, he meets a distressed woman, Lilly. He comforts and kisses her, before starting to cry and eventually leaving her. Bud appears more distressed as the road trip continues, crying as he drives. He stops at the Bonneville Speedway to race his motorcycle. In Las Vegas, he drives around prostitutes on street corners, before deciding to ask one of them, Rose, to join him for a lunch. She eats McDonald's food in his truck until he stops, pays her, and leaves her back on the street.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: After having his motorcycle checked in a Los Angeles garage, Bud stops at Daisy's house, which appears abandoned. He leaves a note on the door frame, after sitting in his truck in the driveway remembering about kissing Daisy in this place, and checks in at a hotel. Daisy eventually appears there. She seems nervous, going to the bathroom twice to smoke crack cocaine, while Bud waits for her, sitting on his bed. As she proposes to go out to buy something to drink, Bud tells her that, because of what happened the last time they saw each other, he does not drink anymore.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: They have an argument about Daisy kissing other men. At this point, Bud undresses Daisy and she fellates him. Once done, he insults her as they lie in bed, talking about what happened during their last meeting. Bud continuously asks Daisy why she had been involved with some men at a party. She explains that she was just being friendly and wanted to smoke marijuana with them. Bud becomes upset because Daisy was pregnant and it transpires that the baby died as a result of what happened at this party.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Through flashback scenes, the viewer understands that Daisy was raped at the party, a scene witnessed by Bud, who did not intervene. Daisy asks Bud why he did not help her, and his feelings of guilt on this are considerable. He tells her that he did not know what to do, and so he decided to leave the party. After he came back a bit later, he saw an ambulance in front of the house and Daisy explains to Bud that she is dead, having passed out prior to the rape and then choked to death on her own vomit. Bud awakens the next morning, alone; his encounter with Daisy turns out to have been a figment of his imagination. The movie ends as Bud is driving his truck in California.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: The film was shot in 16 mm and then blown up in 35 mm, which gives the photography a typical "old-school grain". Vincent Gallo credited himself as director of the photography as well as one of the three camera operators along with Toshiaki Ozawa and John Clemens.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: The version of the film shown in the U.S. has been cut by about 25 minutes compared to the version shown at Cannes, removing a large part of the initial scene at the race track (about four minutes shorter), about six minutes of music and black screen at the end of the film, and about seven minutes of driving before the scene in the Bonneville Speedway.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Neither Anna Vareschi nor Elizabeth Blake, both in the film, were professional actresses. Kirsten Dunst and Winona Ryder were both attached to the project but left. In an interview from "The Guardian" Sevigny said of the sex scene: "It was tough, the toughest thing I've ever done, but Vincent was very sensitized to my needs, very gentle. . . . And we'd been intimate in the past." Actress Jennifer Jason Leigh was initially set to play the role that Sevigny played, including the unsimulated oral sex scene, but ultimately turned the role down due to being in a relationship at the time.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: For the film's promotion, a trailer was released featuring a split screen in the style of Andy Warhol's "Chelsea Girls", depicting on one side of the screen a single point-of-view-shot of a driver on a country road, and the other side various scenes from the end of the film featuring Chloë Sevigny. Neither side of the screen had any audio tracks attached, although the song "Milk and Honey" by folk singer Jackson C. Frank played over the trailer's duration.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: The film was entered into the 2003 Cannes Film Festival. It was reportedly heckled, with the crowd jeering every time Gallo's name appeared during the credits. Seiichi Tsukada, an executive at Kinetique, the Japanese company that provided the financing for "The Brown Bunny", said “I was at Cannes. I felt injustice. The bashing in Cannes is not for "Brown Bunny". I think they’re bashing Vincent. I don’t know why.”


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Upon his return to the US, Gallo took a defiant stance, defending the film and finishing a new edit that clarified and tightened the storyline. A war of words then erupted between Gallo and film critic Roger Ebert, with Ebert writing that "The Brown Bunny" was the worst film in the history of Cannes, and Gallo retorting by calling Ebert a "fat pig with the physique of a slave trader." Paraphrasing a statement attributed to Winston Churchill, Ebert responded with, "It is true that I am fat, but one day I will be thin, and he will still be the director of "The Brown Bunny"." Gallo then claimed to have put a hex on Ebert's colon, cursing the critic with cancer. In response, Ebert quipped that watching a video of his colonoscopy had been more entertaining than watching "The Brown Bunny". Gallo subsequently stated that the hex had actually been placed on Ebert's prostate and that he had intended the comment to be a joke which was mistakenly taken seriously by a journalist. He also conceded to finding Ebert's colonoscopy comment to be an amusing comeback.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: A shorter, re-edited version of the film played later in 2003 at the Toronto International Film Festival (although it still retained the controversial sex scene). The new version was regarded more highly by some, even Ebert, who gave the new cut three stars out of a possible four. On the August 28, 2004 episode of the television show "Ebert & Roeper", Ebert gave the new version of the film a "thumbs up" rating. In a column published about the same time, Ebert reported that he and Gallo had made peace. According to Ebert:


title: The Brown Bunny

text: In 2018 (five years after Ebert's death), however, Gallo rebuked Ebert's statement, calling it "both far-fetched and an outright lie." According to Gallo, "If you didn’t like the unfinished film at Cannes, you didn’t like the finished film, and vice versa". Gallo went on to speculate that Ebert wanted to distance himself from "a brutal, dismissive review of a film that other, more serious critics eventually felt differently about". In addition, Gallo incorrectly stated that the film's final cut was only eight minutes shorter than the Cannes cut, not 26 minutes shorter as Ebert had claimed.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Nevertheless, "The Brown Bunny" still received mixed reviews from other critics and has a rating of 47% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 96 reviews with an average score of 5.3/10. The website's critics consensus states "More dull than hypnotic, "The Brown Bunny" is a pretentious and self-indulgent bore." Metacritic gives the film a score of 51 out of 100 based on reviews from 30 critics.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: French cinema magazine "Les Cahiers du Cinéma" voted "The Brown Bunny" one of the ten best films of 2004. The film won the FIPRESCI Prize at the Vienna International Film Festival for its "bold exploration of yearning and grief and for its radical departure from dominant tendencies in current American filmmaking". The film, aside from the feud with Roger Ebert, gained some positive reaction from American critics as well. Neva Chonin of the "San Francisco Chronicle" called it "a somber poem of a film sure to frustrate those who prefer resolution to ambiguity... like an inscrutably bad dream, [it] lingers on". The film was praised by other filmmakers including Jean-Luc Godard, John Waters, Sean Penn, and Werner Herzog who called it "the best portrayal of the particular loneliness a man feels."


title: The Brown Bunny

text: "The Daily Telegraph" listed "The Brown Bunny" as one of the 100 "defining" films of the decade, calling it the decade's "most reviled" film, but saying it was "destined to become a future lost classic".


title: The Brown Bunny

text: In August 2004 upon the film's limited theatrical release in the United States, star Sevigny took to defending the film and its final scene, stating, "It's a shame people write so many things when they haven't seen it. When you see the film, it makes more sense. It's an art film. It should be playing in museums. It's like an Andy Warhol movie.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Despite the negative backlash toward Sevigny's involvement in the film, some critics praised her decision. "New York Times" reviewer Manohla Dargis said:


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Seven years later, in an interview for "Playboy"s January 2011 issue, Sevigny talked about the oral sex scene in the film: "What's happened with that is all very complicated. There are a lot of emotions. I'll probably have to go to therapy at some point. But I love Vincent. The film is tragic and beautiful, and I'm proud of it and my performance. I'm sad that people think one way of the movie, but what can you do? I've done many explicit sex scenes, but I'm not that interested in doing any more. I'm more self-aware now and wouldn't be able to be as free, so why even do it?


title: The Brown Bunny

text: "The Brown Bunny" also attracted media attention over a large billboard erected over Sunset Boulevard in West Hollywood, California in 2004 promoting the film. The billboard featured a black-and-white image taken from the fellatio sequence, drawing complaints from residents and business owners. The image showed Gallo standing with Sevigny on her knees, but did not show any explicit sexual content. It was eventually removed nonetheless. In 2011, a similar image featuring in the billboard of another French film, "The Players (Les infidèles)", triggered a similar controversy.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: The motion picture soundtrack to "The Brown Bunny" was released exclusively in Japan. The first five tracks come from artists Gordon Lightfoot, Jackson C. Frank, Matisse/Accardo Quartet, Jeff Alexander and Ted Curson. The last five tracks are performed by John Frusciante.


title: The Brown Bunny

text: Australian indie label Twelve Suns re-issued "The Brown Bunny" soundtrack on deluxe gatefold vinyl on April 26, 2014. This reissue was fully authorized by Vincent Gallo and remastered from his master recordings. The re-issue was limited to 1000 copies. The first 5 tracks are from the film "The Brown Bunny". The last 5 tracks were written before the movie and used as inspiration during filming.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: My Friend Dahmer is a 2017 American biographical psychological drama film written and directed by Marc Meyers about American serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. The film is based on the 2012 graphic novel of the same name by cartoonist John "Derf" Backderf, who had been friends with Dahmer in high school in the 1970s, until the time Dahmer began his killing spree in 1978. The film stars Ross Lynch as Dahmer, Alex Wolff as Derf, Dallas Roberts as Jeffrey's father, and Anne Heche as Jeffrey's mother.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: The film premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival and was released in the United States on November 3, 2017, by Hulu.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: The film received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the historical accuracy and Lynch's performance.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: In 1974, Jeffrey Dahmer is a high school freshman living in Bath, Ohio, with his parents, Lionel and Joyce, and his younger brother Dave. Jeffrey develops an obsession with a male jogger whom he sees every day from his school bus. For a hobby, Jeffrey collects dead animals that he dissolves to the bones using chemicals provided by his father, who is a chemist. This hobby is initiated by his obsessive interest in how animals are "fitted together".


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: In 1978, Lionel trashes Jeffrey's collection of bones and orders him to make friends at school. During school, Jeffrey imitates the speech and gestures of his mother's interior decorator (who has cerebral palsy), clears his backpack, and makes loud noises, catching the attention of aspiring artist John "Derf" Backderf and his friends. Jeffrey inspires Derf to draw him in various situations; drawings that would later be incorporated into Derf's graphic novel "My Friend Dahmer". Derf and his friends form the "Dahmer Fan Club," using Jeffrey for a variety of pranks such as sneaking him in every club yearbook photo, and conning their way to a meeting with then Vice President Walter Mondale during a school field trip to Washington, D.C.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: Meanwhile, Joyce starts relapsing into chronic mental illness, leading to increasingly bitter fights between her and Lionel. To cope, Jeffrey turns to drinking heavily, and begins killing animals himself.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: The jogger with whom Jeffrey is obsessed turns out to be Dr. Matthews, the physician of one of Derf's friends. Jeffrey fakes a cold so that he can get an appointment with him, and he can examine Jeffrey naked. Dr. Matthews becomes uncomfortable during the hernia exam when he notices that Jeffrey has an erection. When Jeffrey returns home, he retires to his room and masturbates to the incident. The following night, Jeffrey fantasizes about having sex with Dr. Matthews' corpse. He starts stalking Dr. Matthews with a baseball bat, but never goes through with attacking him.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: Jeffrey's father moves out while Jeffrey is away on a field trip. After the trip, Jeffrey makes some attempts to stay connected to his friends such as bringing a date to the prom, but ultimately drifts away from them. At graduation, Lionel hands Jeffrey the keys to the family Volkswagen Beetle which he would later use to commit his first murder. Unbeknownst to Lionel, Joyce leaves Ohio to live with relatives in Wisconsin, taking Dave with her and leaving Jeffrey completely alone.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: That evening, Derf spots Jeffrey walking home alone, with blood on his fingernails. Derf offers a ride to Jeffrey, finding him living alone with no plans for the future. Derf tells him that he is leaving for college the following day and offers him his drawings of Jeffrey, which he declines. He menacingly invites Derf inside for a beer, but Derf turns him down. As Derf walks back to his car, Jeffrey picks up a baseball bat and is about to strike him with it, although he later puts it down. As Derf gets in the car and drives home, he notices the bat. Jeffrey never has contact with his high school friends again.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: The next morning, Jeffrey drives around and picks up hitchhiker Steven Hicks from a concert. The closing credits note that Hicks was never seen again and that Jeffrey Dahmer admitted to killing 17 men when he was finally arrested in 1991.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: Ross Lynch was cast as the teenage Dahmer in 2016. Lynch had previously been employed as a teen actor by the Disney Channel, most notably starring in the show "Austin & Ally". John Backderf, the author of the graphic novel, was enthusiastic about this casting against type, stating that Lynch's performance would make viewers "uncomfortable because it's so familiar". Later in the month Alex Wolff, Vincent Kartheiser and Anne Heche joined the cast, with Heche playing Dahmer's mother.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: Filming took place in Bath, Ohio, and Middleburg Heights, Ohio. Scenes depicting Dahmer's home life were filmed in Dahmer's actual childhood home in Ohio. Actors in the movie said that it was very strange to be in the home where the serial killer lived. They also mentioned that the house is where Dahmer's pathology began.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: In comparison to the comic, Derf is added into scenes in the movie that he was not actually present at, including the fishing scene, the DC trip, and the prom. It was also Derf, not Neil, who felt bad about the mall incident. Most prominently, it was Neil who gave Dahmer the final ride home, not Derf, and it was likely right after Hicks’ murder, not before.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: "My Friend Dahmer" premiered at the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival on April 21, 2017. On May 15, 2017, FilmRise acquired distribution rights to the film, planning to release it in the fall. The film was released in limited theaters on November 3, 2017, with a wider release the following month.


title: My Friend Dahmer (film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an 86% rating based on 105 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""My Friend Dahmer" opens a window into the making of a serial killer whose conclusions are as empathetic as they are deeply troubling." Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Skewness

text: In probability theory and statistics, skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable about its mean. The skewness value can be positive, zero, negative, or undefined.


title: Skewness

text: For a unimodal distribution, negative skew commonly indicates that the "tail" is on the left side of the distribution, and positive skew indicates that the tail is on the right. In cases where one tail is long but the other tail is fat, skewness does not obey a simple rule. For example, a zero value means that the tails on both sides of the mean balance out overall; this is the case for a symmetric distribution, but can also be true for an asymmetric distribution where one tail is long and thin, and the other is short but fat.


title: Skewness

text: Consider the two distributions in the figure just below. Within each graph, the values on the right side of the distribution taper differently from the values on the left side. These tapering sides are called "tails", and they provide a visual means to determine which of the two kinds of skewness a distribution has:


title: Skewness

text: Skewness in a data series may sometimes be observed not only graphically but by simple inspection of the values. For instance, consider the numeric sequence (49, 50, 51), whose values are evenly distributed around a central value of 50. We can transform this sequence into a negatively skewed distribution by adding a value far below the mean, which is probably a negative outlier, e.g. (40, 49, 50, 51). Therefore, the mean of the sequence becomes 47.5, and the median is 49.5. Based on the formula of nonparametric skew, defined as formula_1 the skew is negative. Similarly, we can make the sequence positively skewed by adding a value far above the mean, which is probably a positive outlier, e.g. (49, 50, 51, 60), where the mean is 52.5, and the median is 50.5.


title: Skewness

text: As mentioned earlier, a unimodal distribution with zero value of skewness does not imply that this distribution is symmetric necessarily. However, a symmetric unimodal or multimodal distribution always has zero skewness.


title: Skewness

text: The skewness is not directly related to the relationship between the mean and median: a distribution with negative skew can have its mean greater than or less than the median, and likewise for positive skew.


title: Skewness

text: In the older notion of nonparametric skew, defined as formula_1 where formula_3 is the mean, formula_4 is the median, and formula_5 is the standard deviation, the skewness is defined in terms of this relationship: positive/right nonparametric skew means the mean is greater than (to the right of) the median, while negative/left nonparametric skew means the mean is less than (to the left of) the median. However, the modern definition of skewness and the traditional nonparametric definition do not always have the same sign: while they agree for some families of distributions, they differ in some of the cases, and conflating them is misleading.


title: Skewness

text: If the distribution is symmetric, then the mean is equal to the median, and the distribution has zero skewness. If the distribution is both symmetric and unimodal, then the mean = median = mode. This is the case of a coin toss or the series 1,2,3,4... Note, however, that the converse is not true in general, i.e. zero skewness (defined below) does not imply that the mean is equal to the median.


title: Skewness

text: A 2005 journal article points out:Many textbooks teach a rule of thumb stating that the mean is right of the median under right skew, and left of the median under left skew. This rule fails with surprising frequency. It can fail in multimodal distributions, or in distributions where one tail is long but the other is heavy. Most commonly, though, the rule fails in discrete distributions where the areas to the left and right of the median are not equal. Such distributions not only contradict the textbook relationship between mean, median, and skew, they also contradict the textbook interpretation of the median.


title: Skewness

text: For example, in the distribution of adult residents across US households, the skew is to the right. However, since the majority of cases is less than or equal to the mode, which is also the median, the mean sits in the heavier left tail. As a result, the rule of thumb that the mean is right of the median under right skew failed.


title: Skewness

text: where "μ" is the mean, "σ" is the standard deviation, E is the expectation operator, "μ" is the third central moment, and "κ" are the "t"-th cumulants. It is sometimes referred to as Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness, or simply the moment coefficient of skewness, but should not be confused with Pearson's other skewness statistics (see below). The last equality expresses skewness in terms of the ratio of the third cumulant "κ" to the 1.5th power of the second cumulant "κ". This is analogous to the definition of kurtosis as the fourth cumulant normalized by the square of the second cumulant.


title: Skewness

text: If "σ" is finite, "μ" is finite too and skewness can be expressed in terms of the non-central moment E["X"] by expanding the previous formula,


title: Skewness

text: where formula_13 is the sample mean, "s" is the sample standard deviation, "m" is the (biased) sample second central moment, and "m" is the sample third central moment. formula_14 is a method of moments estimator.


title: Skewness

text: where formula_16 is the unique symmetric unbiased estimator of the third cumulant and formula_17 is the symmetric unbiased estimator of the second cumulant (i.e. the sample variance). This adjusted Fisher–Pearson standardized moment coefficient formula_18 is the version found in Excel and several statistical packages including Minitab, SAS and SPSS.


title: Skewness

text: Under the assumption that the underlying random variable formula_19 is normally distributed, it can be shown that all three ratios formula_20, formula_14 and formula_22 are unbiased and consistent estimators of the population skewness formula_23, with formula_24, i.e., their distributions converge to a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 6 (Fisher, 1930). The variance of the sample skewness is thus approximately formula_25 for sufficiently large samples. More precisely, in a random sample of size "n" from a normal distribution,


title: Skewness

text: For non-normal distributions, formula_20, formula_14 and formula_22 are generally biased estimators of the population skewness formula_32; their expected values can even have the opposite sign from the true skewness. For instance, a mixed distribution consisting of very thin Gaussians centred at −99, 0.5, and 2 with weights 0.01, 0.66, and 0.33 has a skewness formula_32 of about −9.77, but in a sample of 3 formula_22 has an expected value of about 0.32, since usually all three samples are in the positive-valued part of the distribution, which is skewed the other way.


title: Skewness

text: Skewness is a descriptive statistic that can be used in conjunction with the histogram and the normal quantile plot to characterize the data or distribution.


title: Skewness

text: Skewness indicates the direction and relative magnitude of a distribution's deviation from the normal distribution.


title: Skewness

text: With pronounced skewness, standard statistical inference procedures such as a confidence interval for a mean will be not only incorrect, in the sense that the true coverage level will differ from the nominal (e.g., 95%) level, but they will also result in unequal error probabilities on each side.


title: Skewness

text: Skewness can be used to obtain approximate probabilities and quantiles of distributions (such as value at risk in finance) via the Cornish-Fisher expansion.


title: Skewness

text: Many models assume normal distribution; i.e., data are symmetric about the mean. The normal distribution has a skewness of zero. But in reality, data points may not be perfectly symmetric. So, an understanding of the skewness of the dataset indicates whether deviations from the mean are going to be positive or negative.


title: Skewness

text: D'Agostino's K-squared test is a goodness-of-fit normality test based on sample skewness and sample kurtosis.


title: Skewness

text: Other measures of skewness have been used, including simpler calculations suggested by Karl Pearson (not to be confused with Pearson's moment coefficient of skewness, see above). These other measures are:


title: Skewness

text: Worth noticing that, since skewness is not related to an order relationship between mode, mean and median, the sign of these coefficients does not give information about the type of skewness (left/right).


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Patrick John Morrison (born July 15, 1939), better known by his stage name Patrick Wayne, is an American actor. He is the second son of movie star John Wayne and his first wife, Josephine Alicia Saenz. He made over 40 films, including eleven with his father.


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Later in his career, Wayne became a television host with the 1980 variety program "The Monte Carlo Show" and the 1990 revival of "Tic-Tac-Dough".


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Born in Los Angeles, he is one of John Wayne's four children by his first wife, Josephine Alicia Saenz, daughter of Panama's Consul General to the U.S. He adopted his father's stage surname, Wayne. He made eleven movies with his father: "Rio Grande" (1950), "The Quiet Man" (1952), "The High and the Mighty" (1954) - as a props assistant, "The Conqueror" (1956), "The Searchers" (1956), "The Alamo" (1960), "The Comancheros" (1961), "Donovan's Reef" (1963), "McLintock!" (1963), "The Green Berets" (1968) and "Big Jake" (1971).


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Patrick made his film debut at age 11 in his father's film "Rio Grande". He followed that with films directed by John Ford: "The Quiet Man" (1952), "The Sun Shines Bright" (1953), "The Long Gray Line" (1955), "Mister Roberts" (1955) and "The Searchers" (1956).


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Other television work included the baseball teleplay "Rookie of the Year" (1955), directed by John Ford and starring John Wayne, and "Flashing Spikes" (1962), a baseball television anthology installment directed by Ford and starring James Stewart, with John Wayne in an extended cameo role. Patrick Wayne played similar roles in both shows as baseball players.


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Following high school, Patrick attended Loyola Marymount University, where he was a member of Alpha Delta Gamma fraternity; he graduated in 1961. During this time, he struck out on his own to star in his own film "The Young Land" (1959). He supported his father in "The Alamo", "Donovan's Reef", "McLintock!" and "The Green Berets". He also appeared in Ford's sprawling epic "Cheyenne Autumn" (1964), as James Stewart's son in "Shenandoah" (1965), in "An Eye for an Eye" (1966), "The Deserter" (1971), and in a lead role in "The Bears and I" for Walt Disney (1974). Patrick also served a tour of duty with the United States Coast Guard from 1961 to 1965.


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Following work on his father's 1971 film "Big Jake", Wayne earned recognition in the sci-fi genre. His career peaked in the late 1970s in the popular matinee fantasy "Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger" (1977), then in "The People That Time Forgot" (1977). Wayne also screen-tested for the title role of "Superman". He co-starred as a romantic love interest to Shirley Jones in the brief TV series "Shirley" (1979). He was the host of "The Monte Carlo Show" in 1980 and occasionally worked on game shows and syndicated variety series.


title: Patrick Wayne

text: Wayne had many appearances on popular television series of the 1970s and 1980s, including "Fantasy Island" (1978), "Murder, She Wrote" (1984), "Charlie's Angels" (1976), "Sledge Hammer!" (1986), and "The Love Boat". Wayne appeared in the movie "Young Guns" (1988) as Pat Garrett. He also did a comic turn in the Western spoof "Rustler's Rhapsody" (1985).


title: Patrick Wayne

text: In December 2015, Wayne travelled to Spain to receive the prize Almeria Tierra de Cine in Almeria, Andalucia for his long career in the cinema, and in his acceptance speech he noted that his maternal grandparents were born in Madrid and that he is half Spanish.


title: Lambda

text: Lambda (; uppercase ', lowercase '; , "lám(b)da") is the 11th letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the voiced alveolar lateral approximant . In the system of Greek numerals, lambda has a value of 30. Lambda is derived from the Phoenician Lamed . Lambda gave rise to the Latin L and the Cyrillic El (Л). The ancient grammarians and dramatists give evidence to the pronunciation as () in Classical Greek times. In Modern Greek, the name of the letter, Λάμδα, is pronounced .


title: Lambda

text: In early Greek alphabets, the shape and orientation of lambda varied. Most variants consisted of two straight strokes, one longer than the other, connected at their ends. The angle might be in the upper-left, lower-left ("Western" alphabets) or top ("Eastern" alphabets). Other variants had a vertical line with a horizontal or sloped stroke running to the right. With the general adoption of the Ionic alphabet, Greek settled on an angle at the top; the Romans put the angle at the lower-left.


title: Lambda

text: The HTML 4 character entity references for the Greek capital and small letter lambda are codice_1 and codice_2 respectively. The Unicode code points for lambda are U+039B and U+03BB.


title: Lambda

text: The Roman "libra" and Byzantine "lítra" (), which served as both the pound mass unit and liter volume unit, were abbreviated in Greek using lambda with modified forms of the iota subscript (as λͅ). These are variously encoded in Unicode. The Ancient Greek Numbers Unicode block includes 10183 (𐆃) as well as 𐅢, which is described as 10162 but was much more common as a form of the litra sign. A variant of the sign can be formed from 0338 and either 039B (Λ̸) or 03BB (λ̸).


title: Lambda

text: Unicode uses the (Modern Greek-based) spelling "lamda" in character names, instead of "lambda", due to "the pre-existing names in ISO 8859-7, as well as preferences expressed by the Greek National Body".


title: Lambda

text: These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: James Franklin Hyneman (born September 25, 1956) is an American special effects expert who is best known as the former co-host of the television series "MythBusters" alongside Adam Savage, where he became known for his distinctive beret and walrus moustache. He is also the owner of M5 Industries, the special effects workshop where "MythBusters" was filmed. He is known among "Robot Wars" devotees for his robot entry Blendo, which was deemed too dangerous for entry in the competition. He is the inventor of the Sentry, an unmanned firefighting robotic vehicle. He is also one of the designers of the aerial cable robotic camera system Wavecam used in sports and entertainment events.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: Hyneman was born in Marshall, Michigan, and grew up on a farm in Columbus, Indiana. He said, "I was a problematic kid, to be sure. I left home when I was 14 and hitchhiked all over the country." As a child, Hyneman would spend time at Indiana University, where his mother was a graduate librarian. Hyneman graduated from Columbus North High School in 1974.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: In November 2021, Hyneman was appointed professor of practice at LUT University in Lappeenranta, Finland, for a five-year term until November 2026, and gave his first lecture on prototypes November 18, 2021.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: He received an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from Villanova University on May 16, 2010, and gave a commencement address. On November 25, 2011, Hyneman was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Twente for his role in the popularization of science and technology. In February 2017 he was named one of the fourteen new honorary doctors of technology by Lappeenranta University of Technology.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: Hyneman has worked as a boat captain, certified dive master, wilderness survival expert, linguist, mall pet store owner at age 15, animal wrangler, machinist, concrete inspector, and chef. His most notable work is the co-host of "MythBusters" (2003–2018).


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: Much of the experience that Hyneman used on "MythBusters" came from his time in the visual and special effects professions. He spent time as an animatronics technician for films such as "Naked Lunch" and "Flubber", as well as doing work on the second and third installments of the "Matrix" Trilogy.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: Hyneman owns the special effects company M5 Industries in San Francisco. Some of his achievements in commercials include the can-spitting vending machine seen in 7 Up commercials, and his patented two-wheeled football shoe from Nike Lab commercials.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: Hyneman and Adam Savage portray two army-junk sellers in the film "The Darwin Awards". They appear during the story of the rocket-car, which they partially reproduced in the MythBusters series' pilot episode and retested twice more.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: Hyneman made a cameo appearance along with Savage on "CSI: Crime Scene Investigation" on the May 1, 2008 episode "The Theory of Everything", where they play inspectors giving thumbs-up after seeing a shirt soaked in pepper spray catch fire when shot by a taser. They tested this myth on "MythBusters" and declared it confirmed with certain types of pepper spray.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: He and Savage appear as judges on the game show "Unchained Reaction", which premiered in March 2012. The two also voiced characters on "The Simpsons" episode "The Daughter Also Rises" as a parody of themselves, the "MythCrackers", which prompts Bart and Milhouse to experiment in a similar fashion. Both Hyneman and Savage also voiced stormtroopers in the "Phineas and Ferb" "Star Wars" special.


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: In an interview with "Helsingin Sanomat" on December 2, 2021, Hyneman said that he no longer had any contact with Savage. To the question “would it be an exaggeration to say that you didn’t really like him?”, Hyneman replied directly: However, according to Hyneman, the presenters of the program did not have to be friends or even at exactly the same wavelength, saying:


title: Jamie Hyneman

text: In 1984, Hyneman met science teacher Eileen Walsh when he owned a sailboat diving charter business in the Virgin Islands. Hyneman and Walsh married in 1989. Hyneman is a skeptic and an atheist.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The Land Forces () are the land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 62,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military history stretches back a millennium – since the 10th century (see List of Polish wars and History of the Polish Army). Poland's modern army was formed after Poland regained independence following World War I in 1918.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: When Poland regained independence in 1918, it recreated its military which participated in the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921, and in the two smaller conflicts ( Polish–Ukrainian War (1918–1919) and the Polish–Lithuanian War (1920)).


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The Polish Land Forces as readied for the Polish–Soviet War was made up of soldiers who had formerly served in the various partitioning empires, supported by some international volunteers. There appear to have been a total of around thirty Polish divisions involved. Boris Savinkov was at the head of an army of 20,000 to 30,000 largely Russian POWs, and was accompanied by Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Zinaida Gippius. The Polish forces grew from approximately 100,000 in 1918 to over 500,000 in early 1920.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In August 1920, the Polish army had reached a total strength of 737,767 people. Half of that was on the frontline. Given Soviet losses, there was rough numerical parity between the two armies. By the time of the Battle of Warsaw Poles might have even had a slight advantage in numbers and logistics.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Among the major formations involved on the Polish side were a number of Fronts, including the , and about seven armies, including the First Polish Army.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The German invasion of Poland began on 1 September 1939. The Wehrmacht seized half of Poland quickly despite heavy Polish resistance. Among the erroneous myths generated by this campaign were accounts of Polish cavalry charging German tanks, which did not, in fact, take place. In the east, the Red Army took the other half of the country in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Following the country's fall, Polish soldiers began regrouping in what was to become the Polish Army in France.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Both the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the Polish Armed Forces in the East, as well as interior (partisan) forces, primarily represented by the Home Army (AK) had land forces during the Second World War. While the forces fighting under the Allied banner were supported by the Polish Air Force and Navy, the partisan forces were an exclusively land formation.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The army operational today has its roots in the surrogate force formed in support of Soviet interests during the establishment of the People's Republic of Poland after the Second World War. Two Polish armies, the First Army (Poland) and the Second Army fought with the Red Army on the Eastern Front, supported by some Polish Air Force elements. The formation of a Third Army was begun but not completed.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The end of the war found the Polish Army in the midst of intense organisational development. Although the implementation of the Polish Front concept was abandoned, new tactical units and troop types were created. As a result of mobilisation, troop numbers in May 1945 reached 370,000 soldiers, and in September 1945 there were 440,000. Military districts were organised in liberated areas. The districts exercised direct authority over the units stationed on the territory administered by them.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Returning to Poland, the Second Army was tasked with the protection of the western border of the state from Jelenia Gora to Kamien Pomorski, and on the basis of its headquarters, the staff of the Poznan Military District was created at Poznań. The southern border, from Jelenia Gora to the Użok railway station (at the junction of the Polish, the Soviet and the Czechoslovak borders) was occupied by the First Army. Its headquarters staff formed the basis of the Silesian Military District.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In mid-1945, after the end of World War II, the Polish Army, as part of the overall armed forces, the People's Army of Poland, was divided into six (later seven) districts. These were the Warsaw Military District, HQ in Warsaw, the Lublin Military District, HQ in Lublin, the Kraków Military District, HQ in Kraków, the Lodz Military District, HQ in Lodz, the Poznan Military District, HQ in Poznan, the Pomeranian Military District, HQ in Torun (formed from the staff of the short-lived LWP 1st Army Corps) and the Silesian Military District, HQ in Katowice, created in the fall of 1945.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In June 1945 the 1st, 3rd and 8th Infantry Divisions were assigned internal security duties. The 4th Infantry Division was reorganised for the purpose of creating the Internal Security Corps (KBW). The rule was that military units were used primarily against the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), while the Internal Security Corps was used to fight the armed underground independence.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Often however army units fought the underground resistance, and "vice versa". The culmination of the UPA suppression operation was the so-called 'Wisła Action' (Operation Vistula) which took place in 1947. At the same time demobilisation took place, moving the armed forces to a peacetime footing. On 10 August 1945 a "decree of the partial demobilisation" of the armed forces was issued. The next demobilisation phases took place in February and December 1946.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: One of the most important tasks facing the army after the war was mine clearance. Between 1944 and 1956 the demining operation involved 44 engineering units or about 19,000 sappers. They cleared mines and other munitions in a clearance area of more than 250,000 square kilometers (80% of the country). 14.75 million munitions of various types and 59 million bullets, bombs and other ammunition were found and removed. The mining operations cost the lives of 646 sappers.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In 1949 the military districts were reduced to four. They were the Pomeranian Military District, HQ in Bydgoszcz, the Silesian Military District, HQ in Wroclaw, the Warsaw Military District, HQ in Warsaw, and the Kraków Military District with its headquarters in Kraków. In November 1953, the Kraków Military District was dissolved and until 1992, Poland was divided into three districts.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Following victory and the movement of Polish borders these troops and other Polish soldiers thought loyal to their Soviet overlords were built up into a force which was to form part of the Warsaw Pact. Polish Army troops would have formed part of the second strategic echelon deployed for an attack on NATO's Allied Forces Central Europe. A Polish Front headquarters was formed in 1958, along with three armies formed from 1955, the First Polish Army, the Second Army, and the Fourth Army, mobilisation-only headquarters that were to be formed within the three districts.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The Polish Front headquarters was deactivated in 1990, and the three-army mobilisation scheme was likewise abandoned. Polish land forces during the communist era included troops dedicated to internal security – the Territorial Defence Forces – and control of the country's borders.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Until the fall of communism the army's prestige continued to fall, as it was used by the communist government to violently suppress several outbursts of protest, including the Poznań 1956 protests, the Polish 1970 protests, and protests during Martial law in Poland in 1981–1982. Troops of the Silesian Military District also took part in the suppressing of the 1968 democratisation process of Czechoslovakia, commonly known as the Prague Spring.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In 1989 the Pomeranian Military District controlled the 8th, 12th, 15th, 16th, and 20th Divisions, the Silesian Military District controlled the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 10th, and 11th Divisions, and the Warsaw Military District the 1st, 3rd, and 9th Divisions, plus the 6th Airborne Division earmarked for Front control.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The 7th Sea Landing Division was based within the Pomeranian Military District but probably earmarked for front control.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The two districts facing Germany each controlled four divisions in 1990, which had been recently reorganised, in line with the late 1990s Soviet defensive doctrine, from a 3:1 mix of motor rifle : tank regiments into a 2:2 mix of motor rifle and tank regiments.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The Warsaw Military District in the east controlled only the 1st Mechanised Division. Two other mechanised divisions in that district had been disbanded in 1988. There was also the 6th Airborne Division and the 7th Sea Landing Division, possibly intended to form part of a Warsaw Pact attack on Denmark, to open the Baltic straits to the North Sea and beyond. There were 205,000 personnel, of which 168,000 were conscripts.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Following the end of the Cold War the Wojska Lądowe was drastically reduced and reorganised. In 1992, the Kraków Military District was recreated. From nine divisions, the total was planned in 2001 to fall to four, plus six independent brigades. Since 1 January 1999, Poland has been divided into two military districts. These are the Pomeranian Military District ("Pomorski Okręg Wojskowy") with HQ in Bydgoszcz, covering northern Poland, and the Silesian Military District ("Śląski Okręg Wojskowy") with HQ in Wrocław, covering southern Poland.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: From that date the former Krakow Military District became the headquarters of the Air-Mechanized Corps, which later became the headquarters of the 2nd Mechanised Corps. On 1 September 2011 the 1st Warsaw Mechanised Division was disbanded.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: General Edward Pietrzyk served as commander of the Polish Land Forces from 2000 to September 2006. He was succeeded by General Waldemar Skrzypczak (2006–2009).


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In May 2014, Defence Minister Tomasz Siemoniak announced plans for the future acquisition of attack helicopters in response to the Ukraine crisis. On 25 November 2015, chief of National Defence Commission Michał Jach, indicated the necessity to increase the number of Polish troops from 100,000 to 150,000. However, Jach stressed that the process was complicated and should not be rushed.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: From the 1950s the Polish Land Forces have contributed troops to peacekeeping operations, initially the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission in Korea. Poland contributed troops to the UNIFIL mission in Lebanon between 1982 and 2009. Poland sent a divisional headquarters and a brigade to Iraq after the 2003 Iraq war. Poland sent ten rotations of troops, manning a significant portion of Multinational Division Central-South. At its peak Poland, had 2,500 soldiers in the south of Iraq.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: Poland deployed about ten attack and transport helicopters as part of its force in Iraq between 2004 and 2008. These helicopters formed the Independent Air Assault Group (). The division was disbanded in 2008. A Polish Military Advisory Liaison Team (MALT) stayed in Iraq until at least 2011 (see ).


title: Polish Land Forces

text: One of the most recent peace keeping missions was MINURCAT in Chad and the Central African Republic, where Poland despatched troops from 2007 to 2010. Among the deployed troops were two Reconnaissance companies, a Military Gendarmerie unit, a component of the 10th Logistics Brigade, elements of the 5th Military Engineers Regiment, and three Mil Mi-17 helicopters.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: In 2019 a new long-term program designed to modernize the Polish Armed Forces was introduced. Over the period of the next 10 to 14 years a large portion of the equipment currently used by the Polish Army will be either upgraded or replaced. Some elements of this program are already in place. The Polish Ministry of Defence signed a contract aiming at modernization of all Leopard 2 main battle tanks used by the Polish Army to the Leopard 2PL standard. The completion of the program is planned to take place prior to 2023. The first Leopard 2PL arrived in March 2018.


title: Polish Land Forces

text: The Polish Army has 1,009 tanks (2017) including 249 Leopard 2 tanks (117 Leopard 2A4, 105 Leopard 2A5, 25 Leopard 2PL, 2 Leopard 2NJ), 232 PT-91 tanks, that underwent modernization in 2016, and 328 T-72 tanks. 230 of the T-72s are being upgraded by the Bumar-Labedy arms manufacturing plant. Among improvements are: the installation of new radio communication systems, digital engine control and start-up system, 3rd generation thermal imaging cameras, external transport baskets, and any necessary overhauls and repairs that can improve their longevity and combat ability on the modern battlefield.