title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: As no studio was big enough for the interior of Stromberg's supertanker, and set designer Ken Adam did not want to repeat what he had done with SPECTRE's volcano base in "You Only Live Twice""a workable but ultimately wasteful set"construction began in March 1976 of a new sound stage at Pinewood, the 007 Stage, at a cost of $1.8 million. To complement this stage, Eon also paid for building a water tank capable of storing approximately 1,200,000 gallons (5,500,000 litres). The soundstage was so huge that cinematographer Claude Renoir found himself unable to effectively light it due to his deteriorating eyesight, and so Stanley Kubrick visited the production, in secret, to advise on how to light the stage. For the exterior, while Shell was willing to lend an abandoned tanker to the production, the elevated insurance and safety risks caused it to be replaced with miniatures built by Derek Meddings's team and shot in the Bahamas. Stromberg's shark tank was also filmed in the Bahamas, using a live shark in a saltwater swimming pool. Adam decided to do experiments with curved shapes for the scenery, as he felt all his previous setpieces were "too linear". This was demonstrated with the "Atlantis", which is a dome and curved surfaces outside, and many curved objects in Stromberg's office inside. For Gogol's offices, Adam wanted an open space to contrast M's enclosed headquarters, and drew inspiration from Sergei Eisenstein to do a "Russian crypt-like" set.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The main unit began its work in August 1976 in Sardinia. Don McLaughlan, then head of public relations at Lotus Cars, heard that Eon were shopping for a new Bond car. He drove a prototype Lotus Esprit with all Lotus branding taped over, and parked it outside the Eon offices at Pinewood studios; on seeing the car, Eon asked Lotus to borrow both of the prototypes for filming. Initial filming of the car chase sequence resulted in disappointing action sequences. While moving the car between shoots, Lotus test driver Roger Becker so impressed the crew with his handling of the car that for the rest of filming on Sardinia, Becker became the stunt driver.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The motorcycle sidecar missile used in one chase sequence was built by film staff at Pinewood and used a standard Kawasaki Z900 and a custom-made sidecar outfit. The sidecar was made large enough so that a stuntman could lie flat inside. It had two 10-inch scooter wheels on each side, a Suzuki 185 engine, and the detached projectile was steered through a small solid rubber wheel at the front. A heavily smoked perspex nose allowed the stuntman sufficient visibility to steer the device whilst being entirely hidden from view. A pincer-type lock held the sidecar in place until operated by the pilot via a solenoid switch. The sequences involving the outfit were sped up, as the weight of the sidecar made the outfit very difficult to control.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: In October, the second unit travelled to Nassau to film the underwater sequences. To create the illusion of the car becoming a submarine, seven different models were used, one for each step of the transformation. One of the models was a fully mobile submarine equipped with an engine built by Miami-based Perry Submarines. The car seen entering the sea was a mock-up shell, propelled off the jetty by a compressed air cannon, whilst the first underwater shot of the car was a miniature model filmed in a test tank. Three full-size bodyshells were used to depict the actual car-to-submersible transition. During the model sequences, the air bubbles seen appearing from the vehicle were created by Alka-Seltzer tablets.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: In September, production moved to Egypt. While the Great Sphinx of Giza was shot on location, lighting problems caused the pyramids to be replaced with miniatures. While construction of the "Liparus" set continued, the second unit (headed by John Glen) departed for Mount Asgard, Baffin Island, where in July 1976 they staged the film's pre-credits sequence. Bond film veteran Willy Bogner captured the action, staged by stuntman Rick Sylvester, who earned $30,000 for the stunt. The scene of Bond skiing off the mountain was inspired by a Canadian Club Whisky advertisement in "Playboy" magazine of Sylvester performing the same stunt. This stunt cost $500,000 – the most expensive single movie stunt at that time. Additional scenes for the pre-credits sequence were filmed in the Bernina Range in the Swiss alps.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The production team returned briefly to the UK to shoot at the Faslane submarine base before setting off to Spain, Portugal and the Bay of Biscay, where the supertanker exteriors were filmed. On 5 December 1976, with principal photography finished, the 007 Stage was formally opened by former Prime Minister Harold Wilson.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The end credits state "James Bond Will Return in "For Your Eyes Only"", but following the success of "Star Wars", the originally planned "For Your Eyes Only" was dropped in favour of the space-themed "Moonraker" for the next film.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The theme song, "Nobody Does It Better", was composed by Marvin Hamlisch, written by Carole Bayer Sager, and performed by Carly Simon. It was the first theme song in the series with a different title to that of the film, although the title is in the lyrics. It was nominated for the Best Song Oscar but lost to "You Light Up My Life".


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The song met immediate success and is featured in numerous films, including "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" (2005), "Little Black Book", "Lost in Translation", and "" (2004). In 2004, it was honoured by the American Film Institute as the 67th greatest song as part of their 100 Years Series.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The soundtrack to the film was composed by Marvin Hamlisch, who filled in for veteran John Barry, who was unavailable to work in the United Kingdom because of tax reasons. The soundtrack, in comparison to other "Bond" films of the time, is more disco-oriented and included a new disco rendition of the James Bond theme titled "Bond 77"; several pieces of classical music were also included in the score. For instance, while feeding a duplicitous secretary to a shark, Stromberg plays Bach's "Air on the G String", which was famous for accompanying disappointed characters in Hamlet cigar commercials. He then plays the opening string section of the second movement, Andante, of Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 21 as his hideout "Atlantis" rises from the sea. The score also includes two pieces of popular film music scored by Maurice Jarre. The "Doctor Zhivago" theme, which is played on Anya's music box during the pre-credit sequence, and the theme from "Lawrence of Arabia", which appears as background music during a desert sequence.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: On top of the production budget, $7.5 million was spent on advertising, prints and parties for "The Spy Who Loved Me". On 20 May 1977, Roger Moore and Barbara Bach attended the Cannes Film Festival to promote the film's upcoming release. It opened with a Royal Premiere attended by Princess Anne at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 7 July 1977. It grossed $185.4 million worldwide, with $46 million in the United States and Canada. It was United Artist's highest-grossing film at the time. It grossed £10 million in the United Kingdom. On 25 August 2006, the film was re-released at the Empire, Leicester Square for one week. It was again shown at the Empire Leicester Square on 20 April 2008 when Lewis Gilbert attended the first digital screening of the film.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: Eon executive Charles Juroe said that at a screening attended by Charles, Prince of Wales, during the Union Jack-parachute scene: "I have never seen a reaction in the cinema as there was that night. You couldn't help it. You could not help but stand up. Even Prince Charles stood up." This scene came in second place in a 2013 Sky Movies poll for greatest moment of the James Bond film franchise, beaten only by the "No, Mr. Bond, I expect you to die!" sequence from "Goldfinger". It was Roger Moore's favourite Bond film, and many reviewers consider it the best instalment to star the actor.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" considered the film formulaic and "half an hour too long, thanks to the obligatory shoot-'em-up conclusion, ... nevertheless the dullest sequence here" but praised Moore's performance and the film's "share of self-mockery", which she found refreshing. Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" felt ""The Spy Who Loved Me" is an extravagant silliness, a high-cost undertaking in let's pretend which delivers a perfect formula. It may not be everyone's tonic, but it is what it says it is, rousingly." Gene Siskel of "The Chicago Tribune" praised the ski jump stunt in which he wrote that "you begin to think "Spy" may turn out to be as good as "From Russia with Love", the best Bond of all. No such luck. True, opening pace of "Spy" is impossible to sustain, but the rest of the picture is merely good, not great." He also found Stromberg to be less memorable than previous Bond villains, even noting that "Jaws is far more entertaining than his master." "Variety" remarked the film "is unoriginal and mild on suspense as these capers go. But the gimmick-laden action is bountiful and eye-ravishing, and will compensate most audiences."


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: Christopher Porterfield, reviewing for "Time" magazine, was complimentary of the pre-titles sequence and Richard Kiel's performance as Jaws. However, he criticised the film for being too similar to previous instalments, remarking "[a]ll that's left of Bond formula here is 007 character, sexy starlets and gee-whiz gadgets. (Question: What else did it ever consist of?)" Similarly, Maureen Orth of "Newsweek" wrote: "After the opening sequence, much of the action in "The Spy Who Loved Me", the tenth James Bond screen epic and the third starring Roger Moore as Bond, is somewhat downhill. But the film, shot in seven countries, is so rich in fantasy, so filled with beautiful scenery, gorgeous women, preposterous villains and impossible situations that's it easier to suspend disbelief entirely and escape inside the gadgetry and glamour."


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: John Simon, writing in his book "Reverse Angle", stated "There is a kind of film that can get away with everything, and deserves to. The latest James Bond, "Spy Who Loved Me", belongs in that class." Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" dismissed the film as "a tolerable disappointment. The Bond movies have been so successful that it may be commercially impossible to terminate the series. However, it's been quite a while since a Bond adventure appeared to set fashions in escapist, glamorous entertainment. Once widely imitated and parodied by other producers, Bond films are now more likely to imitate themselves with decreasing effectiveness."


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: On the website FilmCritic.com, Christopher Null awarded the film stars out of 5, in which he praised the gadgets, particularly the Lotus Esprit car. James Berardinelli of "Reelviews" wrote that the film is "suave and sophisticated", and Barbara Bach proves to be an ideal Bond girl – "attractive, smart, sexy, and dangerous". Brian Webster stated the special effects were "good for a 1979 [sic] film", and Marvin Hamlisch's music, "memorable". Danny Peary described "The Spy Who Loved Me" as "exceptional ... For once, the big budget was not wasted. Interestingly, while the sets and gimmicks were the most spectacular to date, Bond and the other characters are toned down (there's a minimum of slapstick humour) so that they are more realistic than in other Roger Moore films. Moore gives his best performance in the series ... [Bond and Anya Amasova] are an appealing couple, equal in every way. Film is a real treat – a well acted, smartly cast, sexy, visually impressive, lavishly produced, powerfully directed mix of a spy romance and a war-mission film."


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: "The Times" placed Jaws and Stromberg as the sixth and seventh best Bond villains (respectively) in the series in 2008, and also named the Esprit as the second best car in the series (behind the Aston Martin DB5). On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 57 reviews with an average rating of 7.20/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Though it hints at the absurdity to come in later installments, "The Spy Who Loved Me"'s sleek style, menacing villains, and sly wit make it the best of the Roger Moore era." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 55 based on 12 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: When Ian Fleming sold the film rights to the James Bond novels to Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli, he gave permission only for the title "The Spy Who Loved Me" to be used. Since the screenplay for the film had nothing to do with Fleming's original novel, Eon Productions, for the first time, authorised a novelisation based upon the script. This would also be the first regular Bond novel published since "Colonel Sun" nearly a decade earlier. Christopher Wood, who co-authored the screenplay, was commissioned to write the book titled "James Bond, The Spy Who Loved Me".


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The novelisation and the screenplay, although both written by Wood, are somewhat different. In the novelisation, SMERSH is still active and after James Bond. Their role begins during the pre-title. After the mysterious death of Fekkish, SMERSH appears yet again, this time capturing and torturing Bond for the whereabouts of the microfilm that retains plans for a submarine tracking system (Bond escapes after killing two of the interrogators). The appearance of SMERSH conflicts with a number of Bond stories, including the film "The Living Daylights" (1987), in which General Leonid Pushkin remarks that SMERSH has been defunct for over 20 years. It also differs from the latter half of Fleming's Bond novels in which SMERSH is said to have been put out of operation. Members of SMERSH from the novelisation include Amasova and her lover Sergei Barsov as well as Colonel-General Nikitin, a character from Fleming's novel "From Russia, with Love" who has since become the head of SMERSH. In the book, Jaws remains attached to the magnet that Bond dips into the tank, as opposed to the film where Bond releases Jaws into the water.


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: There are also a number of elements that are either underplayed for more plausibility (the Lotus does not have any gadgets on land, unlike the film version) or are expanded to give more background to the characters (Jaws has a full history, Nikitin is in lust with Amasova, Stromberg’s name is Sigmond and is tall, bald and has a small fleshy growth on one finger - unlike the webbed fingered Karl Stromberg of the film).


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The henchmen who falls off the roof in Cairo is killed when he lands on top of a piano, a death Wood reused in the script for his next Bond film, "Moonraker".


title: The Spy Who Loved Me (film)

text: The Lotus Esprit, also known as Wet Nellie, capable of transforming from car to submarine in the film, was purchased for £616,000 at a London auction in October 2013 by Elon Musk, who planned to rebuild the vehicle and attempt to make the fictional dual-purpose car be an actual dual-purpose car (underwater and on land).


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence College is a private liberal arts college in Yonkers, New York. The college models its approach to education after the Oxford/Cambridge system of one-on-one student-faculty tutorials. Sarah Lawrence scholarship, particularly in the humanities, performing arts, and writing, places high value on independent study. Originally a women's college, Sarah Lawrence became coeducational in 1968.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence College was established by the real-estate mogul William Van Duzer Lawrence on the grounds of his estate in Westchester County and was named in honor of his wife, Sarah Bates Lawrence. The college was originally intended to provide instruction in the arts and humanities for women. A major component of the college's early curriculum was "productive leisure", wherein students were required to work for eight hours weekly in such fields as modeling, shorthand, typewriting, applying makeup, and gardening. Its pedagogy, modeled on the tutorial system of Oxford University, combined independent research projects, individually supervised by the teaching faculty, and seminars with low student-to-faculty ratio, a pattern that it retains to the present, despite its cost. Sarah Lawrence was the first liberal arts college in the United States to incorporate a rigorous approach to the arts with the principles of progressive education, focusing on the primacy of teaching and the concentration of curricular efforts on individual needs.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Harold Taylor, President of Sarah Lawrence College from 1945 to 1959, greatly influenced the college. Taylor was elected president at age 30, maintained a friendship with the educational philosopher John Dewey, and worked to employ the Dewey method at Sarah Lawrence. Taylor spent much of his career calling for educational reform in the United States, using the success of Sarah Lawrence as an example of the possibilities of a personalized, modern, and rigorous approach to higher education.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence became a coeducational institution in 1968. Prior to this transition, there were discussions about relocating the school and merging it with Princeton University, but the administration opted to remain independent.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The first president of the college was Marion Coats from 1924 to 1929. She was a friend of Vassar College president Henry MacCracken and William Van Duzer Lawrence. Coats had traditional views of women's role in society that were at odds with her progressive approach to women's education. Cristle Collins Judd was introduced as president in 2017.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: At the undergraduate level, Sarah Lawrence offers an alternative to traditional majors. Students pursue a wide variety of courses in four different curricular distributions: the Creative Arts (writing, music, dance, theatre, film, and the plastic arts, such as painting, printmaking, drawing and sculpture); history and the social sciences (e.g., anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology); the humanities (e.g., Asian studies, art history, film studies, languages, literature, philosophy, and religion); and natural science and mathematics (biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, and mathematics). Classes are structured around a seminar-conference system through which students learn in small, highly interactive seminars and private tutorials with professors. Each student is assigned to a faculty advisor, known as a "don", who helps the student plan a course of study and provides ongoing academic guidance. Most courses, apart from those in the performing arts, consist of two parts: the seminar, limited to 15 students, and conferences, which is a meeting with a seminar professor. In these conferences, students develop individual projects that extend the course material and link it to their personal interests. Sarah Lawrence has no required courses, and traditional examinations have largely been supplanted by research papers. Additionally, grades are recorded only for transcript purposes—narrative evaluations are given in lieu of grades. The college sponsors international programs in Florence, at Wadham College, Oxford, at Reid Hall in Paris, and at the British American Drama Academy in London. Sarah Lawrence also has the longest-running study abroad program in Havana, Cuba.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence also offers Master's-level programs in Writing, the Art of Teaching, Child Development, Theatre, Dance, and Dance/Movement Therapy and is home to the nation's oldest graduate program in Women's History and the nation's first master's degree programs in Human Genetics and Health Advocacy.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence offers a program for people wishing to seek a BA. or a Master's and have been out of school for any period.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The college has a number of international programs in four countries. Sarah Lawrence makes all practical efforts to preserve its most characteristic elements, such as one-on-one interaction with professors, small classes, and an emphasis on qualitative comprehension, in its programs overseas.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence offers nine graduate programs, each of which confers the Master of Arts, Master of Fine Arts, or Master of Science degree upon its graduates. In contrast to highly specialized, research-oriented PhD doctoral study, these programs reflect the emphasis on interdisciplinary studies and the close student-teacher relationship that have come to be characteristic of the college's undergraduate program. Intensive work with faculty members, small seminars, and one-on-one conferences form the foundation of the curricular model. According to their own literature, the programs make an effort to balance the "theoretical (usually discussed in seminars and conferences) with the practical (in the form of fieldwork, practicums, research or creative work). This experiential work is most often conducted not in isolation, but in the midst of a community. Interdisciplinary work and ideas are encouraged, as is an ethic of social responsibility." There are approximately 298 graduate students at Sarah Lawrence.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The Sarah Lawrence College Art of Teaching Program offers training in education in both degree-track and continuing education formats. One component of the program is the Empowering Teachers Program, which was established in 1989 as a forum for the support of teachers and educational administrators, and has since expanded into a resource and network for more than 250 beginning and experienced professionals from 25 school districts in Westchester County and adjacent areas of New York, Connecticut and New Jersey.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: In 2007, criticism of rankings of U.S. colleges and universities, particularly their perceived impact on the college admissions process, gained national prominence due in part to the March 11, 2007, "Washington Post" article "The Cost of Bucking College Rankings" by Michele Tolela Myers, a former president of Sarah Lawrence College. As Sarah Lawrence College dropped its SAT test score submission requirement for its undergraduate applicants in 2003, thus joining the SAT optional movement for undergraduate admission, SLC does not have SAT data to send to "U.S. News" for its national survey. Of this decision, Myers states, "We are a writing-intensive school, and the information produced by SAT scores added little to our ability to predict how a student would do at our college; it did, however, do much to bias admission in favor of those who could afford expensive coaching sessions." At the time, Sarah Lawrence was the only American college that completely disregarded SAT scores in its admission process. As a result of this policy, in the same "The Washington Post" article, Dr. Myers stated that she was informed by the "U.S. News & World Report" that if no SAT scores were submitted, "U.S. News" would "make up a number" to use in its magazines. She further argues that if SLC were to decide to stop sending all data to "U.S. News & World Report", their ranking would be artificially decreased. Sarah Lawrence College now maintains a test-optional policy, with typically over half of applicants submitting their scores.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: On June 19, 2007, following a meeting of the Annapolis Group, which represents over 100 liberal arts colleges, Sarah Lawrence announced that it would join others who had previously signed the letter to college presidents asking them not to participate in the "reputation survey" section of the "U.S. News & World Report" survey (this section comprises 25% of the ranking). Despite this public stance opposing these rankings, the 2019 edition ranked Sarah Lawrence tied for the 65th best liberal arts college in the nation.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: In 2018, "Forbes" rated it 133rd overall in its America's Top Colleges ranking, which includes 660 military academies, national universities, and liberal arts colleges. That same year, "Washington Monthly" rankings ranked Sarah Lawrence 144th in the liberal arts college category.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Political activism has played a crucial role in forming the spirit of the Sarah Lawrence community since the early years of the college. As early as 1938, students were volunteering in working-class sections of Yonkers, New York to help bring equality and educational opportunities to poor and minority citizens, and the Sarah Lawrence College War Board, organized by students in the fall of 1942, sought to aid troops fighting in World War II. During a time when the college's enrollment consisted of only 293 students, 204 signed up as volunteers during the first week of the War Board. During the so-called McCarthy Years, a number of Sarah Lawrence's faculty members were accused by the American Legion of being sympathetic to the Communist Party, and were called before the Jenner Committee. Since that time, activism has played a central role in student life, with movements for civil rights and against the Vietnam War in the 1960s and for student and faculty diversity in the 1980s. Also in the 1960s, students established an Upward Bound program for students from lower-income and poverty areas to prepare for college. Theatre Outreach, the Child Development Institute, the Empowering Teachers Program, the Community Writers program, the Office of Community Partnership, and the Fulbright High School Writers Program are among the many programs founded since the 1970s to provide services to the larger community. In the late 1980s, students occupied Westlands, the main administrative building for the campus, in a sit-in for wider diversity. Students occupied Westlands again in 2016, in a sit-in supporting improved wages and safer working conditions for the college's recently unionized facilities workers. For many years, the college has been considered as being at the vanguard of the gay rights movement and many other progressive causes.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Much of the Sarah Lawrence campus was originally a part of the estate of the college's founder, William Van Duzer Lawrence, though the college has more than doubled its size since Lawrence bequeathed his estate to the college in 1926. The terrain is characterized by dramatic outcroppings of exposed bedrock shaded by large oak and elm trees. Many of the older buildings are in the Tudor Revival architecture style that was popular in the area during the early 20th century, and many of the college's newer buildings attempt an updated interpretation of the same style. The campus is divided into two distinctive sections, the "Old Campus" and the "New Campus": the first is roughly contained within the boundaries of the former Lawrence estate, and the area of the second was acquired sometime after the college's earliest years.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The area outside the original Lawrence estate holds the college's newer facilities. Several stately, century-old, Tudor-style mansions will be found among these newer additions, including Andrews, Tweed, Lynd, Marshall Field, and Slonim House: each was once a private estate, purchased by the college during periods of growth and expansion. The more modest Tudor houses along Mead Way, which also had been private residences, now serve as dormitories for students at the college. "Slonim Woods" is a group of newer, townhouse-style dormitories, built on the grounds of Slonim House.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The Campbell Sports Center was constructed in 1998 in response to an increased focus on physical fitness and sports. This facility includes an indoor pool, gymnasium, track, squash courts, and weight rooms.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: In 2004, the college completed construction of a modern visual arts facility, the Monika A. and Charles A. Heimbold Visual Arts Center, with sleek architecture and environmentally friendly aspects which earned the college national press attention. Just down the road is Hill House, a six-story apartment building purchased by the college in the late 1990s that now lodges students. Across the street from Hill House is the large Wrexham house, also in the Tudor style, which the college purchased from the government of Rwanda in 2004; this building, once home to the Rwandan consul, has been renovated and is used for various postgraduate programs. At the opposite end of the campus stands the Science and Mathematics Center, completed in 1994.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The "Old dorms" refer to four original purpose-built student housing structures to the immediate north of Westlands in what is frequently referred to as the "central campus". Dudley Lawrence, one of the sons of William and Sarah Lawrence, achieved the remarkable feat of constructing three of these buildings in one year (1926–1927). The halls were designed by William Augustus Bates, who repeated the Neo-Tudor style of Westlands through the use of stone and timber materials, and mansard roofs. The interiors are also in keeping with the English Tudor architectural style found on most of the older buildings in the area, with thick plaster walls, hardwood floors, and leaded windows (since replaced with more energy-efficient double-pane windows). MacCracken, built a few years later than the other three, is situated to the south of Dudley Lawrence. The original elegant living rooms that were found in each building, excepting MacCracken, are now used as classrooms.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Designed by the renowned architect Philip Johnson in the sparse modernist style of the time, the "New Dorms" were completed in 1960. The architectural style of the buildings is meant to be a modernist reflection of the three older dorms (Gilbert, Titsworth, and Dudley Lawrence) that stand on the opposite side of the North Lawn. The three buildings that comprise the New Dorms are connected by two glass atria in which the buildings' primary stairwells are found. With the exception of the large apartments in Rothschild, these dorms typically house first-year students.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The Mead Way Houses are the eight former private homes that stand along the steep hill of Mead Way on the college's eastern end. The two southernmost houses, Robinson and Swinford, are occupied by administrative offices and the office of the campus internet radio station, and the northernmost six houses, listed below, are reserved for student living spaces. The northern houses include:


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence College is the member of Skyline Conference of NCAA Division III. The college sponsors intercollegiate teams in crew (rowing), men's and women's cross country, equestrian, men's basketball, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's volleyball, men's and women's soccer, women's softball, and men's and women's swimming. In March 2011, the college announced that it would seek membership as a Division III member of the NCAA. The college began competing as a full member of Division III in the 2015–16 academic year after receiving a waiver to the required four-year 'provisional' period.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The college left the Hudson Valley conference after the 2013–14 season and joined the Skyline Conference beginning with the 2014–15 season. The Skyline Conference contains several schools including SUNY Purchase and Yeshiva University which have played against Sarah Lawrence regularly over the past few years.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: The college's official mascot is a Gryphon by the name of Godric. It was chosen in the 1990s to represent the college's athletic teams after a long period of fielding sports teams without one. Unofficially, the student body had long adopted the large resident population of 'Black Squirrels' as a de facto mascot to the college. The position of silent mascot that the 'Black Squirrel' occupied was financially endorsed by the college itself with the production of various Black Squirrel merchandise (including Sarah Lawrence clothing branded with the Black Squirrel image) and plush toys. It is only recently (post-2003) that efforts on the behalf of the college to establish the Gryphon as the icon of Sarah Lawrence have begun to take root.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Among the prominent current or recent faculty of the college are fine art photographer Joel Sternfeld, poet Suzanne Gardinier, novelist Melvin Jules Bukiet, novelist William Melvin Kelley, novelist Tao Lin, poet Marie Howe, film historians Gilberto Perez and Malcolm Turvey, puppet-theatre artist Dan Hurlin, dancer/choreographer Sara Rudner, Jewish historian Glenn Dynner, philosopher Michael Peter Davis, and economist Franklin Delano Roosevelt III. In 2005, current faculty member Eduardo Lago won the oldest literary prize in the Spanish-speaking world, the Premio Nadal. In 1934, Joseph Campbell was offered a position as a professor at Sarah Lawrence College which he held until his retirement in 1972. Perceptual psychologist Rudolf Arnheim was on the faculty at Sarah Lawrence College for 26 years, beginning in 1943. Author Grace Paley taught at Sarah Lawrence for many years. Novelist and folklorist Heinz Insu Fenkl taught at the college at the beginning of his career. Argentinian choreographer Anabella Lenzu, work in New York City, is an adjunct professor teaching modern, ballet, and dance history. Randall Jarrell taught at Sarah Lawrence College following military service in World War II. Jarrell's 1954 novel "Pictures from an Institution", an academic satire, is set at fictional Benton College, which some saw as modeled on Sarah Lawrence College.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Sarah Lawrence alums who have entered the entertainment industry include film directors J. J. Abrams, Brian De Palma, Jordan Peele, producer Joshua D. Maurer, Laura Bickford, news personality Barbara Walters, and TV writer and author Noah Hawley.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: It was also referenced in the 1981 crime drama movie "Fort Apache, The Bronx" as a place of alibi for the 100 or so South Bronx residents who were brought to the 41st Precinct for questioning about the murders of the two rookie officers at the film's post-opening credits start. Notable actors include Jane Alexander, Sigourney Weaver, Larisa Oleynik, Cary Elwes, Sam Robards, Jordan Peele, Joanne Woodward, Téa Leoni, Golden Brooks, Eric Mabius, Melora Hardin, Andrew Lawton, Yancy Butler, Holly Robinson Peete, Robin Givens, Julianna Margulies, Lauren Holly, Max Bemis, Tovah Feldshuh, Kyra Sedgwick, Elisabeth Röhm, Guinevere Turner, Jill Clayburgh and Alice Pearce. Carrie Fisher attended Sarah Lawrence, but left prior to graduating to begin filming "Star Wars". Musicians include Yoko Ono, JD Samson, Lesley Gore, Carly Simon, jazz singer Stacey Kent, Slothrust, and Ira Kaplan of Yo La Tengo. Win Butler of Arcade Fire attended Sarah Lawrence but left after his first year to move to Canada. Dylan Brody, a humorist, author, and playwright, studied theater at Sarah Lawrence. Peter Gould, writer and producer of "Breaking Bad", attended Sarah Lawrence. Charles Boyle, a fictional character from the series "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", attended and graduated from Sarah Lawrence.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Alumni involved in politics include Amanda Burden, Director of City Planning for New York; Sharon Hom, Director of Human Rights in China; and two former members of the United States House of Representatives: Democrat and President Barack Obama's former Chief of Staff and Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel; and former Republican Congresswoman Sue W. Kelly.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: In 2010, Brooklyn native Lawrence V. "Larry" Ray, born Lawrence Grecco, following his release from prison, resided in the on-campus apartment of his daughter, Talia Ray. Sarah Lawrence College later told "New York" magazine that it was not aware that he had been living on campus. While there, Ray started a sex cult in which he presented himself to students as a psychologist and spiritual advisor; in 2011, he induced some students to move into his Manhattan apartment.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: In February 2020, he was charged by prosecutors in Manhattan with conspiracy, extortion, sex trafficking, forced labor, and other related offenses, following nearly 10 years of alleged transgressions with students and former students. At a bail hearing held March 2, 2020, an Assistant U.S. Attorney disclosed to the Manhattan federal court that Ray had been arrested while in bed with one of his victims. Bail was denied. Defense attorneys argued Ray, who was diagnosed with narcissistic personality disorder and histrionic personality disorder, was influenced by his psychological problems. Ray was convicted on all counts on April 6, 2022.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Vera Wang, fashion designer and former "Vogue" editor, and Paul Johnson Calderon, television personality and fashion journalist, attended Sarah Lawrence.


title: Sarah Lawrence College

text: Alice Walker, the author of "The Color Purple", is an alumna. Ann Patchett, author of "Bel Canto", is a graduate, as is Donna Raskin, book author and magazine writer; Constance Cappel, author; and Louise Glück, a poet and winner of the Pulitzer Prize and the 2020 Nobel Prize in Literature. Alumna Nancy Huston is the author of numerous works and recipient of the Prix Femina in 2006 for the novel "Lignes de faille" (English translation: "Fault Lines").


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: Muhteşem Yüzyıl (, ) is a Turkish historical fiction television series. Written by Meral Okay and Yılmaz Şahin, it is based on the life of Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and his wife Hürrem Sultan, a slave girl who became the first Ottoman Haseki Sultan. It also shines the light on the era known as the Sultanate of Women. It was originally broadcast on Show TV and then transferred to Star TV.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: At age 26, Suleiman learns that his father has died and his own reign is about to begin. He is determined to build an empire more powerful than that of Alexander the Great and to render it invincible. Throughout his 46-year reign, his fame as the greatest warrior and ruler of his age will spread both East and West. With his companion Pargalı İbrahim, Suleiman will achieve great victories, making his name known in the Muslim World. İbrahim, who marries the Sultan's sister, is referred by the Sultan as his brother, friend, and advisor.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: Suleiman consolidates his power: Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha, as the Grand Vizier, reinforces the rule of law throughout the empire, meets foreign diplomats, and prepares for military campaigns. All this is set against the backdrop of tension between Christian Europe and the Ottoman Empire.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: The series also focuses on the relationships between members of the imperial household, with the former slave girl and eventual chief consort and wife Hürrem Sultan inevitably figuring prominently. Themes include the animosity between Haseki Hürrem Sultan and Mahidevran Sultan, mother of the Sultan's eldest son, the role of Hafsa Sultan, the valide sultan ("Sultan Mother"), and Hürrem's unsteady career from her initial rise while pregnant with Suleiman's son, through her subsequent falls and recoveries, and finally to her eventual return to grace.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: The story begins 37 years after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent. It recounts the life of Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan, a female ruler of the Ottoman Empire through her sons and grandson.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: The show generated controversy and complaints from some viewers, for what they referred to as a "disrespectful", "indecent" and "hedonistic" portrayal of the historical sultan. Turkey's Radio and Television Supreme Council, known as RTÜK, claimed they had received over 70,000 complaints about the show and warned Show TV to publicly apologise for wrongly exposing "the privacy of a historical person". The Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan condemned the show as "an effort to show our history in a negative light to the younger generations." An MP for the governing Justice and Development Party, Oktay Saral, went further, threatening to outlaw the "misrepresentation of historical figures" in shows such as "Muhteşem Yüzyıl".


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: Small groups of Islamists and Nationalists protested the studio but the show remains successful with consistently high ratings.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: ""On the surface, 'Magnificent Century' looks like a quintessential product of the Erdoğan years. Thanks to Erdoğan's economic policies, Turkey has a thriving television industry, capable of staging elaborate period dramas, and a prosperous family-oriented middle class of observant Muslims eager to watch their own values reflected in a historical imperial setting. And, much as Erdoğan's foreign policy has promoted relations with former Ottoman lands, the show has conquered large audiences in Balkan, Caucasian, and Arab countries not known for their fond memory of Ottoman rule. Broadcast to more than two hundred million viewers in fifty-two countries, "Magnificent Century" has accomplished one of Erdoğan's main goals: Making a powerful, non-secularist, globally involved version of Turkey both plausible and appealing... And yet Erdoğan is not a fan. In late 2012, at the opening of a provincial airport he took a moment to condemn the show's depiction of Suleiman, as well as its directors and broadcasters, hinting at severe judicial repercussions.""


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: According to the report of Radio Free Asia, some Uyghur people were arrested for watching the series in 2020, as the Chinese government considered that it might encourage the thought of the Xinjiang Independence.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: "Muhteşem Yüzyıl" is reported to have an international audience of 200 million viewers in over 50 countries.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: The show is part of an ongoing revival of Turkish culture in the Balkans through imported TV shows from Turkey, such as "Öyle Bir Geçer Zaman Ki" ("As time goes by", number one TV show in North Macedonia), or "Fatmagül'ün Suçu Ne?" ("What is Fatmagül's fault"), which was top ranked TV show in Kosovo 2012. Serbian sociologist Ratko Bozovic explains the popularity by pointing at the traditional, patriarchal values of the Turkish shows, and the many cultural and linguistic similarities between Turkey and the Balkan countries: "The mentality depicted in those shows has to do with a traditional understanding of morality that people in Serbia remember at some level." According to Bozovic, all Balkan countries have seen dramatic changes in terms of family life, and the Turkish shows help them recall value systems that now seem lost.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: In Bangladesh, the show was known as "সুলতান সুলেমান (Sultan Suleiman)" and it was broadcast on Deepto TV, dubbed in Bangla. Within the first two months of its release in Bangladesh back in 2015, Sultan Suleiman received the highest TV program ratings in Bangladesh. The channel gained the most TRP ratings. Some people demanded a ban on this serial as viewers lacked interests in watching local dramas, however, keeping all these controversies aside the show still went on. After finishing the series, Deepto TV re-broadcast this massively popular show from June 2, 2019.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: In Morocco, the series is called "Harim al-Sultan ("The Sultan's Harem")." Many people find it visually and aesthetically enjoyable to watch, but viewers have contrasting opinions of the show's depictions of gender and Ottoman rulers. Many Moroccans stopped watching the show because they did not like the morals it presented.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: In Greece, the series has become quite popular for people of all socioeconomic backgrounds and ages. Many Greek viewers enjoyed the visuals and oriental decorations present in the show, as well as the cultural proximity and historical ties between the two countries. It has become so popular that Bishop Anthimos of Thessaloniki and the Golden Dawn party condemned the show and urged Greeks not to watch it. "No one should watch "Muhteşem Yüzyıl", "The Magnificent Century"," Anthimos said. He added, "By watching the Turkish series we are telling them we have surrendered."


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: In the Republic of North Macedonia, Turkish series have become so popular, that the Macedonian parliament has moved to ban Turkish soaps to reduce the Turkish impact on Macedonian society. Turkish series will gradually be removed and replaced by national programs, according to a 2012 bill authored by Elisabeti Nikolovska who has links to the Macedonian Royal Family.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: In Chile where the series is called "El Sultán" (The Sultan) it is aired since December 14 in Canal 13 on prime time with great success. The Spanish voice of Suleiman is the same as the one of Onur in the Turkish soap opera "Las mil y una noches". The series is part of a wave of Turkish soap operas that have become popular in Chilean TV. The series debuted right after the penultimate chapter of "Los 80", a popular historical family drama produced by Canal 13.


title: Muhteşem Yüzyıl

text: In Pakistan, the show was named "میرا سلطان: داستان جلال و جمال" ("Mera Sultan: Dastan-e-Jalal-o-Jamal"; lit. "My Emperor: Story of Bravery and Love") and it aired on channel Geo Kahani. Geo Kahani claims that it was the channel's most popular show and received the highest TRPs. However, the channel faced several controversies and serial got banned few times, but still completed the broadcast due to public pressure. The Pakistani drama industry was adversely affected by the popularity of Turkish dramas, and lead actor Halit Ergenç to win first ever International Icon Award in Pakistan's biggest awards show Lux Style Awards in 2017.


title: Thousand-yard stare

text: The thousand-yard stare or two-thousand-yard stare is a phrase often used to describe the blank, unfocused gaze of combatants who have become emotionally detached from the horrors around them. It is sometimes used more generally to describe the look of dissociation among victims of other types of trauma.


title: Thousand-yard stare

text: The phrase was popularized after "Life" magazine published the painting "Marines Call It That 2,000 Yard Stare" by World War II artist and correspondent Tom Lea, although the painting was not referred to with that title in the 1945 magazine article. The painting, a 1944 portrait of a nameless Marine at the Battle of Peleliu, is now held by the United States Army Center of Military History in Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C. About the real-life Marine who was his subject, Lea said:


title: Thousand-yard stare

text: When recounting his arrival in Vietnam in 1965, then-Corporal Joe Houle (director of the Marine Corps Museum of the Carolinas in 2002) said he saw no emotion in the eyes of his new squad: "The look in their eyes was like the life was sucked out of them," later learning that the term for their condition was "the 1,000-yard stare". "After I lost my first friend, I felt it was best to be detached," he explained.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites (; meaning "three lobes") are extinct marine arthropods that form the class Trilobita. Trilobites form one of the earliest-known groups of arthropods. The first appearance of trilobites in the fossil record defines the base of the Atdabanian stage of the Early Cambrian period () and they flourished throughout the lower Paleozoic before slipping into a long decline, when, during the Devonian, all trilobite orders except the Proetida died out. The last extant trilobites finally disappeared in the mass extinction at the end of the Permian about 252 million years ago. Trilobites were among the most successful of all early animals, existing in oceans for almost 270 million years, with over 22,000 species having been described.


title: Trilobite

text: By the time trilobites first appeared in the fossil record, they were already highly diversified and geographically dispersed. Because trilobites had wide diversity and an easily fossilized exoskeleton, they left an extensive fossil record. The study of their fossils has facilitated important contributions to biostratigraphy, paleontology, evolutionary biology, and plate tectonics. Trilobites are often placed within the arthropod subphylum Schizoramia within the superclass Arachnomorpha (equivalent to the Arachnata), although several alternative taxonomies are found in the literature. More recently they have been placed within the Artiopoda, which includes many organisms that are morphologically similar to trilobites, but are largely unmineralised.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites evolved into many ecological niches; some moved over the seabed as predators, scavengers, or filter feeders, and some swam, feeding on plankton. Some even crawled onto land. Most lifestyles expected of modern marine arthropods are seen in trilobites, with the possible exception of parasitism (where scientific debate continues). Some trilobites (particularly the family Olenidae) are even thought to have evolved a symbiotic relationship with sulfur-eating bacteria from which they derived food. The largest trilobites were more than long and may have weighed as much as .


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites belong to the Artiopoda, a group of extinct arthropods generally morphologically similar to trilobites, but aside from trilobites lacking mineralised exoskeletons. Because of their lack of mineralised exoskeletons, non-trilobite artipodans are typically only found in exceptionally preserved deposits, mostly during the Cambrian period. The exact relationships of artiopods to other arthropods is uncertain. They have been considered closely related to chelicerates (which include horseshoe crabs and arachnids) as part of a clade called Arachnomorpha, while others consider them to be more closely related to Mandibulata (which contains insects, crustaceans and myriapods) as part of a clade called Antennulata.


title: Trilobite

text: The earliest trilobites known from the fossil record are redlichiids and ptychopariid bigotinids dated to around 520 million years ago. Contenders for the earliest trilobites include "Profallotaspis jakutensis" (Siberia), "Fritzaspis" spp. (western USA), "Hupetina antiqua" (Morocco) and "Serrania gordaensis" (Spain). All trilobites are thought to have originated in present-day Siberia, with subsequent distribution and radiation from this location.


title: Trilobite

text: All Olenellina lack facial sutures (see below), and this is thought to represent the original state. The earliest sutured trilobite found so far ("Lemdadella"), occurs almost at the same time as the earliest Olenellina, suggesting the trilobites origin lies before the start of the Atdabanian, but without leaving fossils. Other groups show secondary lost facial sutures, such as all Agnostina and some Phacopina. Another common feature of the Olenellina also suggests this suborder to be the ancestral trilobite stock: early protaspid stages have not been found, supposedly because these were not calcified, and this also is supposed to represent the original state. Earlier trilobites may be found and could shed more light on the origin of trilobites.


title: Trilobite

text: Three specimens of a trilobite from Morocco, "Megistaspis hammondi", dated 478 million years old contain fossilized soft parts.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites saw incredible diversification over time. For such a long-lasting group of animals, it is no surprise that trilobite evolutionary history is marked by a number of extinction events where some groups perished and surviving groups diversified to fill ecological niches with comparable or unique adaptations. Generally, trilobites maintained high diversity levels throughout the Cambrian and Ordovician periods before entering a drawn-out decline in the Devonian, culminating in the final extinction of the last few survivors at the end of the Permian period.


title: Trilobite

text: Principal evolutionary trends from primitive morphologies, such as exemplified by "Eoredlichia", include the origin of new types of eyes, improvement of enrollment and articulation mechanisms, increased size of pygidium (micropygy to isopygy), and development of extreme spinosity in certain groups. Changes also included narrowing of the thorax and increasing or decreasing numbers of thoracic segments. Specific changes to the cephalon are also noted; variable glabella size and shape, position of eyes and facial sutures, and hypostome specialization. Several morphologies appeared independently within different major taxa (e.g. eye reduction or miniaturization).


title: Trilobite

text: Effacement, the loss of surface detail in the cephalon, pygidium, or the thoracic furrows, is also a common evolutionary trend. Notable examples of this were the orders Agnostida and Asaphida, and the suborder Illaenina of the Corynexochida. Effacement is believed to be an indication of either a burrowing lifestyle or a pelagic one. Effacement poses a problem for taxonomists since the loss of details (particularly of the glabella) can make the determination of phylogenetic relationships difficult.


title: Trilobite

text: Phylogenetic biogeographic analysis of Early Cambrian Olenellidae and Redlichiidae suggests that a uniform trilobite fauna existed over Laurentia, Gondwana, and Siberia before the tectonic breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia between 600 and . Tectonic breakup of Pannotia then allowed for the diversification and radiation expressed later in the Cambrian as the distinctive Olenellid province (Laurentia, Siberia, and Baltica) and the separate Redlichid province (Australia, Antarctica, and China).


title: Trilobite

text: Breakup of Pannotia significantly antedates the first appearance of trilobites in the fossil record, supporting a long and cryptic development of trilobites extending perhaps as far back as or possibly further back in time.


title: Trilobite

text: Very shortly after trilobite fossils appeared in the lower Cambrian, they rapidly diversified into the major orders that typified the Cambrian—Redlichiida, Ptychopariida, Agnostida, and Corynexochida. The first major crisis in the trilobite fossil record occurred in the Middle Cambrian; surviving orders developed isopygius or macropygius bodies and developed thicker cuticles, allowing better defense against predators (see Thorax below). The end-Cambrian mass extinction event marked a major change in trilobite fauna; almost all Redlichiida (including the Olenelloidea) and most Late Cambrian stocks became extinct. A continuing decrease in Laurentian continental shelf area is recorded at the same time as the extinctions, suggesting major environmental upheaval.


title: Trilobite

text: The Early Ordovician is marked by vigorous radiations of articulate brachiopods, bryozoans, bivalves, echinoderms, and graptolites, with many groups appearing in the fossil record for the first time. Although intra-species trilobite diversity seems to have peaked during the Cambrian, trilobites were still active participants in the Ordovician radiation event, with a new fauna taking over from the old Cambrian one. Phacopida and Trinucleioidea are characteristic forms, highly differentiated and diverse, most with uncertain ancestors. The Phacopida and other "new" clades almost certainly had Cambrian forebearers, but the fact that they have avoided detection is a strong indication that novel morphologies were developing very rapidly. Changes within the trilobite fauna during the Ordovician foreshadowed the mass extinction at the end of the Ordovician, allowing many families to continue into the Silurian with little disturbance.


title: Trilobite

text: Ordovician trilobites were successful at exploiting new environments, notably reefs. The Ordovician mass extinction did not leave the trilobites unscathed; some distinctive and previously successful forms such as the Telephinidae and Agnostida became extinct. The Ordovician marks the last great diversification period amongst the trilobites: very few entirely new patterns of organisation arose post-Ordovician. Later evolution in trilobites was largely a matter of variations upon the Ordovician themes. By the Ordovician mass extinction, vigorous trilobite radiation has stopped and gradual decline is foreshadowed.


title: Trilobite

text: Most Early Silurian families constitute a subgroup of the Late Ordovician fauna. Few, if any, of the dominant Early Ordovician fauna survived to the end of the Ordovician, yet 74% of the dominant Late Ordovician trilobite fauna survived the Ordovician. Late Ordovician survivors account for all post-Ordovician trilobite groups except the Harpetida.


title: Trilobite

text: Silurian and Devonian trilobite assemblages are superficially similar to Ordovician assemblages, dominated by Lichida and Phacopida (including the well-known Calymenina). A number of characteristic forms do not extend far into the Devonian and almost all the remainder were wiped out by a series of dramatic Middle and Late Devonian extinctions. Three orders and all but five families were exterminated by the combination of sea level changes and a break in the redox equilibrium (a meteorite impact has also been suggested as a cause). Only a single order, the Proetida, survived into the Carboniferous.


title: Trilobite

text: The Proetida survived for millions of years, continued through the Carboniferous period and lasted until the end of the Permian (when the vast majority of species on Earth were wiped out). It is unknown why the order Proetida alone survived the Devonian. The Proetida maintained relatively diverse faunas in both deep and shallow water shelf environments throughout the Carboniferous. For many millions of years the Proetida existed untroubled in their ecological niche. An analogy would be today's crinoids, which mostly exist as deep water species; in the Paleozoic era, vast 'forests' of crinoids lived in shallow near-shore environments.


title: Trilobite

text: Exactly why the trilobites became extinct is not clear; with repeated extinction events (often followed by apparent recovery) throughout the trilobite fossil record, a combination of causes is likely. After the extinction event at the end of the Devonian period, what trilobite diversity remained was bottlenecked into the order Proetida. Decreasing diversity of genera limited to shallow-water shelf habitats coupled with a drastic lowering of sea level (regression) meant that the final decline of trilobites happened shortly before the end of the Permian mass extinction event. With so many marine species involved in the Permian extinction, the end of nearly 300 million successful years for the trilobites would not have been unexpected at the time.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites have no known direct descendants. Their closest living relatives would be the chelicerates due to both being arachnomorphs. Though horseshoe crabs are often cited as their closest living relatives, they are no closer evolutionarily than other chelicerates.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites appear to have been primarily marine organisms, since the fossilized remains of trilobites are always found in rocks containing fossils of other salt-water animals such as brachiopods, crinoids, and corals. Some trackways suggest trilobites made at least temporary excursions unto land. Within the marine paleoenvironment, trilobites were found in a broad range from extremely shallow water to very deep water. Trilobites, like brachiopods, crinoids, and corals, are found on all modern continents, and occupied every ancient ocean from which Paleozoic fossils have been collected. The remnants of trilobites can range from the preserved body to pieces of the exoskeleton, which it shed in the process known as ecdysis. In addition, the tracks left behind by trilobites living on the sea floor are often preserved as trace fossils.


title: Trilobite

text: There are three main forms of trace fossils associated with trilobites: "Rusophycus", "Cruziana" and "Diplichnites"—such trace fossils represent the preserved life activity of trilobites active upon the sea floor. "Rusophycus", the resting trace, are trilobite excavations involving little or no forward movement and ethological interpretations suggest resting, protection and hunting. "Cruziana", the feeding trace, are furrows through the sediment, which are believed to represent the movement of trilobites while deposit feeding. Many of the "Diplichnites" fossils are believed to be traces made by trilobites walking on the sediment surface. Care must be taken as similar trace fossils are recorded in freshwater and post-Paleozoic deposits, representing non-trilobite origins.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite fossils are found worldwide, with thousands of known species. Because they appeared quickly in geological time, and moulted like other arthropods, trilobites serve as excellent index fossils, enabling geologists to date the age of the rocks in which they are found. They were among the first fossils to attract widespread attention, and new species are being discovered every year.


title: Trilobite

text: In the United States, the best open-to-the-public collection of trilobites is located in Hamburg, New York. The shale quarry, informally known as Penn Dixie, stopped mining in the 1960s. The large amounts of trilobites were discovered in the 1970s by Dan Cooper. As a well-known rock collector, he incited scientific and public interest in the location. The fossils are dated to the Givetian (387.2 - 382.7 million years ago) when the Western New York Region was 30 degrees south of the equator and completely covered in water. The site was purchased from Vincent C. Bonerb by the Town of Hamburg with the cooperation of the Hamburg Natural History Society to protect the land from development. In 1994, the quarry became Penn Dixie Fossil Park & Nature Reserve when they received 501(c)3 status and was opened for visitation and collection of trilobite samples. The two most common found samples are ‘’Eldredgeops rana" and "Greenops".


title: Trilobite

text: A famous location for trilobite fossils in the United Kingdom is Wren's Nest, Dudley, in the West Midlands, where "Calymene blumenbachii" is found in the Silurian Wenlock Group. This trilobite is featured on the town's coat of arms and was named the "Dudley Bug" or "Dudley Locust" by quarrymen who once worked the now abandoned limestone quarries. Llandrindod Wells, Powys, Wales, is another famous trilobite location. The well-known "Elrathia kingi" trilobite is found in abundance in the Cambrian Wheeler Shale of Utah.


title: Trilobite

text: Spectacularly preserved trilobite fossils, often showing soft body parts (legs, gills, antennae, etc.) have been found in British Columbia, Canada (the Cambrian Burgess Shale and similar localities); New York, U.S.A. (Ordovician Walcott–Rust quarry, near Russia, and Beecher's Trilobite Bed, near Rome); China (Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shales near Chengjiang); Germany (the Devonian Hunsrück Slates near Bundenbach) and, much more rarely, in trilobite-bearing strata in Utah (Wheeler Shale and other formations), Ontario, and Manuels River, Newfoundland and Labrador.


title: Trilobite

text: Sites in Morocco also yield very well-preserved trilobites, many buried in mudslides alive and so perfectly preserved. An industry has developed around their recovery, leading to controversies about practices in restoral. The variety of eye and upper body forms and fragile protuberances is best known from these samples preserved similarly to bodies in Pompeii.


title: Trilobite

text: The French palaeontologist Joachim Barrande (1799–1883) carried out his landmark study of trilobites in the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian of Bohemia, publishing the first volume of "Système silurien du centre de la Bohême" in 1852.


title: Trilobite

text: The study of Paleozoic trilobites in the Welsh-English borders by Niles Eldredge was fundamental in formulating and testing punctuated equilibrium as a mechanism of evolution.


title: Trilobite

text: Identification of the 'Atlantic' and 'Pacific' trilobite faunas in North America and Europe implied the closure of the Iapetus Ocean (producing the Iapetus suture), thus providing important supporting evidence for the theory of continental drift.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites have been important in estimating the rate of speciation during the period known as the Cambrian explosion because they are the most diverse group of metazoans known from the fossil record of the early Cambrian.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites are excellent stratigraphic markers of the Cambrian period: researchers who find trilobites with alimentary prosopon, and a micropygium, have found Early Cambrian strata. Most of the Cambrian stratigraphy is based on the use of trilobite marker fossils.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites are the state fossils of Ohio ("Isotelus"), Wisconsin ("Calymene celebra") and Pennsylvania ("Phacops rana").


title: Trilobite

text: The 10 most commonly recognized trilobite orders are Agnostida, Redlichiida, Corynexochida, Lichida, Odontopleurida, Phacopida, Proetida, Asaphida, Harpetida and Ptychopariida. In 2020, an 11th order, Trinucleida, was proposed to be elevated out of the asaphid superfamily Trinucleioidea. Sometimes the Nektaspida are considered trilobites, but these lack a calcified exoskeleton and eyes. Some scholars have proposed that the order Agnostida is polyphyletic, with the suborder Agnostina representing non-trilobite arthropods unrelated to the suborder Eodiscina. Under this hypothesis, Eodiscina would be elevated to a new order, Eodiscida.


title: Trilobite

text: Despite their rich fossil record with thousands of described genera found throughout the world, the taxonomy and phylogeny of trilobites have many uncertainties. Except possibly for the members of the orders Phacopida and Lichida (which first appear during the early Ordovician), nine of the eleven trilobite orders appear prior to the end of the Cambrian. Most scientists believe that order Redlichiida, more specifically its suborder Redlichiina, contains a common ancestor of all other orders, with the possible exception of the Agnostina. While many potential phylogenies are found in the literature, most have suborder Redlichiina giving rise to orders Corynexochida and Ptychopariida during the Lower Cambrian, and the Lichida descending from either the Redlichiida or Corynexochida in the Middle Cambrian. Order Ptychopariida is the most problematic order for trilobite classification. In the 1959 Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, what are now members of orders Ptychopariida, Asaphida, Proetida and Harpetida were grouped together as order Ptychopariida; subclass Librostoma was erected in 1990 to encompass all of these orders, based on their shared ancestral character of a natant (unattached) hypostome. The most recently recognized of the nine trilobite orders, Harpetida, was erected in 2002. The progenitor of order Phacopida is unclear.


title: Trilobite

text: Once soft-part anatomy had been recovered, the trilobites were originally allied to the Crustacea. A relationship with the Chelicerata, in a clade termed Arachnomorpha (Arachnata), was in vogue for some time, but, a more recent analysis of Panarthropoda suggests the trilobites are one of two major branches of Artiopoda.


title: Trilobite

text: When trilobites are found, only the exoskeleton is preserved (often in an incomplete state) in all but a handful of locations. A few locations ("") preserve identifiable soft body parts (legs, gills, musculature & digestive tract) and enigmatic traces of other structures (e.g. fine details of eye structure) as well as the exoskeleton.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites range in length from minute (less than ) to very large (over ), with an average size range of . Supposedly the smallest species is "Acanthopleurella stipulae" with a maximum of . The world's largest-known trilobite specimen, assigned to "Isotelus rex" is in length. It was found in 1998 by Canadian scientists in Ordovician rocks on the shores of Hudson Bay. However, a partial specimen of the Ordovician trilobite "Hungioides bohemicus" found in 2009 in Arouca, Portugal is estimated to have measured when complete in length.


title: Trilobite

text: The exoskeleton is composed of calcite and calcium phosphate minerals in a lattice of chitin that covers the upper surface (dorsal) of the trilobite and curled round the lower edge to produce a small fringe called the "doublure".Three distinctive "tagmata" (sections) are present: cephalon (head); thorax (body) and pygidium (tail).


title: Trilobite

text: As might be expected for a group of animals comprising genera, the morphology and description of trilobites can be complex. Despite morphological complexity and an unclear position within higher classifications, there are a number of characteristics which distinguish the trilobites from other arthropods: a generally sub-elliptical, dorsal, chitinous exoskeleton divided longitudinally into three distinct lobes (from which the group gets its name); having a distinct, relatively large head shield (cephalon) articulating axially with a thorax comprising articulated transverse segments, the hindmost of which are almost invariably fused to form a tail shield (pygidium). When describing differences between trilobite taxa, the presence, size, and shape of the cephalic features are often mentioned.


title: Trilobite

text: During moulting, the exoskeleton generally splits between the head and thorax, which is why so many trilobite fossils are missing one or the other. In most groups facial sutures on the cephalon helped facilitate moulting. Similar to lobsters and crabs, trilobites would have physically "grown" between the moult stage and the hardening of the new exoskeleton.


title: Trilobite

text: A trilobite's cephalon, or head section, is highly variable with a lot of morphological complexity. The glabella forms a dome underneath which sat the "crop" or "stomach". Generally the exoskeleton has few distinguishing ventral features, but the cephalon often preserves muscle attachment scars and occasionally the hypostome, a small rigid plate comparable to the ventral plate in other arthropods. A toothless mouth and stomach sat upon the hypostome with the mouth facing backward at the rear edge of the hypostome.


title: Trilobite

text: Hypostome morphology is highly variable; sometimes supported by an un-mineralised membrane (natant), sometimes fused onto the anterior doublure with an outline very similar to the glabella above (conterminant) or fused to the anterior doublure with an outline significantly different from the glabella (impendent). Many variations in shape and placement of the hypostome have been described. The size of the glabella and the lateral fringe of the cephalon, together with hypostome variation, have been linked to different lifestyles, diets and specific ecological niches.


title: Trilobite

text: The anterior and lateral fringe of the cephalon is greatly enlarged in the Harpetida, in other species a bulge in the pre-glabellar area is preserved that suggests a brood pouch. Highly complex compound eyes are another obvious feature of the cephalon.


title: Trilobite

text: Facial or cephalic sutures are the natural fracture lines in the cephalon of trilobites. Their function was to assist the trilobite in shedding its old exoskeleton during ecdysis (or molting).


title: Trilobite

text: All species assigned to the suborder Olenellina, that became extinct at the very end of the Early Cambrian (like "Fallotaspis", "Nevadia", "Judomia", and "Olenellus") lacked facial sutures. They are believed to have never developed facial sutures, having pre-dated their evolution. Because of this (along with other primitive characteristics), they are thought to be the earliest ancestors of later trilobites.


title: Trilobite

text: Some other later trilobites also lost facial sutures secondarily. The type of sutures found in different species are used extensively in the taxonomy and phylogeny of trilobites.


title: Trilobite

text: The dorsal surface of the trilobite cephalon (the frontmost tagma, or the 'head') can be divided into two regions—the cranidium and the librigena ("free cheeks"). The cranidium can be further divided into the glabella (the central lobe in the cephalon) and the fixigena ("fixed cheeks"). The facial sutures lie along the anterior edge, at the division between the cranidium and the librigena.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite facial sutures on the dorsal side can be roughly divided into five main types according to where the sutures end relative to the genal angle (the edges where the side and rear margins of the cephalon converge).


title: Trilobite

text: The primitive state of the dorsal sutures is proparian. Opisthoparian sutures have developed several times independently. There are no examples of proparian sutures developing in taxa with opisthoparian ancestry. Trilobites that exhibit opisthoparian sutures as adults commonly have proparian sutures as instars (known exceptions being "Yunnanocephalus" and "Duyunaspis"). Hypoparian sutures have also arisen independently in several groups of trilobites.


title: Trilobite

text: The course of the facial sutures from the front of the visual surface varies at least as strongly as it does in the rear, but the lack of a clear reference point similar to the genal angle makes it difficult to categorize. One of the more pronounced states is that the front of the facial sutures do not cut the lateral or frontal border on its own, but coincide in front of the glabella, and cut the frontal border at the midline. This is, inter alia, the case in the Asaphida. Even more pronounced is the situation that the frontal branches of the facial sutures end in each other, resulting in yoked free cheeks. This is known in "Triarthrus", and in the Phacopidae, but in that family the facial sutures are not functional, as can be concluded from the fact that free cheeks are not found separated from the cranidium.


title: Trilobite

text: There are also two types of sutures in the dorsal surface connected to the compound eyes of trilobites. They are:


title: Trilobite

text: Dorsal facial sutures continue downward to the ventral side of the cephalon where they become the Connective sutures that divide the doublure. The following are the types of ventral sutures.


title: Trilobite

text: The rostrum (or the rostral plate) is a distinct part of the doublure located at the front of the cephalon. It is separated from the rest of the doublure by the rostral suture.


title: Trilobite

text: During molting in trilobites like "Paradoxides", the rostrum is used to anchor the front part of the trilobite as the cranidium separates from the librigena. The opening created by the arching of the body provides an exit for the molting trilobite.


title: Trilobite

text: The hypostome is the hard mouthpart of the trilobite found on the ventral side of the cephalon typically below the glabella. The hypostome can be classified into three types based on whether they are permanently attached to the rostrum or not and whether they are aligned to the anterior dorsal tip of the glabella.


title: Trilobite

text: The thorax is a series of articulated segments that lie between the cephalon and pygidium. The number of segments varies between 2 and 103 with most species in the 2 to 16 range.


title: Trilobite

text: Each segment consists of the central axial ring and the outer pleurae, which protected the limbs and gills. The pleurae are sometimes abbreviated or extended to form long spines. Apodemes are bulbous projections on the ventral surface of the exoskeleton to which most leg muscles attached, although some leg muscles attached directly to the exoskeleton. Determining a junction between thorax and pygidium can be difficult and many segment counts suffer from this problem.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite fossils are often found "enrolled" (curled up) like modern pill bugs for protection; evidence suggests enrollment ("volvation") helped protect against the inherent weakness of the arthropod cuticle that was exploited by anomalocarid predators.


title: Trilobite

text: Some trilobites achieved a fully closed capsule (e.g. "Phacops"), while others with long pleural spines (e.g. "Selenopeltis") left a gap at the sides or those with a small pygidium (e.g. "Paradoxides") left a gap between the cephalon and pygidium. In "Phacops", the pleurae overlap a smooth bevel (facet) allowing a close seal with the doublure. The doublure carries a Panderian notch or protuberance on each segment to prevent over rotation and achieve a good seal. Even in an agnostid, with only 2 articulating thoracic segments, the process of enrollment required a complex musculature to contract the exoskeleton and return to the flat condition.


title: Trilobite

text: The pygidium is formed from a number of segments and the telson fused together. Segments in the pygidium are similar to the thoracic segments (bearing biramous limbs) but are not articulated. Trilobites can be described based on the pygidium being micropygous (pygidium smaller than cephalon), subisopygous (pygidium sub equal to cephalon), isopygous (pygidium equal in size to cephalon), or macropygous (pygidium larger than cephalon).


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite exoskeletons show a variety of small-scale structures collectively called prosopon. Prosopon does not include large scale extensions of the cuticle (e.g. hollow pleural spines) but to finer scale features, such as ribbing, domes, pustules, pitting, ridging and perforations. The exact purpose of the prosopon is not resolved but suggestions include structural strengthening, sensory pits or hairs, preventing predator attacks and maintaining aeration while enrolled. In one example, alimentary ridge networks (easily visible in Cambrian trilobites) might have been either digestive or respiratory tubes in the cephalon and other regions.


title: Trilobite

text: Some trilobites such as those of the order Lichida evolved elaborate spiny forms, from the Ordovician until the end of the Devonian period. Examples of these specimens have been found in the Hamar Laghdad Formation of Alnif in Morocco. There is a serious counterfeiting and fakery problem with much of the Moroccan material that is offered commercially. Spectacular spined trilobites have also been found in western Russia; Oklahoma, USA; and Ontario, Canada.


title: Trilobite

text: Some trilobites had horns on their heads similar to several modern beetles. Based on the size, location, and shape of the horns it has been suggested that these horns may have been used to combat for mates. Horns were widespread in the Raphiophoridae family (Asaphida).


title: Trilobite

text: Another function of these spines was protection from predators. When enrolled, trilobite spines offered additional protection.


title: Trilobite

text: This conclusion is likely to be applicable to other trilobites as well, such as in the Phacopid trilobite genus "Walliserops," that developed spectacular tridents.


title: Trilobite

text: Only 21 or so species are described from which soft body parts are preserved, so some features (e.g. the posterior antenniform cerci preserved only in "Olenoides serratus") remain difficult to assess in the wider picture.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites had a single pair of preoral antennae and otherwise undifferentiated biramous limbs (2, 3 or 4 cephalic pairs, followed by one pair per thoracic segment and some pygidium pairs). Each endopodite (walking leg) had 6 or 7 segments, homologous to other early arthropods. Endopodites are attached to the coxa, which also bore a feather-like exopodite, or gill branch, which was used for respiration and, in some species, swimming. A 2021 study found that the upper limb branch of trilobites is a "well-developed gill" that oxygenates the hemolymph, comparable to the book gill in modern horseshoe crab "Limulus". In "Olenoides", the partially articulated junction with the body is distinct from the exopods of Chelicerata or Crustacea. The inside of the coxa (or gnathobase) carries spines, probably to process prey items. The last exopodite segment usually had claws or spines. Many examples of hairs on the legs suggest adaptations for feeding (as for the gnathobases) or sensory organs to help with walking.


title: Trilobite

text: The toothless mouth of trilobites was situated on the rear edge of the hypostome (facing backward), in front of the legs attached to the cephalon. The mouth is linked by a small esophagus to the stomach that lay forward of the mouth, below the glabella. The "intestine" led backward from there to the pygidium. The "feeding limbs" attached to the cephalon are thought to have fed food into the mouth, possibly "slicing" the food on the hypostome and/or gnathobases first. Alternative lifestyles are suggested, with the cephalic legs used to disturb the sediment to make food available. A large glabella, (implying a large stomach), coupled with an impendent hypostome has been used as evidence of more complex food sources, i.e. possibly a carnivorous lifestyle.


title: Trilobite

text: While there is direct and implied evidence for the presence and location of the mouth, stomach and digestive tract (see above) the presence of heart, brain and liver are only implied (although "present" in many reconstructions) with little direct geological evidence.


title: Trilobite

text: Although rarely preserved, long lateral muscles extended from the cephalon to midway down the pygidium, attaching to the axial rings allowing enrollment while separate muscles on the legs tucked them out of the way.


title: Trilobite

text: Many trilobites had complex eyes; they also had a pair of antennae. Some trilobites were blind, probably living too deep in the sea for light to reach them. As such, they became secondarily blind in this branch of trilobite evolution. Other trilobites (e.g., "Phacops rana" and "Erbenochile erbeni") had large eyes that were for use in well lit, predator-filled waters.


title: Trilobite

text: The pair of antennae suspected in most trilobites (and preserved in a few examples) were highly flexible to allow them to be retracted when the trilobite was enrolled. One species ("Olenoides serratus") preserves antenna-like cerci, which project from the rear of the trilobite.


title: Trilobite

text: Even the earliest trilobites had complex, compound eyes with lenses made of calcite (a characteristic of all trilobite eyes), confirming that the eyes of arthropods and probably other animals could have developed before the Cambrian. Improving eyesight of both predator and prey in marine environments has been suggested as one of the evolutionary pressures furthering an apparent rapid development of new life forms during what is known as the Cambrian explosion.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite eyes were typically compound, with each lens being an elongated prism. The number of lenses in such an eye varied: some trilobites had only one, while some had thousands of lenses in a single eye. In compound eyes, the lenses were typically arranged hexagonally. The fossil record of trilobite eyes is complete enough that their evolution can be studied through time, which compensates to some extent for the lack of preservation of soft internal parts.


title: Trilobite

text: Lenses of trilobites' eyes were made of calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO). Pure forms of calcite are transparent, and some trilobites used crystallographically oriented, clear calcite crystals to form each lens of each eye. Rigid calcite lenses would have been unable to accommodate to a change of focus like the soft lens in a human eye would; in some trilobites, the calcite formed an internal doublet structure, giving superb depth of field and minimal spherical aberration, according to optical principles discovered by French scientist René Descartes and Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens in the 17th century. A living species with similar lenses is the brittle star "Ophiocoma wendtii".


title: Trilobite

text: In other trilobites, with a Huygens interface apparently missing, a gradient-index lens is invoked with the refractive index of the lens changing toward the center.


title: Trilobite

text: Sublensar sensory structures have been found in the eyes of some phacopid trilobites. The structures consist of what appear to be several sensory cells surrounding a rhadomeric structure, resembling closely the sublensar structures found in the eyes of many modern arthropod apposition eyes, especially "Limulus", a genus of horseshoe crabs.


title: Trilobite

text: Secondary blindness is not uncommon, particularly in long lived groups such as the Agnostida and Trinucleioidea. In Proetida and Phacopina from western Europe and particularly Tropidocoryphinae from France (where there is good stratigraphic control), there are well studied trends showing progressive eye reduction between closely related species that eventually leads to blindness.


title: Trilobite

text: Several other structures on trilobites have been explained as photo-receptors. Of particular interest are "macula", the small areas of thinned cuticle on the underside of the hypostome. In some trilobites macula are suggested to function as simple "ventral eyes" that could have detected night and day or allowed a trilobite to navigate while swimming (or turned) upside down.


title: Trilobite

text: There are several types of prosopon that have been suggested as sensory apparatus collecting chemical or vibrational signals. The connection between large pitted fringes on the cephalon of Harpetida and Trinucleoidea with corresponding small or absent eyes makes for an interesting possibility of the fringe as a "compound ear".


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobites grew through successive moult stages called instars, in which existing segments increased in size and new trunk segments appeared at a sub-terminal generative zone during the anamorphic phase of development. This was followed by the epimorphic developmental phase, in which the animal continued to grow and moult, but no new trunk segments were expressed in the exoskeleton. The combination of anamorphic and epimorphic growth constitutes the hemianamorphic developmental mode that is common among many living arthropods.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite development was unusual in the way in which articulations developed between segments, and changes in the development of articulation gave rise to the conventionally recognized developmental phases of the trilobite life cycle (divided into 3 stages), which are not readily compared with those of other arthropods. Actual growth and change in external form of the trilobite would have occurred when the trilobite was soft shelled, following moulting and before the next exoskeleton hardened.


title: Trilobite

text: Trilobite larvae are known from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous and from all sub-orders. As instars from closely related taxa are more similar than instars from distantly related taxa, trilobite larvae provide morphological information important in evaluating high-level phylogenetic relationships among trilobites.


title: Trilobite

text: Despite the absence of supporting fossil evidence, their similarity to living arthropods has led to the belief that trilobites multiplied sexually and produced eggs.


title: Trilobite

text: Some species may have kept eggs or larvae in a brood pouch forward of the glabella, particularly when the ecological niche was challenging to larvae. Size and morphology of the first calcified stage are highly variable between (but not within) trilobite taxa, suggesting some trilobites passed through more growth within the egg than others. Early developmental stages prior to calcification of the exoskeleton are a possibility (suggested for fallotaspids), but so is calcification and hatching coinciding.


title: Trilobite

text: The earliest post-embryonic trilobite growth stage known with certainty are the "protaspid" stages (anamorphic phase). Starting with an indistinguishable proto-cephalon and proto-pygidium (anaprotaspid) a number of changes occur ending with a transverse furrow separating the proto-cephalon and proto-pygidium (metaprotaspid) that can continue to add segments. Segments are added at the posterior part of the pygidium, but all segments remain fused together.


title: Trilobite

text: The "meraspid" stages (anamorphic phase) are marked by the appearance of an articulation between the head and the fused trunk. Prior to the onset of the first meraspid stage the animal had a two-part structure—the head and the plate of fused trunk segments, the pygidium. During the meraspid stages, new segments appeared near the rear of the pygidium as well as additional articulations developing at the front of the pygidium, releasing freely articulating segments into the thorax. Segments are generally added one per moult (although two per moult and one every alternate moult are also recorded), with number of stages equal to the number of thoracic segments. A substantial amount of growth, from less than 25% up to 30%–40%, probably took place in the meraspid stages.


title: Trilobite

text: The "holaspid" stages (epimorphic phase) commence when a stable, mature number of segments has been released into the thorax. Moulting continued during the holaspid stages, with no changes in thoracic segment number. Some trilobites are suggested to have continued moulting and growing throughout the life of the individual, albeit at a slower rate on reaching maturity.


title: Trilobite

text: Some trilobites showed a marked transition in morphology at one particular instar, which has been called "trilobite metamorphosis". Radical change in morphology is linked to the loss or gain of distinctive features that mark a change in mode of life. A change in lifestyle during development has significance in terms of evolutionary pressure, as the trilobite could pass through several ecological niches on the way to adult development and changes would strongly affect survivorship and dispersal of trilobite taxa. It is worth noting that trilobites with all protaspid stages solely planktonic and later meraspid stages benthic (e.g. asaphids) failed to last through the Ordovician extinctions, while trilobites that were planktonic for only the first protaspid stage before metamorphosing into benthic forms survived (e.g. lichids, phacopids). Pelagic larval life-style proved ill-adapted to the rapid onset of global climatic cooling and loss of tropical shelf habitats during the Ordovician.


title: Trilobite

text: Rev. Edward Lhwyd published in 1698 in The "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", the oldest scientific journal in the English language, part of his letter "Concerning Several Regularly Figured Stones Lately Found by Him", that was accompanied by a page of etchings of fossils. One of his etchings depicted a trilobite he found near Llandeilo, probably on the grounds of Lord Dynefor's castle, he described as "… the skeleton of some flat Fish …".


title: Trilobite

text: The discovery of "Calymene blumenbachii" (the Dudley locust) in 1749 by Charles Lyttleton, could be identified as the beginning of trilobite research. Lyttleton submitted a letter to the Royal Society of London in 1750 concerning a "petrified insect" he found in the "limestone pits at Dudley". In 1754, Manuel Mendez da Costa proclaimed that the Dudley locust was not an insect, but instead belonged to "the crustaceous tribe of animals." He proposed to call the Dudley specimens "Pediculus marinus major trilobos" (large trilobed marine louse), a name which lasted well into the 1800s. German naturalist Johann Walch, who executed the first inclusive study of this group, proposed the use of the name "trilobite". He considered it appropriate to derive the name from the unique three-lobed character of the central axis and a pleural zone to each side.


title: Trilobite

text: Written descriptions of trilobites date possibly from the third century BC and definitely from the fourth century AD. The Spanish geologists Eladio Liñán and Rodolfo Gozalo argue that some of the fossils described in Greek and Latin lapidaries as scorpion stone, beetle stone, and ant stone, refer to trilobite fossils. Less ambiguous references to trilobite fossils can be found in Chinese sources. Fossils from the Kushan formation of northeastern China were prized as inkstones and decorative pieces.


title: Trilobite

text: In the New World, American fossil hunters found plentiful deposits of "Elrathia kingi" in western Utah in the 1860s. Until the early 1900s, the Ute Native Americans of Utah wore these trilobites, which they called "pachavee" (little water bug), as amulets. A hole was bored in the head and the fossil was worn on a string. According to the Ute themselves, trilobite necklaces protect against bullets and diseases such as diphtheria. In 1931, Frank Beckwith uncovered evidence of the Ute use of trilobites. Travelling through the badlands, he photographed two petroglyphs that most likely represent trilobites. On the same trip he examined a burial, of unknown age, with a drilled trilobite fossil lying in the chest cavity of the interred. Since then, trilobite amulets have been found all over the Great Basin, as well as in British Columbia and Australia.


title: Trilobite

text: In the 1880s, archaeologists discovered in the Grotte du Trilobite (Caves of Arcy-sur-Cure, Yonne, France) a much-handled trilobite fossil that had been drilled as if to be worn as a pendant. The occupation stratum in which the trilobite was found has been dated as 15,000 years old. Because the pendant was handled so much, the species of trilobite cannot be determined. This type of trilobite is not found around Yonne, so it may have been highly prized and traded from elsewhere.


title: BYD Auto

text: BYD Auto Co., Ltd. ("Build Your Dreams") is the automotive subsidiary of the publicly-listed Chinese multinational manufacturer BYD Company, headquartered in Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, China. It was founded in January 2003, following BYD Company's acquisition of Qinchuan Automobile Company in 2002. The company produces passenger cars, buses, trucks, electric bicycles, forklifts, and rechargeable batteries. The current model range of automobiles includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and the company also produced petrol engine vehicles up until March 2022.


title: BYD Auto

text: As of 2021, BYD was the fourth largest plug-in electric vehicle (BEV and PHEV) company and fourth largest BEV company in the world, with 9.1% and 7% global market share respectively in 2021. The company has mainly based its sales in Mainland China, but is undertaking rapid expansion into the global market, with sales hitting over 100,000 per month in March 2022, and is expecting to sell between 1.5 million to 2 million plug-in EVs in 2022, around 3 to 4 times the volume compared to 2021. In June 2022, BYD Auto announced that it had sold about 641,000 EVs in the first half of 2022, overtaking Tesla to become the largest EV manufacturer in the world. It became the first carmaker in the world to reach 1,000,000 NEV sales in a year in September 2022.


title: BYD Auto

text: The company also has an electric battery division, FinDreams Battery, which is the world's third largest producer of electric vehicle batteries with a global market share of 12% in the first half of 2022, and a focus mainly on lithium iron phosphate batteries.


title: BYD Auto

text: BYD has established itself as an industry leader in electronics, automotives, renewable energy, and rail transit. As a global leader, BYD's zero-emission solutions, focused on energy generation and storage, are expansive and widely applicable.


title: BYD Auto

text: BYD Co Ltd founded the wholly-owned subsidiary BYD Auto in 2003, after acquiring the Qinchuan Machinery Works from Norinco in 2002 and raising HK$1.6 billion on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange. The acquisition may have been made solely to acquire the passenger car production license held by the purchased company. Qinchuan had been manufacturing cars since 1987, when the company began production of the QJC7050 model. At the time of the acquisition, its QCJ7181 Flyer was in production, which from 2005 was rebadged to the "BYD Flyer."


title: BYD Auto

text: In 2008, a plug-in hybrid version of the BYD F3 compact sedan was introduced, the world's first production model plug-in hybrid car. In September of that year, Berkshire Hathaway took a HK$1.8 billion stake (US$ 232 million) in the parent company through Sino-American Energy Holdings.


title: BYD Auto

text: BYD's total car sales in 2009 were 448,400 vehicles, and the BYD F3 was the best-selling sedan in China that year. In the same year, BYD began the export of its cars to Africa, South America, and the Middle East, where the cars competed on price, not quality.


title: BYD Auto

text: In 2012, the city government of Shenzhen purchased 500 BYD e6 cars for use as taxis. A total of 506,189 passenger cars were sold in China in 2013, making it the tenth-largest selling brand.


title: BYD Auto

text: In 2014, the BYD Qin plug-in hybrid compact sedan, the first model of BYD's new "Dynasty Series", had total sales of 14,747 (plus a relatively small number of sales in Latin America), In 2015, sales of the Qin increased to 31,898 and it was the 88th highest selling sedan in China. In 2016, the BYD Tang plug-in hybrid SUV had 31,405 sales, the plug-in hybrid version of the Qin compact sedan had 21,868 sales, and the BYD e6 electric compact MPV had 20,605 sales. By 2016, total sales of the Qin reached 68,655 cars.