title: History of Europe

text: The Big Four implemented sweeping changes to the political geography of the world. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany's military power and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on its shoulders – the humiliation and resentment in Germany was probably one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a cause of World War II.


title: History of Europe

text: At the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required the Second Polish Republic to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and later by Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority rights treaty.


title: History of Europe

text: In the Treaty of Versailles (1919) the winners recognised the new states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self-determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as the Ukrainian–Soviet War (1917–1921) and the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the "Roaring Twenties" or "Jazz Age" that was often featured in the cinema, which attracted very large audiences.


title: History of Europe

text: The Allied victory in the First World War seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national self-determination, free-market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations." However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new communist movement taking inspiration from the Russian Revolution. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but they did succeed in Russia.


title: History of Europe

text: Italy adopted an authoritarian dictatorship known as Fascism in 1922; it became a model for Hitler in Germany and for right wing elements in other countries. Historian Stanley G. Payne says Italian fascism was:


title: History of Europe

text: Authoritarian regimes replaced democracy in the 1930s in Nazi Germany, Portugal, Austria, Poland, Greece, the Baltic countries and Francoist Spain. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: France, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden.


title: History of Europe

text: After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, nearly the whole world sank into a Great Depression, as money stopped flowing from New York to Europe, prices fell, profits fell, and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two-thirds.


title: History of Europe

text: Liberalism and democracy were discredited. In most of Europe, as well as in Japan and most of Latin America, nation after nation turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came when Hitler and his Nazis took power in Germany in 1933. The main institution that was meant to bring stability was the League of Nations, created in 1919. However the League failed to resolve any major crises and by 1938 it was no longer a major player. The League was undermined by the bellicosity of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, and Mussolini's Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States. By 1937 it was largely ignored.


title: History of Europe

text: A major civil war took place in Spain, with the nationalists winning. The League of Nations was helpless as Italy conquered Ethiopia and Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 and took over most of China starting in 1937.


title: History of Europe

text: The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalist faction), led by Francisco Franco, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republican faction on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the "International Brigades." The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.


title: History of Europe

text: In the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland.


title: History of Europe

text: After allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel", and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the "Phoney War" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany's air attacks in the Battle of Britain. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but because of his failure to defeat Britain and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Balkans, the great attack on the Soviet Union was delayed until June 1941. Despite initial successes, the Wehrmacht was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941.


title: History of Europe

text: Over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of Stalingrad and at Kursk. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked Britain and the United States on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Forces (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and recaptured France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies. As the Red Army conquered the Reichstag in the Battle of Berlin, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causing between 50 and 80 million deaths, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55 million).


title: History of Europe

text: This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942–45, separately from the war-related deaths, the Nazis killed an additional number of over 11 million civilians identified through IBM-enabled censuses, including the majority of the Jews and Gypsies of Europe, millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs, and also homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, misfits, disabled, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and allegedly engineered famine had a similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.


title: History of Europe

text: The world wars ended the pre-eminent position of Britain, France and Germany in Europe and the world. At the Yalta Conference, Europe was divided into spheres of influence between the victors of World War II, and soon became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the Western countries and the Communist bloc. The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies at the time (United Kingdom, France, Italy, Netherlands, West Germany etc.) established the NATO military alliance. Later, the Soviet Union and its satellites (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) in 1955 established the Warsaw Pact as a counterpoint to NATO. The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American-French-British nuclear umbrellas protected NATO.


title: History of Europe

text: Communist states were imposed by the Red Army in the East, while parliamentary democracy became the dominant form of government in the West. Most historians point to its success as the product of exhaustion with war and dictatorship, and the promise of continued economic prosperity. Martin Conway also adds that an important impetus came from the anti-Nazi wartime political coalitions.


title: History of Europe

text: The United States gave away about $20 billion in Marshall Plan grants and other grants and low-interest long-term loans to Western Europe, 1945 to 1951. Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing the economy and politics of Western Europe. It brought in modern management that dramatically increased productivity, and encouraged cooperation between labor and management, and among the member states. Local Communist parties were opposed, and they lost prestige and influence and a role in government. In strategic terms, says Hogan, the Marshall Plan strengthened the West against the possibility of a communist invasion or political takeover. However, the Marshall Plan's role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs from the United States. Economic historians Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was, " History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program." They state:


title: History of Europe

text: The Soviet Union concentrated on its own recovery. It seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It used trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the Soviet Union. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes:


title: History of Europe

text: Western Europe began economic and then political integration, with the aim to unite the region and defend it. This process included organisations such as the European Coal and Steel Community, which grew and evolved into the European Union, and the Council of Europe. The Solidarność movement in the 1980s weakened the Communist government in Poland. At the time the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated perestroika and glasnost, which weakened Soviet influence in Europe, particularly in the USSR. In 1989 after the Pan-European Picnic the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall came down and Communist governments outside the Soviet Union were deposed. In 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany absorbed East Germany, after making large cash payments to the USSR. In 1991 the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Moscow collapsed, ending the USSR, which split into fifteen independent states. The largest, Russia, took the Soviet Union's seat on the United Nations Security Council. The most violent dissolution happened in Yugoslavia, in the Balkans. Four (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state. In the post–Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact.


title: History of Europe

text: The post-war period also witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class. As noted by one historical text, "within a single generation, the working classes of Western Europe came to enjoy the multiple pleasures of the consumer society."


title: History of Europe

text: Western Europe's industrial nations in the 1970s were hit by a global economic crisis. They had obsolescent heavy industry, and suddenly had to pay very high energy prices which caused sharp inflation. Some of them also had inefficient nationalized railways and heavy industries. In the important field of computer technology, European nations lagged behind the United States. They also faced high government deficits and growing unrest led by militant labour unions. There was an urgent need for new economic directions. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring. Germany's efforts proved highly successful. In Britain under the premiership of Margaret Thatcher, the solution was shock therapy, high interest rates, austerity, and selling off inefficient corporations as well as the public housing, which was sold off to the tenants. One result was escalating social tensions in Britain, led by the militant coal miners. Thatcher eventually defeated her opponents and radically changed the British economy, but the controversy never went away as shown by the hostile demonstrations at the time of her death in 2013.


title: History of Europe

text: The end of the Cold War came in a series of events from 1979 to 1991, mainly in Eastern Europe. In the end, these brought the fall of the Iron Curtain, the German reunification and the end of Soviet control over their Eastern European satellites and their worldwide network of communist parties in a friendly chain reaction from the Pan-European Picnic in 1989. The finals brought the division of the Soviet Union into 15 non-communist states in 1991.


title: History of Europe

text: Following the end of the Cold War, the European Economic Community pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union, succeeding the EEC and furthering political co-operation. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that didn't join were tied into the EU's economic market via the European Economic Area. These countries also entered the Schengen Agreement which lifted border controls between member states.


title: History of Europe

text: The Maastricht Treaty created a single currency for most EU members. The "euro" was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002. The most notable exception to the currency union, or "eurozone", was the United Kingdom, which also did not sign the Schengen Agreement.


title: History of Europe

text: The EU did not participate in the Yugoslav Wars, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003–2011 Iraq War. NATO was part of the war in Afghanistan, but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States.


title: History of Europe

text: In 2004, the EU gained 10 new members. (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which had been part of the Soviet Union; Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia, five former-communist countries; Malta, and the divided island of Cyprus.) These were followed by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. Russia's regime had interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO's promise to not expand "one inch to the east" in 1990. Russia engaged in a number of bilateral disputes about gas supplies with Belarus and Ukraine which endangered gas supplies to Europe. Russia also engaged in a minor war with Georgia in 2008.


title: History of Europe

text: Supported by the United States and some European countries, Kosovo's government unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008.


title: History of Europe

text: Public opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The European Constitution was rejected in France and the Netherlands, and then (as the Treaty of Lisbon) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009.


title: History of Europe

text: The financial crisis of 2007–08 affected Europe, and government responded with austerity measures. Limited ability of the smaller EU nations (most notably Greece) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4 billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See European sovereign-debt crisis.


title: History of Europe

text: Beginning in 2014, Ukraine has been in a state of revolution and unrest with two breakaway regions (Donetsk and Lugansk) attempting to join Russia as full federal subjects. ("See Russo-Ukrainian War.") On 16 March, a disputed referendum was held in Crimea leading to the "de facto" secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized annexation to the Russian Federation as the Republic of Crimea.


title: History of Europe

text: In June 2016, in a referendum in the United Kingdom on the country's membership in the European Union, 52% of voters voted to leave the EU, leading to the complex Brexit separation process and negotiations, which led to political and economic changes for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020. Later that year, Europe was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: History of Europe

text: According to the "Wall Street Journal" in 2021 as Angela Merkel stepped down as the highly popular Chancellor of Germany after 16 years: Ms. Merkel leaves in her wake a weakened Europe, a region whose aspirations to act as a third superpower have come to seem ever more unrealistic. When she became chancellor in 2005, the EU was at a high point: It had adopted the euro, which was meant to rival the dollar as a global currency, and had just expanded by absorbing former members of the Soviet bloc. Today’s EU, by contrast, is geographically and economically diminished. Having lost the U.K. because of Brexit, it faces deep political and cultural divisions, lags behind in the global race for innovation and technology and is increasingly squeezed by the mounting U.S.-China strategic rivalry. Europe has endured thanks in part to Ms. Merkel’s pragmatic stewardship, but it has been battered by crises during her entire time in office.Russia began an invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that began in 2014. It is the largest conventional military attack in Europe since World War II.


title: SCADA

text: Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a control system architecture comprising computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level supervision of machines and processes. It also covers sensors and other devices, such as programmable logic controllers, which interface with process plant or machinery.


title: SCADA

text: The operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, like controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. The subordinated operations, e.g. the real-time control logic or controller calculations, are performed by networked modules connected to the field sensors and actuators.


title: SCADA

text: The SCADA concept was developed to be a universal means of remote-access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers and allowing access through standard automation protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to distributed control systems in function, while using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance. It is one of the most commonly-used types of industrial control systems, in spite of concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare/cyberterrorism attacks.


title: SCADA

text: The key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.


title: SCADA

text: The accompanying diagram is a general model which shows functional manufacturing levels using computerised control.


title: SCADA

text: Level 2 contains the SCADA to readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (Human Machine Interface) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a historian, often built on a commodity database management system, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.


title: SCADA

text: SCADA systems typically use a "tag database", which contains data elements called "tags" or "points", which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.


title: SCADA

text: Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of control loops, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:


title: SCADA

text: However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.


title: SCADA

text: This is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.


title: SCADA

text: Remote terminal units, also known as (RTUs), connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs have embedded control capabilities and often conform to the IEC 61131-3 standard for programming and support automation via ladder logic, a function block diagram or a variety of other languages. Remote locations often have little or no local infrastructure so it is not uncommon to find RTUs running off a small solar power system, using radio, GSM or satellite for communications, and being ruggedised to survive from -20C to +70C or even -40C to +85C without external heating or cooling equipment.


title: SCADA

text: Also known as PLCs, these are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system. In factory automation, PLCs typically have a high speed connection to the SCADA system. In remote applications, such as a large water treatment plant, PLCs may connect directly to SCADA over a wireless link, or more commonly, utilise an RTU for the communications management. PLCs are specifically designed for control and were the founding platform for the IEC 61131-3 programming languages. For economical reasons, PLCs are often used for remote sites where there is a large I/O count, rather than utilising an RTU alone.


title: SCADA

text: This connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols.


title: SCADA

text: Both RTU's and PLC's operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.


title: SCADA

text: The human-machine interface (HMI) is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc.


title: SCADA

text: Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols.


title: SCADA

text: Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time.


title: SCADA

text: The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway.


title: SCADA

text: A "historian", is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.


title: SCADA

text: An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.


title: SCADA

text: Alarm conditions can be explicit—for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points—or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.


title: SCADA

text: Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the "fuel tank empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.


title: SCADA

text: "Smart" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of five programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language like C or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.


title: SCADA

text: A programmable automation controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, "distributed RTUs" use information processors or station computers to communicate with digital protective relays, PACs, and other devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.


title: SCADA

text: Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer.


title: SCADA

text: The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment.


title: SCADA

text: SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although SONET/SDH is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.


title: SCADA

text: SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP/IP. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as TCP/IP, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements. Network simulation can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.


title: SCADA

text: With increasing security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and critical infrastructure protection (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.


title: SCADA

text: RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to "lock in" their customer base. A list of automation protocols is compiled here.


title: SCADA

text: An example of efforts by vendor groups to standardize automation protocols is the OPC-UA (formerly "OLE for process control" now Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture).


title: SCADA

text: Early SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system. Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as "turn key" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11 series.


title: SCADA

text: SCADA information and command processing were distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.


title: SCADA

text: Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a process control network (PCN) and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.


title: SCADA

text: The growth of the internet has led SCADA systems to implement web technologies allowing users to view data, exchange information and control processes from anywhere in the world through web SOCKET connection. The early 2000s saw the proliferation of Web SCADA systems. Web SCADA systems use internet browsers such as Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox as the graphical user interface (GUI) for the operators HMI. This simplifies the client side installation and enables users to access the system from various platforms with web browsers such as servers, personal computers, laptops, tablets and mobile phones.


title: SCADA

text: SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure. The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types of network attacks that are relatively common in computer security. For example, United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including password hashes from an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing a standard attack type leveraging access to the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability in a Wonderware InBatchClient ActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard patching practices and requiring VPN access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to cyber attacks.


title: SCADA

text: SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.


title: SCADA

text: There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of cryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like Information Security with a defense in depth strategy that leverages common IT practices. Apart from that, research has shown that the architecture of SCADA systems has several other vulnerabilities, including direct tampering with RTUs, communication links from RTUs to the control center, and IT software and databases in the control center. The RTUs could, for instance, be targets of deception attacks injecting false data or denial-of-service attacks.


title: SCADA

text: The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council's sewage control system in Queensland, Australia. Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.


title: SCADA

text: In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: "SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation’s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation’s recovery from such an assault."


title: SCADA

text: Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPN solutions for TCP/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.


title: SCADA

text: The International Society of Automation (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 "deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices".


title: SCADA

text: The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community. In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication and Advanced Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.


title: SCADA

text: In June 2010, anti-virus security company VirusBlokAda reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' WinCC/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called Stuxnet and uses four zero-day attacks to install a rootkit which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files. The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.


title: SCADA

text: In October 2013 "National Geographic" released a docudrama titled "American Blackout" which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.


title: Bona (singer)

text: Kim Ji-yeon (; born August 19, 1995), better known by her stage name Bona, is a South Korean singer and actress. She is a member of the South Korean-Chinese girl group WJSN, and also its sub-unit WJSN The Black. She made her acting debut in the KBS2 drama "Hit the Top" (2017), and was cast as the female lead in the teen drama "Girls' Generation 1979" (2018). Most recently, Bona gained recognition for her portrayal as world champion and gold medalist fencer Ko Yu-rim in the tvN drama "Twenty-Five Twenty-One" (2022).


title: Bona (singer)

text: Bona was born on August 19, 1995, in Dalseo District, Daegu, South Korea. She graduated from Dongguk Girls' High School.


title: Bona (singer)

text: Before joining Starship Entertainment, Bona was a trainee under Cube Entertainment and trained with them before joining Starship Entertainment in 2013.


title: Bona (singer)

text: She was revealed to be a member of WJSN and its Wonder Unit on December 15, 2015, and proceeded to debut with them on February 25, 2016, with their debut mini-album "Would You Like?" and the single "MoMoMo".


title: Bona (singer)

text: In 2017, she made her acting debut in the KBS2 drama "Hit the Top", and was cast as the female lead in the teen drama "Girls' Generation 1979". She made a cameo in "Radio Romance" in 2018, before her second lead role in "Your House Helper". Bona was revealed to have joined the cast of "Law of the Jungle in Northern Mariana Islands".


title: Bona (singer)

text: In 2020, Bona joined the KBS2 drama "Homemade Love Story", playing as Lee Hae-deun. She earned the Best New Actress at the 2020 KBS Drama Awards for her acting in the series.


title: Bona (singer)

text: In 2022, Bona rose to prominence for her role as a world champion and gold medalist fencer alongside Kim Tae-ri and Nam Joo-hyuk in the tvN drama "Twenty-Five Twenty-One". The drama became one of the highest-rated Korean dramas in cable television history.


title: Bona (singer)

text: After scheduling conflicts with the filming of "Twenty-Five Twenty-One", Bona joined WJSN in the third round of Mnet competition show "Queendom," which the group ultimately won in June 2022.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Game Night is a 2018 American action comedy film directed by John Francis Daley and Jonathan Goldstein and written by Mark Perez. It stars Jason Bateman and Rachel McAdams and follows a group of friends whose game night turns into a real-life mystery after one of them is kidnapped. The film's supporting cast includes Billy Magnussen, Sharon Horgan, Lamorne Morris, Kylie Bunbury, Jesse Plemons, Michael C. Hall, and Kyle Chandler.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Warner Bros. Pictures released the film on February 23, 2018. It was a commercial and critical success, grossing $117 million worldwide and receiving praise for its originality, humor, script and performances. Plemons was nominated for the Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Husband and wife Max and Annie are avid gamers. They met at bar trivia and Max proposed during a game of charades. Their plans for a baby are complicated by Max's feelings of inadequacy when compared to his successful brother Brooks. They host a regular game night with their friend Ryan and married couple Kevin and Michelle, which they struggle to keep secret from their socially awkward police officer neighbor Gary, especially after he was crushed following his divorce from their other friend Debbie.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Brooks arrives in Max’s dream car (a Corvette Stingray), humiliates him with a childhood story and offends Annie (who assumed Max was overthinking his issues with Brooks) by offering to host their next game night himself.


title: Game Night (film)

text: When the guests, including Ryan's new date Sarah, arrive at Brooks' rental house, Brooks reveals that he has initiated an interactive role-playing mystery game, promising the winner his Corvette. An actor enters to begin the game but is knocked unconscious by two masked men who kidnap Brooks. Believing this is part of the game, the couples passively observe the fight and then split up to solve the mystery. Ryan and Sarah visit the role-playing company’s office to offer a bribe for the final clue. Kevin and Michelle talk to the actor, leading them to realize Brooks’ abduction was real.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Meanwhile, Max and Annie track Brooks’ phone to a bar and use a “fake” pistol Brooks dropped to hold his captors at gunpoint and free him but Max is shot in the arm after Annie plays with it. Realizing they’re in actual danger, they flee as Brooks confesses that he is a black marketeer: he procured a Fabergé egg for a criminal known as "the Bulgarian" but instead sold it to someone with the alias "Marlon Freeman". With his kidnappers in pursuit, Brooks jumps out of the car to allow Max and Annie to escape.


title: Game Night (film)

text: The couples regroup and, unable to go to the police, decide to recover the egg from Freeman to deliver to the Bulgarian. They show up at Gary's, distracting him with the pretense of a game night while Max uses his police computer to discover Freeman’s real name, Donald Anderton, and his address. After Max accidentally bleeds all over Gary's dog and a shrine dedicated to Debbie, the group leaves and receives a phone call to meet the kidnappers in one hour.


title: Game Night (film)

text: They sneak into Anderton's mansion, where he is hosting an underground fight club. Searching for the egg, Michelle admits to Kevin that she once slept with a man she thought was Denzel Washington while they were on a break, but Kevin determines him to be a celebrity impersonator after seeing a picture of him, and Max tells Annie he may not be ready to have a child. Ryan spots the egg in an open safe, leading to a game of keep away with Anderton’s guards. The group escapes with the egg but accidentally break it, revealing a list inside.


title: Game Night (film)

text: The group meets with Brooks and his captors, only to be captured themselves. Brooks reveals that he has always been jealous of Max’s life and intended for him to win the Corvette all along. They are saved by Gary, who is shot in the chest. Max and Annie comfort him by promising to invite him to every future game night, and he reveals that he faked the entire abduction — including hiring the kidnappers — to trick them into letting him rejoin game night.


title: Game Night (film)

text: He is, however, unaware of the list, which he recognizes as a Witsec list, and they are cornered by the real Bulgarian. Max offers the list in exchange for their lives, but a desperate Brooks swallows the list and is taken to the Bulgarian’s plane. Max and Annie race to the airport in the Corvette and manage to stop the plane, subdue the Bulgarian and his henchman, and rescue Brooks; Max realizes he wants to be a father after all.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Three months later, Brooks is under house arrest for his crimes, but has sold the list on the black market for $3 million (after tipping off the witnesses for $20,000 each). He hosts game night for the group, including Gary, and Annie reveals she is pregnant through a game of Pictionary, while armed men arrive outside. In a mid-credits sequence, Gary looks over his plans to rejoin game night, while in a post-credits scene, his ex-wife Debbie meets Kenny, the Denzel Washington lookalike.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Additionally, the film's directors John Francis Daley and Jonathan Goldstein cameo as Carter and Dan, respectively. Kenny (credited as "Not Denzel") is portrayed by Malcolm X. Hughes, a part-time Denzel Washington impersonator. Jeffrey Wright makes an uncredited cameo as an actor playing Agent Ron Henderson, an FBI Agent.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Producer John Fox had the film's title, and asked screenwriter Mark Perez for story ideas. Perez took inspiration from films like "Three Amigos" and "Tropic Thunder." He pitched the concept to 20th Century Fox, who liked it. The two pitched the project to Jason Bateman, who also liked it. They then sold the idea to New Line Cinema around 2013-2014. Bateman was initially slated to direct, as well as produce and star in the film. When screenwriters Jonathan Goldstein and John Francis Daley were hired to rewrite Perez's script, it became clear to Bateman that the two would also want to direct the film, so Bateman stepped down.


title: Game Night (film)

text: On May 24, 2016, New Line Cinema hired Goldstein and Francis Daley to rewrite and direct the film "Game Night", which Jason Bateman produced through Aggregate Films. While Daley and Goldstein did not receive screenwriter credit, they later said they rewrote "almost all of the original script’s dialogue, totally overhauled the characters — most notably a creepy cop portrayed by Jesse Plemons — and comprehensively reworked the original script’s third act."


title: Game Night (film)

text: In January 2017, Rachel McAdams, Bateman, and Plemons were cast in the film's lead roles. In February 2017, Kylie Bunbury joined the cast, while in March, Lamorne Morris, Billy Magnussen, Kyle Chandler, and Sharon Horgan were also added. In April 2017, Jeffrey Wright was cast in the film as an FBI agent, a role he ultimately played uncredited.


title: Game Night (film)

text: Warner Bros. Pictures had originally scheduled "Game Night" for release on February 14, 2018. The date was later pushed back to March 2, 2018, before being moved up to February 23, 2018.


title: Game Night (film)

text: "Game Night" grossed $69.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $48.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $117.7 million, against a production budget of $37 million.


title: Game Night (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Game Night" was released alongside "Annihilation" and "Every Day", and was projected to gross $13–21 million from 3,488 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $5.6 million on its first day (including $1 million from Thursday night previews). It ended up grossing $17 million over the weekend, finishing second, behind holdover "Black Panther". The film dropped 38.8% (above average for a comedy) in its second weekend to $10.4 million, and finished 4th, behind "Black Panther" and newcomers "Red Sparrow" and "Death Wish". It made $7.9 million in its third weekend, $5.6 million in its fourth and $4.1 million in its fifth.


title: Game Night (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "With a talented cast turned loose on a loaded premise — and a sharp script loaded with dark comedy and unexpected twists — "Game Night" might be more fun than the real thing." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported that 78% of filmgoers gave it a positive score. Many critics noted the similarity of the plot to that of "The Man Who Knew Too Little".


title: Game Night (film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety", gave the film a positive review, saying "Even at 100 minutes, "Game Night" pushes its premise to the wall of synthetic escapism. Yet the movie manipulates its audience in cunning and puckish ways. It's no big whoop, but you're happy to have been played."


title: Game Night (film)

text: Richard Lawson of "Vanity Fair" gave the film a positive review, but wrote: "It's a good time, but it maybe could have been a great one. Which I suppose is true of so many nights meant to deliver us from the doldrums of settled life." Jon Frosch of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "There are chuckles here and there, but a striking absence of belly laughs".


title: Game Night (film)

text: During the film's opening weekend, screenwriter Mark Perez discussed the possibility of a sequel, saying "It would be great to have sequels. Super titles like "Game Night" or specific titles like that feel genetically built to have sequels... That would mean the movie did well, and that's all I really care about at this stage."


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: Madagascar is an American computer-animated media franchise owned and produced by DreamWorks Animation. The voices of Ben Stiller, Chris Rock, David Schwimmer and Jada Pinkett Smith are featured in the films. It began with the 2005 film "Madagascar", the 2008 sequel "" and the third film "" in 2012. A spin off film featuring the penguins, titled "Penguins of Madagascar", was released in 2014. A fourth film, "Madagascar 4", was announced for 2018, but has since been removed from its schedule due to the studio's restructuring.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: The overall plot through the series follows the adventures of four anthropomorphic Central Park Zoo animals who have spent their lives in blissful captivity and are unexpectedly shipped back to Africa (to Madagascar initially). Now they must struggle to survive while attempting to return to New York City with the help of a crafty cadre of penguins and with many other characters along the way. The franchise's films have received mixed-to-positive critical reviews.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madagascar" is a 2005 computer animated comedy film and the first film in the series. Directed by Eric Darnell and Tom McGrath, the film tells the story of four Central Park Zoo animals: Alex the lion (Ben Stiller), Marty the zebra (Chris Rock), Melman the giraffe (David Schwimmer) and Gloria the hippo (Jada Pinkett Smith). These animals have spent their lives in comfortable captivity and are unexpectedly shipwrecked on the island of Madagascar.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "" is a 2008 computer animated comedy/adventure film and the sequel to the 2005 film "Madagascar". Directed by Eric Darnell and Tom McGrath, the film continues the adventures of Alex, Marty, Melman and Gloria, try to fly back to New York, but they crash-land in Africa, where Alex is reunited with his parents Zuba (Bernie Mac) and Florrie (Sherri Shepherd). However, a lion named Makunga (Alec Baldwin) is planning to overthrow Zuba and become alpha lion.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "" is a 2012 computer animated comedy film, and the third installment in the series, directed by Eric Darnell and Tom McGrath, along with Conrad Vernon. Alex, Marty, Gloria and Melman are still struggling to get home to New York. This time, their journey takes them to Europe where they purchase a failing traveling circus as they become close friends with the staff like Stefano the sea lion (Martin Short), Vitaly the tiger (Bryan Cranston), Gia the jaguar (Jessica Chastain) and Sonya the bear (Frank Welker), King Julien's (Sacha Baron Cohen) true love. Together, they spectacularly revitalize the business even as the fanatical Monaco Animal Control officer Captain Chantel DuBois (Frances McDormand) relentlessly pursues them. In the end, the zoo animals finally get back to New York, only to find that they have grown too much in spirit to return to captivity and decide to stay with the circus instead.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg has stated that there is likely to be a fourth installment in the franchise stating: "Ultimately they will come back to New York and they will come to terms with that, which they will do in this next chapter. Because of the way that movie concludes there’s probably one more for them." However, in June 2012, DreamWorks Animation's head of worldwide marketing, Anne Globe, said, "It's too early to tell. There hasn't been a lot of discussion about that." Eric Darnell, who co-directed all three films, spoke of the possibility of the fourth film, noting, "Two things have to happen. One is that the world has to want "Madagascar 4", because if they don't want it, it doesn't matter what we do. And the other thing is even if the world wants "Madagascar 4", we have to make sure that we have an idea that is incredible, that is great, that is unexpected. If the audience wants it and we have a great idea, we will see – maybe." On June 12, 2014, the film was scheduled to be released on May 18, 2018. In January 2015, "Madagascar 4" was removed from the release schedule following corporate restructuring and DreamWorks Animation's new policy to release two films a year. In April 2017, Tom McGrath said about the film: "There are things in the works, nothing is announced yet, but I think they'll show their faces once more..."


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: A spin-off film featuring the penguins had been in the works since 2005, when the first "Madagascar" film had been released, with a release date planned for 2009. In March 2011, it was announced that the penguin characters would be given their own feature film, similar to the 2011 "Puss in Boots" movie, to be directed by Simon J. Smith (the co-director of "Bee Movie"), produced by Lara Breay and written by Alan J. Schoolcraft and Brent Simons (the writers of DreamWorks' "Megamind"). In July 2012, at Comic-Con, it was announced that the film, titled "The Penguins of Madagascar", would be released in 2015. Robert Schooley, one of the producers of "The Penguins" series, said that the film will be unrelated to the TV series of the same name, but he did say that could always change. In September 2012, 20th Century Fox and DreamWorks Animation announced the release date for March 27, 2015, and a new pair of writers, Michael Colton and John Aboud. In August 2013, it was reported that Benedict Cumberbatch would voice Agent Classified from the North Wind and John Malkovich the film's charming villain, Dr. Octavius Brine (a.k.a. Dave the octopus). On May 20, 2014, the film's release date was moved up to November 26, 2014, switching places with DreamWorks Animation's other film "Home".


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "The Penguins of Madagascar" is a spin-off television series that aired on Nickelodeon. The series follows the adventures of the four penguins: Skipper (the leader of the group), Kowalski (the smartest), Rico (the craziest) and Private (the youngest) in New York City's Central Park Zoo. The penguins rule the roost at their Central Park habitat, carrying out secret missions in the heart of the city. At times, their missions beckon them to venture outside the zoo. King Julien, the primary antagonist, is also a resident of the zoo (though it is unknown how he, Maurice, and Mort got there) and the penguins must compete against him to maintain order in the zoo. While Tom McGrath, John DiMaggio, Conrad Vernon and Andy Richter reprised their roles as Skipper, Rico, Mason and Mort respectively, Jeff Bennett replaced Chris Miller as Kowalski, James Patrick Stuart replaced Christopher Knights as Private, Danny Jacobs replaced Sacha Baron Cohen as Julien and Kevin Michael Richardson replaced Cedric the Entertainer as Maurice. The series also features a new character, Marlene, an otter voiced by Nicole Sullivan.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "All Hail King Julien" is the second spin-off television series. It stars King Julien and set before the events of the first film. The series debuted on December 19, 2014, on Netflix, when the first five 22-minute episodes were released. The series features the voices of Danny Jacobs (replacing Sacha Baron Cohen and reprising his role from "The Penguins of Madagascar") as King Julien; Henry Winkler as Julien's regal predecessor, Uncle King Julien; Andy Richter as Mort; Kevin Michael Richardson (replacing Cedric the Entertainer and reprising his role from "The Penguins of Madagascar") as Maurice; and India de Beaufort as Clover, the king's special-ops expert.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "" is the third animated spin-off television series that premiered on Hulu and Peacock on September 7, 2020. It's the second prequel in the franchise, centering on the younger versions of the four main characters that first appeared in "Madagascar" (2005), and the first television series in the franchise starring them (though Alex has made one-off appearances in previous series).


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper" is a computer-animated short film, which premiered in theaters on October 7, 2005 with the stop-motion film, "". The short was directed by animation veteran Gary Trousdale, produced by Teresa Cheng, and written by Michael Lachance. Set on Christmas Eve, the 12-minute film features four penguins from Central Park Zoo who discover that one of them has gone missing.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madly Madagascar" is a direct-to-DVD Valentine's Day-themed short film released on January 29, 2013, starring all the main characters from the "Madagascar" film series. The story appears to take place sometime between the second and third films. It featured many of the same voice actors as the films, including Ben Stiller, Chris Rock, David Schwimmer, and Jada Pinkett Smith. However, voice actor Danny Jacobs once again replaced Sacha Baron Cohen as the voice of the character King Julien. King Julien finds a love potion and starts selling it to members of the watering hole, making Marty attractive to all the animals. Skipper and the penguins organise a rescue mission for his doll girlfriend.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "All Hail King Julien: New Year's Eve Countdown" is a three-minute computer-animated film about celebrating the new year in Madagascar.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Merry Madagascar" is a Christmas special first broadcast on NBC in November 2009, which starred the characters from the "Madagascar" film series. The story appears to takes place sometime between the first and second films. It featured many of the same voice actors as the films, including Ben Stiller, Chris Rock, David Schwimmer, and Jada Pinkett Smith. However, voice actor Danny Jacobs replaced Sacha Baron Cohen as the voice of the character King Julien. Carl Reiner provided the voice of Santa Claus. Santa Claus crash lands in his sleigh on Madagascar and loses his memory after Alex shoots him down, leaving him, Marty, Gloria and Melman to be Santa for the night. King Julien realizes that Christmas is about giving and not receiving.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: The film series has grossed over $2.2 billion, making it the sixth highest-grossing animated franchise (behind "Despicable Me", "Shrek", "Ice Age", "Toy Story" and "The Lion King"), and the second highest-grossing DreamWorks Animation franchise (behind "Shrek").


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: The series is notable for its steadily improving critical reception, with each mainline film receiving better reviews than the last. Its reception among audiences has remained consistently positive throughout its run.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madagascar Live!" is a 90-minute theatre show based on the "Madagascar" film. Produced by DreamWorks Theatricals and Broadway Across America, it was directed by Gip Hoppe as the DreamWorks Animation's second stage production after "Shrek the Musical". The tour started on January 28, 2011, in York, Pennsylvania, and was expected to visit more than 70 cities across the United States. After a show in New York's Radio City Music Hall, on April 24, 2011, "Madagascar Live!" was cancelled in the United States, citing "unforeseen circumstances" as the reason. "Madagascar Live!" then toured the United Kingdom, visiting nine cities between January 2013 and March 2013.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madagascar Live! Prepare to Party" is a 20-minute live stage show featuring Alex, King Julien, Gloria, Mort and The Penguins as they each present their special party games while dancing and singing. The show premiered in 2012 in an Africa area at the UK theme park Chessington World of Adventures, and in DreamWorks Experience at the Australian theme park Dreamworld. The show has now closed at Chessington and only operates at Dreamworld.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madagascar Live! It's Circus Time" is a 30-minute live show, based on the film "Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted". The story follows the characters of "Madagascar" to a circus, where they try to avoid being captured by the animal control officer Captain Dubois by blending among its artists, performing stunts, singing and dancing. The show opened in 2012, in Everland Resort, in South Korea, and in 2013 in Heide Park, Germany, and in Gardaland, Italy.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madagascar Live! Operation: Vacation" is a 20-minute live stage show featuring Alex, Gloria, King Julien, Mort and The Penguins along with live singers, a live band and dancers. The show opened in 2013 at Busch Gardens Tampa and SeaWorld San Diego. The show closed at SeaWorld in January 2015 and at Busch Gardens in September 2015.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: In 2018, a stage musical titled "Madagascar The Musical" debuted in the United Kingdom. Since then, it also played in Malaysia, Hong Kong, and New Zealand.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: "Madagascar Madness" is one of the three areas at the DreamWorks Experience themed land which is part of Australian theme park Dreamworld. It consists of suspended roller coaster "Escape from Madagascar", a show stage "King Julien's Theatre in the Wild", a ball play area "MAD Jungle Jam" and a merchandise shop "Madagascar Cargo Hold".


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: A "Madagascar"-themed tower called "Madagascar Rain Forest" with 15 water slides opened at DreamWorks Water Park on October 1, 2020.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: Madagascar was one of the seven themed lands in Universal Studios Singapore, and it featured lush tropical jungles as well as a water ride and a carousel King Julien's Beach Party-Go-Round.


title: Madagascar (franchise)

text: The 1993 music track "I Like to Move It," performed by Reel 2 Real, features prominently in the film series. The first film used a version recorded by Sacha Baron Cohen in character as King Julien. Other versions of the song have been used throughout the franchise, with the lyrics changed or altered to match with each film's plot and the film's subject matter. The original version also appeared in the first and last episode of the "Madagascar" Netflix series "All Hail King Julien" and the "Afro Circus/I Like to Move It" tune was played near the start of the Madagascar spin-off film "Penguins of Madagascar". The song was also included in the stage adaptation, again sung by King Julien.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada () is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges that forms the western "backbone" of the Americas.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra runs north-south and its width ranges from to across east–west. Notable features include General Sherman, the largest tree in the world by volume; Lake Tahoe, the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at , the highest point in the contiguous United States; and Yosemite Valley sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite, containing high waterfalls. The Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty wilderness areas, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks; and Devils Postpile National Monument.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: More than one hundred million years ago during the Nevadan orogeny, granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift less than five million years ago, and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. The California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to its inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range (Santa Cruz Mountains), the term "Sierra Nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior. In 1776, Pedro Font's map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The literal translation is "snowy mountains", from "sierra" "a range of mountains", 1610s, from Spanish "sierra" "jagged mountain range", lit. "saw", from Latin "serra" "a saw"; and from fem. of Spanish "nevado" "snowy".


title: Sierra Nevada

text: While many mountain ranges are unanimously referred to in the plural (Smokies, Rockies, Cascades, etc.), since "Sierra" is already pluralized in its native language, some locals who live in "the Sierra" are not hesitant to admonish those who refer to the area as "the Sierras". However, there are historical and literary references that use the plural, such as the 1871 collection of Joaquin Miller poems, "Songs of the Sierras".


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada lies primarily in central and eastern California, with the Carson Range, a small but historically important spur, extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from in the Central Valley to more than atop the highest peaks of its crest to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment. Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada's irregular northern boundary stretches from the Susan River and Fredonyer Pass to the North Fork Feather River. It represents where the granitic bedrock of the Sierra Nevada dives below the southern extent of Cenozoic igneous surface rock from the Cascade Range. It is bounded on the west by California's Central Valley, on the east by the Basin and Range Province, and on the southeast by the Mojave Desert. The southern boundary is at Tehachapi Pass.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade–Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under the Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range."


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco. The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather, Yuba, and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and Kern rivers, which flow into the endorheic basin of Tulare Lake, which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake, the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake, the Carson River runs into Carson Sink, the Walker River into Walker Lake; Rush, Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from to more than . The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell (). The Sierra rises to almost with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California. Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at , the highest point in the contiguous United States.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: South of Mount Whitney, the elevation of the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost near Lake Isabella, but south of the lake, the peaks reach only a modest .


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Communities in the Sierra Nevada include Paradise, South Lake Tahoe, Truckee, Grass Valley, Mammoth Lakes, Sonora, Nevada City, Placerville, Pollock Pines, Portola, Auburn, Colfax and Kennedy Meadows.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of federal lands and is either protected from development or strictly managed. The mountain range is home to three National ParksYosemite, Kings Canyon, and Sequoiaand two national monumentsDevils Postpile and Giant Sequoia. Ten national forests span much of the mountain range's remaining area. Within these national parks, monuments, and forests lie 26 wilderness areas, which together protect 15.4% of the Sierra's from logging and grazing.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada. Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in the southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age, the oldest being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region. These dark-colored hornfels, slates, marbles, and schists are found in the western foothills (notably around Coarsegold, west of the Tehachapi Pass) and east of the Sierra Crest. The earliest granite of the Sierra started to form in the Triassic period. This granite is mostly found east of the crest and north of 37.2°N. In the Triassic and into the Jurassic, an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny. Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley, which is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: In the Cretaceous, a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent. This means that an oceanic plate started to dive beneath the North American plate. Magma, formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate, rose in plumes (plutons) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith. These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma. The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra. The Sierra Nevada formed the western margin of a high plateau to the east, the Nevadaplano.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Twenty million years ago, crustal extension associated with the Basin and Range Province caused extensive volcanism in the Sierra. About 10 Ma, the Sierra Nevada started to form when a block of crust between the Coast Range and the Basin and Range Province started to tilt to the west as heat from the Basin and Range extension thinned the eastern part of the block, making it more buoyant than the western portion of the block. Rivers started cutting deep canyons on both sides of the range. Lava filled some of these canyons, which have subsequently eroded leaving table mountains that follow the old river channels.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout the Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Uplift of the Sierra Nevada continues today, especially along its eastern side. This uplift causes large earthquakes, such as the Lone Pine earthquake of 1872.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from where it occurs mostly as snow above . Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between elevation, due to orographic lift. Above , precipitation diminishes on the western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow, and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year. While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms are common, particularly during the North American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in a short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average . Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example, Tuolumne Meadows, at elevation, has winter daily highs about with daily lows about . The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation. The highest elevations of the Sierra have an alpine climate.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California. Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin. This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada being the driest state in the United States.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of the range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle. Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000, including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett. Hypotheses that the crashes are related in some way to the United States Air Force's Area 51, or to the activities of extra-terrestrial aliens, have no evidence to support them.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones, each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species. Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone is higher in the east. A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below:


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on the western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tübatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with its obsidian arrowheads. The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains. Washo and Maidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions, "pueblos" (towns), "presidios" (forts), and "ranchos" along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada. The first Americans to visit the mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith, crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California. Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between the Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley. The Walker Party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of giant sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees, but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont, accompanied by Kit Carson, was the first American to see Lake Tahoe. The Frémont party camped at .


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma, in the western foothills of the Sierra. On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River. Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"


title: Sierra Nevada

text: On August 19, 1848, the "New York Herald" was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress. Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships. Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams. However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields. In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US$15 billion in December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking". A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers. , many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world. The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush drove Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored. The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer, Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King, explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863. In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon. In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range, and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley, mistakenly believing he had summited Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range. In 1873, Mount Whitney was climbed for the first time by 3 men from Lone Pine, CA on a fishing trip. From 1892 to 1897 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra. Bolton Coit Brown explored the Kings River watershed in 1895–1899. Joseph N. LeConte mapped the area around Yosemite National Park and what would become Kings Canyon National Park. James S. Hutchinson, a noted mountaineer, climbed the Palisades (1904) and Mount Humphreys (1905). By 1912, the USGS published a set of maps of the Sierra Nevada, and the era of exploration was over.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Yosemite Valley was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park. John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of giant sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to the Park in 1906. In the same year, Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: In 1903, the city of San Francisco proposed building a hydroelectric dam to flood Hetch Hetchy Valley. The city and the Sierra Club argued over the dam for 10 years, until the U.S. Congress passed the Raker Act in 1913 and allowed dam building to proceed. O'Shaughnessy Dam was completed in 1923.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park. None of these efforts succeeded, and after World War II, towns such as South Lake Tahoe grew around the shores of the lake. By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000, while the summer population grew to 90,000. The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water. In order to preserve the lake's clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: As the 20th century progressed, more of the Sierra became available for recreation; other forms of economic activity decreased. The John Muir Trail, a trail that followed the Sierra crest from Yosemite Valley to Mount Whitney, was funded in 1915 and finished in 1938. Kings Canyon National Park was formed in 1940 to protect the deep canyon of the Kings River.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: In the 1920s, automobile clubs and nearby towns started to lobby for trans-Sierra highways over Piute Pass (which would have closed the gap in SR 168) and other locations. However, by end of the 1920s, the Forest Service and the Sierra Club decided that roadless wilderness in the Sierra was valuable, and fought the proposal. The Piute Pass proposal faded out by the early 1930s, with the Forest Service proposing a route over Minaret Summit in 1933. The Minaret Summit route was lobbied against by California's Governor Ronald Reagan in 1972. The expansion of the John Muir and Ansel Adams Wildernesses in the 1980s sealed off the Minaret Summit route.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: A trans-Sierra route between Porterville and Lone Pine was proposed by local businessmen in 1923. Eventually, a circuitous route across the Sierra was built across Sherman Pass by 1976.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: By 1964, the Wilderness Act protected portions of the Sierra as primitive areas where humans are simply temporary visitors. Gradually, 20 wilderness areas were established to protect scenic backcountry of the Sierra. These wilderness areas include the John Muir Wilderness (protecting the eastern slope of the Sierra and the area between Yosemite and Kings Canyon Parks), and wilderness within each of the National Parks.


title: Sierra Nevada

text: The Sierra Nevada still faces a number of issues that threaten its conservation. Logging occurs on both private and public lands, including controversial clearcut methods and thinning logging on private and public lands. Grazing occurs on private lands as well as on National Forest lands, which include Wilderness areas. Overgrazing can alter hydrologic processes and vegetation composition, remove vegetation that serves as food and habitat for native species, and contribute to sedimentation and pollution in waterways. A recent increase in large wildfires like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the Eldorado National Forest, has prompted concerns. A 2015 study indicated that the increase in fire risk in California may be attributable to human-induced climate change. A study looking back over 8,000 years found that warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and more stand-replacing fires and concluded that as climate is such a powerful influence on wildfires, trying to recreate presettlement forest structure is likely impossible in a warmer future.


title: Stacey Dooley

text: Stacey Jaclyn Dooley (born 9 March 1987) is an English television presenter, journalist, and media personality. She came to prominence in 2008 when she appeared as a participant on "Blood, Sweat and T-shirts". Since then, she has made social-issue-themed television documentaries for BBC Three, concerning child labour and women in developing countries.


title: Stacey Dooley

text: Dooley was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2018 Birthday Honours for services to broadcasting. In 2018, she won the sixteenth series of "Strictly Come Dancing" with dance partner and now boyfriend Kevin Clifton. From 2019 to 2020, Dooley presented "".


title: Stacey Dooley

text: In 2018, Dooley published her debut book, "Stacey Dooley: On the Front Line with the Women Who Fight Back," which became a "Sunday Times" Bestseller.


title: Stacey Dooley

text: Stacey Jaclyn Dooley was born on 9 March 1987 in Luton, Bedfordshire. Her father was from Ireland, and left the family when she was two years old. He was an alcoholic who died when Dooley was in her 20s before they could reconcile. She grew up in Luton and studied at Stopsley High School. She left school at 15 and worked as a shop assistant, selling perfumes at Luton Airport. She also worked in a hairdresser's salon in Bramingham. Dooley admitted to going through a short phase of shoplifting with her friends during her youth in Luton. Around that time, she also dated a drug dealer.


title: Stacey Dooley

text: Dooley first appeared on television in April 2008 when she travelled to India as one of the participants on the documentary television series "Blood, Sweat and T-shirts". Dooley and the other participants were selected to illustrate the typical fashion-obsessed consumer. Thanks to her appearance on the show, and partly because of her interest in labour laws in developing countries, a series was commissioned with Dooley as presenter. "Stacey Dooley Investigates" began in August 2009 and a two-part special was shown on BBC Three throughout August and September 2009. It also aired in Australia on ABC2 from 2 June 2010. In October 2010, BBC Three aired two further programmes, the first on former child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo and the second on sex trafficking and underage sex slavery in Cambodia.


title: Stacey Dooley

text: In 2011, BBC Three aired "Tourism and the Truth: Stacey Dooley Investigates". Over two episodes, Dooley investigated how tourism in Thailand and Kenya affects employees there, in particular with regard to wages, corruption and environmental changes. Dooley also presented the CBBC series "Show Me What You're Made Of".


title: Stacey Dooley

text: Filmed in Dooley's hometown of Luton, "My Hometown Fanatics" was broadcast on BBC Three on 20 February 2012. In the programme, Dooley interviewed Islamists and the English Defence League. A three-part series titled "Coming Here Soon" was broadcast on BBC Three in June and July 2012, in which Dooley explored the lives of young people in three countries affected by the global financial crisis: Greece, Ireland and Japan. The programme on Japan was criticised by some because it ignored the Samaritans guidelines on reporting of suicide. While Dooley was in the United States in 2012, she created two series of "Stacey Dooley in the USA" where she investigated issues affecting teens across America such as: "Girls Behind Bars, Border Wars, Homelessness" and "Kids in the Crossfire". In 2015, Dooley created the documentary series "Beaten By My Boyfriend" where she investigated domestic abuse within the UK.