title: Andrew Upton

text: Andrew Upton (born 1 February 1966) is an Australian playwright, screenwriter and director. He has adapted the works of Gorky, Chekhov, Ibsen and others for London's Royal National Theatre and the Sydney Theatre Company. He wrote the original play "Riflemind" (2007), which premiered at the Sydney Theatre Company to favourable reviews, with Hugo Weaving starring and Philip Seymour Hoffmann directing the London production. Upton and wife Cate Blanchett are the co-founders of the film production company, Dirty Films, under which Upton served as a producer for the Australian film "Little Fish" (2005). Upton and Blanchett became joint artistic directors of the Sydney Theatre Company from 2008 until 2012.


title: Andrew Upton

text: As a playwright, Upton created adaptations of "Hedda Gabler", "The Cherry Orchard", "Cyrano de Bergerac", "Don Juan" (with Marion Potts), "Uncle Vanya", "The Maids", "Children of the Sun" and "Platonov" for the Sydney Theatre Company (STC) and Maxim Gorky's "The Philistines" for the Royal National Theatre in London.


title: Andrew Upton

text: Upton's original play "Riflemind" opened with Hugo Weaving, playing an ageing rock star planning a comeback, at the Sydney Theatre Company on 5 October 2007, and received a favourable review in "Variety (magazine)". The London production of "Riflemind", directed by Philip Seymour Hoffman, opened in 2008, but closed as a result of the financial pressure of the Global Financial Crisis after receiving poor popular press reviews.


title: Andrew Upton

text: In 2008, Upton and wife Cate Blanchett became joint artistic directors of the Sydney Theatre Company for what became a five-year term.


title: Andrew Upton

text: Upton and Blanchett formed a film production company, Dirty Films, whose projects include the films "Bangers" (1999) and "Little Fish" (2006). Upton wrote, produced and directed the short, "Bangers", which starred Blanchett. Upton shares writing credits for the feature film "Gone" (2007).


title: Andrew Upton

text: Upton wrote the libretto to Alan John's opera "Through the Looking Glass", which premiered with the Victorian Opera in Melbourne in May 2008.


title: Andrew Upton

text: In June, 2014, Upton was recognised with the Rotary Professional Excellence Award, an award instituted "to honour a person who has demonstrated consistent professional excellence in his or her chosen vocation by contributing to the benefit of the wider community beyond their typical workplace role".


title: Andrew Upton

text: Upton attended The King's School, Parramatta and University of Sydney. He and Cate Blanchett met in Australia in the mid-1990s and married on 29 December 1997. The couple have three sons and one daughter. Their sons are Dashiell John Upton (born 2001), Roman Robert Upton (born 2004), Ignatius Martin Upton (born 2008), and daughter Edith Vivian Patricia Upton (adopted in 2015). The couple's children appeared with Upton in segment 11 of the 2015 film "Manifesto". Upton and Blanchett purchased a house in East Sussex, England, in early 2016.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The Battle of Badr ( ), also referred to as The Day of the Criterion (, ) in the Qur'an and by Muslims, was fought on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH), near the present-day city of Badr, Al Madinah Province in Saudi Arabia. Muhammad, commanding an army of his Sahaba, defeated an army of the Quraysh led by Amr ibn Hishām, better known as Abu Jahl. The battle marked the beginning of the six-year war between Muhammad and his tribe. Prior to the battle, the Muslims and the Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Muhammad took keen interest in capturing Meccan caravans after his migration to Medina, seeing it as repayment for his people, the Muhajirun. A few days before the battle, when he learnt of a Makkan caravan returning from the Levant led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, Muhammad gathered a small expeditionary force to capture it. Abu Sufyan, learning of the Muslim plan to ambush his caravan, changed course and took a longer route away from Muhammad's base at Medina and sent a messenger to Mecca, asking for help. Abu Jahl commanded an army nearly one-thousand strong, approaching Badr and encamping at the sand dune al-'Udwatul Quswa.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Badr was the first large-scale engagement between the Muslims and Quraysh Meccans. Advancing from the north, the Muslims faced the Meccans. The battle began with duels between the warriors on both sides, following which the Meccans charged upon the Muslims under a cover of arrows. The Muslims countered their charge and broke the Meccan lines, killing several important Quraishi leaders including Abu Jahl and Umayyah ibn Khalaf.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The Muslim victory strengthened Muhammad's position; The Medinese eagerly joined his future expeditions and tribes outside Medina openly allied with Muhammad. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, and by other sources to the strategic prowess of Muhammad.


title: Battle of Badr

text: After the Hijra (migration to Medina) in 622 CE, the population of Medina chose Muhammad to be the leader of the community. Muhammad's followers decided to raid the caravans of the Meccans as they passed by Medina. This decision was taken in response to the Meccans persecution of the Muslims and their forceful seizing of Muslim land and property following the Hijra. In early 624, a caravan of the Quraysh led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb carrying wealth and goods from the Levant was returning to Mecca. Knowing of the threat of Muhammad's growing influence in the region, Abu Sufyan routinely sent spies to check on Muhammad and warn him of any Muslim movement in the area.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Muhammad had gathered a small expeditionary force of around 300 men to intercept the caravan. Abu Sufyan's spies informed him of the Muslims' plot to ambush his caravan. Fearing the loss of wealth that was imminent, Abu Sufyan sent the messenger Damdam bin 'Amr al-Ghifari to the Quraish. Damdam, upon his arrival at the Ka'bah, cut off the nose and ears of his camel, turned its saddle upside down, tore off his shirt and cried:


title: Battle of Badr

text: "O Quraish! Your merchandise! It is with Abu Sufyan. The caravan is being intercepted by Muhammad and his companions. I cannot say what would have happened to them. Help! Help!"Abu Sufyan had rerouted his caravan toward the Red Sea and escaped the Muslim threat by Damdam's arrival at Mecca.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The valley of Badr is surrounded by two large sand dunes to the east, called "al-'Udwatud Dunya" (the near side of the valley) and "al-'Udwatul Quswa" (the far side of the valley). The Qur'an speaks of these two in Surah 8, verse 42. The west of the valley was covered by the al-Asfal Mountain ("Jabal Al-Asfal") with an opening between it and another hill in the northwest.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Between al-'Udwatud Dunya and al-'Udwatul Quswa was an opening, which was the primary route to Medina. Muhammad and his army did not approach the battlefield from here, they came from the north, as they were originally planning to target the caravan, which was moving from the Levant in the north, to Mecca in the south. Between al-'Udwatul Quswa and the hill covering the southern part of the battlefield was another opening, which was the primary route from Mecca.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The Quraish had encamped in the south-eastern portion of the valley near the road to Mecca, while Muhammad and his army had encamped in some date-palms in the north. They had taken a well near the center of the western margin of al-'Udwatul Dunya and destroyed the other wells near the road to Medina to prevent the Makkans from getting any water. Another well situated at the end of the road to Mecca was later filled with the dead bodies of the dead Makkans.


title: Battle of Badr

text: On the night of 11 March (15 Ramadan), it had rained over the battlefield and the surrounding region. Muslims believe this was a blessing from Allah for the believers and a curse for the disbelievers, who suffered hardship in trying to climb the muddy slope.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Muhammad was able to gather an army of 313-317 men. Sources vary upon the exact number, but the generally accepted number is 313. This army consisted of 82 Muhajirun, 61 men from the 'Aws and 170 men from the Khazraj. They were not well-equipped for a major conflict nor prepared. They only had two horses, and those belonged to Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and al-Miqdad ibn 'Amr. The entire army had 70 camels, meaning that they had one camel for two to three men to ride alternatively. Muhammad shared a camel with 'Ali ibn Abu Talib and Marthad ibn Abi Marthad al-Ghanawi. The guardianship and administration of Medina was entrusted with Ibn Umm Maktum, but later with Abu Lubaba ibn 'Abd al-Mundhir. Muhammad handed a white standard to Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair al-Qurashi al-'Abdari. The army was divided into two battalions: one of the 82 Muhajirun and the other of the 231 Ansar. The flag of the Muhajirun was carried by 'Ali ibn Abu Talib, while that of the Ansar was carried by Sa'd ibn Mu'adh. az-Zubayr commanded the right flank, while al-Miqdad commanded the left. And the rear of the army was commanded by Qays bin Abi Sa'sa'ah.


title: Battle of Badr

text: With Muhammad in the lead, the army marched out along the main road to Mecca, from the north. At Safra', he dispatched Basbas al-Juhani and 'Adi al-Juhani to scout for the Quraish. The future Caliph Uthman stayed behind to care of his sick wife Ruqayyah, the daughter of Muhammad, who later died from illness. Salman al-Farsi also could not join the battle, as he was still not a free man.


title: Battle of Badr

text: All of the clans of the Quraish except the Banu 'Adi quickly assembled an excited army of around 1300 men, 100 horses and a large number of camels. Moving swiftly towards Badr, they passed the valleys of 'Usfan, Qadid and al-Juhfah. At al-Juhfah, another messenger from Abu Sufyan informed them of the safety of their merchandise and wealth. Upon receiving this message, the Makkan army expressed delight and showed a desire to return home. Abu Jahl was not interested in returning and insisted on proceeding to Badr, and holding a feast there to show the Muslims and the surrounding tribes that they were superior. Despite Abu Jahl's threat and insistence, the Banu Zahrah, numbering around 300, broke away from the army and returned to Mecca, on the advice of Al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq. Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim, also attempted to break away but were threatened by Abu Jahl to stay. Many of the Qurayshi nobles, including Abu Jahl, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, 'Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, and Umayyah ibn Khalaf, joined the Meccan army. Their reasons varied: some were out to protect their financial interests in the caravan; others wanted to avenge Ibn al-Hadrami, a guard killed in one of the caravan ambushes at Nakhlah; finally, a few must have wanted to take part in what was expected to be an easy victory against the Muslims. Amr ibn Hishām is described as shaming Umayyah ibn Khalaf into joining the expedition.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Muhammad held a council of war to review the situation and decide on a plan-of-action. According to some Muslim scholars, the following verses of Al Anfal, , were revealed in lieu of some Muslims fearing the encounter. Abu Bakr was the first to speak at the meeting and he reassured Muhammad. 'Umar was next. Then, al-Miqdad ibn 'Amr got up and said:"O Messenger of Allah! Proceed where Allah directs you to, for we are with you. We will not say as the Children of Israel said to Musa: "Go you and your Lord and fight and we will stay here;" rather we shall say: "Go you and your Lord and fight and we will fight along with you." By Allah! If you were to take us to Birk al-Ghimad, we will still fight resolutely with you against its defenders until you gained it."Muhammad then praised him and supplicated for him, but the three who had spoken were of the Muhajirun, who only constituted around one-third of the Muslim men in Medina. Muhammad wanted the opinion of the Ansar, who were not committed to fighting beyond their territories in the Pledges of 'Aqabah. Muhammad then indirectly asked the Ansar to speak, which Sa'd ibn Mu'adh understood and asked for permission to speak. Muhammad immediately gave him permission to speak and Sa'd said:


title: Battle of Badr

text: "O Prophet of Allah! We believe in you and we bear witness to what you have brought is the Truth. We give you our firm pledge of obedience and sacrifice. We will obey you most willingly in whatever you command us, and by Allah, Who has sent you with the Truth, if you were to ask us to throw ourselves into the sea, we will do that most readily and not a man of us will stay behind. We do not deny the idea of encounter with the enemy. We are experienced in war and we are trustworthy in control. We hope that Allah will show you through our hands those deeds of bravery which will please your eyes. Kindly lead us to the battlefield in the Name of Allah."Muhammad, impressed with his loyalty and spirit of sacrifice, ordered the march towards Badr to continue.


title: Battle of Badr

text: By Sunday, 11 March (15 Ramadan), both armies were about a day's march from Badr. Muhammad and Abu Bakr had conducted a scouting operation and managed to locate the camp of the Quraish. They came across an old bedouin nearby from whom they managed to find out the exact strength of their army and their location. In the evening, Muhammad dispatched 'Ali, az-Zubayr and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas to scout for the Makkans. They captured two Meccan water-bearers at the wells of Badr. Expecting them to say they were with the caravan, the Muslims were horrified to hear them say they were with the main Quraishi army. Unsatisfied with their answer, while Muhammad was praying, some of the Muslims beat the two boys into lying and Muhammad strictly condemned this action later. Muhammad then extracted the details of the Makkans from the boys. The next day Muhammad ordered a march to Badr and arrived before the Meccans.


title: Battle of Badr

text: When the Muslim army arrived from the east, Muhammad initially chose to encamp at the first well he encountered. al-Hubab ibn al-Mundhir, however, asked him if this choice was from divine instruction or Muhammad's own opinion. When Muhammad responded in the latter, Hubab suggested that the Muslims occupy the well closest to the Quraishi army, and block off or destroy the other ones. Muhammad accepted this decision and the plan was carried out at midnight. Muhammad had also given strict orders to not begin an attack without his sole permission.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Muhammad spent the whole night of 12 March (16 Ramadan) praying near a tree. The Muslim army enjoyed a refreshing night of sleep, again believed by Muslims, to be a blessing from Allah.


title: Battle of Badr

text: While little is known about the progress of the Quraishi army from the time it left Mecca until its arrival just outside Badr, several things are worth noting: although many Arab armies brought their women and children along on campaigns both to motivate and care for the men, the Meccan army did not. The Quraish apparently made little or no effort to contact the many allies they had scattered throughout the Hejaz. Both facts suggest the Quraish lacked the time to prepare for a proper campaign in their haste to protect the caravan. Besides, it is believed they expected an easy victory.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Since Muhammad's army had either destroyed or taken all the wells in the city, a few Makkans approached the well controlled by Muslims to draw out water. All were shot except Hakim ibn Hizam, who later accepted Islam. At midnight on 13 March (17 Ramadan), the Quraish broke camp and marched into the valley of Badr. 'Umayr ibn Wahb al-Jumahi made a survey of the Muslim position and reported 300 men keen on fighting to the last man. After another scouting mission, he reported that neither were the Muslims going to be reinforced, nor were they planning any ambushes. This further demoralized the Quraish, as Arab battles were traditionally low-casualty affairs, and set off another round of bickering among the Quraishi leadership. However, according to Arab traditions Amr ibn Hishām quashed the remaining dissent by appealing to the Quraishis' sense of honor and demanding that they fulfill their blood vengeance.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The battle began with al-Aswad bin 'Abdul-Asad al-Makhzumi, one of the men from Abu Jahl's clan, the Banu Makhzum, swearing that he would drink from the well of the Muslims or otherwise destroy it or die for it. In response to his cries, Hamza ibn 'Abdul-Muttalib, one of Muhammad's uncles, came out and they began fighting in a duel. Hamza struck al-Aswad's leg before dealing him another blow that killed him. Seeing this, three men protected by armor and shields, Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, alongside his brother, Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah and son, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, emerged from the Makkan ranks. Three of the Madani Ansar emerged from the Muslim ranks, only to be shouted back by the Meccans, who were nervous about starting any unnecessary feuds and only wanted to fight the Muhajirun, keeping the dispute within the tribe. So Hamza approached and called on Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and 'Ali ibn Abu Talib to join him. The first two duels between 'Ali and al-Walid and Hamza and Shaybah were quick with both managing to kill their opponents swiftly. After the fight between Ali and Walid, Hamza looked at 'Ubaydah to find him seriously wounded. He then fell upon and killed Shaybah. Ali and Hamza then carried Ubaydah back into the Muslim lines. He died later due to a disease. A shower of arrows from both sides followed these duels and this was followed by several other duels, most of which were won by the Muslims. The Makkans now took the offensive and charged upon the Muslim lines.


title: Battle of Badr

text: As the Makkans charged upon the Muslims, Muhammad kept asking Allah, stretching his hands toward the Qibla:"O Allah! Should this group (of Muslims) be defeated today, You will no longer be worshipped."Muhammad kept reciting his prayer until his cloak fell off his shoulders, at which point Abu Bakr picked it up and put it back on his shoulders and said:"O Prophet of Allah, you have cried out enough to your Lord. He will surely fulfil what He has promised you."Muhammad gave the order to carry out a counterattack against the enemy now, throwing a handful of pebbles at the Makkans in what was probably a traditional Arabian gesture while yelling "Defaced be those faces!" or "Confusion seize their faces." The Muslim army yelled in reply, ""Yā manṣūr amit!"" meaning "O thou whom God hath made victorious, slay!" and rushed the Qurayshi lines. The Makkans, understrength and unenthusiastic about fighting, promptly broke and ran. Muslims attribute their fear of fighting and fleeing from the battlefield to divine intervention, with the Qur'an stating in Chapter 8, verse 12, that Allah sent thousands of angels ("mala'ikah") to strengthen the ranks of Muslims. The battle itself only lasted a few hours and was over by early afternoon. The Qur'an describes the force of the Muslim attack in many verses, which refer to thousands of angels descending from Heaven at Badr to terrify the Quraish. It also describes how Iblis, the Leader of the Jinn, mentioned to have taken the form of Suraqa ibn Malik, fled the battlefield upon seeing the angels. Muslim sources take this account literally, and there are several ahadith where Muhammad discusses the Angel Jibreel and the role he played in the battle. Modern non-Muslim historians, such as Richard A. Gabriel, attribute the victory and the subsequent triumph over the Quraysh to Muhammad's strategic and military prowess.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Three days after the battle, Muhammad left Badr for Medina. As far as the treatment of prisoners was concerned, Abu Bakr was of the opinion that they should be ransomed, since they were all of their own kin. 'Umar argued against this, saying that there is no notion of blood relationships as far as Islam is concerned, and that all the prisoners should be executed, and that everyone should execute him who is closest to him by blood. 'Ali should kill his brother 'Aqeel ibn Abu Talib, Hamza ibn 'Abdul-Muttalib should behead his brother 'Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, and that he himself would kill someone close to him. Muhammad accepted Abu Bakr's suggestion to ransom the captives. Some 70 prisoners were taken captive and are noted to have been treated humanely, including a number of Quraysh leaders. Most of the prisoners were released upon payment of ransom and those who were literate were released on the condition that they teach ten persons how to read and write and this teaching was to count as their ransom.William Muir wrote of this period:


title: Battle of Badr

text: After the battle had subsided, Muhammad had ordered that the corpses of the 24 leaders of the Quraysh should be tossed into one of the dirty dry wells of Badr. A few days later Muhammad went back to these wells and spoke to the corpses therein, addressing each of them by name


title: Battle of Badr

text: "Would it have pleased you had you obeyed Allah and His Apostle? We have found true what our Lord promised us. Have you too found true what your Lord promised you?"


title: Battle of Badr

text: Despite scholars estimating Meccan casualties at around 70, only the names of the more prominent ones are known. However, the names of the 14 Muslims who were killed during the course of the war or later (due to injuries sustained during the war) are all known.


title: Battle of Badr

text: Well-known Meccans who were killed during the battle included Amr ibn Hishām, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, 'Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, al-Aswad bin and 'Abdul-Asad al-Makhzumi. Nadr ibn al-Harith and 'Uqbah ibn Abū Mu‘ayṭ were also killed, though the circumstances of their deaths are unclear. According to some sources the last two were killed during fighting in the field of battle at Badr and subsequently buried in a pit, while Safiur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri writes that these two were taken as prisoners and subsequently executed by Ali.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The Battle of Badr was extremely influential in the rise of two men who determined the course of Arabian history in the next century. The first was Muhammad, who was transformed overnight from a Meccan outcast into the leader of a new community and city-state at Medina. Marshall Hodgson adds that Badr forced the other Arabs to "regard the Muslims as challengers and potential inheritors to the prestige and the political role of the [Quraish]." Shortly thereafter he expelled the Banu Qaynuqa, one of the Jewish tribes in Medina for assaulting a Muslim woman which led to their expulsion for breaking the peace treaty. The tribe is also known for having threatened Muhammad's political position. At the same time 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy, Muhammad's chief opponent in Medina, found his own position seriously weakened. He was only able to mount limited challenges to Muhammad.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The other major beneficiary of the Battle of Badr was Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, safely away from the battle leading the caravan. The death of Amr ibn Hisham, as well as many other Quraishi nobles, gave Abu Sufyan the opportunity, almost by default, to become chief of the Quraish. As a result, when Muhammad marched into Mecca six years later, it was Abu Sufyan who helped negotiate its peaceful surrender. Abu Sufyan subsequently became a high-ranking official in the Muslim Empire, and his son Mu'awiya later went on to found the Umayyad Caliphate.


title: Battle of Badr

text: In later days, the battle of Badr became so significant that Ibn Ishaq included a complete name-by-name roster of the Muslim army in his biography of Muhammad. In many hadiths, veterans who fought at Badr are identified as such as a formality, and they may have even received a stipend in later years. The death of the last of the Badr veterans occurred during the First Fitna.


title: Battle of Badr

text: In the Quran, the battle is referred to as Yawm al-Furqan (; ). The story of the Battle of Badr has been passed down in Islamic history throughout the centuries, before being combined in the multiple biographies of Muhammad that exist today. It is mentioned in the Quran, and all knowledge of the battle comes from traditional Islamic accounts, recorded and compiled sometime after the battle. There is little evidence beside these and there are no written descriptions of the battle prior to the 9th century, and as such, the historicity and authenticity of the battle are debated by contemporary historians.


title: Battle of Badr

text: "Badr" has become popular among Muslim armies and paramilitary organizations. "Operation Badr" was used to describe Egypt's offensive in the 1973 Yom Kippur War as well as Pakistan's actions in the 1999 Kargil War. Iranian offensive operations against Iraq in the late 1980s were also named after Badr. During the 2011 Libyan civil war, the rebel leadership stated that they selected the date of the assault on Tripoli to be the 20th of Ramadan, marking the anniversary of the Battle of Badr.


title: Battle of Badr

text: The Battle of Badr was featured in the 1976 film "The Message", the 2004 animated movie "", the 2012 TV series "Omar" and the 2015 animated movie "."


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide (nitrogen oxide or nitrogen monoxide) is a colorless gas with the formula . It is one of the principal oxides of nitrogen. Nitric oxide is a free radical: it has an unpaired electron, which is sometimes denoted by a dot in its chemical formula (N=O or NO). Nitric oxide is also a heteronuclear diatomic molecule, a class of molecules whose study spawned early modern theories of chemical bonding.


title: Nitric oxide

text: An important intermediate in industrial chemistry, nitric oxide forms in combustion systems and can be generated by lightning in thunderstorms. In mammals, including humans, nitric oxide is a signaling molecule in many physiological and pathological processes. It was proclaimed the "Molecule of the Year" in 1992. The 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discovering nitric oxide's role as a cardiovascular signalling molecule.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide should not be confused with nitrogen dioxide (NO), a brown gas and major air pollutant, or with nitrous oxide (NO), an anesthetic gas.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Upon condensing to a liquid, nitric oxide dimerizes to dinitrogen dioxide, but the association is weak and reversible. The N–N distance in crystalline NO is 218 pm, nearly twice the N–O distance.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Since the heat of formation of NO is endothermic, NO can be decomposed to the elements. Catalytic converters in cars exploit this reaction:


title: Nitric oxide

text: In water, nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrous acid (HNO). The reaction is thought to proceed via the following stoichiometry:


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to form the nitrosyl halides, such as nitrosyl chloride:


title: Nitric oxide

text: The addition of a nitric oxide moiety to another molecule is often referred to as "nitrosylation". The Traube reaction is the addition of a two equivalents of nitric oxide onto an enolate, giving a diazeniumdiolate (also called a "nitrosohydroxylamine"). The product can undergo a subsequent retro-aldol reaction, giving an overall process similar to the haloform reaction. For example, nitric oxide reacts with acetone and an alkoxide to form a diazeniumdiolate on each α position, with subsequent loss of methyl acetate as a by-product:


title: Nitric oxide

text: This reaction, which was discovered around 1898, remains of interest in nitric oxide prodrug research. Nitric oxide can also react directly with sodium methoxide, ultimately forming sodium formate and nitrous oxide by way of an "N"-methoxydiazeniumdiolate.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide reacts with transition metals to give complexes called metal nitrosyls. The most common bonding mode of nitric oxide is the terminal linear type (M−NO). Alternatively, nitric oxide can serve as a one-electron pseudohalide. In such complexes, the M−N−O group is characterized by an angle between 120° and 140°. The NO group can also bridge between metal centers through the nitrogen atom in a variety of geometries.


title: Nitric oxide

text: In commercial settings, nitric oxide is produced by the oxidation of ammonia at 750–900 °C (normally at 850 °C) with platinum as catalyst in the Ostwald process:


title: Nitric oxide

text: The uncatalyzed endothermic reaction of oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N), which is effected at high temperature (>2000 °C) by lightning has not been developed into a practical commercial synthesis (see Birkeland–Eyde process):


title: Nitric oxide

text: In the laboratory, nitric oxide is conveniently generated by reduction of dilute nitric acid with copper:


title: Nitric oxide

text: An alternative route involves the reduction of nitrous acid in the form of sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite:


title: Nitric oxide

text: The iron(II) sulfate route is simple and has been used in undergraduate laboratory experiments. So-called NONOate compounds are also used for nitric oxide generation.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide concentration can be determined using a chemiluminescent reaction involving ozone. A sample containing nitric oxide is mixed with a large quantity of ozone. The nitric oxide reacts with the ozone to produce oxygen and nitrogen dioxide, accompanied with emission of light (chemiluminescence):


title: Nitric oxide

text: which can be measured with a photodetector. The amount of light produced is proportional to the amount of nitric oxide in the sample.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Other methods of testing include electroanalysis (amperometric approach), where ·NO reacts with an electrode to induce a current or voltage change. The detection of NO radicals in biological tissues is particularly difficult due to the short lifetime and concentration of these radicals in tissues. One of the few practical methods is spin trapping of nitric oxide with iron-dithiocarbamate complexes and subsequent detection of the mono-nitrosyl-iron complex with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR).


title: Nitric oxide

text: A group of fluorescent dye indicators that are also available in acetylated form for intracellular measurements exist. The most common compound is 4,5-diaminofluorescein (DAF-2).


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide reacts with the hydroperoxyl radical () to form nitrogen dioxide (NO), which then can react with a hydroxyl radical (OH) to produce nitric acid (HNO):


title: Nitric oxide

text: NO participates in ozone layer depletion. Nitric oxide reacts with stratospheric ozone to form O and nitrogen dioxide:


title: Nitric oxide

text: As seen in the acid deposition section, nitric oxide can transform into nitrogen dioxide (this can happen with the hydroperoxy radical, , or diatomic oxygen, O). Symptoms of short-term nitrogen dioxide exposure include nausea, dyspnea and headache. Long-term effects could include impaired immune and respiratory function.


title: Nitric oxide

text: NO is a gaseous signaling molecule. It is a key vertebrate biological messenger, playing a role in a variety of biological processes. It is a bioproduct in almost all types of organisms, including bacteria, plants, fungi, and animal cells.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Nitric oxide, an endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), is biosynthesized endogenously from -arginine, oxygen, and NADPH by various nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes. Reduction of inorganic nitrate may also make nitric oxide. One of the main enzymatic targets of nitric oxide is guanylyl cyclase. The binding of nitric oxide to the heme region of the enzyme leads to activation, in the presence of iron. Nitric oxide is highly reactive (having a lifetime of a few seconds), yet diffuses freely across membranes. These attributes make nitric oxide ideal for a transient paracrine (between adjacent cells) and autocrine (within a single cell) signaling molecule. Once nitric oxide is converted to nitrates and nitrites by oxygen and water, cell signaling is deactivated.


title: Nitric oxide

text: The endothelium (inner lining) of blood vessels uses nitric oxide to signal the surrounding smooth muscle to relax, resulting in vasodilation and increasing blood flow. Sildenafil (Viagra) is a drug that uses the nitric oxide pathway. Sildenafil does not produce nitric oxide, but enhances the signals that are downstream of the nitric oxide pathway by protecting cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from degradation by cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) in the corpus cavernosum, allowing for the signal to be enhanced, and thus vasodilation. Another endogenous gaseous transmitter, hydrogen sulfide (HS) works with NO to induce vasodilation and angiogenesis in a cooperative manner.


title: Nitric oxide

text: In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for nitric oxide exposure in the workplace as 25 ppm (30 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 25 ppm (30 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 100 ppm, nitric oxide is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Nitric oxide

text: Liquid nitrogen oxide is very sensitive to detonation even in the absence of fuel, and can be initiated as readily as nitroglycerin. Detonation of the endothermic liquid oxide close to its b.p. (-152°C) generated a 100 kbar pulse and fragmented the test equipment. It is the simplest molecule that is capable of detonation in all three phases. The liquid oxide is sensitive and may explode during distillation, and this has been the cause of industrial accidents. Gaseous nitric oxide detonates at about 2300 m/s, but as a solid it can reach a detonation velocity of 6100 m/s.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: General Qamar Javed Bajwa (; born 11 November 1960) is a retired Pakistani army general who served as the tenth Chief of the Army Staff of Pakistan from 29 November 2016 to 29 November 2022. In 2018 he was ranked 68th in the "Forbes" list of the World's Most Powerful People.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: Originally from Gakhar Mandi, Gen Bajwa was born into a Punjabi Jat family of Bajwa clan in Karachi Bajwa was educated at the F.G. Sir Syed College and Gordon College in Rawalpindi before joining the Pakistan Military Academy in 1978. Bajwa was commissioned in 1980 in the 16th Battalion of the Baloch Regiment. Prior to his appointment as the Chief of Army Staff, he served at the General Headquarters as the Inspector General of the Training and Evaluation from September 2015 to November 2016 and as field commander of the X Corps from August 2013 to September 2015 which is responsible for the area along the Line of Control in Kashmir. In addition, he served as a Brigadier in the UN mission in Congo and as a brigade commander in 2007.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: Born in Karachi, Sindh, on 11 November 1960, Bajwa was educated at the F. G. Sir Syed College and Gordon College in Rawalpindi before joining the Pakistan Military Academy in 1978. His family hails from Ghakhar Mandi, Punjab. His father Muhammad Iqbal Bajwa was an officer of Pakistan Army who died while in service in 1967 in Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan.<ref name="dawn1/27nov2016"></ref> Bajwa was seven years old when his father died and he was the youngest of five siblings. He and his siblings were raised by their mother, who died in September 2013. Bajwa's father-in-law is Retired Major General Ijaz Amjad (brother of Iftikhar Khan Janjua).<ref name="thenews/27nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: Bajwa completed his secondary and intermediate education at F. G. Sir Syed College<ref name="nation/27nov2016"></ref> and Gordon College in Rawalpindi before joining the Pakistan Army in 1978, which directed him to attend the military academy. He was sent to attend the Pakistan Military Academy in Kakul and passing out in 1980.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: Bajwa is a graduate of the Canadian Army Command and Staff College and the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California, United States. He also attended the National Defence University, Islamabad.<ref name="tribune/27nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: After joining the Pakistan Army in 1978, Bajwa who was enrolled at the Pakistan Military Academy (PMA) in Kakul, passed out with the class of 62nd PMA Long Course and gained commission as 2nd-Lt., on 24 October 1980 in the 16th Baloch Regiment at the Sialkot Cantonment – the same unit that his father commanded.<ref name="geo/26nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: In 1988, Major Bajwa briefly served in the 5th Northern Light Infantry in Azad Kashmir.<ref name="dawn/14aug2016"></ref><ref name="hindustantimes/5dec2016"></ref> In addition, Lieutenant-Colonel Bajwa served in the X Corps, stationed in Rawalpindi, as a Staff Officer. Upon promotion as one-star rank army general, Brigadier Bajwa served as the Chief of Staff (COS) at the X Corps.<ref name="thenews/13aug2013"></ref><ref name="brecorder/19sept2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: In 2003, Brig. Bajwa commanded the Pakistan Armed Forces-Africa Command, attached to the UN peacekeeping mission MONUSCO, in D. R. Congo.<ref name="dawn1/26nov2016"></ref> Brig. Bajwa served in the D. R. Congo as a brigade commander under the then-Major General Bikram Singh, the former Chief of the Army Staff of the Indian Army from 2012 to 2014. Gen. Singh later termed Bajwa's performance there as "professional and outstanding."<ref name="tribune1/27nov2016"></ref><ref name="timesofindia/27nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: After being promoted to the two-star rank in May 2009, Major-General Bajwa took over the command of the Force Command Northern Areas division as its GOC, stationed in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan.<ref name="dawn/26nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: In August 2011, he was honored with the Hilal-i-Imtiaz (Military), and posted as an instructor at the School of Infantry and Tactics, Quetta, and later taught staff course at Command and Staff College in Quetta, and course on national security at the National Defence University, Islamabad.<ref name="tribune/26nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: On 14 August 2013, Maj-Gen. Bajwa was promoted to three-star rank and posted as field commander of the X Corps, stationed in Rawalpindi. He was appointed as Grade-I officer during his tenure as field commander of the X Corps. The appointment was commented in the news media that noted that Lt-Gen. Bajwa had been posted in X Corps thrice, which is the army's most important and largest corps, which has experience of keeping control over the situation in Kashmir.<ref name="pakistantoday/22nov2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: On 22 September 2015, Lt-Gen. Bajwa was posted in the General Headquarters when he was appointed as the Inspector-General of the Training and Evaluation (IGT&E). There he was a Principal Staff Officer to the then-Chief of Army Staff, General Raheel Sharif.<ref name="dawn/22september2015"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: In 2016, General Raheel Sharif dismissed rumours of seeking the extension for his term. Initially, the race for the appointment for the army chief was rumored between Lt-Gen. Zubair Hayat and Lt-Gen. Javed Ramday who was close to the first family. However, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif announced to appoint the-then senior most army general, Lt-Gen. Zubair Hayat as the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: On 29 November 2016, Prime Minister Sharif eventually announced to appoint General Bajwa - the fourth by seniority, as the Chief of Army Staff, superseding two generals who were senior than him.<ref name="dawn/27nov2016"></ref><ref name="indianexpress/29nov2016"></ref><ref name="nytimes/26nov2016"></ref> His strong pro-democracy stance and views may have influenced his appointment as the army chief as noted by the media pundits. The Reuters reported that Prime Minister Sharif picked Bajwa because of his low-key style. He was also noted as the fourth oldest Chief of Army Staff.<ref name="thenews/2dec2016"></ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: Under the command of Gen. Bajwa, the nationwide counter-terrorism Operation Radd-ul-Fasaad and "Khyber-4" were launched in February 2017 and July 2017, respectively.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: In 2018 he was ranked 68th in the "Forbes" list of the World's Most Powerful People, compiled by "Forbes" magazine, which called him de facto the most powerful person in Pakistan who "established himself as a mediator and proponent of democracy".


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: On July 25, 2018, the general elections were held in Pakistan. They have been labeled as dirtiest elections in Pakistan history with army under Gen. Bajwa being accused of manipulating the elections and engineering a victory for Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaaf over army's challenger Pakistan Muslim League (N). The former prime minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif alleged that Bajwa was behind his disqualification from the Prime Minister office by putting pressure on judiciary and on the Supreme Court. He also alleged that Bajwa was also involved in rigging the general election. Subsequently, Muhammad Safdar Awan, son-in-law of Nawaz Sharif was arrested allegedly through pressure in the aftermath of enforced disappearance of Sindh Police's provincial senior police officer Mushtaq Mahar.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: On 19 August 2019, his tenure as army chief was extended for another three years, starting from November 2019 until November 2022, by Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan. However, on 26 November 2019, the Supreme Court of Pakistan suspended the three-year extension. On 28 November 2019, the Supreme Court of Pakistan announced a short order allowing a 6-month extension in Bajwa's term as the COAS, during which the parliament was to legislate on the extension/reappointment of an army chief. On 8 January 2020, the Senate of Pakistan passed the Pakistan Army (Amendment) Bill 2020, allowing for Bajwa's tenure extension up to three years until 29 November 2022.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: In April 2022, Bajwa publicly suggested at a security forum in Islamabad that Pakistan had been pushed into dependence on China. Nevertheless, highlighting the attacks on Chinese nationals in Karachi, Chinese General Zhang Youxia asked General Bajwa to stop what it called attacks on its nationals. Bajwa vow to enhance counter-terror cooperation.


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: The term "Bajwa Doctrine" was coined by the Royal United Services Institute after Bajwa's address to the 54th Munich Security Conference in 2018. This emphasised what he called "biting back hard" against threats from the Trump administration. A second version of the doctrine was discussed with journalists in March 2018, stressing democracy, ensuring proper respect of the institutions of the state, eliminating terrorism, bringing terrorists into the mainstream, and viewing the devolution provisions of the Eighteenth Amendment with skepticism. He has urged his fellow citizens, especially the youth, to fight extremism, saying it is a key driving force for terrorism.<ref name="dawn/18May2017">""Army will fight terrorists, society should fight extremism: Gen Bajwa"" "Dawn", 18 May 2017.</ref>


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: A "Bajwa Doctrine 2.0" was outlined in March 2021 during the Islamabad Security Dialogue. This centred on four themes: an enduring peace internal and external to Pakistan, non-interference in the internal affairs of neighbouring and regional countries, building intra-regional trade and connectivity, and bringing sustainable development via investment and economic hubs within the region. He also said that national security was not the preserve of the armed forces and that "unless our own house is in order, nothing good could be expected from outside," and that "It is time to bury the past and move forward. But for the resumption of the peace process or meaningful dialogue, our neighbour will have to create a conducive environment, particularly in Indian-Occupied Kashmir."


title: Qamar Javed Bajwa

text: He is an avid reader and is interested in the history of Europe. He enjoys cricket and used to play cricket as a wicket-keeper.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Danielle Andrea Harris (born June 1, 1977) is an American actress and film director. She is known as a "scream queen" for her roles in multiple horror films, including four entries in the "Halloween" franchise ("" and ""; 1988–89) as Jamie Lloyd, and the "Halloween" remake and its sequel as Annie Brackett (2007–09). Other such roles include Tosh in "Urban Legend" (1998), Belle in "Stake Land" (2010), and Marybeth Dunston in the "Hatchet" series (2010–17). In 2012, she was inducted into the "Fangoria" Hall of Fame.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris began her career as a child actress, with various appearances on television and prominent roles in films such as "Marked for Death" (1990), "Don't Tell Mom the Babysitter's Dead" (1991), "The Last Boy Scout" (1991), "Free Willy" (1993) and "Daylight" (1996). She is also known for her voice work, which includes playing Debbie Thornberry for the full run of the Nickelodeon series "The Wild Thornberrys" (1998–2004) and in the related films "The Wild Thornberrys Movie" (2002) and "Rugrats Go Wild" (2003).


title: Danielle Harris

text: In 2013, Harris made her feature directorial debut with the horror film "Among Friends", after previously directing "Madison" (a segment in the unfinished anthology film "Prank") in 2008 and a "Stake Land" companion short film in 2010.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris was born in Plainview, New York and was raised by her mother Fran, along with her sister Ashley. Harris is Jewish. While living in Florida during elementary school, Harris won a beauty contest, winning a trip to New York City for ten days. While there, she was offered various modeling jobs, but turned them down because they were all far from her home. Her mother was eventually transferred back to New York for work and Harris began work as a model. She also began appearing in television commercials.


title: Danielle Harris

text: In 1985, at age seven, Harris was cast in the role of Samantha "Sammi" Garretson in the ABC soap opera "One Life to Live" and stayed on the program for three years. Her character was considered a "miracle child", extracted as an embryo from the womb of her deceased mother and implanted in a family friend, whom her father later married. In 1987, Harris made a guest appearance in the series "".


title: Danielle Harris

text: Following her early television work, Harris successfully auditioned for the role of Jamie Lloyd in the fourth edition of the "Halloween" franchise, beating out several other young actresses, Melissa Joan Hart among them. Harris celebrated her eleventh birthday on set. "" was released in October 1988 to commercial success, going on to gross over $17 million worldwide on a $5 million budget. On doing this type of film at such a young age, Harris stated:


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris returned the following year for the sequel, "", which was not as successful as its predecessor. Harris portrayed Jamie Lloyd once again, but her character was mute for the first half of "Halloween 5" owing to events in the previous film.


title: Danielle Harris

text: In 1990, Harris appeared in "Marked for Death" as protagonist John Hatcher (Steven Seagal)'s niece Tracey. The action film had a $12 million budget and earned $43 million domestically and $57 million worldwide. 1991 saw Harris partake in several film and television projects, including the made-for-television films "Don't Touch My Daughter", as a young girl who is kidnapped and molested, and "The Killing Mind", where she portrayed main character Isobel as a child. Later that year, Harris made an appearance in the sketch-oriented show "In Living Color".


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris' next film role was in the 1991 comedy "Don't Tell Mom the Babysitter's Dead", as Melissa Crandell, with the story revolving around five siblings whose mother goes to Australia for two months, only to have her children's babysitter die. The young protagonists choose not to tell their mother and attempt to live on their own. The same year, Harris had a guest role in the series "Eerie, Indiana", portraying a character who receives a heart transplant then begins to act like the heart's original owner, and also guest starred in an episode of "Growing Pains", as Susie Maxwell. Harris had the role of Darian Hallenbeck in the 1991 action film "The Last Boy Scout", alongside Bruce Willis and Damon Wayans. The film grossed $7,923,669 in its opening weekend, and the total gross was $59,509,925. Reviews were mixed, and some critics cited the Christmastime release for such a violent film as a reason for its underwhelming box office.


title: Danielle Harris

text: 1992 saw Harris participate in the pilot for the potential CBS series "1775", although it was not picked up. Between 1992 and 1993, Harris had the recurring role of Molly Tilden on the sitcom "Roseanne" (which she would reprise in a 2021 episode of "Roseanne" sequel series "The Conners"), then joined Roseanne Barr again in 1993 for the television film "The Woman Who Loved Elvis", this time as daughter Priscilla. She appeared in an episode of "Jack's Place" the same year, portraying a teenage runaway. Also in 1993, Harris portrayed Gwenie in the film "Free Willy", which had a US gross of $7,868,829 in its opening weekend, and went on to make $77,698,625 in the US and $153,698,625 worldwide. In 1994, she appeared on the drama series "The Commish", playing the role of Sheri Fisher for one episode. The same year, Harris portrayed the main character's daughter Jessica in the television film "Roseanne: An Unauthorized Biography", based upon her former co-star Roseanne Barr. She then guest starred in the sitcom "Boy Meets World", as Theresa "T.K." Keiner.


title: Danielle Harris

text: In 1995, Harris learned that the producers of "" were looking for an actress over the age of 18 to play the role of Jamie Lloyd. Only 17 at the time, Harris got emancipated in order to participate, but was dissatisfied with the fate of the character in the script and the low salary offered. She abstained from reprising her role and was replaced by J. C. Brandy, although she can still be seen in "" of the film, which replays "Halloween 5"s ending. Harris has since admitted to being glad she did not rejoin the series at this point, believing that this allowed her to make her later return in the 2007 remake of the original "Halloween".


title: Danielle Harris

text: In 1996, Harris shared dual roles with Katherine Heigl for the television film "Wish Upon a Star": Harris played Hayley Wheaton, a nerdy girl who switches bodies with her older, more popular sister Alexia (Heigl). Also in 1996, Harris starred in the films "Shattered Image" and "Back to Back", and, the same year, had the role of young survivor Ashley Crighton in "Daylight", the disaster film toplined by Sylvester Stallone. While "Daylight" has a 26% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes and grossed $33 million in the United States, it took in over $126 million overseas, resulting in gross earnings of $159,212,469 worldwide. In 1997, Harris appeared in two episodes of the medical drama "ER" as Laura Quentin. In 1998, Harris had the lead role of Lulu in the film "Dizzyland", where she portrayed a sexually abused teenager, and also appeared in an episode of "". She then appeared in the popular slasher "Urban Legend", her first horror film since her early "Halloween" credits. She portrayed Tosh, a goth girl who is murdered while her roommate Natalie (Alicia Witt) is resting on the other side of the room.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Beginning in 1998, Harris was among the main cast of Nickelodeon's animated children's series "The Wild Thornberrys", chosen to voice Debbie Thornberry, the sister of a girl who can talk to animals. The protagonist, Eliza, travels the world with her family and uses her special ability to help the animals. The series lasted for five seasons, with a total of 92 episodes. It spawned several animated films early in the next decade, with its series finale airing in 2004. Harris would continue to make film and television appearances while doing "The Wild Thornberrys": she portrayed a teenage witch named Aviva in a 1998 episode of "Charmed", starred in the 1999 film "Goosed" as protagonist Charlene in her younger years, and appeared as Justine in the television film "Hard Time: Hostage Hotel".


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris had a supporting role in the crime and comedy film "Poor White Trash" in 2000 and went on to star in the 2001 comedy "Killer Bud". Between 2000 and 2002, Harris was a cast member of the series "That's Life". Her character, Plum Wilkinson, featured in all but eight episodes and was involved in a romantic relationship with Kevin Dillon. Her animated series "The Wild Thornberrys" had spin-off movies in the early 2000s: the television film "The Origin of Donnie" from 2001 was followed by the 2002 theatrical release of "The Wild Thornberrys Movie", which grossed $40,108,697 in the US, and a further film, "Rugrats Go Wild", dealt with the Thornberrys meeting the characters from the popular series "Rugrats". Released in 2003, it opened at #4 at the box office and grossed $39 million in the US, about the same as the "Thornberrys Movie". Harris also appeared in an episode of "The West Wing", had a supporting role as Leila in the 2003 television film "The Partners" and was in the theatrically released films "Debating Robert Lee" and "Em & Me" (both 2004). From 2004 to 2005, she was a main cast member of the computer-animated sitcom "Father of the Pride", appearing in all 14 episodes.


title: Danielle Harris

text: In January 2007, it was announced that Harris was cast as Annie Brackett in the remake of horror landmark "Halloween". This marked Harris' first participation in the "Halloween" franchise since "" eighteen years prior. The remake, also called "Halloween" and directed by Rob Zombie, had Scout Taylor-Compton and Malcolm McDowell in main roles. Harris has revealed that Zombie wanted no one from previous "Halloweens" in the film, but, once she auditioned, he changed his mind. The film, which cost $15 million to make, opened at #1 at the box office and went on to gross $80,253,908 worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing "Halloween" in unadjusted U.S. dollars, which it remained for more than a decade. Unlike in the original version, Annie Brackett survives, after Michael Myers (Tyler Mane) tries his hand at torture instead of killing her quickly. Annie encounters her attacker very much exposed, having stripped to the waist, which marked Harris' first onscreen nudity. Harris admits that she refused the offers to cover her body while the cameras were not rolling, to better portray a vulnerable Annie against the monster. On facing Michael Myers once again and at the same time doing her first nude scene, she also commented:


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris then began to appear in more horror productions and fantastic films. That same year, she starred in the also Halloween-themed "Left for Dead". For Fearnet, she hosted "". 2009 saw her in a leading role in "", as Felicia Freeze in the comedic superhero adventure film "Super Capers" and alongside Robert Patrick in "The Black Waters of Echo's Pond". "Fear Clinic", a Fearnet original web series featuring Harris as well as veterans Robert Englund and Kane Hodder, made its debut the week of Halloween 2009. Also in 2009, Harris reprised her role of Annie Brackett in the sequel "Halloween II". "Halloween II" was officially released on August 28, 2009, in North America, and was met with negative reception from most critics. On October 30, 2009, it was re-released in North America to coincide with the Halloween holiday weekend. The original opening of the film grossed less than that of the 2007 remake, with approximately $7 million. The film would go on to earn $33,392,973 in North America and $5,925,616 in foreign countries, giving "Halloween II" a worldwide total of $39,318,589.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris continued to develop her "scream queen" identity with growing genre credits. She starred alongside Lance Henriksen, Bill Moseley, AFI's Davey Havok and Nicki Clyne in the illustrated film series "Godkiller". Beginning with 2010's "Hatchet II", Harris has taken over the leading role of Marybeth in the "Hatchet" series, after Tamara Feldman declined to reprise her character. Further genre credits include Jim Mickle's second feature film, the vampire/post-apocalyptic epic "Stake Land", "", "", "Havenhurst" and Michael Biehn's "The Victim", with lead roles in "Shiver", "See No Evil 2", "Inoperable", "Camp Cold Brook" and others. She equally provided the voice and basis for an animated Barbara in "", director Zebediah de Soto's prequel/re-telling of George A. Romero's 1968 original. Work in other types of films includes dramas like "The Trouble with the Truth" and Quentin Tarantino's "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood". Harris made her directorial debut with the horror comedy "Among Friends", in which she also has an appearance. The film, which was picked up for distribution by Lionsgate, was released on August 27, 2013.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Since the 2010s, Harris has had guest appearances in the television shows "Psych" (as a murder suspect), "Bones" (as a murder victim), as herself in "Holliston" and "Naked Vegas", and also returned to voice Debbie Thornberry for a saucy "Robot Chicken" parody of "The Wild Thornberrys", among others.


title: Danielle Harris

text: On April 3, 2022, Harris appeared as a guest for the 2022 Dead Meat Horror Awards along with other legends such as Tony Todd, Bonnie Aarons, Ray Chase and Heather Langenkamp.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris has been referred to as "horror's reigning scream queen", by the "New York Daily News" and various other outlets, and was called "the Natalie Portman of Horror" by director Sylvia Soska. She has provided the cover feature for such publications as "Girls and Corpses", "Gorezone magazine", "Invasion magazine" and "Scream Sirens" as well as a subject for the photo-book "The Bloody Best Project", a collection of artistic pictures showcasing the celebrities of the horror film industry. Harris was also featured in Five Finger Death Punch's first music video, "The Bleeding", in 2007. In 2011, Harris won the Best Actress Award at the Shockfest Film Festival for her starring role in the short "Nice Guys Finish Last". The 2012 Burbank International Film Festival gave Harris its Best Actress Award for her portrayal of literary heroine Wendy Alden in "Shiver".


title: Danielle Harris

text: In 2013, Harris became engaged to David Gross. The couple married in a private ceremony in Holualoa, Hawaii, on January 4, 2014, and had a son in 2017. Their second son was born in late 2018.


title: Danielle Harris

text: Harris was stalked in 1995 by an obsessed fan, Christopher Small, who wrote letters threatening to kill her. Small was later arrested after bringing a teddy bear and a shotgun to her home. On January 29, 2007, Harris appeared on an episode of the "Dr. Phil" show, sharing her experience with other equally affected people. The stalker was obsessed with her character of Molly Tilden from the television series "Roseanne". In October 2009, Harris was granted a restraining order against Small, who began sending her messages on Twitter.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The Pale of Settlement (, '; , '; , ') was a western region of the Russian Empire with varying borders that existed from 1791 to 1917 in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish residency, permanent or temporary, was mostly forbidden. Most Jews were still excluded from residency in a number of cities within the Pale as well. A few Jews were allowed to live outside the area, including those with university education, the ennobled, members of the most affluent of the merchant guilds and particular artisans, some military personnel and some services associated with them, including their families, and sometimes their servants. The archaic English term "pale" is derived from the Latin word ', a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The Pale of Settlement included all of modern-day Belarus, Lithuania and Moldova, much of Ukraine and east-central Poland, and relatively small parts of Latvia and what is now the western Russian Federation. It extended from the eastern "pale", or demarcation line inside the country, westwards to the Imperial Russian border with the Kingdom of Prussia (later the German Empire) and Austria-Hungary. Furthermore, it comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and largely corresponded to historical lands of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Cossack Hetmanate, the Ottoman Empire (with Yedisan), Crimean Khanate, and eastern Principality of Moldavia (Bessarabia).


title: Pale of Settlement

text: Life in the Pale for many was economically bleak. Most people relied on small service or artisan work that could not support the number of inhabitants, which resulted in emigration, especially in the late 19th century. Even so, Jewish culture, especially in Yiddish, developed in the shtetls (small towns), and intellectual culture developed in the yeshivot (religious schools) and was also carried abroad.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The Russian Empire during the existence of the Pale was predominantly Orthodox Christian, in contrast to the area included in the Pale with its large minorities of Jewish, Roman Catholic and until mid-19th century Eastern Catholic population (although much of modern Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova are predominantly Eastern Orthodox). While the religious nature of the edicts creating the Pale is clear (conversion to Russian Orthodoxy, the state religion, released individuals from the strictures), historians argue that the motivations for its creation and maintenance were primarily economic and nationalist in nature.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The end of the enforcement and formal demarcation of the Pale coincided with the beginning of World War I in 1914 and then ultimately, the fall of the Russian Empire in the February and October Revolutions of 1917.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The territory that would become the Pale first began to enter Russian hands in 1772, with the First Partition of Poland. At the time, most Jews (and in fact most Russians) were restricted in their movements. The Pale came into being under the rule of Catherine the Great in 1791, initially as a measure to speed colonization of newly acquired territory on the Black Sea. Jews were allowed to expand the territory available to them, but in exchange Jewish merchants could no longer do business in non-Pale Russia.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The institution of the Pale became more significant following the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, since, until then, Russia's Jewish population had been rather limited. The dramatic westward expansion of the Russian Empire through the annexation of Polish–Lithuanian territory substantially increased the Jewish population. At its height, the Pale had a Jewish population of over five million, and represented the largest component (40 percent) of the world Jewish population at that time. The freedom of movement of non-Jewish Russians was greatly increased, but the freedom of movement of Jews was greatly restricted and officially kept within the boundaries of the pale.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The name "Pale of Settlement" first arose under the rule of Tsar Nicholas I. Under his rule (1825 to 1855), the Pale gradually shrank, and became more restrictive. In 1827, Jews living in Kyiv were severely restricted. In 1835 the provinces of Astrakhan and the North Caucasus were removed from the Pale. Nicholas tried to remove all Jews from within 50 miles of the Austrian Empire's border in 1843. In practice, this was very difficult to enforce, and the restrictions were lessened in 1858.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: Tsar Alexander II, who ruled 1855 to 1881, expanded the rights of rich and educated Jews to leave and live beyond the Pale, which led many Jews to believe that the Pale might soon be abolished. These hopes vanished when Alexander II was assassinated in 1881. Rumors spread that he had been assassinated by Jews, and in the aftermath anti-Jewish sentiment skyrocketed. Anti-Jewish pogroms rocked the country from 1881 through 1884. The reactionary Temporary regulations regarding the Jews of 1881 prohibited any new Jewish settlement outside of the Pale. The laws also granted peasants the right to demand the expulsion of Jews in their towns. The laws were anything but temporary, and would be in full effect until at least 1903. In 1910, Jewish members of the State Duma proposed the abolition of the Pale, but the power dynamic of Duma meant that the bill never had a realistic chance to pass. Far-right political elements in the Duma responded by proposing that all Jews be expelled from Russia.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, (as in Kyiv, Sevastopol and Yalta), and were forced to move to small provincial towns, thus fostering the rise of the "shtetls." Jewish merchants of the First Guild (, the wealthiest "sosloviye" of merchants in the Russian Empire), people with higher or special education, university students, artisans, army tailors, ennobled Jews, soldiers (drafted in accordance with the Recruit Charter of 1810), and their families had the right to live outside the Pale of Settlement. In some periods, special dispensations were given for Jews to live in the major imperial cities, but these were tenuous, and several thousand Jews were expelled to the Pale from Moscow as late as 1891. The extremely restrictive decrees and recurrent pogroms led to much emigration from the Pale, mainly to the United States and Western Europe. However, emigration could not keep up with birth rates and expulsion of Jews from other parts of Russia, and thus the Jewish population of the Pale continued to grow.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: During World War I, the Pale lost its rigid hold on the Jewish population when large numbers of Jews fled into the Russian interior to escape the invading German army. By August 1915, the boundaries of the Pale were "de facto" unenforceable. The Pale formally came to an end soon after the abdication of Nicholas II, and as revolution gripped Russia. On March 20 (April 2 N.S.), 1917, the Pale was abolished by the Russian Provisional Government decree, "On the abolition of religious and national restrictions". The Second Polish Republic was reconstituted from much of the former territory of the Pale in the aftermath of World War I. Subsequently, most of the Jewish population of the area would perish in the Holocaust one generation later.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: Jewish life in the shtetls ( "" "little towns") of the Pale of Settlement was hard and poverty-stricken. Following the Jewish religious tradition of "tzedakah" (charity), a sophisticated system of volunteer Jewish social welfare organizations developed to meet the needs of the population. Various organizations supplied clothes to poor students, provided kosher food to Jewish soldiers conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army, dispensed free medical treatment for the poor, offered dowries and household gifts to destitute brides, and arranged for technical education for orphans. According to historian Martin Gilbert's "Atlas of Jewish History", no province in the Pale had less than 14% of Jews on relief; Lithuanian and Ukrainian Jews supported as much as 22% of their poor populations.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The concentration of Jews in the Pale, coupled with Tsar Alexander III's "fierce hatred of the Jews", and the rumors that Jews had been involved in the assassination of his father Tsar Alexander II, made them easy targets for pogroms and anti-Jewish riots by the majority population. These, along with the repressive May Laws, often devastated whole communities. Though attacks occurred throughout the existence of the Pale, particularly devastating Russian pogroms occurred from 1881 to 1883 and from 1903 to 1906, targeting hundreds of communities, assaulting thousands of Jews, and causing considerable property damage.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: Most Jews could not engage in agriculture due to the nature of the Pale, and were thus predominantly merchants, artisans, and shopkeepers. This made poverty a serious issue among the Jews. However, a robust Jewish community welfare system arose; by the end of the 19th century nearly 1 in 3 Jews in the Pale were being supported by Jewish welfare organizations. This Jewish support system included, but was not limited to, providing free medicine to the poor, giving dowries to poor brides, kosher food to Jewish soldiers, and education to orphans.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: One outgrowth of the concentration of Jews in a circumscribed area was the development of the modern yeshiva system. Prior to the Pale, schools to study the Talmud were a luxury. This began to change when the rabbi Chaim of Volozhin began a sort of national-level yeshiva. In 1803, he founded the Volozhin Yeshiva and began to attract large number of students from around the Pale. The Tsarist authorities were not pleased with the school and sought to make it more secular, eventually closing it in 1879. The authorities re-opened it in 1881, but required all teachers to have diplomas from Russian institutions and to teach Russian language and culture. This requirement was not only untenable to the Jews, but essentially impossible, and the school closed for the last time in 1892. Regardless, the school had great impact: its students went on to form many new yeshivas in the Pale, and reignited the study of the Talmud in Russia.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: After 1886, the Jewish quota was applied to education, with the percentage of Jewish students limited to no more than 10% within the Pale, 5% outside the Pale and 3% in the capitals of Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kyiv. The quotas in the capitals, however, were increased slightly in 1908 and 1915.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: Amid the difficult conditions in which the Jewish population lived and worked, the courts of Hasidic dynasties flourished in the Pale. Thousands of followers of rebbes such as the Gerrer Rebbe Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter (known as the "Sfas Emes"), the Chernobyler Rebbe, and the Vizhnitzer Rebbe flocked to their towns for the Jewish holidays and followed their rebbes' (, Jewish practices) in their own homes.


title: Pale of Settlement

text: The tribulations of Jewish life in the Pale of Settlement were immortalized in the writings of Yiddish authors such as humorist Sholem Aleichem, whose novel (, "Tevye the Milkman", in the form of the narration of Tevye from a fictional shtetl of Anatevka to the author) forms the basis of the theatrical (and subsequent film) production "Fiddler on the Roof". Because of the harsh conditions of day-to-day life in the Pale, some two million Jews emigrated from there between 1881 and 1914, mainly to the United States.


title: Alex Jennings

text: Alex Jennings (born 10 May 1957) is an English actor of the stage and screen, who worked extensively with the Royal Shakespeare Company and National Theatre. For his work on the London stage, Jennings received three Olivier Awards, winning for "Too Clever by Half" (1988), "Peer Gynt" (1996), and "My Fair Lady" (2003). He is the only performer to have won Olivier awards in the drama, musical, and comedy categories.


title: Alex Jennings

text: He is known for his film work, in particular for his performance as Prince Charles in Stephen Frears' film "The Queen" (2006) opposite Helen Mirren. His other film appearances includes "The Wings of the Dove" (1997), "" (2004), "Babel" (2006), "Belle" (2013), and "The Lady in the Van" (2015) starring Maggie Smith.


title: Alex Jennings

text: Jennings won acclaim for his performances in television including for his portrayal of Edward VIII, the Duke of Windsor, in the Netflix series "The Crown" acting opposite Claire Foy. He also starred in the ITV series "Victoria" (2016–2019) opposite Jenna Coleman, as well as Stephen Frears' "A Very English Scandal" (2018) alongside Hugh Grant and Ben Whishaw, and most recently Steve McQueen's "Small Axe: Mangrove" (2020) starring Letitia Wright.


title: Alex Jennings

text: Jennings was born in Romford, Essex, the son of Peggy Patricia (née Mahoney) and Michael Thomas Jennings. He attended Abbs Cross Technical High School in Hornchurch and studied English and Theatre studies at the University of Warwick, graduating in 1978. He said he saw his first theatre when he was in high school and went to the Old Vic Theatre, which inspired him to be an actor.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In the early 1980s, Jennings began his career in regional repertory theatre. In 1985, playing a range of roles including Maximilien Robespierre in "The Scarlet Pimpernel." Jennings met director Nicholas Hytner during this production and has worked with him many times since. For his performance as Gloumov in "Too Clever by Half" at the Old Vic, he won the Olivier Award for Best Comedy Performance in 1988. He was nominated in the same category the following year for portraying Dorante in "The Liar". He has performed for the Royal National Theatre in a number of plays, including Leontes in "The Winter's Tale" and the title role in "Albert Speer".


title: Alex Jennings

text: Jennings' work in television includes appearances in "The State Within", "Smiley's People", "The Franchise Affair", "Inspector Morse", "Lewis", "Alfonso Bonzo", the title role in "Ashenden", "Dead Poets Society", "Inspector Alleyn", "Hard Times", "Bad Blood", and Peter Ackroyd's "London". His many radio credits include "Casino Royale", "The Way of the World", "Strange Meeting", Vorbis in "Small Gods", and "The Old Curiosity Shop".


title: Alex Jennings

text: His Royal Shakespeare Company roles include the title role in "Peer Gynt" (for which he won an Olivier Award 1995-06 for Best Actor), the title role in "Richard II" (opposite Anton Lesser as Henry Bolingbroke), Theseus/Oberon in "A Midsummer Night's Dream" (UK, American tour and Broadway), Angelo in "Measure for Measure", and the title role in "Hamlet".


title: Alex Jennings

text: He also appeared in "War Requiem", the RSC's film version of "A Midsummer Night's Dream", and "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" (1999). Jennings also appeared as Lord Mark in the romantic drama film "The Wings of the Dove" starring Helena Bonham Carter, Elizabeth McGovern, Charlotte Rampling, and Sir Michael Gambon. The film received great acclaim and many awards nominations including four Academy Award nominations and five British Academy Film Award nominations.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2002, he appeared in the Cameron Mackintosh/Trevor Nunn revival of "My Fair Lady" at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and won an Olivier Award as Best Actor in a Musical. He was an Associate Artist at the Royal Shakespeare Company. That year he also appeared in "The Four Feathers" (2002) as Colonel Hamilton alongside Heath Ledger, Kate Hudson, and Michael Sheen.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2006, Jennings' made his breakthrough film role as Charles, Prince of Wales opposite Helen Mirren as Queen Elizabeth II in "The Queen." The film was directed by Stephen Frears, and written by Peter Morgan. The film depicts the death of Diana, Princess of Wales on 31 August 1997 and the reaction from the British public and the British royal family. The film was an immense critical and box office success, after it premiered at the Venice Film Festival. The film received six Academy Award nominations including a win for Mirren's performance.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2007, he played the role of Garry Essendine in Noël Coward's "Present Laughter" at the NT. Also in 2007, he portrayed the Rev. Hutton in the BBC miniseries "Cranford" starring Judi Dench. He also played John Le Mesurier in the one-off BBC drama "Hancock and Joan". In 2009, he appeared in "The Habit of Art" as Benjamin Britten.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In June 2008, he made his debut in the Operetta at the ENO in Robert Carsen's production of Bernstein's "Candide", in which he played Voltaire and Doctor Pangloss.


title: Alex Jennings

text: He has recorded the audio versions of the books: "Sins of the Father" by Jeffrey Archer, "The Kraken Wakes" by John Wyndham, "The Horse and His Boy", "Out of the Silent Planet", and "Perelandra" by C.S. Lewis, "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" by Jules Verne, and "Attention All Shipping" by Charlie Connelly, which was selected in June 2008 as one of the top 40 audiobooks of all time. In 2006, he recorded an abridgement of "A Spot of Bother" by Mark Haddon. He is also a regular narrator on BBC Radio 4's "Book at Bedtime". He was also a member of the BBC's Radio Drama Company.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2010, he played Captain Shipshape in the CBeebies second series of "Grandpa in my Pocket" and starred in the film "Belle". After that, he played Henry Tizard in "Castles in the Sky".


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2011, he played Mikhail Bulgakov in the National Theatre's production of "Collaborators". In 2014, he played the role of Willy Wonka in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory the Musical," which was directed by Sam Mendes and was performed on London's West End theatre district. He took over the role from Douglas Hodge in 2014.


title: Alex Jennings

text: From 2011 to 2014, Jennings played Alan Cowdrey QC in the BBC One legal drama "Silk". He has also appeared in the PBS/Masterpiece Theatre television series "Inspector Lewis" (2012), and "Foyle's War" (2015).


title: Alex Jennings

text: Jennings portrayed playwright Alan Bennett in the 2015 film "The Lady in the Van" opposite Academy Award winner Dame Maggie Smith in the title role. The film is directed by Nicolas Hytner, who is a long-time collaborator from the theatre. The film also featured performances from Jim Broadbent, Claire Foy, Frances de la Tour, and James Corden. The film premiered at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival to great acclaim, specifically for Smith's performance. To promote the film Maggie Smith, and Jennings, appeared on "The Graham Norton Show", this is Smith's first chat show appearance in over 40 years.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2016, he reprised his role as Professor Henry Higgins in the Australian 60th anniversary production of "My Fair Lady", directed by Julie Andrews.


title: Alex Jennings

text: On television, from 2016 to 2017, he appeared in the Netflix series "The Crown" alongside Claire Foy and Jared Harris, as Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor, uncle to Queen Elizabeth and great-uncle to Prince Charles (whom Jennings played in "The Queen"). The series has received widespread acclaim from audiences and critics alike. Jennings also portrayed King Leopold I of Belgium in the ITV/PBS series "Victoria" (2016–2019) alongside Jenna Coleman.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2018 he played Liberal MP Peter Bessell in the BBC One series, "A Very English Scandal" alongside Hugh Grant, and Ben Whishaw, a miniseries about the Jeremy Thorpe affair directed by Stephen Frears. The film received widespread critical acclaim with a 97% on Rotten Tomatoes with the critics consensus reading, "Hugh Grant and Ben Whishaw impress in A Very English Scandal, an equally absorbing and appalling look at British politics and society". The series also received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations including a win for Whishaw for his performance.


title: Alex Jennings

text: In 2020, Jennings appeared in the "Small Axe" miniseries directed by Steve McQueen, specifically the television movie, "Mangrove" as Judge Edward Clarke alongside Letitia Wright as physician and British Black Panther Altheia Jones-LeCointe. In "Mangrove", the story revolves around the true story based on the "Mangrove Nine" who were British black activists tried for inciting a riot at a protest, in 1970, against the police targeting of the Mangrove restaurant, Notting Hill, in West London. The film received widespread critical acclaim, with the critics consensus on Rotten Tomatoes reading, "Anchored by strong performances and an even stronger sense of conviction, "Mangrove" is a powerful indictment of institutional racism."


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The 7.62×54mmR is a rimmed rifle cartridge developed by the Russian Empire and introduced as a service cartridge in 1891. Originally designed for the bolt-action Mosin–Nagant rifle, it was used during the late tsarist era and throughout the Soviet period to the present day. The cartridge remains one of the few standard-issue rimmed cartridges still in military use, and has one of the longest service lives of any military-issued cartridge.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The American Winchester Model 1895 was also chambered for this cartridge per a contract with the Russian government. The 7.62×54mmR is still in use by the Russian military in the Dragunov, SV-98 and other sniper rifles, as well as some modern general-purpose machine guns like the PKM and Pecheneg machine gun. Originally, the round was designated "Трехлинейный патрон образца 1891 года" – (three-line cartridge model of 1891). It then became widely known under the designation "7,62мм винтовочный патрон" (7.62 mm rifle cartridge). The round has erroneously come to be known as the "7.62mm Russian" (and is still often referred to as such colloquially), but, according to standards, the "R" in designation (7.62×54mmR) stands for "rimmed", in line with standard C.I.P. designations. The name is sometimes confused with the "7.62 Soviet" round, which refers to the rimless 7.62×39mm cartridge used in the SKS and AK-based (AK-47, AK-15, AEK-973) rifles.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The 7.62×54mmR is the second-oldest cartridge still in regular combat service with several major armed forces in the world. It is second to the .303 British which entered military service in 1889 and still remains in service, primarily in some Commonwealth nations around the world. In 2011, the cartridge reached 120 years in service. the 7.62×54mmR is mainly used in designated marksman and sniper rifles like the Dragunov sniper rifle, SV-98 and machine guns like the PKM. It is also one of the few (along with the .22 Hornet, .30-30 Winchester, and .303 British) bottlenecked, rimmed centerfire rifle cartridges still in common use today. Most of the bottleneck rimmed cartridges of the late 1880s and 1890s fell into disuse by the end of the First World War.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The .30-06 Springfield cartridge (7.62×63 mm), with its higher service pressure and case capacity, will outperform the 7.62×54mmR when same-length test barrels are used, though this is very uncommon as .30-06 Springfield firearms are generally sold with much shorter barrels than 7.62×54mmR firearms. Commonly available 7.62×54mmR commercial ammunition chronographs around from the typical Mosin-Nagant (29") barrel, while the heavier loads chonograph in the low range. This is identical to .30-06 Springfield performance from a 24" barrel and slightly better than .30-06 Springfield performance from a 22-inch barrel.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The 7.62×54mmR originally had a 13.7 g (210 grain) "jager" round-nosed full metal jacket (FMJ) bullet. The projectile was replaced in 1908 by the Лёгкая Пуля ("Lyogkaya pulya", "light bullet") spitzer bullet, whose basic design has remained to the present. The "Lyogkaya pulya", or "L"-bullet, had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of approximately 0.338 and (G7 BC) of approximately 0.185.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: To increase accuracy for the Dragunov SVD, the Soviets developed the 7N1 variant of the cartridge in 1966. The 7N1 was developed by V. M. Sabelnikov, P. P. Sazonov and V. M. Dvorianinov. It used match-grade extruded powder instead of the coarser ball propellant and had a boat-tailed FMJ jacketed projectile with an air pocket, a steel core and a lead knocker in the base for maximum terminal effect. It had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of approximately 0.411 and (G7 BC) of approximately 0.206. Produced by "Factory 188" (Novosibirsk Low Voltage Equipment Plant), cartridges are only head-stamped with the number "188" and the year of manufacture. It came packaged 20 loose rounds to a paper packet, 22 packets to a metal "spam" tin, and two tins per wooden case for a total of 880 rounds. The individual paper packets, hermetically sealed metal 'spam' cans, and wooden shipping crates were all distinctly marked "Снайперская" ("Snaiperskaya", the adjective form of "sniper"). Even the wax wrapping paper for the paper packets was covered in red text to make sure it was not misused.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: As hard body armor saw increasing use in militaries, the 7N1 was replaced in 1999 by the 7N14 special load developed for the SVD. The 7N14 round is loaded with a projectile containing a sharp hardened steel penetrator to improve penetration which is fired with an average muzzle velocity of , for a muzzle energy of .


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The 7.62×54mmR has 4.16 ml (64 grain HO) cartridge case capacity. The exterior shape of the case was designed to promote reliable case feeding and extraction in bolt-action rifles and machine guns alike, under challenging conditions.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 ≈ 18.5 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 240 mm (1 in 9.45 in), 4 grooves, Ø lands = 7.62 mm (0.300 in), Ø grooves = 7.92 mm (0.312 in), land width = 3.81 mm and the primer type is Berdan or very rarely Boxer (in large rifle size).


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) rulings the 7.62×54mmR can handle up to P piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that 7.62×54mmR chambered arms in C.I.P.-regulated countries are currently (2014) proof tested at PE piezo pressure.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The attainable muzzle velocities and muzzle energies of the 7.62×54mmR are comparable with standard 7.62×51mm NATO cartridges. However, a rimmed case such as the one used in the 7.62×54mmR cartridge can complicate smooth feeding within box magazines, but they are by no means unreliable.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: When used with modern hunting bullets, the 7.62×54mmR is capable of taking game in the medium- to large-sized class (CXP2 and CXP3). The 7.62×54mmR can offer very good penetrating ability due to a fast twist rate that enables it to fire long, heavy bullets with a high sectional density. In Russia, the 7.62×54mmR is commonly used for hunting purposes, mostly in sporterized Mosin–Nagant rifles and civil Dragunov variants (Tigers).


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: The 7.62×54mmR rounds in use with the Russian Armed Forces are designed for machine guns and sniper rifles. As of 2003, there were several variants of 7.62×54mmR rounds produced for various purposes. All use clad metal as case material.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: 7.62×54mmR is widely available both as military surplus and new production, but less so for match-grade rounds. Most surplus ammunition is steel-cased and uses Berdan primers, which effectively hinders its use for handloading. However, with the increased popularity of surplus Eastern-bloc Mosin–Nagant, SVT-40, and PSL rifles in the United States, Boxer-primed ammunition and unfired cases are increasingly available; these cases take large rifle primers.


title: 7.62×54mmR

text: While the only official nomenclature for the cartridge is 7.62x54R ("R" standing for "rimmed"), some shooters in the U.S have confused the "R" as an abbreviation for "Russian" due to the rounds' origin.


title: Walgreens

text: Walgreen Company, d/b/a Walgreens, is an American company that operates the second-largest pharmacy store chain in the United States behind CVS Health. It specializes in filling prescriptions, health and wellness products, health information, and photo services. It was founded in Chicago, Illinois, in 1901, and is headquartered in the Chicago suburb of Deerfield, Illinois. On December 31, 2014, Walgreens and Switzerland-based Alliance Boots merged to form a new holding company, Walgreens Boots Alliance Inc. Walgreens became a subsidiary of the new company, which retained its Deerfield headquarters and trades on the Nasdaq under the symbol . The company was found by a federal jury to have "substantially contributed to" the opioid crisis.


title: Walgreens

text: Walgreens began in 1901, with a small food front store on the corner of Bowen and Cottage Grove Avenues in Chicago, owned by Dixon, Illinois native Charles R. Walgreen. By 1913, Walgreens had grown to four stores on Chicago's South Side. It opened its fifth in 1915 and four more in 1916. By 1919, there were 20 stores in the chain. As a result of alcohol prohibition, the 1920s were a successful time for Walgreens. Although alcohol was illegal, prescription whiskey was available and sold by Walgreens. In 1922, the company introduced a malted milkshake, which led to its establishing ice cream manufacturing plants. The next year, Walgreen began opening stores away from residential areas. In the mid-1920s, there were 44 stores with annual sales of $1,200,000 combined. Walgreens had also expanded by then into Minnesota, Missouri, and Wisconsin. By 1930, it had 397 stores with annual sales of US$4,000,000. This expansion partly was attributed to selling prescribed alcohol, mainly whiskey, which Walgreen often stocked under the counter, as accounted in Daniel Okrent's "Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition". The stock market crash in October 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression did not greatly affect the company. By 1934, Walgreens was operating in 30 states with 601 stores. After Charles Walgreen Sr. died in 1939, his son Charles R. Walgreen Jr. took over the chain until his retirement. The Charles R. Walgreen (Jr.) years were relatively prosperous but lacked the massive expansion seen in the early part of the century. In 1946, Walgreens purchased Sanborns, one of the largest pharmacy and department store chains in Mexico, from Frank Sanborn (Walgreens sold Sanborns to Grupo Carso in 1982). Charles "Cork" R. Walgreen III took over after Walgreen Jr.'s retirement in the early 1950s and modernized the company by switching to barcode scanning. The company also created larger-sized Walgreens Superstores and purchased the Globe Discount City chain of big-box stores from United Mercantile, Inc. in the 1960s The Walgreen family was not involved in senior management of the company for a short time following Walgreen III's retirement. In the 1980s Walgreens owned and operated a chain of casual family restaurants/pancake houses called Wag's. Walgreens sold most of these to Marriott Corp. in 1988, and by 1991 the chain was out of business. In 1986, Walgreens acquired the MediMart chain from Stop & Shop. In 1995, Kevin P. Walgreen was made a vice-president and promoted to senior vice president of store operations in 2006.


title: Walgreens

text: On July 12, 2006, David Bernauer stepped down as CEO of Walgreens and was replaced by company president Jeff Rein, who was later named chief executive officer and chairman of the board. That year, Walgreens acquired the Happy Harry's chain in Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New Jersey. On October 10, 2008, Rein abruptly quit as CEO and was replaced by Alan G. McNally as chairman and acting CEO. On January 26, 2009, Gregory Wasson was named CEO effective February 1, 2009.


title: Walgreens

text: In 2010, Walgreens acquired New York City-area chain Duane Reade for $1.075 billion, including debt, and continued to use the Duane Reade name on some stores in the New York City metropolitan area. In March 2011, Walgreens acquired Drugstore.com for $409 million. On June 19, 2012: Walgreens paid $6.7 billion for a 45% interest in Alliance Boots. That year, Walgreens acquired Mid-South drug store chain operating under the USA Drug, Super D Drug, May's Drug, Med-X, and Drug Warehouse banners.


title: Walgreens

text: In 2011 Walgreens announced it would end its relationship with Express Scripts, a prescription benefits manager. A coalition of minority groups, led by Al Sharpton's National Action Network, sent letters urging CEO Gregory Wasson to reconsider. Groups sending letters were National Hispanic Christian Leadership Conference, the Congress of Racial Equality, Hispanic Leadership Fund and others. In 2012, Walgreens announced that it would continue to participate in Express Scripts.


title: Walgreens

text: On September 10, 2013, Walgreens announced it had acquired Kerr Drug. In August 2014, Walgreens purchased the remaining 55% of Alliance Boots. The combined company became known as the Walgreens Boots Alliance and was headquartered in Chicago. In December of that year, Walgreens purchased the Almus Pharmaceutical generic brand. Also that year, Walgreens acquired Farmacias Benavides. On July 28, 2016, Walgreens announced it would shut down Drugstore.com, as well as Beauty.com, in order to focus on its own Walgreens.com website. On September 19, 2017, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) approved Walgreen's fourth attempt to purchase Rite Aid, with 1,932 stores for $4.38 billion total.


title: Walgreens

text: In February 2020, Walgreens announced the appointment of Richard Ashworth as president of the company, but he left within the year. Prior to the appointment, he served as president of operations for Walgreens.


title: Walgreens

text: Walgreens has its corporate headquarters in Deerfield, Illinois. Walgreens has had a technology office located in Chicago since 2010. The location serves as their digital hub.


title: Walgreens

text: In November 2010 Walgreens filed a trademark infringement lawsuit against the Wegmans supermarket chain, claiming the "W" in the Wegman's logo is too similar to Walgreens'. The lawsuit was settled in April 2011, with Wegmans agreeing to discontinue use of its "W" logo by June 2012, although the supermarket retained the right to use the "Wegmans" name in script. According to Jo Natale, Wegmans director of media relations, "The cost of making relatively minor changes to a limited number of products was much less than the cost of litigating this case to the end."


title: Walgreens

text: In the summer of 2014, a corporate relocation to Switzerland was considered as part of a merger with Alliance Boots, a European drugstore chain. This drew controversy as many consumers felt that it was an attempt at tax inversion. On August 5, 2014, Walgreens announced that it would not be relocating its headquarters.


title: Walgreens

text: Walgreens stores were once connected to local groceries. In Chicago, their flagship market, they teamed up with either Eagle Food Centers or Dominick's Finer Foods, usually with a "walkthru" to the adjoining store and often sharing personnel. This concept was instated to compete with the popular dual-store format used by the chief competitor Jewel-Osco/Albertsons-Sav-On. They eventually ended the relationship with Eagle and focused primarily on a connection to Dominick's stores. PharmX-Rexall filled the vacated Walgreen locations joined to Eagle stores.


title: Walgreens

text: In its 2009 business model, Walgreens are freestanding corner stores, with the entrance on the street with the most traffic flow, figuratively making it a "corner drugstore" similar to how many independent pharmacies evolved. Many stores have a drive-through pharmacy.


title: Walgreens

text: Most freestanding stores have a similar look and layout, including a bigger and more spacious layout than certain stores within major cities. Newer buildings have a more modern design to them compared to older stores. Stores within major cities, such as New York and Chicago, could have multiple floors, most notably their flagship stores. Behind the front registers are tobacco products and alcoholic beverages. However, some stores do not sell these products, e.g., New Jersey stores that do not sell alcohol and Massachusetts stores that do not sell tobacco. Stores usually have a beauty counter located near the cosmetics, with busier stores having a beauty consultant. Most stores have a photo department, which is either behind the front register or in a separate part of the store. There are self-serve photo kiosks near the photo department, where customers can print photos and photo products. Most stores have a pharmacy, usually located in the back, where people can drop off and pick up prescriptions as well as purchase certain drugs containing pseudoephedrine.


title: Walgreens

text: In March 2008, Walgreens settled a lawsuit with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) that alleged the company discriminated against African Americans for $24 million. The settlement was split between the 10,000 African-American employees of the company. In the agreement, Walgreens avoided any admission of guilt.


title: Walgreens

text: In September 2011, Walgreens settled a lawsuit with the EEOC that claimed that a store improperly terminated a worker with diabetes for eating a package of the store's food while working to stop a hypoglycemia attack.


title: Walgreens

text: In June 2008, after Walgreens was sued for drug fraud—"switching dosage forms on three medications without doctor approvals in order to boost profits"—Walgreens agreed to stop these actions and pay $35 million to the federal government, 42 states, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico," as reported by the "Knoxville News Sentinel".


title: Walgreens

text: Also in June 2008, Walgreens "agreed to pay $35 million to the U.S. and 42 states and Puerto Rico for overcharging state Medicaid programs by filling prescriptions with more expensive dosage forms of ranitidine, a generic form of Zantac, and fluoxetine, a generic form of Prozac."