title: Mumps

text: The incubation period, the time between the start of infection and when symptoms begin to show, is about 7–25 days, averaging 16–18 days. 20–40% of infections are asymptomatic or are restricted to mild respiratory symptoms, sometimes with a fever. Over the course of the disease, three distinct phases are recognized: prodromal, early acute, and established acute. The prodromal phase typically has non-specific, mild symptoms such as a low-grade fever, headache, malaise, muscle pain, loss of appetite, and sore throat. In the early acute phase, as the mumps virus spreads throughout the body, systemic symptoms emerge. Most commonly, parotitis occurs during this time period. During the established acute phase, orchitis, meningitis, and encephalitis may occur, and these conditions are responsible for the bulk of mumps morbidity.


title: Mumps

text: The parotid glands are salivary glands situated on the sides of the mouth in front of the ears. Inflammation of them, called parotitis, is the most common mumps symptom and occurs in about 90% of symptomatic cases and 60–70% of total infections. During mumps parotitis, usually both the left and right parotid glands experience painful swelling, with unilateral swelling in a small percentage of cases. Parotitis occurs 2–3 weeks after exposure to the virus, within two days of developing symptoms, and usually lasts 2–3 days, but it may last as long as a week or longer.


title: Mumps

text: In 90% of parotitis cases, swelling on one side is delayed rather than both sides swelling in unison. The parotid duct, which is the opening that provides saliva from the parotid glands to the mouth, may become red, swollen, and filled with fluid. Parotitis is usually preceded by local tenderness and occasionally earache. Other salivary glands, namely the submandibular, and sublingual glands, may also swell. Inflammation of these glands is rarely the only symptom.


title: Mumps

text: Outside of the salivary glands, inflammation of the testes, called orchitis, is the most common symptom infection. Pain, swelling, and warmness of a testis appear usually 1–2 weeks after the onset of parotitis but can occur up to six weeks later. During mumps orchitis, the scrotum is tender and inflamed. It occurs in 10–40% of pubertal and post-pubertal males who contract mumps. Usually, mumps orchitis affects only one testis but in 10–30% of cases both are affected. Mumps orchitis is accompanied by inflammation of the epididymis, called epididymitis, about 85% of the time, typically occurring before orchitis. The onset of mumps orchitis is associated with a high-grade fever, vomiting, headache, and malaise. In prepubertal males, orchitis is rare as symptoms are usually restricted to parotitis.


title: Mumps

text: A variety of other inflammatory conditions may also occur as a result of mumps virus infection, including:


title: Mumps

text: A relatively common complication is deafness, which occurs in about 4% of cases. Mumps deafness is often accompanied by vestibular symptoms such as vertigo and repetitive, uncontrolled eye movements. Based on electrocardiographic abnormalities in the infected, MuV also likely infects cardiac tissue, but this is usually asymptomatic. Rarely, myocarditis and pericarditis can occur. Fluid buildup in the brain, called hydrocephalus, has also been observed. In the first trimester of pregnancy, mumps may increase the risk of miscarriage. Otherwise, mumps is not associated with birth defects.


title: Mumps

text: Other rare complications of infection include: paralysis, seizures, cranial nerve palsies, cerebellar ataxia, transverse myelitis, ascending polyradiculitis, a polio-like disease, arthropathy, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, Guillain–Barré syndrome, post-infectious encephalitis encephalomyelitis, and hemophagocytic syndrome. At least one complication occurs in combination with the standard mumps symptoms in up to 42% of cases. Mumps has also been connected to the onset of type 1 diabetes, and, relatedly, the mumps virus is able to infect and replicate in insulin-producing beta cells. Among children, seizures occur in about 20–30% of cases involving the central nervous system.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps is caused by the mumps virus (MuV), scientific name "Mumps orthorubulavirus", which belongs to the "Orthorubulavirus" genus in the "Paramyxoviridae" family of viruses. Humans are the only natural host of the mumps virus. MuV's genome is made of RNA and contains seven genes that encode nine proteins. In MuV particles, the genome is encased by a helical capsid. The capsid is surrounded by a viral envelope that has spikes protruding from its surface. MuV particles are pleomorphic in shape and range from 100 to 600 nanometers in diameter.


title: Mumps

text: The replication cycle of MuV begins when the spikes on its surface bond to a cell, which then causes the envelope to fuse with the host cell's cell membrane, releasing the capsid into the host cell's cytoplasm. Upon entry, the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) transcribes messenger RNA (mRNA) from the genome, which is then translated by the host cell's ribosomes to synthesize viral proteins. RdRp then begins replicating the viral genome to produce progeny. Viral spike proteins fuse into the host cell's membrane, and new virions are formed at the sites beneath the spikes. MuV then utilizes host cell proteins to leave the host cell by budding from its surface, using the host cell's membrane as the viral envelope.


title: Mumps

text: Twelve genotypes of MuV are recognized, named genotypes A to N, excluding E and M. These genotypes vary in frequency from region to region. For example, genotypes C, D, H, and J are more common in the western hemisphere, whereas genotypes F, G, and I are more common in Asia, although genotype G is considered to be a global genotype. Genotypes A and B have not been observed in the wild since the 1990s. MuV has just one serotype, so antibodies to one genotype are functional against all genotypes. MuV is a relatively stable virus and is unlikely to experience antigenic shifting that may cause new strains to emerge.


title: Mumps

text: The mumps virus is mainly transmitted by inhalation or oral contact with respiratory droplets or secretions. In experiments, mumps could develop after inoculation either via the mouth or the nose. Respiratory transmission is also supported by the presence of MuV in cases of respiratory illness without parotitis, detection in nasal samples, and transmission between people in close contact. MuV is excreted in saliva from approximately one week before to eight days after the onset of symptoms, peaking at the onset of parotitis, though it has also been identified in the saliva of asymptomatic individuals.


title: Mumps

text: Mother-to-child transmission has been observed in various forms. In non-human primates, placental transmission has been observed, which is supported by isolation of MuV from spontaneous and planned aborted fetuses during maternal mumps. MuV has also been isolated from newborns whose mother was infected. While MuV has been detected in breast milk, it is unclear if the virus can be transmitted through it. Other manners of transmission include direct contact with infected droplets or saliva, fomites contaminated by saliva, and possibly urine. Most transmissions likely occur before the development of symptoms and up to five days after such time.


title: Mumps

text: In susceptible populations, a single case can cause up to twelve new ones. The time period when a person is contagious lasts from two days before the onset of symptoms to nine days after symptoms have ceased. Asymptomatic carriers of the mump virus can also transmit the virus. These factors are thought to be reasons why controlling the spread of mumps is difficult. Furthermore, reinfection can occur after a natural infection or vaccination, indicating that lifelong immunity is not guaranteed after infection. Vaccinated individuals who are infected appear to be less contagious than the unvaccinated.


title: Mumps

text: The average number of new cases generated from a single case in a susceptible population, called the basic reproduction number, is 4–7. Given this, it is estimated that a vaccination rate between 79 and 100% is needed to achieve herd immunity. Outbreaks continue to occur in places that have vaccination rates exceeding 90%, however, suggesting that other factors may influence disease transmission. Outbreaks that have occurred in these vaccinated communities typically occur in highly crowded areas such as school and military dormitories.


title: Mumps

text: Many aspects of the pathogenesis of mumps are poorly understood and are primarily inferred based on observations from the clinical features of the disease and experimental infections in laboratory animals. These animal studies may be unreliable for various reasons, including unnatural methods of inoculation. Following exposure, the virus infects epithelial cells in the upper respiratory tract that express sialic acid receptors on their surface. After initial infection, the virus spreads to the parotid glands, causing the signature parotitis. It is thought that shortly after infection the virus spreads to lymph nodes, in particular T-cells, which results in the presence of viruses in the blood, called viremia. Viremia lasts for 7–10 days, during which MuV spreads throughout the body.


title: Mumps

text: In mumps orchitis, infection leads to: parenchymal edema; congestion, or separation, of the seminiferous tubules; and perivascular infiltration by lymphocytes. The tunica albuginea forms a barrier against edema, causing an increase in intratesticular pressure that causes necrosis of the seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules also experience hyalinization, i.e. degeneration into a translucent glass-like substance, which can cause fibrosis and atrophy of the testes.


title: Mumps

text: In up to half of cases, MuV infiltrates the central nervous system (CNS), where it may cause meningitis, encephalitis, or hydrocephalus. Mumps is rarely fatal, so few post-mortem analyses have been done to analyze CNS involvement. Of these, fluid buildup, congestion, and hemorrhaging in the brain, white blood cell infiltration in the perivascular spaces in the brain, reactive changes to glial cells and damage to the myelin sheaths surrounding neurons were observed. Neurons appear to be relatively unaffected.


title: Mumps

text: In laboratory tests on rodents, MuV appears to enter the CNS first through cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), then spreading to the ventricular system. There, MuV replicates in ependymal cells that line the ventricles, which allows the virus to enter the brain parenchyma. This often leads to MuV infecting pyramidal cells in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Infected ependymal cells become inflamed, lose their cilia, and collapse into CSF, which may be the cause of the narrowing of the cerebral aqueduct thought to cause mumps hydrocephalus.


title: Mumps

text: In humans, mumps hydrocephalus may be due to obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct with dilatation of the lateral and third ventricles, obstruction of the interventricular foramina, or obstruction of the median and lateral apertures. Ependymal cells have been isolated from CSF of mumps patients, suggesting that animals and humans share hydrocephalus pathogenesis. Hydrocephalus has also been observed in the absence of canal obstruction, however, indicating that obstruction may be a result of external compression by edematous tissue and not related to hydrocephalus.


title: Mumps

text: Deafness from mumps may be caused by MuV infection in CSF, which has contact with the perilymph of the inner ear, possibly leading to infection of the cochlea, or it may occur as a result of inner ear infection via viremia that leads to inflammation in the endolymph. Hearing loss may also be caused indirectly by the immune response. In animal studies, MuV has been isolated from the vestibular ganglion, which may explain vestibular symptoms such as vertigo that often co-occur with deafness.


title: Mumps

text: Even though MuV has just one serotype, significant variation in the quantity of genotype-specific sera needed to neutralize different genotypes "in vitro" has been observed. Neutralizing antibodies in the salivary glands may be important in restricting MuV replication and transmission via saliva, as the level of viral secretion in saliva inversely correlates to the quantity of MuV-specific IgA produced. The neutralizing ability of salivary IgA appears to be greater than serum IgG and IgM.


title: Mumps

text: It has been proposed that symptomatic infections in the vaccinated may be because memory T lymphocytes generated as a result of vaccination may be necessary but insufficient for protection. The immune system in general appears to have a relatively weak response to the mumps virus, indicated by various measures: antibody production appears to be predominately directed toward non-neutralizing viral proteins, and there may possibly be a low quantity of MuV-specific memory B lymphocytes. The amount of antibodies needed to confer immunity is unknown.


title: Mumps

text: In places where mumps is widespread, diagnosis can be made based on development of parotitis and history of exposure to someone with mumps. In places where mumps is less common, because parotitis has other causes, laboratory diagnosis may be needed to verify mumps infection. A differential diagnosis may be used to compare symptoms to other diseases, including allergic reaction, mastoiditis, measles, and pediatric HIV infection and rubella. MuV can be isolated from saliva, blood, the nasopharynx, salivary ducts, and seminal fluid within one week of the onset of symptoms, as well as from cell cultures. In meningitis cases, MuV can be isolated from CSF. In CNS cases, a lumbar puncture may be used to rule out other potential causes, which shows normal opening pressure, more than ten leukocytes per cubic millimeter, elevated lymphocyte count in CSF, polymorphonuclear leukocytes up to 25% of the time, often a mildly elevated protein level, and a slightly reduced CSF glucose to blood glucose ratio up to 30% of the time.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps-specific IgM antibodies in serum or oral fluid specimens can be used to identify mumps. IgM quantities peak up to eight days after the onset of symptoms, and IgM can be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) 7–10 days after the onset of symptoms. Sensitivity to IgM testing is variable, ranging from as low as 24–51% to 75% in the first week and 100% thereafter. Throughout infection, IgM titres increase four-fold between the acute phase and recovery. False negatives can occur in people previously infected or vaccinated, in which case a rise of serum IgG may be more useful for diagnosis. False positives can occur after infection of parainfluenza viruses1 and 3 and Newcastle disease virus as well as recently after mumps vaccination.


title: Mumps

text: Antibody titers can also be measured with complement fixation tests, hemagglutination assays, and neutralization tests. In vaccinated people, antibody-based diagnosis can be difficult since IgM oftentimes cannot be detected in acute phase serum samples. In these instances, it is easier to identify MuV RNA from oral fluid, a throat swab, or urine. In meningitis cases, MuV-specific IgM can be found in CSF in half of cases, and IgG in a 30–90%, sometimes lasting for more than a year with increased white blood cell count. These findings are not associated with increased risk of long-term complications. Most parotitis cases have elevated white blood cell count in CSF.


title: Mumps

text: Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) can be used to detect MuV RNA from the first day symptoms appear, declining over the next 8–10 days. rRT-PCR of saliva is typically positive from 2–3 days before parotitis develops to 4–5 days after and has a sensitivity of about 70%. Since MuV replicates in kidneys, viral culture and RNA detection in urine can be used for diagnosis up to two weeks after symptoms begin, though rRT-PCR used to identify the virus in urine has a very low sensitivity compared to virus cultures at below 30%. In meningoencephalitis cases, a nested RT-PCR is able to detect MuV RNA in CSF up to two years after infection.


title: Mumps

text: In sialadenitis cases, imaging shows enlargement of the salivary glands, fat stranding, and thickening of the superficial cervical fascia and platysma muscles, which are situated on the front side of the neck. If parotitis occurs only on one side, then detection of mumps-specific IgM antibodies, IgG titer, or PCR is required for diagnosis. In cases of pancreatitis, there may be elevated levels of lipase or amylase, an enzyme found in saliva and the pancreas.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps orchitis is usually diagnosed by white blood cell count, with normal differential white blood cell counts. A complete blood count can show above or below average white blood cell count and an elevated C-reactive protein level. Urine analysis can exclude bacterial infections. If orchitis is present with normal urine analysis, negative urethral cultures, and negative midstream urine, then that can indicate mumps orchitis. Ultrasounds typically show diffuse hyper-vascularity, increased volume of the testes and epididymis, lower than usual ability to return ultrasound signals, swelling of the epididymis, and formation of hydroceles. Echo color doppler ultrasound is more effective at detecting orchitis than ultrasound alone.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps is preventable with vaccination. Mumps vaccines use live attenuated viruses. Most countries include mumps vaccination in their immunization programs, and the MMR vaccine, which also protects against measles and rubella, is the most commonly used mumps vaccine. Mumps vaccination can also be done on its own and as a part of the MMRV vaccine, which also provides protection against measles, rubella, chickenpox, and shingles. More than 120 countries have adopted mumps vaccination, but coverage remains low in most African, South Asian, and Southeast Asian countries. In countries that have implemented mumps vaccination, significant declines in mumps cases and complications caused by infection such as encephalitis have been observed. Mumps vaccines are typically administered in early childhood, but may also be given in adolescence and adulthood if need be. Vaccination is expected to be capable of neutralizing wild-type MuVs not included in the vaccine since they do not appear to escape from vaccine-derived immunity.


title: Mumps

text: A variety of virus strains have been used in mumps vaccines, including the Jeryl Lynn (JL), Leningrad-3, Leningrad-3-Zagreb (L-Zagreb), Rubini, and Urabe AM9 strains. Some other less prominent strains exist that are typically confined to individual countries. These include the Hoshino, Miyahara, Torii, and NK M-46 strains that have been produced in Japan and the S-12 strain, which is used by Iran. Mild adverse reactions are relatively common, including fever and rash, but aseptic meningitis also occurs at varying rates. Other rare adverse reactions include meningoencephalitis, parotitis, deafness from inner ear damage, orchitis, and pancreatitis. Safety and effectiveness vary by vaccine strain:


title: Mumps

text: Mumps protection from the MMR vaccine is higher after two doses than one and is estimated to be between 79% and 95%, lower than the degree of protection against measles and rubella. This, however, has still been sufficient to nearly eliminate mumps in countries that vaccinate against it as well as significantly reduce frequencies of complications among the vaccinated. If at least one dose is received, then hospitalization rates are reduced by an estimated 50% among the infected. Compared to the MMR vaccine, the MMRV vaccine appears to be less effective in terms of providing mumps protection. A difficulty in assessing vaccine effectiveness is that there is no clear correlate of immunity, so it is not possible to predict if a person has acquired immunity from the vaccine.


title: Mumps

text: There is a lack of data on the effectiveness of a third dose of the MMR vaccine. In an outbreak in which a third dose was administered, it was unclear if it had any effect on reducing disease incidence, and it only appeared to boost antibodies in those who previously had little or no antibodies to mumps. Contraindications for mumps vaccines include prior allergic reaction to any ingredients or to neomycin, pregnancy, immunosuppression, a moderate or severe illness, having received a blood product recently, and, for MMRV vaccines specifically, a personal or familial history of seizures. It is also advised that women not become pregnant in the four weeks after MMR vaccination. No effective prophylaxis exists for mumps after one has been exposed to the virus, so vaccination or receiving immunoglobulin after exposure does not prevent progression to illness.


title: Mumps

text: For people who are infected or suspected to be infected, isolation is important in preventing the spread of the disease. This includes abstaining from school, childcare, work, and other settings in which people gather together. In health care settings, it is recommended that health care workers use precautions such as face masks to reduce the likelihood of infection and to abstain from work if they develop mumps. Additional measures taken in health care facilities include reducing wait times for mumps patients, having mumps patients wear masks, and cleaning and disinfecting areas that mumps patients use. The virus can be inactivated by means of formalin, ether, chloroform, heat, or ultraviolet light.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps is usually self-limiting, and no specific antiviral treatments exist for it, so treatment is aimed at alleviating symptoms and preventing complications. Non-medicinal ways to manage the disease include bed rest, using ice or heat packs on the neck and scrotum, consuming more fluids, eating soft food, and gargling with warm salt water. Anti-fever medications may be used during the febrile period, excluding aspirin when given to children, which may cause Reye syndrome. Analgesics may also be provided to control pain from mumps inflammatory conditions. For seizures, anticonvulsants may be used. In severe neurological cases, ventilators may be used to support breathing.


title: Mumps

text: Intramuscular mumps immunoglobulin may be of benefit when administered early in some cases, but it has not shown benefit in outbreaks. Although not recommended, intravenous immunoglobulin therapy may reduce the rates of some complications. Antibiotics may be used as a precaution in cases in which bacterial infection cannot be ruled out as well as to prevent secondary bacterial infection. Autoimmune-based disorders connected to mumps are treatable with intravenous immunoglobulin.


title: Mumps

text: Various types of treatment for mumps orchitis have been used, but no specific treatment is recommended due to each method's limitations. These measures are primarily based around relieving testicular pain and reducing intratesticular pressure to reduce the likelihood of testicular atrophy. Interferon-α2α interferes with viral replication, so it has been postulated to be useful in preventing testicular damage and infertility. Interferon alfa-2b may reduce the duration of symptoms and incidence of complications. In cases of hydrocele formation, excess fluid can be removed.


title: Mumps

text: Prognosis for most people who experience mumps is excellent as long-term complications and death are rare. Hospitalization is typically not required. Mumps is usually self-limiting and symptoms resolve spontaneously within two weeks as the immune system clears the virus from the body. In high-risk groups such as immunocompromised persons, prognosis is considered to be the same as for other groups. For most people, infection leads to lifelong immunity against future infection. Reinfections appear to be more mild and atypical than the first infection. The overall case-fatality rate of mumps is 1.6–3.8 people per 10,000, and these deaths typically occur in those who develop encephalitis.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps orchitis typically resolves within two weeks. In 20% of cases, the testicles may be tender for a few more weeks. Atrophy, or reduction of size, of the involved testicle occurs in 30–50% of orchitis cases, which may lead to abnormalities in sperm creation and fertility such as low sperm count, absence of sperm in semen, reduced sperm motility, reduced fertility (hypofertility) in 13% of cases, and rarely sterility. Hypofertility can, however, occur in cases without atrophy. Abnormalities in sperm creation can persist for months to years after recovery from the initial infection, the length of which increases as the severity of orchitis increases. Examination of these cases shows decreased testicular volume, tenderness of the testicles, and a feeling of inconsistency when handling the testicles. Infertility is linked to severe cases of orchitis affecting both testes followed by testicular atrophy, which may develop up to one year after the initial infection. Of bilateral orchitis cases, 30–87% experience infertility. There is a weak association between orchitis and later development of epididymitis and testicular tumors.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps meningitis typically resolves within 3–10 days without long-term complications. In meningoencephalitis cases, higher protein levels in CSF and a lower CSF glucose to blood glucose ratio are associated with longer periods of hospitalization. Approximately 1% of those whose CNS is affected die from mumps. Post-infectious encephalitis tends to be relatively mild, whereas post-infectious encephalomyelitis has a case-fatality rate of up to ten percent. Most cases of mumps deafness affect just one ear and are temporary, but permanent hearing loss occurs in 0.005% of infections. Myocarditis and pericarditis that occur as a result of mumps may lead to endocardial fibroelastosis, i.e. thickening of the endocardium. With extreme rarity, infertility and premature menopause have occurred as a result of mumps oophoritis.


title: Mumps

text: Mumps is found worldwide. In the absence of vaccination against mumps there are between 100 and 1,000 cases per 100,000 people each year, i.e. 0.1% to 1.0% of the population are infected each year. The number of cases peaks every 2–5 years, with incidence highest in children 5–9 years old. According to seroconversion surveys done prior to the start of mumps vaccination, a sharp increase in mumps antibody levels at age 2–3 was observed.


title: Mumps

text: Furthermore, 50% of 4–6 year olds, 90% of 14–15 year olds, and 95% of adults had tested positive to prior exposure to mumps, indicating that nearly all people are eventually infected in unvaccinated populations.


title: Mumps

text: Prior to the start of vaccination, mumps accounted for ten percent of meningitis cases and about a third of encephalitis cases. Worldwide, mumps is the most common cause of inflammation of the salivary glands. In children, mumps is the most common cause of deafness in one ear in cases when the inner ear is damaged. Asymptomatic infections are more common in adults, and the rate of asymptomatic infections is very high, up to two-thirds, in vaccinated populations. Mumps vaccination has the effect of increasing the average age of the infected in vaccinated populations that have not previously experienced a mumps outbreak. While infection rates appear to be the same in males and females, males appear to experience symptoms and complications, including neurological involvement, at a higher rate than females. Symptoms are more severe in adolescents and adults than in children.


title: Mumps

text: It is common for outbreaks of mumps to occur. These outbreaks typically occur in crowded spaces where the virus can spread from person to person easily, such as schools, military barracks, prisons, and sports clubs. Since the introduction of vaccines, the frequency of mumps has declined dramatically, as have complications caused by mumps. The epidemiology in countries that vaccinate reflects the number doses administered, age at vaccination, and vaccination rates. If vaccine coverage is insufficient, then herd immunity may be unobtainable and the average age of infection will increase, leading to an increase in the prevalence of complications. Risk factors include age, exposure to a person with mumps, compromised immunity, time of year, travel history, and vaccination status. Mumps vaccination is less common in developing countries, which consequently have higher rates of mumps.


title: Mumps

text: Cases peak in different seasons of the year in different regions. In temperate climates, cases peak in winter and spring, whereas in tropical regions no seasonality is observed. Additional research has shown that mumps increases in frequency as temperature and humidity increase. The seasonality of mumps is thought to be caused by several factors: fluctuation in the human immune response due to seasonal factors, such as changes in melatonin levels; behavior and lifestyle changes, such as school attendance and indoor crowding; and meteorological factors such as changes in temperature, brightness, wind, and humidity.


title: Mumps

text: According to Chinese medical literature, mumps was recorded as far back as 640 B.C. The Greek physician Hippocrates documented an outbreak on the island of Thasos in approximately 410 B.C. and provided a fuller description of the disease in the first book of "Epidemics" in the Corpus Hippocraticum. In modern times, the disease was first described scientifically in 1790 by British physician Robert Hamilton in "Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh". During the First World War, mumps was one of the most debilitating diseases among soldiers. In 1934, the etiology of the disease, the mumps virus, was discovered by Claude D. Johnson and Ernest William Goodpasture. They found that rhesus macaques exposed to saliva taken from humans in the early stages of the disease developed mumps. Furthermore, they showed that mumps could then be transferred to children via filtered and sterilized, bacteria-less preparations of macerated monkey parotid tissue, showing that it was a viral disease.


title: Mumps

text: In 1945, the mumps virus was isolated for the first time. Just a few years later, in 1948, an inactivated vaccine using killed viruses had been invented. This vaccine provided only short-term immunity and was later discontinued and replaced in the 1970s with vaccines that have live but weakened viruses, which are more effective at providing long-term immunity than the inactivated vaccine. The first of these vaccines was Mumpsvax, licensed on 30 March 1967, which used the Jeryl Lynn strain. Maurice Hilleman created this vaccine using the strain taken from his then five-year-old daughter, Jeryl Lynn. Mumpsvax was later recommended for use in 1977, and the Jeryl Lynn strain continues to be used in vaccines today.


title: Mumps

text: Hilleman worked to combine the attenuated mumps vaccines with measles and rubella vaccines, creating the MMR-1 vaccine. In 1971, a newer version, MMR-2, was approved for use by the US Food and Drug Administration. In the 1980s, countries started recognizing the benefit of receiving multiple doses, so a two-dose immunization schedule was widely adopted. Including MMR-2, five MMR vaccines have been created since the 1960s, the others being Triviraten, Morupar, Priorix, and Trimovax. Since the mid-2000s, two MMRV vaccines have been in use: Priorix-Tetra and ProQuad.


title: Mumps

text: The United States began to vaccinate against mumps in the 1960s, with other countries following suit. From 1977 to 1985, 290 cases per 100,000 people were diagnosed each year worldwide. Although few countries recorded mumps cases after they began vaccination, those that did reported dramatic declines. From 1968 to 1982, cases declined by 97% in the U.S., in Finland cases were reduced to less than one per 100,000 people per year, and a decline from 160 cases per 100,000 to 17 per 100,000 per year in England was observed from 1989 to 1995. By 2001, there had been a 99.9% reduction in the number of cases in the U.S. and similar near-elimination in other vaccinating countries.


title: Mumps

text: In Japan in 1993, concerns over the rates of aseptic meningitis following MMR vaccination with the Urabe strain prompted the removal of MMR vaccines from the national immunization program, resulting in a dramatic increase in the number of cases. Japan now provides voluntary mumps vaccination separately from measles and rubella. Starting in the mid-1990s, controversies surrounding the MMR vaccine emerged. One paper connected the MMR vaccine to Crohn's disease in 1995, and another in 1998 connected it to autism spectrum disorders and inflammatory bowel disease. These papers are now considered to be fraudulent and incorrect, and no association between the MMR vaccine and the aforementioned conditions has been identified. Despite this, their publication led to a significant decline in vaccination rates, ultimately causing measles, mumps, and rubella to reemerge in places with lowered vaccination rates.


title: Mumps

text: Notable outbreaks in the 21st century include more than 300,000 cases in China in 2013 and more than 56,000 cases in England and Wales in 2004–2005. In the latter outbreak, most cases were reported in then 15–24 year olds who were attending colleges and universities. This age group was thought to be vulnerable to infection because of the MMR vaccine controversies when they were to be vaccinated and due to MMR vaccine shortages that had also occurred at that time. Similar outbreaks in densely crowded environments have frequently occurred in many other countries, including the U.S., the Netherlands, Sweden, and Belgium.


title: Mumps

text: In the 21st century, mumps has reemerged in many places that vaccinate against it, causing recurrent outbreaks. These outbreaks have largely affected adolescents and young adults in densely crowded spaces, such as schools, sports teams, religious gatherings, and the military, and it is expected that outbreaks will continue to occur. The cause of this reemergence is subject to debate, and various factors have been proposed, including waning immunity from vaccination, low vaccination rates, vaccine failure, and potential antigenic variation of the mumps virus.


title: Mumps

text: Waning immunity from vaccines is likely the primary cause of the mumps resurgence. In the past, subclinical natural infections provided boosts to immunity similar to vaccines. As time went on with vaccine use, these asymptomatic infections declined in frequency, likely leading to a reduction in long-term immunity against mumps. With less long-term immunity, the effects of waning vaccine immunity became more prominent, and vaccinated individuals have frequently fallen ill from mumps. A third dose of the vaccine provided in adolescence has been considered to address this as some studies support this. Other research indicates that a third dose may be useful only for short-term immunity in responding to outbreaks, which is recommended for at-risk persons by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.


title: Mumps

text: Low vaccination rates have been implicated as the cause of some outbreaks in the UK, Canada, Sweden, and Japan, whereas outbreaks in other places, such as the U.S., the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands, have occurred mainly among the vaccinated. Compared to the measles and rubella vaccines, mumps vaccines appear to have a relatively high failure rate, varying depending on the vaccine strain. This has been addressed by providing two vaccine doses, supported by recent outbreaks among the vaccinated having primarily occurred among those who received only one dose. Lastly, certain mumps virus lineages are highly divergent genetically from vaccine strains, which may cause a mismatch between protection against vaccine strains and non-vaccine strains, though research is inconclusive on this matter.


title: Mumps

text: The word "mumps" is first attested circa 1600 and is the plural form of "mump", meaning "grimace", originally a verb meaning "to whine or mutter like a beggar". The disease was likely called mumps in reference to the swelling caused by mumps parotitis, reflecting its impact on facial expressions and the painful, difficult swallowing that it causes. "Mumps" was also used starting from the 17th century to mean "a fit of melancholy, sullenness, silent displeasure". Mumps is sometimes called "epidemic parotitis".


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Hard Rock Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium located in Miami Gardens, Florida. The stadium is the home field for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL) and the Miami Hurricanes, the University of Miami's NCAA Division I college football team.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium also has hosted six Super Bowls (XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, XLI, XLIV, and LIV), the 2010 Pro Bowl, two World Series ( and ), four BCS National Championship Games (2001, 2005, 2009, and 2013), one CFP National Championship (2021), the second round of the 2009 World Baseball Classic, and WrestleMania XXVIII.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In addition, the stadium hosts the Orange Bowl, an annual college football bowl game, and the Miami Open tennis tournament. Since 2022, the grounds of Hard Rock Stadium has also hosted the Miami International Autodrome, a temporary racing circuit used for Formula 1's Miami Grand Prix. In addition, the stadium will be one of many to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup. From 1993 until 2011, the stadium also was the home field of the Florida Marlins of Major League Baseball (MLB) until their move to LoanDepot Park in 2012.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The facility opened in 1987 as Joe Robbie Stadium and has been known by a number of names since: Pro Player Park, Pro Player Stadium, Dolphins Stadium, Dolphin Stadium, Land Shark Stadium, and Sun Life Stadium. In August 2016, the team sold the naming rights to Hard Rock Cafe Inc. for $250 million over 18 years.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: For their first 21 seasons, the Miami Dolphins played at the Orange Bowl. Team founder Joe Robbie explained what led to the decision to build a new stadium: "In 1976, the city of Miami wanted to quadruple our rent. That did it. I began thinking in earnest about building a stadium." What made the construction of the stadium truly unique was that it was the first multipurpose stadium ever built in the United States that was entirely privately financed.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Robbie also believed it was only a matter of time before a Major League Baseball (MLB) team came to South Florida. At his request, the stadium was built in a rectangular configuration, with a field that was somewhat wider than was normally the case for an NFL stadium. The wide field also made it fairly easy to convert the stadium for soccer. Because of this design decision, the first row of seats was from the sideline in a football configuration, considerably more distant than the first row of seats in most football stadiums (the closest seats at the new Soldier Field, for instance, are from the sideline at the 50-yard line). This resulted in a less intimate venue for football compared to other football facilities built around this time, as well as to the Orange Bowl.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: At the time it opened in 1987, Joe Robbie Stadium was located in unincorporated Miami-Dade County, and had a Miami address. Specifically it was in the Scott Lake census-designated place. Today, it is located in the city of Miami Gardens, which was incorporated on May 13, 2003.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The first preseason game for the Dolphins was played on August 16, 1987, against the Chicago Bears. The first regular season game was scheduled for September 27, a week 3 game against the New York Giants; this game was canceled and not made up due to the 1987 players strike. The first regular season NFL game played there was a 42–0 Dolphins victory over the Kansas City Chiefs on October 11, 1987. The game was in the middle of the 1987 NFL strike, and was played with replacement players. The first game with union players was on October 25 of that year, a 34–31 overtime loss to the Buffalo Bills. The stadium hosted its first "Monday Night Football" game on December 7 of that year, a 37–28 Dolphins victory over the New York Jets.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The Dolphins have played eight playoff games at the stadium, including the 1992 AFC Championship Game, which they lost to the Buffalo Bills 29–10. The Dolphins are 5–3 in playoff games held here, losing the most recent one in January 2009 against the Baltimore Ravens. Also of note, the stadium was host of the 2018 Miracle in Miami game against the New England Patriots, where the Dolphins scored on the last play of the game. The team is unbeaten here against the Los Angeles/St. Louis Rams (4–0); they are winless here against the Dallas Cowboys (0–3).


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Since 2008, the stadium has served as the home field for the Miami Hurricanes college football team, a premier college football program that has won five national championships since 1983. The university signed a 25-year contract to play at Hard Rock Stadium through 2033.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Prior to their move to Hard Rock Stadium, from 1937 until 2008, the Miami Hurricanes played their home games at the Miami Orange Bowl.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: From 1993 until 2011, the stadium served as the home field to the Florida Marlins of Major League Baseball.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: While Joe Robbie Stadium was built primarily for football, it was also designed to easily accommodate baseball and soccer. Dolphins founder Joe Robbie believed it was a foregone conclusion that MLB would come to South Florida, so he wanted the stadium designed to make any necessary renovations for baseball as seamless as possible. In 1990, Wayne Huizenga purchased 50% of Joe Robbie Stadium and became the point man in the drive to bring Major League Baseball to South Florida. That effort was rewarded in July 1991, when the Miami area was awarded an MLB expansion franchise. The new team was named the Florida Marlins, and placed in the National League to begin play in 1993. Proposed 1994 FIFA World Cup matches could not be held at the stadium, as this June–July tournament conflicted directly with Marlins home games; Orlando's Citrus Bowl was used instead. The first Marlins game at Joe Robbie Stadium was played on April 5, 1993, a 6–3 victory over the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Marlins drew over three million people in their inaugural season, and went on to win two World Series titles in 1997 and 2003.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Despite such preparation and pockets of success, the stadium was less than adequate as a baseball venue. Although designed from the ground up to accommodate baseball, it was not a true multi-purpose stadium. Rather, it was a football stadium that could convert into a baseball stadium. There were plenty of reminders of this at Marlins games. The stadium's color scheme matched that of the Dolphins. When the football season overlapped, cleat marks, as well as silhouettes of hashmarks and logos of the Dolphins or Hurricanes, were visible on the baseball diamond. During football games, the infield dirt was visible on the gridiron. The Marlins reduced capacity to 47,662 (later to 35,521), mainly to create a more intimate atmosphere for baseball. However, capacity would have likely been reduced in any event, since many of the seats in the upper deck were too far from the field to be of any use during the regular season. Even with the reduced capacity, the sight lines were less than optimal for baseball. Most seats were pointed toward the 50-yard line—where center field was located in the baseball configuration. Lights were not angled for optimum baseball visibility. Players had to walk through football tunnels to get to dugouts that were designed with low ceiling joists. Some of these issues were showcased on national television during the two World Series held there, when capacity was expanded to over 67,000. Most notably, some areas of left and center field were not part of the football playing field, and fans sitting in the left-field upper deck could not see any game action in those areas except on the replay boards. These issues became even more pronounced over the years, as, by 2004, a wave of baseball-only parks left what had by then been renamed Pro Player Stadium as the only National League park that played host to both an MLB and an NFL team.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Additionally, the stadium was built for games held during the fall/winter football season, not for games in the tropical summers of South Florida, which feature oppressive heat, humidity, frequent rain, and occasional tropical storms. For most of the stadium's run as a baseball venue, it was the hottest stadium in the majors, with temperatures for day games frequently reaching well above . The Marlins played most of their summer home games at night as a result. The lack of refuge from the uncomfortable climate and disruptive rain delays were considered a cause of chronically low attendance after that inaugural season. When the Marlins were not contending, they struggled to attract crowds larger than 5,000, a figure that looked even smaller than that due to the cavernous environment. Some Marlins players later admitted that they "couldn't wait to go on the road" because Sun Life Stadium (as their home had been renamed in 2010) had the "worst [playing] conditions" and least fan energy in the majors during years when the team was not a contender.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: After Huizenga bought part of the stadium, it was extensively renovated to accommodate a baseball team at the cost of several million dollars, as part of his successful bid to bring baseball to South Florida. Purists initially feared the result would be similar to Exhibition Stadium in Toronto; when the Toronto Blue Jays played there from 1977 to 1989, they were burdened with seats that were so far from the field (over 800 feet in some cases) that they were not even sold during the regular season. However, Robbie had foreseen Miami would be a likely location for a new or relocated MLB team, and the stadium was designed to make any necessary renovations for baseball as seamless as possible. On January 24, 1994, soon after buying the Dolphins, Huizenga acquired the remaining 50% of the stadium to give him 100% ownership.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Aside from baseball renovations, the stadium underwent some permanent renovations. In April 2006, the stadium unveiled two Daktronics large video boards, the largest in professional sports at the time. The east display measured high by wide, and the west end zone display measured high by wide. A new -long LED ribbon board, again the largest in the world at the time, was also installed. These have since been surpassed in size.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In addition, the upgrades included vastly widened concourses on the stadium's north and south sides. Bars, lounges and other amenities were also added. The renovation had three phases, with the second and third phases of renovation taking place after the Marlins left the stadium. These remaining phases included adding a canopy to shield fans from the rain, which caused the relocation of the video boards to the corners of the upper deck, as well as narrowing the sidelines by bringing the seats closer to the field, ending its convertibility to baseball. The orange colored seats were also replaced with aqua colored ones.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The Marlins left for their own stadium, Marlins Park (now LoanDepot Park), which was completed for the 2012 MLB season.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: A privately funded $350 million stadium renovation project began in January 2015, after the 2014 Orange Bowl. The project plan allowed the stadium to be used for football games during the 2015 NFL season, and was completed for the 2016 season. Stadium upgrades included video boards in each corner of the stadium, additional suites, and an open-air canopy over the main seating areas. As part of the renovation, the stadium's seating capacity was reduced from 75,000 to 65,000 seats. Personal seat licenses were not used, and a preview center opened at the stadium in February 2015 to help current and prospective season ticket holders select their ticket packages. Luxury packages were used in place of PSL revenue to help finance the stadium. Thirty-two four-seat pods were installed located in the lower bowl at the south 30-yard lines, with an additional 16 pods at the south end zone. The pods feature a living room arrangement, including premium furniture and television screens that show the NFL RedZone channel and NFL programming.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In November 2017, the Miami Open tennis tournament announced that it would move from Crandon Park in Key Biscayne to Hard Rock Stadium in 2019. Its organizers had pursued a $50 million refurbishment of the aging facility, including the addition of three permanent stadium courts. However, the family who originally owned the land filed a lawsuit that blocked their construction, as their agreement to donate the site to Miami-Dade County in 1992 contained a stipulation that only one stadium may be built on the site.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: To host the tournament, 29 permanent courts (including 11 tournament courts, with one being a 4,993-seat grandstand court) were built on Hard Rock Stadium's south parking lots. The stadium proper serves as center court, using a modified, 13,800-seat configuration with temporary grandstands constructed on the playing surface, placing the court roughly between the two 30-yard lines. The move to Hard Rock Stadium was praised by players and fans because of the ample space the next complex provides.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In January 2020, the stadium opened the SkyView gondola, which runs at the south side of the stadium complex and provides views of the grounds and the Miami skyline.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The 65,326 permanent seats for football and soccer configurations break down as follows: for the general seats with chair back and armrests, there are 27,397 in the lower deck and 34,736 in the upper deck. There are 10,209 of the bigger club seats with chair back and armrests. In the 193 executive suites with 10, 12, 16, 20, and 24 seats, there are a total of 3,198. There are also 300 accessible seating locations for spectators with disabilities, 150 seats for working press, and 10 radio/TV booths.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium contains 10,209 club seats and 216 suites. When the Marlins played at the stadium, 2,400 of the club seats and 216 suites were available.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The parking around the stadium takes up , featuring parking for 24,137 cars, 171 buses, 90 RVs, 85 limousines, and one helipad on site.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium has played host to six Super Bowls (XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, XLI, XLIV, and LIV), and also hosted the 2010 Pro Bowl.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Super Bowl XLI in 2007 at Dolphin Stadium, when the Indianapolis Colts defeated the Chicago Bears 29–17, was marred by heavy rains. An estimated 30% of the lower-level seating was empty during the second half.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In 2010, the NFL threatened to take the stadium out of further consideration for a Super Bowl or Pro Bowl unless significant renovations were made. One of the upgrades desired was a roof to protect fans from the elements. In 2012, the Dolphins scrapped plans for pitching a $200-million hotel tax proposal that would have included a partial stadium roof.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In 2016, an open-air canopy was constructed that protects the seating bowl from the elements. The canopy, however, does have a football-field-sized hole in the middle, and thus does not protect the playing field itself from rain. The renovations were completed by the first Miami Dolphins pre-season home game in September 2016.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Previously, since the field runs east–west (rather than north–south, as is the case in most other stadiums), the north stands were exposed to the full force of South Florida's oppressive heat early in the season. The issue became so problematic that Stephen Ross, who owned the Dolphins and the stadium, successfully petitioned the NFL to have all September home games start at or after 4 pm. Ross knew that for much of September, the Dolphins had a substantial home-field advantage against opponents unaccustomed to the sweltering heat. However, he was willing to give that up in order to ensure a more comfortable environment for fans, as well as allow the stadium to host another Super Bowl.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In 2021, the team opened the Baptist Health Training Complex at the west side of the Stadium complex. The Dolphins permanently moved to the state-of-the art facility that hosts the team headquarters, and is also a World Cup practice facility site.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Since 2008, the stadium has served as the home field for the Miami Hurricanes, one of college football's most storied football programs. It also served briefly as the home field for the Florida Atlantic Owls from 2001 to 2002.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium has hosted both the 2009 BCS National Championship Game and the 2013 BCS National Championship Game. The 2013 game between Alabama and Notre Dame set a new attendance record for the facility, with 80,120 on hand to witness Alabama's third BCS Championship in four seasons.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Between 1990 and 2000, the stadium hosted a bowl game variously known as the Blockbuster Bowl, CarQuest Bowl and MicronPC Bowl. After 2000, that bowl was moved to Orlando, where it eventually became known as the Russell Athletic Bowl.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium has been the site of the Orange Bowl game since 1996, except for the January 1999 contest between Florida and Syracuse, which had to be moved due to a conflict with a Dolphins playoff game.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Until 2008, the stadium was host (in even numbered years) to the annual Shula Bowl, a game played between the Florida Atlantic University Owls and the Florida International University Panthers, when the game was hosted by FAU as the home team (FIU hosts the game at its own stadium, Riccardo Silva Stadium, every other year). In 2010, the game was moved to Fort Lauderdale's Lockhart Stadium, and in 2011 the Owls opened FAU Stadium on its Boca Raton campus, and started hosting the Shula Bowl there biennially in 2012.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium hosted the 2021 College Football Playoff National Championship game and (as the Orange Bowl) the 2022 College Football Playoff National Championship semi-final game. The stadium will host the 2026 College Football Playoff National Championship on January 5, 2026.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On April 1, 2012, the stadium hosted WrestleMania XXVIII, WWE's flagship professional wrestling event. This was the second edition of WrestleMania to be held in Florida, and the third to be held entirely outdoors. With an attendance of 78,363, the event grossed $67 million, and was estimated to have generated $103 million in revenue for Miami.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: When the Marlins began play in 1993, the stadium's baseball capacity was initially reduced to 47,662, with most of the upper level covered with a tarp. In addition to Huizenga's desire to create a more intimate atmosphere for baseball, most of the seats in the upper level would have been too far from the field to be of any use during the regular season. The stadium's baseball capacity was further reduced over the years, and finally settled at 38,560 seats. However, the Marlins would usually open the entire upper level for the postseason. In the 1997 World Series, the Marlins played before crowds of over 67,000 fans, some of the highest postseason attendance figures in MLB history, only exceeded by Cleveland Stadium during the 1948 and 1954 World Series, old Yankee Stadium prior to its mid-1970s renovation, and the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the temporary home of the Los Angeles Dodgers, in the 1959 World Series.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Although it was designed from the ground up to accommodate baseball, it was never a true multipurpose stadium. Rather, it was built as a football stadium that could convert into a baseball stadium. Most of the seats in the baseball configuration were pointed toward center field – where the 50-yard line would have been in the football configuration. As a result, even with the reduced capacity, the sight lines for baseball left much to be desired. This was particularly evident during the Marlins' World Series appearances in 1997 and 2003. Some portions of left and center field were not part of the football playing field, and fans sitting in the left field upper-deck seats were unable to see these areas except on the replay boards. Even with the reduced capacity, during years the Marlins were not contending, they often drew crowds of 5,000 or fewer—a total that looked even smaller due to the spacious environment.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium was notorious for its poor playing conditions. The lights were not located in optimal positions for baseball visibility. During August and September, when the Dolphins (and later the Hurricanes) shared the stadium, the field conditions were among the worst in the majors, according to both Marlins players and visiting players. Indeed, several Marlins players said that at times, they "couldn't wait to go on the road." Visiting teams hated coming to the stadium as well. For instance, when the Atlanta Braves came to the stadium for the last time in 2011, Dan Uggla, who played for the Marlins from 2006 to 2010, said that he was probably the only Braves player that would miss it. The stadium's problems as a baseball venue became even more stark as time wore on, as the Marlins' tenure in the stadium coincided with a wave of new, baseball-only parks. When the Marlins began play in 1993, the stadium was one of 14 that hosted both an MLB team and a professional football team. By the time the Marlins left the stadium, however, it was one of only three in the majors (and the only National League stadium) that played host to both a baseball team and an NFL or CFL team, the other two being the Oakland Coliseum and Toronto's Rogers Centre.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: For most of the Marlins' tenure at the stadium, it was the hottest stadium in the major leagues. The Marlins played nearly all of their home games from late May through mid-September at night due to South Florida's often oppressive heat and humidity. They also got waivers from MLB and ESPN to play on Sunday nights.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium was the venue where Mark McGwire hit his NL-record 57th home run to best Hack Wilson's 68-year-old record of 56 in 1998. Ken Griffey Jr. hit his 600th career home run off Mark Hendrickson of the Marlins on June 9, 2008; and where Roy Halladay of the Philadelphia Phillies pitched the 20th perfect game in Major League Baseball history on May 29, 2010, against the Marlins.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: A number of soccer matches have been held at the stadium, including a number of international friendlies featuring Central or South American sides. This is due to South Florida being home to one of the largest populations of Central and South Americans in the United States.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium hosted a match between FC Barcelona and C.D. Guadalajara on August 3, 2011, as part of the 2011 World Football Challenge. Guadalajara won the match 4–1 in front of 70,080 attendees.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Colombia beat Mexico 2–0 in a friendly international in front of 51,615 spectators at the stadium on February 29, 2012. A year later, they beat Guatemala 4–1.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: A.C. Milan and Chelsea faced each other at the stadium on July 28, 2012. A.C. Milan won the match 1–0 in front of 57,748 fans.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Brazil beat Honduras 5–0 in a friendly match in front of 71,124 spectators on November 16, 2013. The attendance was the highest for a soccer match at the stadium.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On September 5, 2014, two months after a heavy defeat to Germany in the World Cup, Brazil beat Colombia 1–0 in front of an announced attendance of 73,429 fans, a new attendance record for a soccer match at the stadium.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The 2014 International Champions Cup preseason final was held at New Miami Stadium on August 4, 2014, with Manchester United defeating rival Liverpool 3–1 to claim the tournament's second title.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Two 2017 International Champions Cup preseason matches were played at the stadium, one of them being the El Clásico between Barcelona and Real Madrid. Barcelona won 3–2 in the second El Clásico to take place outside of Spain. 66,014 people, above current capacity, attended the match.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On March 23, 2018, the international friendly Peru–Croatia was played at the stadium, which Peru won 2–0.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The monster truck touring series Monster Jam used to take place at the stadium every year. The last show performed there was in 2015, and the shows moved to Marlins Park (now LoanDepot Park) in 2018.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On February 27, 2021, four-division boxing world champion Canelo Álvarez beat Avni Yildirim at Hard Rock Stadium to defend his WBA (Super), WBC and "The Ring" super-middleweight titles.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On June 6, 2021, the stadium hosted the boxing event Bragging Rights between Floyd Mayweather Jr. and YouTube personality Logan Paul.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On June 12, 2021, the stadium hosted the Social Gloves boxing event YouTubers vs. TikTokers, with Austin McBroom and Bryce Hall headlining the event.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Other events held at the stadium have included international soccer games, Hoop-It-Up Basketball, RV and boat shows, the UniverSoul Circus, numerous trade shows, and religious gatherings. The stadium has also hosted Australian rules football exhibition matches (including two Victorian Football League (VFL) post-season exhibitions). For the 1988 exhibition between Collingwood and Geelong, the game was played on the diagonal to compensate for the stadium not being an oval.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In 2006, it hosted the High School State Football Championships, sanctioned by the Florida High School Athletic Association (FHSAA).


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the stadium began temporarily hosting an outdoor movie theater at the tennis campus and a drive-in theater in the stadium itself. Additionally, the East Lot of the venue has been used as a COVID-19 testing site, drawing hundreds of cars every day at the peak of the pandemic.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Since 2018, the stadium has hosted the large hip-hop music festival Rolling Loud. The festival will be held for its fourth consecutive year at the stadium from July 22 to July 24, 2022, and will feature headliners including Ye, Future, and Kendrick Lamar.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Films have also been shot at the stadium, most notably "", which starred Jim Carrey and featured Dolphins great Dan Marino as himself; "Marley and Me", starring Owen Wilson and Jennifer Aniston; and the Oliver Stone-directed "Any Given Sunday", starring Al Pacino.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: The stadium has gone through many name changes, bringing up a question of the value of corporate naming rights.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: During the planning and building phase of the stadium, the stadium was referred to as Dolphin Stadium. Joe Robbie, the original and then-owner of the Miami Dolphins and the new stadium, did not want the stadium named after himself. Robbie said "I didn't want them to name it after me. But they insisted, and I guess I'm only human." The stadium opened on August 16, 1987, as Joe Robbie Stadium.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: In the early 1990s, Wayne Huizenga gained control of the stadium. Huizenga first sold the naming rights to Pro Player, the sports apparel division of Fruit of the Loom, and the stadium became Pro Player Park on August 26, 1996. After the Dolphins opened the 1996 season there, the stadium was renamed Pro Player Stadium before the team returned home in week 3. The Marlins' 1996 season was played when the stadium was known under three different names, having started the year under the Joe Robbie name.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: Fruit of the Loom filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1999, and the Pro Player brand was ultimately liquidated in 2001, but the stadium name held for several more years. In January 2005, the stadium was renamed Dolphins Stadium, coinciding with a renovation of the stadium. In April 2006, it was renamed Dolphin Stadium in an update of graphics and logos.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: From February 2008 to January 2009, Stephen M. Ross gradually acquired 95% of the stadium and surrounding land. He then partnered with Jimmy Buffett to change the name once more, this time to Land Shark Stadium after a beer brewed for Buffett's Margaritaville restaurant chain. The renaming was announced on May 8, 2009, but would last less than a year as the deal did not include rights for the upcoming 2010 Pro Bowl and Super Bowl XLIV.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On January 20, 2010, Canadian financial services company Sun Life Financial announced that it had acquired the naming rights. Sun Life Financial announced in 2012, that it will be exiting the U.S. annuity business and focusing on its employee benefits business in the U.S. On August 14, 2015, the Dolphins told the "Miami Herald" that Sun Life's deal would expire in January 2016, and that the team had no plans to renew, wanting to position its renovated stadium as a brand new entity. The team also stated that it would remove Sun Life's signage upon expiration of the deal, regardless of its ability to find a replacement sponsor before then. During renovations, the stadium was known as New Miami Stadium.


title: Hard Rock Stadium

text: On August 17, 2016, the Dolphins announced that the naming rights had been sold to Hard Rock Cafe International, and that the stadium would be renamed Hard Rock Stadium. The new name was notably ridiculed by fans of the Florida State Seminoles, as the Seminole Tribe of Florida are the owners of the Hard Rock Cafe chain, but the stadium is the host of their rivals, the University of Miami Hurricanes.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Edward Keddar Nketiah (born 30 May 1999) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for club Arsenal. Nketiah is a product of the Chelsea and Arsenal academies and played on loan at Leeds United in their victorious 2019–20 Championship season.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Born in London and raised in Lewisham, Nketiah started his career with Chelsea after being scouted at the age of nine while playing for south-east London Sunday team Hillyfielders. He was released by Chelsea in 2015.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: He then joined the Arsenal Academy and played for the club at youth levels. During the 2016–17 season, Nketiah scored 15 goals in 16 appearances for the under-18s while also scoring 12 goals in 26 appearances for the under-23 side. After that season, Nketiah was called up by Arsène Wenger for the senior side's pre-season trip to Australia and China. Football analyser WesthamOnline personally backed Eddie to reach 15 Premier League goals in the 2022-23 season.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: On 28 September 2017, Nketiah was called up again to the senior side, this time for Arsenal's UEFA Europa League match against BATE Borisov. He came on as an 89th-minute substitute for Joe Willock as Arsenal won 4–2. His next appearance came nearly a month later against Norwich City in the League Cup as an 85th-minute substitute. He scored after 15 seconds with his first touch to tie the match, adding another in extra time to win it for the Gunners. Nketiah was set for a loan move to German Bundesliga side FC Augsburg in January 2019 transfer window, but due to an injury to Danny Welbeck, Nketiah stayed at Arsenal.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: He scored his first goal in the Premier League on the last day of the season at Burnley on 12 May 2019. Nketiah was an unused substitute in the UEFA Europa League final 4–1 defeat against Chelsea in the 2018–19 final, with him receiving a runners-up medal. He started the 2019–20 pre-season regularly involved in the Arsenal first team, scoring four goals, including scoring in pre-season friendlies against Bayern Munich and Fiorentina.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: On 8 August 2019, the summer deadline day for Championship clubs, Nketiah joined Leeds United on loan for the 2019–20 season. He chose the squad number 14 in homage to one of his former Arsenal youth coaches, Thierry Henry. Leeds head coach Marcelo Bielsa described Nketiah upon signing as a "young, important player in English football".


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: He made his debut for the club on 13 August in the EFL Cup against Salford City, scoring his side's first goal during a 3–0 victory. He then scored on his Championship debut the following week, netting the only goal of the game against Brentford. He continued his goal-scoring form on 27 August 2019, with his third of the season, scoring in Leeds' EFL Cup match against Stoke City in a 2–2 draw in normal time, with Nketiah scoring also in the ensuing penalty shootout, with Leeds losing 4–5 on penalties.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: After scoring his fourth goal of the season in Leeds 2–0 win against Barnsley on 15 September 2019, Bielsa described Nketiah as a "complete player". After being behind Patrick Bamford in the pecking order, Marcelo Bielsa revealed Nketiah would have his chance to become the first choice striker against Queens Park Rangers, however the day before the game Nketiah picked up a lower abdomen injury, which kept him out of action for one month. He returned from injury after one month out injured on 7 December, as a substitute in Leeds' 2–0 victory against Huddersfield Town.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: His first league start for Leeds came on 29 December 2019, in a dramatic 4–5 victory over Birmingham City. Nketiah also started the next game on New Year's Day 2020, in what would prove to be his final game for Leeds at West Bromwich Albion in a 1–1 draw. The result kept Leeds on top of the table on goal difference.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: After that match on the first day of 2020, Nketiah was recalled from his loan spell early by Arsenal. He was in the starting line-up in Arsenal's FA Cup Fourth Round victory against AFC Bournemouth on 27 January. Nketiah scored the second goal of the match which Arsenal won 2–1 at the Vitality Stadium, progressing to the fifth round. Nketiah made his first Premier League start, at home to Newcastle United, before scoring in the next game against Everton, sliding a volley into the corner. He then scored at Portsmouth in the FA Cup fifth round, sealing a 2–0 win. He became a regular in Arsenal's return to league play after the COVID-19 hiatus, starting in the team's 3–0 loss at Manchester City, being replaced in the 67th minute by Alexandre Lacazette. On 7 July 2020, Nketiah received the first red card of his playing career, in a league game against Leicester City.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: In July, Nketiah picked up his first major medal of his career as Leeds United were declared winners of the Championship. The 17 games Nketiah participated in at the start of the season were enough to be eligible for a winners medal. Two weeks later, Nketiah lifted his first major trophy of his career with Arsenal, coming on as a substitute in the 82nd minute in the 2–1 victory over London rivals Chelsea in the FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: On 28 August 2020, Nketiah was in the starting XI in the 2020 FA Community Shield, where Arsenal beat Liverpool 5-4 on penalties after the match finished 1–1. On 19 September, he came on as a substitute in the 77th minute and scored the late winning goal in a 2–1 win against West Ham United in the Premier League. This was his first goal of the season. Four days later, he followed this up with another goal in a 2-0 win against Leicester in the EFL Cup.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Nketiah scored three times in the Europa League group stage; his goals coming in both games against Dundalk and the home game against Rapid Vienna.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: In April, Nketiah scored in the seventh minute of stoppage time to earn Arsenal a draw at home to Fulham, thus preserving the "Gunners"' unbeaten home record against the "Cottagers". Nketiah finished the season with six goals in all competitions.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Eddie Nketiah began the season as backup to Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang and Alexandre Lacazette. He scored his first goal of the season in Arsenal's EFL Cup third round win against AFC Wimbledon in September. He then followed this up with a goal in the fourth round against his former club, Leeds United, the following month. On 21 December, Nketiah scored the first hat-trick of his career in a 5-1 win against Sunderland in the quarter-finals.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Following Aubameyang's departure in February, Nketiah was given a regular place in the starting line-up towards the end of the season and scored five goals in Arsenal's last seven Premier League games. These included a brace against Chelsea in a 4-2 win at Stamford Bridge, another brace against Leeds, and Arsenal's second in the "Gunners"' 5-1 win against Everton on the final day of the season. Nketiah ended the season with ten goals: five in the EFL Cup and five in the Premier League.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: On 18 June 2022, he signed a new contract with Arsenal until 2027. He was also given the number 14 shirt, previously worn by the likes of Thierry Henry, Theo Walcott, and Aubameyang.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Despite Alexandre Lacazette leaving the club, Nketiah found himself back on the substitutes bench following the signing of Gabriel Jesus. By the time the season was halted for the World Cup, Nketiah had played in eleven of Arsenal's fourteen Premier League games - all of them as a substitute.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: However, Nketiah started all six of Arsenal's Europa League Group A games and scored twice, in wins over Zürich and Bodø/Glimt. Nketiah opened the scoring against Brighton in the EFL Cup third round, but Arsenal lost the tie 3-1.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Nketiah is eligible for both England and Ghana national sides at international level. Nketiah made his international debut for England at the U18 level, playing a match against Saudi Arabia U19 on 22 March 2017. He scored the second goal for England in the 58th minute as they won 2–0. In his next match, against Qatar U19, Nketiah scored a hat-trick as England won 4–0. In November 2017, Nketiah scored four goals for the England under-19 team in a qualifier for the 2018 UEFA European Under-19 Championship against the Faroe Islands. Nketiah was one of a number of players withdrawn from selection for the tournament by their club.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: On 18 May 2018, Nketiah received his first call up to the England U21 team by manager Aidy Boothroyd for the Toulon Tournament. Nketiah scored twice in the semi-final against Scotland and provided the assist for Kieran Dowell to score the winning goal against Mexico in the final.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: In January 2019, Nketiah reportedly turned down a call up from Ghana manager James Kwesi Appiah to the senior Ghana national side, with Nketiah favouring England. In September of the next year, Nketiah captained England U21s for the first time and scored a hat-trick during a 6–0 victory over Kosovo U21s.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: In August 2020, Ghana reportedly approached Nketiah again, making contact with his family and speaking with his parents, Cameron and Haughton, in an attempt to persuade him to switch allegiance to Ghana. However, Nketiah later stated that he was "grateful" for the opportunity to play for England.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: On 7 October 2020, Nketiah equalled Alan Shearer's goalscoring record of 13 for the England U21s by scoring in a 3–3 draw against Andorra. Nketiah went on to break that record with the second goal of a 2–1 win over Turkey at Molineux Stadium on 13 October 2020; a victory that secured England's place at the 2021 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. Nketiah was ultimately named as England captain for that tournament which ended with a group stage exit.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Nketiah is known for his pace and movement, his style has been compared to former Arsenal striker Ian Wright. In August 2019 he described Wright as his "mentor".


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: His playing style was also compared to Jermain Defoe, due to his movement to play off the last defender's shoulder and his sharp shooting ability from all angles. Nketiah can play as a striker or as a wide forward, with Nketiah describing his own playing style as 'I'm a striker, I'm brave, I like to put myself in the places where the chances are going to fall'.


title: Eddie Nketiah

text: Nketiah was involved in the Amazon Original sports docuseries "", which documented the club by spending time with the coaching staff and players behind the scenes both on and off the field throughout their 2021–22 season.


title: Julia Butters

text: Julia Butters (born April 15, 2009) is an American teenage actress. She received critical acclaim for her role as Trudi Fraser in Quentin Tarantino's "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood" and as Reggie Fabelman in Steven Spielberg's "The Fabelmans" (2022). From 2016 to 2020, she starred as Anna-Kat Otto on ABC's sitcom "American Housewife".


title: Julia Butters

text: Butters was born in Los Angeles, California, to parents Lorelei and Darrin; her father is a Disney animator who has worked on films such as "Frozen" and "Ralph Breaks the Internet".


title: Julia Butters

text: Butters began her career at the age of two doing commercials. Her first speaking role was the role of Gabby in a "Criminal Minds" episode of the same name. In 2016, Butters portrayed the recurring role of Ella in the Amazon Prime Video series "Transparent" for eight episodes. Later that year, she began starring in the ABC sitcom "American Housewife" as Anna-Kat Otto.


title: Julia Butters

text: When Quentin Tarantino was writing the script of his ninth film "Once Upon a Time in Hollywood", he spotted Butters on television, and later cast her in the role of precocious child actress Trudi Fraser. After she received critical acclaim for this role, Butters and her management team decided to pursue similar opportunities for her, leading her to leave "American Housewife" after four seasons, being replaced by former "Life in Pieces" star Giselle Eisenberg.


title: Julia Butters

text: In December 2020, Butters was cast in Netflix’s "The Gray Man". In June 2021, it was announced that Butters was cast in "The Fabelmans", Steven Spielberg's upcoming semi-autobiographical coming-of-age film as Reggie Fabelman, a character based on Spielberg's sister. In August 2022, Butters was cast as twin sibling Lily in the upcoming horror film "Queen of Bones".


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The Nissan 300ZX is a sports car that was produced across two different generations. As with all other versions of the Z, the 300ZX was sold within the Japanese domestic market under the name Fairlady Z.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: It was sold in Japan from 1983 to 2000 and in the United States from 1984 to 1996, the 300ZX name followed the numerical convention initiated with the original Z car, the Nissan S30, which was marketed in the U.S. as the 240Z. The addition of the "X" to the car's name was a carryover from its predecessor, the 280ZX, to signify the presence of more luxury and comfort oriented features. The first generation 300ZX known as the Z31 model was produced from 1983 through 1989 and was a sales success becoming the highest volume Z-car for Nissan.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: To become even more competitive in the sports car market, the second generation Z31 was driven up-market. It was redesigned to be faster and feature more advanced technology, but came with a higher price than its predecessor, with consecutive price increases each model year of availability. As such, sales dwindled each year, a trend in the higher end sports car market at the time, and Nissan placed a hiatus on selling new Nissan Z-Cars to the US after the 1996 model year, though the car would continue to be sold in the Japan domestic market until 2001 in low production numbers.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: "Car and Driver" placed the Z32 on its Ten Best list for seven consecutive years, each model year of its availability in the United States. "Motor Trend" awarded it as the 1990 Import Car of the Year. The Nissan 350Z, officially the Z33 generation Z-Car, succeeded the 300ZX in 2003.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The Z31 chassis designation was first introduced in Japan on September 16, 1983, as the Fairlady Z. Designed by Kazumasu Takagi and his team of developers, the Z31 improved aerodynamics and increased power when compared to its predecessor, the 280ZX. The newer Z-car had a drag coefficient of 0.30 and was powered by Japan's first mass-produced V6 engine instead of the inline-sixes of the previous Z-cars. According to Nissan, the new V6 engine was intended to uphold the sporty, six-cylinder spirit of the original Fairlady Z, but in a more compact and efficient package.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: Unlike its predecessors, the Z31 featured a V6 engine in the 200Z/ZS/ZG, 300ZX and 300ZR, and the only Z31 to come with an inline-six cylinder engine was the Fairlady 200ZR which was only available in Japan. The 200ZR was the last Z-car to feature a factory-installed inline six, with roughly 8,283 produced between 1985 and 1988. They came in two trims; 200ZR-I (base model with the 'slicktop roof,' few amenities, and only in manual), and 200ZR-II (t-top roof, more electronic options, and available with an optional automatic transmission). 200ZR models also came standard with the R200 limited slip differential, white faced gauges, and ZR specific cloth upholstery. There were five engine options in total: A turbocharged dual overhead cam 2.0 L straight-six (RB20DET (NICS), used in the 200ZR), a turbocharged single overhead cam 2.0 L V6 (VG20ET, found in the Japanese domestic market 200Z/ZS/ZG), a naturally aspirated single overhead cam 3.0 L V6 (VG30E, found in 300ZX), a turbocharged single overhead cam 3.0 L V6 (VG30ET, used in 300ZX Turbo) and a naturally aspirated dual overhead cam 3.0 L V6 (VG30DE, used in 300ZR). The Z31 had electronic fuel injection (EFI), and was rear wheel drive. The VG30 engine was either a type A or type B sub-designation from 1984 to March 1987, while models from April 1987 to 1989 had a W sub-designation. The W-series engines featured redesigned water jackets for additional cooling, and fully floating piston wrist pins. Finally, these engines were equipped with self-adjusting hydraulic valve lifters.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The transmissions were a 5-speed manual or an optional 4-speed automatic (all Z31 automatics were the E4N71B equipped with torque-converter lockup including turbo models). All Z31s were equipped with a Nissan R200 rear differential, April 1987 and later turbo models received an R200 clutch limited-slip differential except 1988 Shiro Specials which had a Viscous-type limited slip.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: As with some other Nissan models of the period, the new Z31s were equipped with a "Voice Warning System". The Voice Warning System used the vehicle's radio and driver's door speaker to mute the radio and provide a vocal warning whenever the left or right door was ajar, the exterior lights were left on after the vehicle was turned off, parking brake was left on while trying to operate the car, or the fuel level was low. This system was dropped for the 1987 model year.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: Other technological features in the 300ZX included a "Body Sonic" audio system that utilized a separate amplifier and speakers in the vehicle's front seats that allowed bass from music to be felt by the vehicle's occupants, analog gauges, stereo and climate control, or an optional digital gauge cluster, digital stereo with equalizer and an optional fully digital climate control system.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The Z31 chassis was based on the 280ZX. Although the newer chassis had the same wheelbase and MacPherson strut/semi-trailing arm independent suspension, it handled and accelerated better than the 280ZX it replaced. Turbocharged models, except for the Shiro Special edition, had 3-way electronically adjustable shock absorbers. The Z31 was available in either left or right hand drive.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The Z31 body was slightly restyled in 1986 with the addition of side skirts, flared fenders, and sixteen inch wheels (turbo models only). Many black plastic trim pieces were also painted to match the body color, and the hood scoop was removed. The car was given a final makeover in 1987 that included more aerodynamic bumpers, fog lamps within the front air dam, and 9004 bulb-based headlamps that replaced the outdated sealed beam headlights. The 300ZX-titled reflector in the rear was updated to a narrow set of tail lights running the entire width of the car and an LED third brake light on top of the rear hatch. This was the first car in history to have the central brake light with LED, in 1987 model year, made by Stanley Electric. The Z31 continued selling until 1989, more than any other Z-Car at the time. Cars produced from 1984 to 1985 are referred to as "Zenki" or "Zenki-gata" models, while cars produced from 1987 to 1989 are known as "Kouki" or "Kouki-gata" models. The 1986 models are unique due to sharing some major features from both. They are sometimes referred to as "Chuki" models, but are usually grouped with the Zenki models because of the head and tail lights.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: North America was the main market for the 300ZX, as for previous generations of the Z-car. It was introduced to the United States in October 1983, along with the remainder of Nissan's 1984 model year lineup. By now the "Datsun" nameplate had been completely retired in North America. Over 70,000 units were sold in North America in 1985 alone. There were three trim models available: SF, GL, and GLL. The SF model was only available in Canada. The new V6 (2960 cc) Single overhead cam engine was available as a naturally aspirated VG30E or a turbocharged VG30ET producing and respectively. The 1984 to 1987 turbo models featured a Garrett T3 turbocharger with a 7.8:1 compression ratio, whereas 1988 to 1989 models featured a low inertia T25 turbocharger with an increased 8.3:1 compression ratio and slightly more power — naturally aspirated and turbocharged.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: For the 1986 model year, the base two-seater model was made available without the T-bars, creating a lower cost entry-level version.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: Two Special Edition versions of the Z31 generation model were produced by Nissan; a 50th Anniversary Edition celebrated the company's semi-centennial in 1984 and offered additional luxury features, and a "Shiro Special", released four years later, with performance-oriented upgrades.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The 1984 300ZX 50th Anniversary Edition, released to celebrate the automaker's half-century, was a turbocharged coupé (two-seater) model with a Silver/Black color scheme. All 50th Anniversary Editions came equipped with a digital dash and ancillary gauges including average mileage, G-force, and compass readouts, in-car electronic adjustable shocks, "Bodysonic" speakers in the seats, cruise and radio controls in the steering wheel, mirrored t-tops, embroidered leather seats, embroidered floor mats, sixteen-inch (406 mm) aluminum wheels, rear fender flares, flared front fenders, a 50th AE logo badge on the driver's side front fender, and grey cloth indoor car cover with 50AE printing. The only option available to the 50th Anniversary Edition was the choice between an automatic or a 5-speed manual transmission. 5,148 AE models were produced for the U.S. market and 300 for the Canadian market. A non-turbo 2+2 model was also available with 50AE badging in the Australian market.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: In 1988, the turbocharged Shiro Special debuted with pearl white paint, stiffer springs and matched shocks, heavy-duty anti-sway bars, a unique front air dam, paint matched wheels, Recaro seats with matching door panels, painted bumperettes, white painted door handles and a viscous limited-slip differential. No options were available for the Shiro. It was the fastest car out of Japan, capable of speeds, as tested by "Motor Trend" with the electronic speed limiter disabled. A total of 1,002 Shiro Special Z31s were produced for the U.S. market between January and March 1988.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: In Japan, the Z31 was marketed as the Fairlady Z and was originally only available with two turbocharged engines: the VG20ET in the regular Fairlady Z and the VG30ET in the Fairlady Z 300ZX. Both outputs are JIS Gross and both engines use the Garrett AiResearch T03 turbocharger. The 300ZX, unencumbered by Japanese Government dimension regulations restricting overall width to less than was somewhat wider than the 2-liter models, at . Japanese 300ZX buyers were liable for additional yearly taxes that affected sales. As originally introduced, all Japanese market Fairlady Z's were slicktops, but the T-top option was made available in February 1984.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The 2-liter models later gained the 200Z, 200ZG, or 200ZS monikers to help differentiate from the larger, three-liter models. They all used the VG20ET engine while the 200ZR came with the RB20DET. The 300ZX came with the VG30ET, with similar specifications to the USDM model. The only Fairlady Z variant to use the VG30DE engine, and the only Japanese-market model with a naturally aspirated engine, was the 300ZR. It continued to be marketed as a companion fastback to the more formal appearance of the Nissan Skyline-based Nissan Leopard coupé at "Nissan Bluebird Store" Japanese dealerships.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The 200ZR model was introduced in October 1985 and was the first production car in the world to use a ceramic turbocharger. Maximum power output is Net. The 200ZR was offered on both wheelbases and as a slicktop (200ZR-I) or as a T-top (200ZR-II). 1986 model year 200ZR's feature a prominent central hood scoop. This was made much smaller with the October 1986 facelift, which generally made for a smoother appearance overall. With the facelift, claimed power of the turbocharged 300ZX dropped to as Nissan changed from Gross to Net ratings, and the VG20-powered models were discontinued. This was also when the DOHC, naturally aspirated, 300ZR model was added to the lineup, with , making for three differently engined models with nearly the same performance. The 300ZR was positioned as a sportier alternative, with tighter suspension settings, while the turbocharged 300ZX was now only offered with an automatic transmission, and the 200ZR was a budget alternative as it fit into a lower tax and insurance category thanks to its smaller engine.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The European turbo models, as well as those sold in other markets unencumbered by strict emissions regulations, produce due to higher lift and higher duration on the camshaft profile, also known outside of Europe as the Nismo camshafts. The two-seater model was not available in mainland Europe but was available in the United Kingdom. Some models were also equipped without catalytic converters. All European turbocharged models received a different front lower spoiler as well, with 84-86 models being unique and 87-89 production having the same spoiler as the USDM 1988 Shiro Special model.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: Swedish- and Swiss-market models (as well as those sold in Australia) received exhaust gas recirculation control systems to meet those countries particular emissions regulations.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: All Australian model Z31 300ZXs were 2+2 T-top body, with an engine offering of either the 3.0L V6 N/A VG30E, or the 3.0L V6 Turbo Charged VG30ET. The cars sold in 1984 and '85 were all naturally aspirated with no catalytic converter, while the turbocharged version was the only model available from 1986 to 1988. There was only one trim level in Australia, with the digital dashboard and climate control being an optional upgrade package, and leather seats only available in the redesigned series 3 "Californian" models. The Australian factory service manual provides camshaft measurements which do not match any of the known USDM or EDM camshaft profiles, the FSM states the exhaust valve has an open duration of 252 degrees, but the specified opening and closing angles add up to 258 degrees. All Australian publication content express that N/A versions possess , along with the turbocharged versions as . The Australian 50th Anniversary Edition was more basic than the U.S. version, the 50th AE was a normal n/a 300ZX with the digital dash package, a black interior, black velour seats, and a 50th AE badge on the exterior. The exterior badge was fixed to the cars by dealerships, so the position of the badge is not the same on all models. There was no Shiro Special in Australia, and no models featured the adjustable shock absorbers.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: The Z32 was a new design, approved in final form by Nissan management on October 1, 1986 and designed by Isao Sono and Toshio Yamashita. The body was wider with a rounder profile and fewer hard edges. It had a marginally increased drag coefficient of .31 compared to the Z31's .30. Unchanged from the previous generation 300ZX was the displacement of the VG30 V6 engine, now with DOHC and variable valve timing (N-VCT), producing at 6,400 rpm and at 4,800 rpm in naturally aspirated (NA) form. The twin turbocharged (TT) variant was upgraded with Garrett AiResearch parallel twin-turbochargers and dual intercoolers producing at 6,400 rpm and of torque at 3,600 rpm. The Z32 was the first car to be marketed following the introduction of the power ceiling imposed by JAMA that remained until 2004. Performance varied from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) times of 5.0-6.0 seconds depending on the source, and a governed top speed of . Twin Turbocharged Z32s also featured adjustable two mode suspension and the four-wheel steering systems called "Super HICAS" "(High Capacity Actively Controlled Steering)", first introduced on the R31 Nissan Skyline. Nissan utilized the Cray-2 supercomputer to design the new Z32 with a form of CAD software making it one of the first production cars to utilize this tool.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: Like previous generations, Nissan offered a 4-seater ("2+2") model with the Z32. Most Z32s now featured T-tops as standard. A hardtop (Slicktop) model was available in North America, only in Naturally Aspirated guise, and in Japan was available as Naturally Aspirated as well as an extremely rare Twin Turbo model (Japan-only). All “Slicktops” were 2 seaters ("2+0"). In 1992, a 2-seat convertible version (produced by ASC) was introduced for the first time, in response to aftermarket conversions.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: In 1990, Motorsports International of Waco, Texas collaborated with Japanese tuning company HKS to create the SR-71 Z32. The cars were upgraded with larger Garrett turbochargers, HKS electronics and a Kaminari body kit designed for the SR-71 by Pete Brock. The SR-71 was California CARB certified and was to be sold through a select dealer network and Japanese performance tuning shops located within the United States. It was planned to build 500 cars per year through 1993. One hundred orders were already in hand. The exact number is not known. The SR-71 claimed the title of the third fastest production car in the world in 1990 for a fraction of the price of a Lamborghini Diablo and Ferrari F40 according to the designer Randy Ball. The base price was $65,000 for the Z32 and SR-71 conversion.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: In 1995 and 1996, Steve Millen Motorsports (Stillen), developed a SMZ model with Nissan North America that were sold throughout the U.S. and Canada through designated Nissan dealerships. The performance upgrades were covered by the factory warranty. These performance upgrades included: Skyline Group N/GT-R Brakes, which were cross drilled and axially vented rotors with larger calipers and pistons and upgraded HI-Metal front and rear brake pads; a high flow intake system, which added horsepower and allowed the engine to run more efficiently; an aluminized steel free flow exhaust system, which extended from the catalytic converter and increased rear wheel horsepower; and a turbocharger boost pressure increase, bringing the total increase to 365 brake horsepower. Each vehicle was numbered in the engine bay and interior. A total of 104 SMZs were produced at $14,000 more than the standard Nissan Z32 Twin Turbo.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: American Z-car sales reached one million sales during the 1990 model year, making it at that time the best selling sports car. In America the 300ZX faced the same fate of many Japanese sports cars of the time. While the 1989 300ZX was priced at around $30,000, its final model year price increased to about $50,000. The mid-1990s marketplace trends toward SUVs and the rising Yen:Dollar ratio contributed to the end of North American 300ZX sales in 1996 with over 80,000 in sales. A Commemorative Edition for the final 300 units shipped to America included decals and certificates of authenticity.


title: Nissan 300ZX

text: In the UK & Europe, all Z32s offered were in 2+2 TT form between 1990 and 1996 (1990-1994 for UK). They were sold through dealerships in the UK, France, Germany, Belgium and Italy.