title: Darth Maul

text: Darth Maul is a 4-issue comics series published by Dark Horse Comics featuring Maul. The series is set in the shortly before the Battle of Naboo in "Episode I – The Phantom Menace". The story follows Maul in his mission to destroy the leadership of the well-feared crime syndicate Black Sun. Maul spends his time serving under Darth Sidious, killing countlessly. His main target in the series is the leader of Black Sun, some time before Prince Xizor takes command of it.


title: Darth Maul

text: Several sources depict Maul returning from the dead in several different forms. The story "Resurrection" from "Star Wars Tales" #9 depicts a cult creating a duplicate of Maul as a replacement for Darth Vader, only for Vader to kill him. The story "Phantom Menaces" in "Star Wars Tales" #17 (set after "Return of the Jedi") depicts Luke Skywalker visiting Maul's home planet of Iridonia in an ambassadorial capacity, where he faces a "solid state hologram" of Maul projected from Maul's salvaged brain as part of a scientist's attempt to recreate Maul as Iridonia's "champion". Luke recognizes the disruption that Maul's existence is causing in the Force, and shuts down the life-support systems keeping the brain alive.


title: Darth Maul

text: In 2005, Dark Horse Comics published "", a compilation of non-canonical short comics made by the creators of "Revenge of the Sith". One story, "Old Wounds", depicts Maul with longer horns on his head, having survived his bisection at Obi-Wan's hands, with his missing bottom half replaced with cybernetic legs, similar to those of General Grievous (and his eventual revival in "The Clone Wars"). He follows Obi-Wan throughout the galaxy, finally tracking him down on Tatooine a few years after the events of "Revenge of the Sith". Maul taunts Obi-Wan, saying that after he kills him, he will take a toddler-aged Luke Skywalker to his master, Emperor Palpatine. Maul plans to kill Vader and resume his rightful place at Palpatine's side. He ignites his new double-bladed lightsaber and engages Obi-Wan in a duel, but Obi-Wan again bests him in combat, cutting off his opponent's horns. Maul is killed by a blaster bolt to the head from Owen Lars. Obi-Wan thanks Owen, and says he will take Maul's body into the desert and burn it.


title: Darth Maul

text: In early 2012, a young adult novel entitled "Star Wars: The Wrath of Darth Maul" was released by Scholastic. Maul is also featured prominently in comic series starting in this period, "The Clone Wars: The Sith Hunters" and "Darth Maul: Death Sentence". Set around the various episodes of "The Clone Wars" that featured Maul, the two books detail his and Savage Opress' journey across the galaxy as they seek vengeance on the Jedi.


title: Darth Maul

text: In the 2012 novel "", the titular Sith lord sends his apprentice, Darth Sidious, to the Force-rich world of Dathomir. A Dathomiri witch, or Nightsister, senses Sidious' power in the Force and approaches him. Assuming he is a Jedi, she begs him to take her Zabrak infant son. She realizes that Sidious is not a Jedi, and explains how she is trying to save her son from a Nightsister named Talzin, who killed Maul's father. It is implied that Maul has a twin brother and that Talzin is only aware of one child. Sidious realizes the infant is strong in the Force, and would become a threat if found by the Jedi. Concealing the existence of his own master, Sidious raises Maul to believe that he is a Sith apprentice, but he actually intends him to be an expendable minion rather than an heir. Maul himself acknowledges his shortcomings, such as his limited understanding of politics, even as he tries to become a true Sith.


title: Darth Maul

text: Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter is a novel by Michael Reaves released on February 1, 2001. It is a prequel novel occurring about six months before the events of "The Phantom Menace". The cover art was by David Stevenson. Del Rey aired a TV commercial for the novel in 1999. As portrayed in the novel, Maul was raised by Sidious for as long as he can remember. Sidious then trains Maul as a Sith, marking his body with Sith tattoos. Maul initially goes on several missions of terror for his master, killing politicians, crime bosses, merchants and warlords.


title: Darth Maul

text: Sidious meets secretly with his Neimoidian contacts in the Trade Federation to finalize details in the plan to blockade Naboo. One member of the delegation is missing; suspecting betrayal, Sidious orders Maul to hunt down the traitor. Maul completes this task, but learns that the traitor had recorded proof of the Sith's manipulation of the Naboo blockade on a holocron to sell for profit. A suicidal attack by a Trade Federation-hired bounty hunter interferes with Maul's plan and the holocron is purchased by a Corellian con man named Lorn Pavan. Pavan realizes the nature of the information and seeks to take it to the Jedi Temple. Maul, for his part, is ordered by Sidious to retrieve the holocron and kill Pavan and anyone else who might have the information. Meanwhile, a Jedi Padawan named Darsha Assant is faced with the Jedi trials to become a full-fledged Jedi Knight, and tries to save a member of Black Sun (which Maul had crippled in "Saboteur").


title: Darth Maul

text: Pavan attempts to do business with a Hutt crime lord in one of the lower levels in Coruscant, but Maul arrives and kills the Hutt. Pavan escapes into the caverns where they meet Darsha and her master. The Jedi begin escorting Pavan and his droid to the temple but Maul soon attacks them. Darsha's master is slain while attempting to buy time for the others. Pavan and Darsha escape various dangers of Coruscant's subterranean levels before finding themselves in another battle. Darsha, realizing that she cannot defeat Maul, draws out their duel long enough for Pavan's droid to repair a carbonite-freezing unit and seal Pavan and the droid inside it. Darsha plunges her lightsaber into a pile of volatile gas canisters, killing her and causing an explosion that Maul barely escapes. Upon surveying the scene, Maul feels no trace of Pavan in the Force, not realizing that the carbonite hibernation has made his lifeforce undetectable.


title: Darth Maul

text: An automatic timer frees Pavan from hibernation and he goes after Maul on his own. Pavan follows Maul to a Republic space station and sneaks up on Maul, stunning him momentarily before he awakens, severs Pavan's right hand, and pursues him through the station's service tubes.


title: Darth Maul

text: Pavan barely makes it into a public area where Maul cannot follow, and unwittingly gives the holocron to Senator Palpatine of Naboo, not realizing that Palpatine is Maul's Sith Master. After recovering, Pavan starts to leave his quarters, only to be confronted by Maul, who kills him as a worthy opponent.


title: Darth Maul

text: Darth Maul: Saboteur is a short story by James Luceno. It was released in ebook form, with a length equivalent to about 55 printed pages, on February 1, 2001.


title: Darth Maul

text: It was also published in the back of the paperback edition of Michael Reaves' "Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter".


title: Darth Maul

text: The story is about Maul and takes place roughly a year before "The Phantom Menace". It recounts Maul's first solo mission as "Darth Maul" and attempt to destroy two mining companies so the Trade Federation can take them over.


title: Darth Maul

text: Maul: Lockdown is a "Star Wars" novel written by Joe Schreiber, released by Del Rey Books on January 28, 2014. It was the last novel to be released in the "Star Wars Legends" line of the franchise. Before the events of "The Phantom Menace", Sith lords Darth Plagueis and Darth Sidious send their disciple Maul to a galactic prison to recover a powerful weapon. There, an insidious gambling empire pits the galaxy's most terrible criminals against each other in gladiatorial combat, and Maul must face Jabba the Hutt and various other horrifying obstacles to complete his mission.


title: Darth Maul

text: Since the release of "The Phantom Menace", Maul has proven to be a popular character. Whilst the movie received a mixed reaction from fans and critics alike, the character was one of the most highly praised parts of the film, despite his limited screen time. IGN named Maul the 16th greatest "Star Wars" character, noting, "Of the countless characters to walk in and out of the "Star Wars" saga, none looks or acts more badass than Maul."


title: Darth Maul

text: Maul-related merchandise was popular among Hasbro "Star Wars" toy lines, with plastic recreations of his double bladed lightsaber and various action figures in his likeness developed. Maul was the focal point of the toy marketing campaign surrounding the 2012 re-release of "The Phantom Menace", being featured on the packaging for the toy line.


title: Darth Maul

text: At least two videos of people trying to imitate Darth Maul have gone viral: the 2003 "Star Wars Kid", which spawned an internet meme, and another which went viral in December 2017 of an 8-year-old Ontario boy pretending to be Darth Maul and displaying his martial arts skills.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons is a 2011 American horror short film written and directed by Ari Aster. The film stars Billy Mayo, Brandon Greenhouse, and Angela Bullock as members of a suburban family in which a son sexually abuses his father.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: The short was Aster's thesis film while studying at the American Film Institute's graduate school in California, and later screened at film festivals in 2011, premiering at the Slamdance Film Festival in Utah on January 22, before it leaked online in November and went viral. Aster conceived the story while discussing taboos with his friends, including Greenhouse, before his first year at AFI. He worked on the production with fellow students from the school.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: In 1995, Sidney Johnson, an acclaimed poet, accidentally interrupts his twelve-year-old son, Isaiah, masturbating. Sidney apologizes and reassures his son that the act is natural, unaware that Isaiah was masturbating to a photograph of him as a young man.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: In 2009, during Isaiah's wedding reception, the matriarch of the Johnson family, Joan, discovers her son in a secluded part of the backyard performing fellatio on a distressed-looking Sidney. However, despite the disturbing act she witnesses, Joan merely takes a moment in order to regain her composure before continuing on with the party as if nothing has happened.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: Later that day, while Joan's in the shower, Sidney leaves a typed memoir underneath her pillow called "Cocoon Man: Confessions by Sidney Johnson", in which he chronicles the years of sexual abuse he's endured at the hands of their son. Unfortunately, Isaiah ends up discovering the memoir before Joan can see it and confronts Sidney in his study later that night, telling him that he'll be destroying it and warns him not to print any more copies.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: Sometime later, while Sidney is listening to a self-help tape in the bath, Isaiah breaks down the locked door and rapes him before telling him to ""put that in his book"" afterwards. Meanwhile, in the bedroom, Joan hears the struggle through the walls but does nothing to stop it; instead, choosing to drown it out by raising the volume on the television.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: The next day, Sidney removes a secret copy of ""Cocoon Man"" from underneath the floorboards and attempts to leave the house with it, leading to another confrontation with Isaiah who scolds him and says that he's just as guilty as he is before trying to persuade him into giving up the memoir. However, an emotionally distraught Sidney merely runs out of the house and into the street only to be struck and killed by an oncoming van.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: After Sidney's funeral, a grief-stricken Joan finally decides to confront Isaiah, asking him about what happened 10 years ago during his prom night which caused his father to lock himself in the bathroom and cry for hours. Trying to dodge the question, Isaiah says that he doesn't remember but Joan asks if that's when ""all this"" started.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: Isaiah tries to convince Joan that she's being delusional, but she merely laughs before asking how he could kill his own father, causing him to lash out physically and claim that he ""loved him better than she ever did"" which causes their argument to escalate into a full-on fight to the death.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: During the struggle Joan scratches Isaiah's face which causes him to throw her across the room and attempt to strangle her, only for Joan to stab him with a nearby knife in self-defense. Enraged, he kicks her in the stomach before trying to force her headfirst into a lit fireplace. Luckily for her, a fire iron allows Joan to escape from Isaiah's clutches and kill him in a state of grief and rage.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: Having lost her family, an utterly distraught Joan throw the last copy of "Cocoon Man" into the fire as the credits roll.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: The team began work on the project during Aster's time at the American Film Institute's graduate school, AFI Conservatory, for his thesis film. The idea behind the short had arisen from a discussion with some friends about taboo topics, during the summer preceding his first year at AFI. Brandon Greenhouse, who plays Isaiah, had previously worked on projects with Aster and was there since conception.


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: The short was shot on 35mm film. He described the script as being "a bit of an uphill battle to make it there politically", stating:


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: After the short film was released online, it went viral, garnering a polarized reaction due to its controversial themes. Ivan Kander of the website Short of the Week wrote that the comments on YouTube had "everything from effusive acclaim to disgusted vitriol. In terms of the internet, that means it's a hit."


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: The film also garnered controversy for its portrayal of an African American family by a Jewish filmmaker. Director Ari Aster stated that "the color of the family isn't important. We certainly assumed that casting black actors in a film that tackles such transgressive themes would create something of a stir, and it would be a lie to say that we weren't hesitant, especially as many people were advising us against the decision."


title: The Strange Thing About the Johnsons

text: As an African American incest and child sexual abuse survivor, Malcolm Harris of "The Huffington Post" wrote that Billy Mayo's performance was "brilliant" and that "we should be applauding the fact that someone has finally shown true courage in proposing the question, 'What If? What if these strange events were happening behind the closed doors of the Smiths, the Rosenbergs, the Mortimers, the Herreras? What if these strange things were happening to me?'"


title: Joaquin Phoenix filmography

text: Joaquin Phoenix is an American actor who started his career performing as a child on television. He appeared on the shows "Seven Brides for Seven Brothers" (1982) and "" (1984) with his brother River Phoenix and on an episode of "Murder, She Wrote" (1984) with his sister Summer Phoenix. He made his feature film debut in "SpaceCamp" (1986) and had his first starring role in "Russkies" (1987). His first major film release was Ron Howard's dramedy "Parenthood" (1989) with Steve Martin. During his period as a child actor, he was credited as Leaf Phoenix, his self-given name. Six years later, he changed his name back to Joaquin and co-starred opposite Nicole Kidman in the Gus Van Sant-directed crime comedy-drama "To Die For" (1995), a critical hit. In 1997, Phoenix co-starred in Oliver Stone's crime thriller "U Turn" opposite Sean Penn and starred opposite Liv Tyler in the coming-of-age film "Inventing the Abbotts". Phoenix starred in the crime-comedy film "Clay Pigeons" (1998), "Return to Paradise" (1998) followed by a role in the crime mystery thriller "8mm" (1999) with Nicolas Cage. Phoenix's first role in 2000 was in his first collaboration with director James Gray in the crime film "The Yards". He followed this with supporting roles in the Ridley Scott-directed historical epic "Gladiator" (2000) opposite Russell Crowe and as priest Abbé de Coulmier in the Philip Kaufman-directed period film "Quills" (2000), opposite Geoffrey Rush. For his role as the villain Commodus in the former, Phoenix earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Joaquin Phoenix filmography

text: The following year he starred in a satire of the US military, "Buffalo Soldiers" (2001). Phoenix starred opposite Mel Gibson in the science fiction thriller "Signs" (2002), a massive commercial success. He starred in the romance-drama "It's All About Love" (2003) and voiced Kenai in the animated film "Brother Bear". In 2004, Phoenix starred as a farmer in the psychological thriller "The Village" and as a Baltimore firefighter in the drama "Ladder 49". He followed this with a supporting role in the historical drama film "Hotel Rwanda" (2004). Phoenix portrayed musician Johnny Cash in the biopic "Walk the Line" (2005) opposite Reese Witherspoon. Phoenix played and sang all of Cash's vocal tracks in the film and on the accompanying soundtrack. This earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor  – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media and garnered his first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He also narrated the animal rights documentary "Earthlings" (2005). This was followed by a reteam with Gray in the crime drama "We Own the Night" (2007) and the lead role in the drama "Reservation Road" (2007) opposite Mark Ruffalo. The following year, he made his third film with Gray, "Two Lovers" (2008) and followed this with the mockumentary "I'm Still Here" (2010). Throughout the filming period, Phoenix remained in character for public appearances, giving many the impression that he was genuinely pursuing a new career as a rapper.


title: Joaquin Phoenix filmography

text: Phoenix starred as a World War II veteran in the Paul Thomas Anderson-directed drama film "The Master" opposite Philip Seymour Hoffman. The role earned him a Volpi Cup and his second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor. The following year, he reteamed with Gray once again in the drama film "The Immigrant" opposite Marion Cotillard. Phoenix starred as a man who develops a relationship with Samantha, an intelligent computer operating system in the Spike Jonze-directed romantic science fiction film "Her" (2013) and starred as a private investigator when he reteamed with Anderson in the film adaptation of Thomas Pynchon's novel "Inherent Vice" (2014). Both roles earned him nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor  – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. In 2017, his performance as the damaged savior of sex-trafficking victims in "You Were Never Really Here" netted him the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor. In 2019, his portrayal as Arthur Fleck in the psychological thriller "Joker" earned him critical acclaim along with his first Academy Award for Best Actor, among other accolades.


title: Engineer

text: Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build and test machines, complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfill functional objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and cost. The word "engineer" (Latin ) is derived from the Latin words ("to contrive, devise") and ("cleverness"). The foundational qualifications of an engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations.


title: Engineer

text: The work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life.


title: Engineer

text: In 1961, the Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America defined "professional engineer" as follows:


title: Engineer

text: Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information.


title: Engineer

text: Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements and needs. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.


title: Engineer

text: Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and recombining the components. They may analyze risk.


title: Engineer

text: Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality of products, and to control the efficiency of processes.


title: Engineer

text: Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines. Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural engineering, along with transportation engineering, geotechnical engineering, and materials engineering, including ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering. Mechanical engineering cuts across most disciplines since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.


title: Engineer

text: Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time; that is, the work tasks they perform and how their time is distributed among these. Research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers' work: technical work (i.e., the application of science to product development), social work (i.e., interactive communication between people), computer-based work and information behaviors. Among other more detailed findings, a 2012 work sampling study found that engineers spend 62.92% of their time engaged in technical work, 40.37% in social work, and 49.66% in computer-based work. Furthermore, there was considerable overlap between these different types of work, with engineers spending 24.96% of their time engaged in technical and social work, 37.97% in technical and non-social, 15.42% in non-technical and social, and 21.66% in non-technical and non-social.


title: Engineer

text: Engineering is also an information-intensive field, with research finding that engineers spend 55.8% of their time engaged in various different information behaviors, including 14.2% actively information from other people (7.8%) and information repositories such as documents and databases (6.4%).


title: Engineer

text: The time engineers spend engaged in such activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. In addition to engineers’ core technical competence, research has also demonstrated the critical nature of their personal attributes, project management skills, and cognitive abilities to success in the role.


title: Engineer

text: There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies and products. Typically, engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. For example, mechanical engineering curricula typically include introductory courses in electrical engineering, computer science, materials science, metallurgy, mathematics, and software engineering.


title: Engineer

text: An engineer may either be hired for a firm that requires engineers on a continuous basis, or may belong to an engineering firm that provides engineering consulting services to other firms.


title: Engineer

text: When developing a product, engineers typically work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers. A mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators. An electrical engineer would design the power systems, sensors, electronics, embedded software in electronics, and control circuitry. Finally, a software engineer would develop the software that makes the robot behave properly. Engineers that aspire to management engage in further study in business administration, project management and organizational or business psychology. Often engineers move up the management hierarchy from managing projects, functional departments, divisions and eventually CEOs of a multi-national corporation.


title: Engineer

text: Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers, and the profession. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations, engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and often the principles of business ethics.


title: Engineer

text: Some graduates of engineering programs in North America may be recognized by the iron ring or Engineer's Ring, a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations to the engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States including members of the Order of the Engineer.


title: Engineer

text: Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include courses in general engineering and applied accounting. A design course, often accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are required.


title: Engineer

text: Accreditation is the process by which engineering programs are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States, post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology.


title: Engineer

text: In many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, industrial equipment, machine design and chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed professional engineer. Most commonly titled professional engineer is a license to practice and is indicated with the use of post-nominal letters; PE or P.Eng. These are common in North America, as is European engineer (EUR ING) in Europe. The practice of engineering in the UK is not a regulated profession but the control of the titles of chartered engineer (CEng) and incorporated engineer (IEng) is regulated. These titles are protected by law and are subject to strict requirements defined by the Engineering Council UK. The title CEng is in use in much of the Commonwealth.


title: Engineer

text: Many skilled and semi-skilled trades and engineering technicians in the UK call themselves engineers. A growing movement in the UK is to legally protect the title 'Engineer' so that only professional engineers can use it; a petition was started to further this cause.


title: Engineer

text: In the United States, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (professional engineering exam), and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses professional engineers. Currently, most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgment regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In the United States, an "industrial exemption" allows businesses to employ employees and call them an "engineer", as long as such individuals are under the direct supervision and control of the business entity and function internally related to manufacturing (manufactured parts) related to the business entity, or work internally within an exempt organization. Such person does not have the final authority to approve, or the ultimate responsibility for, engineering designs, plans, or specifications that are to be incorporated into fixed works, systems, or facilities on the property of others or made available to the public. These individuals are prohibited from offering engineering services directly to the public or other businesses, or engage in practice of engineering unless the business entity is registered with the state's board of engineering, and the practice is carried on or supervised directly only by engineers licensed to engage in the practice of engineering. In some instances, some positions, such as a "sanitation engineer", does not have any basis in engineering sciences. Although some states require a BS degree in engineering accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) with no exceptions, about two thirds of the states accept BS degrees in engineering technology accredited by the Engineering Technology Accreditation Commission (ETAC) of ABET to become licensed as professional engineers. Each state has different requirements on years of experience to take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Professional Engineering (PE) exams. A few states require a graduate MS in engineering to sit for the exams as further learning. After seven years of working after graduation, two years of responsibility for significant engineering work, continuous professional development, some highly qualified PEs are able to become International Professional Engineers Int(PE). These engineers must meet the highest level of professional competencies and this is a peer reviewed process. Once the IntPE title is awarded, the engineer can gain easier admission to national registers of a number of members jurisdictions for international practice.


title: Engineer

text: In Canada, engineering is a self-regulated profession. The profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years of post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC) in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering.


title: Engineer

text: In Continental Europe, Latin America, Turkey, and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree and the use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy, the title is limited to people who hold an engineering degree, have passed a professional qualification examination ("Esame di Stato") and are enrolled in the register of the local branch of National Associations of Engineers (a public body). In Portugal, professional engineer titles and accredited engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the "Ordem dos Engenheiros". In the Czech Republic, the title "engineer" (Ing.) is given to people with a (masters) degree in chemistry, technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece, the academic title of "Diploma Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and the title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI).


title: Engineer

text: In companies and other organizations, there is sometimes a tendency to undervalue people with advanced technological and scientific skills compared to celebrities, fashion practitioners, entertainers, and managers. In his book, "The Mythical Man-Month", Fred Brooks Jr says that managers think of senior people as "too valuable" for technical tasks and that management jobs carry higher prestige. He tells how some laboratories, such as Bell Labs, abolish all job titles to overcome this problem: a professional employee is a "member of the technical staff." IBM maintains a dual ladder of advancement; the corresponding managerial and engineering or scientific rungs are equivalent. Brooks recommends that structures need to be changed; the boss must give a great deal of attention to keeping managers and technical people as interchangeable as their talents allow.


title: Engineer

text: , thirty two countries in Europe (including nearly all 27 countries of the EU) now recognise the title of 'European Engineer' which permits the use of the pre-nominal title of "EUR ING" (always fully capitalised). Each country sets its own precise qualification requirement for the use of the title (though they are all broadly equivalent). Holding the requisite qualification does not afford automatic entitlement. The title has to be applied for (and the appropriate fee paid). The holder is entitled to use the title in their passport. EUR INGs are allowed to describe themselves as professionally qualified engineers and practise as such in any of the 32 participating countries including those where the title of engineer is regulated by law.


title: Engineer

text: British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of "the Victorian Engineers", chief among whom were Brunel, Stephenson, Telford, and their contemporaries. In the UK, "engineering" has more recently been erroneously styled as an industrial sector consisting of employers and employees loosely termed "engineers" who include tradespeople. However, knowledgeable practitioners reserve the term "engineer" to describe a university-educated professional of ingenuity represented by the Chartered (or Incorporated) Engineer qualifications. A large proportion of the UK public incorrectly thinks of "engineers" as skilled tradespeople or even semi-skilled tradespeople with a high school education. Also, many UK skilled and semi-skilled tradespeople falsely style themselves as "engineers". This has created confusion in the eyes of some members of the public in understanding what professional engineers actually do, from fixing car engines, television sets and refrigerators (technicians, handymen) to designing and managing the development of aircraft, spacecraft, power stations, infrastructure and other complex technological systems (engineers).


title: Engineer

text: In France, the term (engineer) is not a protected title and can be used by anyone who practices this profession.


title: Engineer

text: However, the title (graduate engineer) is an official academic title that is protected by the government and is associated with the "Diplôme d'Ingénieur", which is a renowned academic degree in France. Anyone misusing this title in France can be fined a large sum and jailed, as it is usually reserved for graduates of French engineering "grandes écoles". Engineering schools which were created during the French revolution have a special reputation among the French people, as they helped to make the transition from a mostly agricultural country of late 18th century to the industrially developed France of the 19th century. A great part of 19th-century France's economic wealth and industrial prowess was created by engineers that have graduated from École Centrale Paris, École des Mines de Paris, École polytechnique or Télécom Paris. This was also the case after WWII when France had to be rebuilt. Before the "réforme René Haby" in the 1970s, it was very difficult to be admitted to such schools, and the French were commonly perceived as the nation's elite. However, after the Haby reform and a string of further reforms (Modernization plans of French universities), several engineering schools were created which can be accessed with relatively lower competition.


title: Engineer

text: In France, engineering positions are now shared between the graduating from engineering ; and the holders of a Master's degree in Science from public universities. Engineers are less highlighted in current French economy as industry provides less than a quarter of the GDP.


title: Engineer

text: In Italy, only people who hold a formal engineering qualification of at least a bachelor's degree are permitted to describe themselves as an engineer. So much so that people holding such qualifications are entitled to use the pre-nominal title of "" (or "" if female - in both cases often abbreviated to "Ing.") in lieu of "Signore", "Signorina" or "Signora" (Mr, Miss and Mrs respectively) in the same manner as someone holding a doctorate would use the pre-nominal title "Doctor".


title: Engineer

text: In Canada, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensed professional engineers are referred to as P.Eng. Many Canadian engineers wear an Iron Ring.


title: Engineer

text: In all Canadian provinces, the title "Professional Engineer" is protected by law and any non-licensed individual or company using the title is committing a legal offence and is subject to fines and restraining orders. Contrary to insistence from the Professional Engineers Ontario ("PEO") and Engineers Canada, use of the title "Engineer" itself has been found by Canadian law to be acceptable by those not holding P.Eng. titles.


title: Engineer

text: The title of engineer is not exclusive to P.Eng titles. The title of Engineer is commonly held by "Software Engineer", the Canadian Military as various ranks and positions, railway locomotive engineers, and Aircraft Maintenance Engineers (AME), all of which do not commonly hold a P.Eng. designation.


title: Engineer

text: In the United States, the practice of professional engineering is highly regulated and the title "professional engineer" is legally protected, meaning that it is unlawful to use it to offer engineering services to the public unless permission, certification or other official endorsement is specifically granted by that state through a professional engineering license.


title: Engineer

text: Certain Spanish-speaking countries follow the Italian convention of engineers using the pre-nominal title, in this case "" (or "" if female). Like in Italy, it is usually abbreviated to "Ing." In Spain this practice is not followed.


title: Engineer

text: The engineering profession enjoys high prestige in Spain, ranking close to medical doctors, scientists and professors, and above judges, journalists or entrepreneurs.


title: Engineer

text: In the Indian subcontinent, Russia, Middle East, Africa, and China, engineering is one of the most sought after undergraduate courses, inviting thousands of applicants to show their ability in highly competitive entrance examinations.


title: Engineer

text: In Egypt, the educational system makes engineering the second-most-respected profession in the country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities requires extremely high marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education ( "al-Thānawiyyah al-`Āmmah")—on the order of 97 or 98%—and are thus considered (along with the colleges of medicine, natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the "pinnacle colleges" ( "kullīyāt al-qimmah").


title: Engineer

text: In the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas, engineers who are either Filipino or not, especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as "Engineer", rather than "Sir/Madam" in speech or "Mr./Mrs./Ms." ("G./Gng./Bb." in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough or sourdough bread is a bread made by the fermentation of dough using wild lactobacillaceae and yeast. Lactic acid from fermentation imparts a sour taste and improves keeping qualities.


title: Sourdough

text: In the "Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology", Michael Gaenzle writes: "The origins of bread-making are so ancient that everything said about them must be pure speculation. One of the oldest sourdough breads dates from 3700 BCE and was excavated in Switzerland, but the origin of sourdough fermentation likely relates to the origin of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent and Egypt several thousand years earlier", which was confirmed a few years later by archeological evidence. ... "Bread production relied on the use of sourdough as a leavening agent for most of human history; the use of baker's yeast as a leavening agent dates back less than 150 years."


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough remained the usual form of leavening down into the European Middle Ages until being replaced by barm from the beer brewing process, and after 1871 by purpose-cultured yeast.


title: Sourdough

text: Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in the northern half of Europe, is usually leavened with sourdough. Baker's yeast is not useful as a leavening agent for rye bread, as rye does not contain enough gluten. The structure of rye bread is based primarily on the starch in the flour as well as other carbohydrates known as pentosans; however, rye amylase is active at substantially higher temperatures than wheat amylase, causing the structure of the bread to disintegrate as the starches are broken down during baking. The lowered pH of a sourdough starter, therefore, inactivates the amylases when heat cannot, allowing the carbohydrates in the bread to gel and set properly. In the southern part of Europe, where panettone is still made with sourdough as leavening, sourdough has become less common in the 20th century; it has been replaced by the faster-growing baker's yeast, sometimes supplemented with longer fermentation rests to allow for some bacterial activity to build flavor. Sourdough fermentation has re-emerged as a major fermentation process in bread production in the past ten years although it is commonly used in conjunction with baker's yeast as leavening agent.


title: Sourdough

text: French bakers brought sourdough techniques to Northern California during the California Gold Rush, and it remains a part of the culture of San Francisco today. (The nickname remains in "Sourdough Sam", the mascot of the San Francisco 49ers.) Sourdough has long been associated with the 1849 gold prospectors, though they were more likely to make bread with commercial yeast or baking soda. The "celebrated" San Francisco sourdough is a white bread characterized by a pronounced sourness, and indeed the strain of "Lactobacillus" in sourdough starters is named "Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis" (previously "Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis"), alongside the sourdough yeast "Kasachstania humilis" (previously "Candida milleri") found in the same cultures.


title: Sourdough

text: The sourdough tradition was carried into Alaska and the Yukon territories of Canada during the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898. Conventional leavenings such as yeast and baking soda were much less reliable in the conditions faced by the prospectors. Experienced miners and other settlers frequently carried a pouch of starter either around their neck or on a belt; these were fiercely guarded to keep from freezing. However, freezing does not kill a sourdough starter; excessive heat does. Old hands came to be called "sourdoughs", a term that is still applied to any Alaskan or Klondike old-timer. The significance of the nickname's association with Yukon culture was immortalized in the writings of Robert Service, particularly his collection of "Songs of a Sourdough".


title: Sourdough

text: In English-speaking countries, where wheat-based breads predominate, sourdough is no longer the standard method for bread leavening. It was gradually replaced, first by the use of barm from beer making, then, after the confirmation of germ theory by Louis Pasteur, by cultured yeasts. Although sourdough bread was superseded in commercial bakeries in the 20th century, it has undergone a revival among artisan bakers and, more recently, in industrial bakeries. In countries where there is no legal definition of sourdough bread, the dough for some products named or marketed as such is leavened using baker's yeast or chemical raising agents as well as, or instead of, a live sourdough starter culture. The Real Bread Campaign calls these products sourfaux.


title: Sourdough

text: Manufacturers of non-sourdough breads make up for the lack of yeast and bacterial culture by introducing into their dough an artificially-made mix known as bread improver or flour improver.


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough baking has a devoted community today. Many devotees share starters and tips via the Internet. Hobbyists often proudly share their work on social media. Sourdough cultures contain communities of living organisms, with a history unique to each individual starter, and bakers can feel an obligation to maintain them. "Many like to think that their sourdough is unique, or their creation, or one that’s been handed down for generations, or been over the Chilkoot Pass, et cetera. Because [starter] is 'alive' some tender hearts feel an obligation to its permanent health and survival." The different yeasts present in the air in any region also enter sourdough, causing starters to change depending on location.


title: Sourdough

text: Some devotees find interest in history. Sourdough expert Ed Wood isolated millennia-old yeast from an ancient Egyptian bakery near the pyramids of Giza, and many individual starters, such as Carl Griffith's 1847 starter, have been passed down through generations. "I like the throwback of traditional bread, the things our great grandmothers ate," writes professional baker Stacie Kearney. Some bakers describe starters generations old, though Griffith's seems exceptional.


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough baking became more popular during the COVID-19 pandemic, as increased interest in home baking caused shortages of baker's yeast in stores, whereas sourdough can be propagated at home.


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough baking requires minimal equipment and simple ingredients – flour, salt, and water – but invites practice. Purism is a part of the appeal. As described by one enthusiast, "If you take flour, water, (wild) yeast and salt, and play around with time and temperature, what comes out of the oven is something utterly transformed." Many bakers feed their starters on elaborate schedules, and many name them. Some approach sourdough as science, attempting to optimize flavor and acidity with careful measurements, experimentation, and correspondence with professional microbiologists. Some lineages of starter are freely shared, and others can be purchased, but many prefer to cultivate their own. Some techniques for doing so are fiercely debated, such as the use of commercial yeast to jump-start a culture while capturing wild yeasts, or adding grapes or milk.


title: Sourdough

text: The preparation of sourdough begins with a pre-ferment (the "starter" or "leaven", also known as the "chief", "chef", "head", "mother" or "sponge"), a fermented mixture of flour and water, containing a colony of microorganisms including wild yeast and lactobacilli. The purpose of the starter is to produce a vigorous leaven and to develop the flavour of the bread. In practice there are several kinds of starters, as the ratio of water to flour in the starter ("hydration") varies. A starter may be a liquid batter or a stiff dough.


title: Sourdough

text: Flour naturally contains a variety of yeasts and bacteria. When wheat flour comes into contact with water, the naturally occurring enzyme amylase breaks down the starch into the sugars glucose and maltose, which sourdough's natural yeast can metabolize. With sufficient time, temperature, and refreshments with new or fresh dough, the mixture develops a stable culture. This culture will cause a dough to rise. The bacteria ferment starches that the yeast cannot metabolise, and the by-products, chiefly maltose, are metabolised by the yeast, which produces carbon dioxide gas, leavening the dough.


title: Sourdough

text: Obtaining a satisfactory rise from sourdough takes longer than a dough leavened with baker's yeast because the yeast in a sourdough is less vigorous. In the presence of lactic acid bacteria, however, some sourdough yeasts have been observed to produce twice the gas of baker's yeast. The acidic conditions in sourdough, along with the bacteria also producing enzymes that break down proteins, result in weaker gluten and may produce a denser finished product.


title: Sourdough

text: As it ferments, sometimes for several days, the volume of the starter is increased by periodic additions of flour and water, called "refreshments". As long as this starter culture is fed flour and water regularly, it will remain active.


title: Sourdough

text: The ratio of fermented starter to fresh flour and water is critical in the development and maintenance of a starter. This ratio is called the "refreshment ratio". Higher refreshment ratios are associated with greater microbial stability in the sourdough. In San Francisco sourdough, the ratio is 40% of the total weight, which is roughly equivalent to 67% of the new-dough's weight. A high refreshment ratio keeps acidity of the refreshed dough relatively low. Acidity levels of below pH 4.0 inhibit lactobacilli and favour acid-tolerant yeasts.


title: Sourdough

text: A starter prepared from scratch with a salted wheat-rye dough takes about 54 hours at to stabilise at a pH between 4.4 and 4.6. 4% salt inhibits "L. sanfranciscensis", while "C. milleri" can withstand 8%.


title: Sourdough

text: A drier and cooler starter has less bacterial activity and more yeast growth, which results in the bacterial production of more acetic acid relative to lactic acid. Conversely, a wetter and warmer starter has more bacterial activity and less yeast growth, with more lactic acid relative to acetic acid. The yeasts produce mainly CO and ethanol. High amounts of lactic acid are desired in rye and mixed-rye fermentations, while relatively higher amounts of acetic acid are desired in wheat fermentations. A dry, cool starter produces a sourer loaf than a wet, warm one. Firm starters (such as the Flemish Desem starter, which may be buried in a large container of flour to prevent drying out) tend to be more resource-intensive than wet ones.


title: Sourdough

text: A stable culture in which "F. sanfranciscensis" is the dominant bacterium requires a temperature between and refreshments every 24 hours for about two weeks. Refreshment intervals of longer than three days acidify the dough and may change the microbial ecosystem.


title: Sourdough

text: The intervals between refreshments of the starter may be reduced in order to increase the rate of gas (CO) production, a process described as "acceleration." In this process, the ratio of yeasts to lactobacilli may be altered. Generally, if once-daily refreshment-intervals have not been reduced to several hours, the percentage amount of starter in the final dough should be reduced to obtain a satisfactory rise during proof.


title: Sourdough

text: Faster starter processes, requiring fewer refreshments, have been devised, sometimes using commercial sourdough starters as inoculants. These starters generally fall into two types. One is made from traditionally maintained and stable starter doughs, often dried, in which the ratios of microorganisms are uncertain. Another is made from microorganisms carefully isolated from Petri dishes, grown into large, homogeneous populations in fermentors, and processed into combined baker's products with numerically defined ratios and known quantities of microorganisms well suited to particular bread styles.


title: Sourdough

text: Maintaining metabolically active sourdough with high leavening activity typically requires several refreshments per day, which is achieved in bakeries that use sourdough as sole leavening agents but not by amateur bakers that use the sourdough only weekly or even less frequently.


title: Sourdough

text: Bakers have devised several ways of encouraging a stable culture of micro-organisms in the starter. Unbleached, unbromated flour contains more micro-organisms than more processed flours. Bran-containing (wholemeal) flour provides the greatest variety of organisms and additional minerals, though some cultures use an initial mixture of white flour and rye or whole wheat flour or "seed" the culture using unwashed organic grapes (for the wild yeasts on their skins). Grapes and grape must are also sources of lactic acid bacteria, as are many other edible plants. Basil leaves are soaked in room-temperature water for an hour to seed traditional Greek sourdough. Using water from boiled potatoes is said to increase the activity of the bacteria by providing additional starch.


title: Sourdough

text: The piped drinking water supplied in most urban areas is treated by chlorination or chloramination, adding small amounts of substances that inhibit potentially dangerous micro-organisms but are harmless to animals. Some bakers recommend unchlorinated water for feeding cultures. Because a sourdough fermentation relies on microorganisms, using water without these agents may produce better results. Bottled drinking water is suitable; chlorine, but not chloramines, can be removed from tap water by boiling it for a time, or simply by leaving it uncovered for at least 24 hours. Chlorine and chloramines can both be removed by activated carbon filters.


title: Sourdough

text: Adding a small quantity of diastatic malt provides maltase and simple sugars to support the yeasts initially.


title: Sourdough

text: Bakers often make loaves with fermented dough from a previous batch (which they call "mother dough", "mother sponge", "chef", or "seed sour") rather than making a new starter every time they bake. The original starter culture may be many years old. Because of their pH level and the presence of antibacterial agents, such cultures are stable and able to prevent colonization by unwanted yeasts and bacteria. For this reason, sourdough products inherently keep fresh for a longer time than other breads, and are good at resisting spoilage and mold without the additives required to retard spoiling of other types of bread.


title: Sourdough

text: The flavour of sourdough bread varies from place to place according to the method used, the hydration of the starter and the final dough, the refreshment ratio, the length of the fermentation periods, ambient temperature, humidity, and elevation, all of which contribute to the microbiology of the sourdough.


title: Sourdough

text: The starter must be fed 4 to 12 hours prior to being added to dough, by mixing flour and water to the starter. This creates an active leaven, which should grow in size and is ready to use when it is bubbly and floats in water. The leaven is mixed with flour and water to make a final dough of the desired consistency. The starter weight is usually 13% to 25% of the total flour weight, though formulas may vary. The dough is shaped into loaves, left to rise, and then baked. A number of 'no knead' methods are available for sourdough bread. Due to the length of time sourdough bread takes to proof, many bakers may refrigerate their loaves prior to baking. This process is known as 'retardation' to slow down the proofing process. This process has the added benefit of developing a richer flavoured bread.


title: Sourdough

text: Because the rise time of most sourdough starters is longer than that of breads made with baker's yeasts, sourdough starters are generally unsuitable for use in a bread machine. However, sourdough that has been proved over many hours, using a sourdough starter or mother dough, can then be transferred to the machine, utilizing only the baking segment of the bread-making program, bypassing timed mechanical kneading by the machine's paddle. This may be convenient for single loaf production, but the complex blistered and slashed crust characteristics of oven-baked sourdough bread cannot be achieved in a bread making machine, as this usually requires the use of a baking stone in the oven and misting of the dough to produce steam. Furthermore, ideal crust development requires loaves of shapes not achievable in a machine's loaf tin.


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough is a stable culture of lactic acid bacteria and yeast in a mixture of flour and water. Broadly speaking, the yeast produces gas (carbon dioxide) which leavens the dough, and the lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, which contributes flavor in the form of sourness. The lactic acid bacteria metabolize sugars that the yeast cannot, while the yeast metabolizes the by-products of lactic acid fermentation. During sourdough fermentation, many cereal enzymes, particularly phytases, proteases and pentosanases, are activated through acidification and contribute to biochemical changes during sourdough fermentation.


title: Sourdough

text: Every starter consists of different lactic acid bacteria which is introduced to the starter through the environment, water, and flour used to create the starter. The lactic acid bacteria are a group of gram-positive bacteria capable of converting carbohydrate substrates into organic acids and producing a wide range of metabolites. Organic acids, including propionic, formic, acetic acid, and lactic acid, create an unfavorable environment for the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms.


title: Sourdough

text: Lactic acid bacteria commonly found in sourdough is Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Weissella and other genera. But by far, the most prevalent species belong to the very large and diverse genus, Lactobacillus


title: Sourdough

text: Lactic acid bacteria are aerotolerant anaerobes, which means that though they are anaerobes, they can multiply in the presence of oxygen.


title: Sourdough

text: Major lactic acid bacteria in sourdough are heterofermentative (producing more than one product) organisms and convert hexoses by the phosphoketolase pathway to lactate, CO and acetate or ethanol; heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria are usually associated with homofermentative (producing mainly one product) lactobacilli, particularly "Lactobacillus" and "Companilactobacillus" species.


title: Sourdough

text: The most common yeast species in sourdough are "Kazachstania exigua (Saccharomyces exiguous)", "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", "K. exiguus" and "K. humilis" (previously "Candida milleri" or "Candida humilis").


title: Sourdough

text: Traditional sourdoughs used as sole leavening agent are referred to as Type I sourdough; examples include sourdoughs used for San Francisco Sourdough Bread, Panettone, and rye bread. Type I sourdoughs are generally firm doughs, have a pH range of 3.8 to 4.5, and are fermented in a temperature range of . "Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis" was named for its discovery in San Francisco sourdough starters, though it is not endemic to San Francisco. "F. sanfranciscensis" and "Limosilactobacillus pontis" often highlight a lactic-acid bacterial flora that includes "Limosilactobacillus fermentum", "Fructilactobacillus fructivorans", "Levilactobacillus brevis", and "Companilactobacillus paralimentarius". The yeasts "Saccharomyces exiguus", "Kasachstania humilis", or "Candida holmii" usually populate sourdough cultures symbiotically with "Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis". The perfect yeast "S. exiguus" is related to the imperfect yeasts "C. milleri" and "C. holmii". "Torulopsis holmii", "Torula holmii", and "S. rosei" are synonyms used prior to 1978. "C. milleri" and "C. holmii" are physiologically similar, but DNA testing established them as distinct. Other yeasts reported found include "C. humilis", "C. krusei", "Pichia anomaola", "C. peliculosa", "P. membranifaciens", and "C. valida". There have been changes in the taxonomy of yeasts in recent decades. "F. sanfranciscensis" requires maltose, while "C. milleri" is maltase negative and thus cannot consume maltose. "C. milleri" can grow under conditions of low pH and relatively high acetate levels, a factor contributing to sourdough flora's stability.


title: Sourdough

text: In order to produce acetic acid, "F. sanfrancisensis" needs maltose and fructose. Wheat dough contains abundant starch and some polyfructosanes, which enzymes degrade to "maltose, fructose and little glucose." The terms "fructosan, glucofructan, sucrosyl fructan, polyfructan, and polyfructosan" are all used to describe a class of compounds that are "structurally and metabolically" related to sucrose, where "carbon is stored as sucrose and polymers of fructose (fructans)." Yeasts have the ability to free fructose from glucofructans which compose about 1–2% of the dough. Glucofructans are long strings of fructose molecules attached to a single glucose molecule. Sucrose can be considered the shortest glucofructan, with only a single fructose molecule attached. When "L. sanfrancisensis" reduces all available fructose, it stops producing acetic acid and begins producing ethanol. If the fermenting dough gets too warm, the yeasts slow down, producing less fructose. Fructose depletion is more of a concern in doughs with lower enzymatic activities.


title: Sourdough

text: A Belgian study of wheat and spelt doughs refreshed once every 24 hours and fermented at in a laboratory environment provides insight into the three-phase evolution of first-generation-to-stable sourdough ecosystems. In the first two days of refreshment, atypical genera "Enterococcus" and "Lactococcus" bacteria highlighted the doughs. During days 2–5, sourdough-specific bacteria belonging to the genera "Lactobacillus", "Pediococcus", and "Weissella" outcompete earlier strains. Yeasts grew more slowly and reached population peaks near days 4–5. By days 5–7, "well-adapted" "Lactobacillus" strains such as "L. fermentum" and "Lactiplantibacillus plantarum" had emerged. At their peaks, yeast populations were in the range of about 1–10% of the lactobacilli populations or 1:10–1:100. One characteristic of a stable dough is that the heterofermentative have outcompeted homofermentative lactobacilli. "F. sanfranciscensis" has typically not been identified in spontaneous sourdoughs, even after multiple cycles of back-slopping; it was rapidly introduced in wheat sourdoughs, however, when plant materials were used to start the fermentation.


title: Sourdough

text: Investigations of wheat sourdough found that "S. cerevisiae" died off after two refreshment cycles. "S. cerevisiae" has less tolerance to acetic acid than other sourdough yeasts. Continuously maintained, stable sourdough cannot be unintentionally contaminated by "S. cerevisiae."


title: Sourdough

text: In Type II sourdoughs, baker's yeast or "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is added to leaven the dough; "L. pontis" and "Limosilactobacillus panis" in association with "Lactobacillus" species are dominant members of type II sourdoughs. They have a pH less than 3.5, and are fermented within a temperature range of for several days without feedings, which reduces the flora's activity. This process was adopted by some in industry, in part, due to simplification of the multiple-step build typical of Type I sourdoughs.


title: Sourdough

text: In Type II sourdoughs, yeast growth is slowed or stopped due to higher fermentation temperatures. These doughs are more liquid and once fermented may be chilled and stored for up to a week. They are pumpable and used in continuous bread production systems.


title: Sourdough

text: Type III sourdoughs are Type II sourdoughs subjected to a drying process, usually either spray or drum drying, and are mainly used at an industrial level as flavoring agents. They are dominated by "drying-resistant [lactic acid bacteria] such as "Pediococcus pentosaceus", "L. plantarum", and "L. brevis"." The drying conditions, time and heat applied, may be varied in order to influence caramelization and produce desired characteristics in the baked product.


title: Sourdough

text: There are many breads that use techniques similar to that used in the making of sourdough bread. Danish rugbrød ("rye bread") is a dense, dark bread best known from its use in the Danish smørrebrød (open-faced sandwiches). The Mexican "birote salado" started out in the city of Guadalajara as a short French baguette that replaces the yeast with a sourdough fermentation process, yielding a bread that is crunchy outside but soft and savory inside. Amish friendship bread uses a sourdough starter that includes sugar and milk. It is also leavened with baking powder and baking soda. An Amish sourdough is fed with sugar and potato flakes every 3–5 days. German pumpernickel is traditionally made from a sourdough starter, although modern pumpernickel loaves often use commercial yeasts, sometimes spiked with citric acid or lactic acid to inactivate the amylases in the rye flour. Flemish desem bread (the word means 'starter') is a whole-wheat sourdough. In Azerbaijan, whole-wheat sourdough flatbreads are traditionally eaten. In Ethiopia, teff flour is fermented to make injera. A similar variant is eaten in Somalia, Djibouti, and Yemen (where it is known as lahoh). In India, idlis and dosa are made from a sourdough fermentation of rice and "Vigna mungo".


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough bread has a relatively low glycemic index compared with other types of bread. The activity of cereal enzymes during sourdough fermentation hydrolyses phytates, which improves the absorption of some dietary minerals and vitamins, most of which are found in the bran.


title: Sourdough

text: Sourdough fermentation reduces wheat components that may contribute to non-celiac wheat sensitivity and irritable bowel syndrome. Sourdough fermentation and lactic acid bacteria may be useful to improve the quality of gluten-free breads, such as by enhancing texture, aroma, and shelf life.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: Byju Raveendran (Malayalam: ബൈജു രവീന്ദ്രൻ; born 1980) is an Indian entrepreneur, investor and educator who, with his wife Divya Gokulnath, co-founded Byju's.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: Byju was born in 1980 in the Azhikode village of Kerala, India to Raveendran and Shobhanavalli, physics and mathematics teachers, respectively. He studied at a Malayalam medium school where his mother was a mathematics teacher and father a physics teacher. He would skip classes and then learn at home.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: After completing his B.Tech from the Government College of Engineering, Kannur, he joined a multinational shipping company as a service engineer. During a vacation in 2003, he helped his friends who were studying for the CAT exam. He then took the CAT exam and scored in the 100th percentile. When he took the exam again, he again scored in the 100th percentile. Two years later, he continued helping people study for the CAT exam, and based on the good results, decided to quit his job.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: In 2007, Byju founded the test preparation business Byju's Classes, and the company grew to stadium-size classes. In 2011, he founded Byju's with his wife, Divya Gokulnath, who he met while she was a student in his exam preparation class.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: In 2015, as smartphone screen sizes increased, Byju's launched an app developed by Raveendran for students to learn on their handheld devices. In October 2018, the app expanded to the United Kingdom, United States and other English-speaking countries. By July 2022, the app had been downloaded more than 150 million times, and on average, its users spent 71 minutes on the app every day.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: In 2021, Raveendran was heading advanced talks to acquire Vedantu for around $600-$700 million, but the deal didn't get through due to pending regulatory approvals.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: According to "Forbes", as of 2020, Byju, his wife, and his brother Riju Raveendran, have a combined net worth of $3.4 billion. In January 2021, he was added to the National Startup Advisory Council as a non-official member. In April 2021, Byju's purchased the Indian test-prep provider Aakash Educational Services Ltd. for nearly billion.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: In July 2022, Raveendran invested $400 million in BYJU’S in his personal capacity to further increase his stake in the company.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: Byju is spearheading the Education for All Initiative, under which 10 million children in India from various economic backgrounds will get access to new tech-driven learning solutions at Byju's platforms.


title: Byju Raveendran

text: Raveendran married Divya Gokulnath, who was one of his early students, in 2009. Together they have two sons.


title: Chimichurri

text: Chimichurri () is an uncooked sauce used both as an ingredient in cooking and as a table condiment for grilled meat. Found in Argentinian, Nicaraguan and Uruguayan cuisines, the sauce comes in a green ("chimichurri verde") and red ("chimichurri rojo") version. It is made of finely chopped parsley, minced garlic, olive oil, oregano and red wine vinegar or lemon juice. It is somewhat similar to Moroccan chermoula.


title: Chimichurri

text: The name may be a variant of Spanish "chirriburri" 'hubbub', ultimately perhaps from Basque "zurrumurru" 'noise, rumor'. Another theory connects it to Basque "tximitxurri" 'hodgepodge', 'mixture of several things in no particular order'; many Basques settled in Argentina in the 19th century.


title: Chimichurri

text: Various, almost certainly false etymologies purport to explain the name as a corruption of English words, most commonly "Jimmy['s] Curry", "Jimmy McCurry", or "gimme curry", but no contemporary documentation of any of these stories has been found.


title: Chimichurri

text: Chimichurri is always made from finely chopped parsley, but other seasonings used vary. Inclusion of red wine vinegar, garlic, salt, black pepper, oregano, red pepper flakes, and sunflower or olive oil is typical (plus a shot of hot water). Some recipes add shallot or onion, and lemon juice. Chimichurri may be basted or spooned onto meat as it cooks, or onto the cooked surface of meat as it rests. Chimichurri is often served as an accompaniment to "asados" (grilled meats). It may be served with grilled steaks or roasted sausages, but also with poultry or fish.


title: Chimichurri

text: In the Dominican Republic, "chimichurri" or "chimi" is a hamburger topped with chopped cabbage and salsa golf.


title: Chimichurri

text: In the cuisine of León, Mexico, "chimichurri" is a pizza topping of mayonnaise, mustard, chile de árbol, white vinegar, garlic, oil and salt. This dressing has an orange hue and is very popular in the city.


title: Phil Dunster

text: Philip James Dunster (born 31 March 1992) is an English actor. He is known for in the Sky One drama "Strike Back" (2017–2018), the Channel 4 science fiction series "Humans" (2018), the ITV comedy-drama "The Trouble with Maggie Cole" (2020), the Apple TV+ sports series "Ted Lasso" (2020–), and the Amazon Prime thriller "The Devil's Hour" (2022).


title: Phil Dunster

text: Dunster was born in Northampton. He attended Leighton Park School in Reading, where he served as Head Boy. He played rugby as a child, though he realised at the age of fifteen that he was too small after a failed tryout for London Irish. He also considered following in the footsteps of his father and brother and joining the military. He went on to train at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in Acting in 2014.


title: Phil Dunster

text: In 2015, Dunster played Claudio in the Reading Theatre production of "Much Ado About Nothing", made his television debut in the Channel 4 sitcom "Catastrophe", and played Dickie Baker in the low budget film "The Rise of the Krays", a role he would reprise in its sequel the following year "The Fall of the Krays".


title: Phil Dunster

text: Dunster starred as Arthur in "Pink Mist" at the Bristol Old Vic and Bush Theatre in London, for which he received an affiliate Laurence Olivier Award nomination in 2016. That same year, he appeared in "The Entertainer" at the Garrick Theatre and two episodes of the Sky One crime drama "Stan Lee's Lucky Man".


title: Phil Dunster

text: From 2017 to 2018, Dunster was in the main cast of "Strike Back" as Lance Corporal Will Jensen for its sixth series, also known as "", also on Sky One. He had recurring roles in the Sky Atlantic drama "Save Me" as BJ McGory and the third series of the Channel 4 science fiction series "Humans" as Tristan. He also appeared in the films "Megan Leavey", "Murder on the Orient Express", and "All Is True". In 2019, he appeared in the Sky Atlantic miniseries "Catherine the Great" as well as the films "Judy" and "The Good Liar".


title: Phil Dunster

text: In 2020, Dunster began starring as Jamie Tartt in the Apple TV+ sports comedy "Ted Lasso". He also played Jamie Cole on the ITV comedy-drama "The Trouble with Maggie Cole" and appeared in the BBC One three-parter "Dracula". He played Mike Stephens in the 2022 Amazon Prime thriller "The Devil's Hour".


title: Phil Dunster

text: Dunster is a lifelong football fan, supporting AFC Wimbledon. He is currently in a relationship with filmmaker Eleanor "Ellie" Heydon.


title: Anteater

text: Anteater is a common name for the four extant mammal species of the suborder Vermilingua (meaning "worm tongue") commonly known for eating ants and termites. The individual species have other names in English and other languages. Together with the sloths, they are within the order Pilosa. The name "anteater" is also commonly applied to the unrelated aardvark, numbat, echidnas, pangolins, and some members of the Oecobiidae, although they are not closely related to them.


title: Anteater

text: Extant species are the giant anteater "Myrmecophaga tridactyla", about long including the tail; the silky anteater "Cyclopes didactylus", about long; the southern tamandua or collared anteater "Tamandua tetradactyla", about long; and the northern tamandua "Tamandua mexicana" of similar dimensions.


title: Anteater

text: The anteaters are more closely related to the sloths than they are to any other group of mammals. Their next closest relations are armadillos. There are four extant species in three genera:


title: Anteater

text: Anteaters are part of the Xenarthra superorder, a once diverse group of mammals that occupied South America while it was geographically isolated from the invasion of animals from North America, with the other two remaining animals in the family being the sloths and the armadillos.


title: Anteater

text: At one time, anteaters were assumed to be related to aardvarks and pangolins because of their physical similarities to those animals, but these similarities have since been determined to be not a sign of a common ancestor, but of convergent evolution. All have evolved powerful digging forearms, long tongues, and toothless, tube-like snouts to subsist by raiding termite mounds. This similarity is the reason aardvarks are also commonly called "anteaters"; the pangolin has been called the "scaly anteater"; and the word "antbear" is a common term for both the aardvark and the giant anteater.


title: Anteater

text: All anteaters have elongated snouts equipped with a thin tongue that can be extended to a length greater than the length of the head; their tube-shaped mouths have lips but no teeth. They use their large, curved foreclaws to tear open ant and termite mounds and for defense, while their dense and long fur protects them from attacks from the insects. All species except the giant anteater have a long prehensile tail.


title: Anteater

text: Anteaters are mostly solitary mammals prepared to defend their 1.0- to 1.5-mi (2.6- to 3.9-km) territories. They do not normally enter a territory of another anteater of the same sex, but males often enter the territory of associated females. When a territorial dispute occurs, they vocalize, swat, and can sometimes sit on or even ride the back of their opponents.


title: Anteater

text: Anteaters have poor sight but an excellent sense of smell, and most species depend on the latter for foraging, feeding, and defence. Their hearing is thought to be good.


title: Anteater

text: With a body temperature fluctuating between , anteaters, like other xenarthrans, have among the lowest body temperatures of any mammal, and can tolerate greater fluctuations in body temperature than most mammals. Its daily energy intake from food is only slightly greater than its energy need for daily activities, and anteaters probably coordinate their body temperatures so they keep cool during periods of rest, and heat up during foraging.


title: Anteater

text: Adult males are slightly larger and more muscular than females, and have wider heads and necks. Visual sex determination can, however, be difficult, since the penis and testes are located internally between the rectum and urinary bladder in males and females have a single pair of mammae near the armpits. Fertilization occurs by contact transfer without intromission, similar to some lizards. Polygynous mating usually results in a single offspring; twins are possible but rare. The large foreclaws prevent mothers from grasping their newborns and they therefore have to carry the offspring until they are self-sufficient.


title: Anteater

text: Anteaters are specialized to feed on small insects, with each anteater species having its own insect preferences: small species are specialized on arboreal insects living on small branches, while large species can penetrate the hard covering of the nests of terrestrial insects. To avoid the jaws, sting, and other defences of the invertebrates, anteaters have adopted the feeding strategy of licking up large numbers of ants and termites as quickly as possible — an anteater normally spends about a minute at a nest before moving on to another — and a giant anteater has to visit up to 200 nests per day to consume the thousands of insects it needs to satisfy its caloric requirements.


title: Anteater

text: The anteater's tongue is covered with thousands of tiny hooks called filiform papillae which are used to hold the insects together with large amounts of saliva. Swallowing and the movement of the tongue are aided by side-to-side movements of the jaws. The tongue is attached to the sternum and moves very quickly, flicking 150 times per minute. The anteater's stomach, similar to a bird's gizzard, has hardened folds and uses strong contractions to grind the insects, a digestive process assisted by small amounts of ingested sand and dirt.


title: Anteater

text: Silky anteaters and northern tamanduas extend their ranges as far north as southeastern Mexico, while giant anteaters can be found as far north as Central America. Southern tamanduas range south to Uruguay (giant anteaters did also until their recent extirpation there) and the ranges of all species except the northern tamandua overlap in eastern Brazil. Anteaters were confined to South America, which was formerly an island continent, during most of the Cenozoic Era. Once the Isthmus of Panama formed about three million years ago, however, anteaters expanded their range into Central America as part of the Great American Interchange.


title: Anteater

text: Anteater habitats include dry tropical forests, rainforests, grasslands, and savannas. The silky anteater ("Cyclopes didactylus") is specialized to an arboreal environment, but the more opportunistic tamanduas find their food both on the ground and in trees, typically in dry forests near streams and lakes. The almost entirely terrestrial giant anteater ("Myrmecophaga tridactyla") lives in savannas.


title: Anteater

text: The two anteaters of the genus "Tamandua", the southern ("Tamandua tetradactyla") and the northern tamanduas ("Tamandua mexicana"), are much smaller than the giant anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests of South and Central America. The usual colour is yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body.


title: Anteater

text: The silky anteater ("Cyclopes didactylus") is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about the size of a cat, of a general yellowish color, and exclusively arboreal in its habits.


title: New Hollywood

text: The New Hollywood, also known as American New Wave or Hollywood Renaissance, was a movement in American film history from the mid-1960s to the early 1980s, when a new generation of young filmmakers came to prominence.


title: New Hollywood

text: They influenced the types of film produced, their production and marketing, and the way major studios approached filmmaking. In New Hollywood films, the film director, rather than the studio, took on a key authorial role. The definition of "New Hollywood" varies, depending on the author, with some defining it as a movement and others as a period. The span of the period is also a subject of debate, as well as its integrity, as some authors, such as Thomas Schatz, argue that the New Hollywood consists of several different movements. The films made in this movement are stylistically characterized in that their narrative often deviated from classical norms. After the demise of the studio system and the rise of television, the commercial success of films was diminished.


title: New Hollywood

text: Successful films of the early New Hollywood era include "Bonnie and Clyde", "The Graduate", "Rosemary's Baby", "Night of the Living Dead", "The Wild Bunch", and "Easy Rider" while films that failed at the box office such as "New York, New York", "Sorcerer", "Heaven's Gate", "They All Laughed" and "One from the Heart" marked the end of the era.


title: New Hollywood

text: Following the Paramount Case (which ended block booking and ownership of theater chains by film studios) and the advent of television (where Rod Serling, John Frankenheimer, Paddy Chayefsky and Sidney Lumet worked in their earlier years), both of which severely weakened the traditional studio system, Hollywood studios initially used spectacle to retain profitability. Technicolor developed a far more widespread use, while widescreen processes and technical improvements, such as CinemaScope, stereo sound, and others, such as 3-D, were invented in order to retain the dwindling audience and compete with television. However, these were generally unsuccessful in increasing profits. By 1957, "Life" magazine called the 1950s "the horrible decade" for Hollywood.


title: New Hollywood

text: In the 1950s and early 1960s, Hollywood was dominated by musicals, historical epics, and other films that benefited from the larger screens, wider framing, and improved sound. Hence, as early as 1957, the era was dubbed a "New Hollywood". However, audience shares continued to dwindle, and had reached alarmingly low levels by the mid-1960s. Several costly flops, including "Tora! Tora! Tora!" and "Hello, Dolly!", and failed attempts to replicate the success of "The Sound of Music", put great strain on the studios.


title: New Hollywood

text: By the time the Baby Boomer generation started to come of age in the 1960s, "Old Hollywood" was rapidly losing money; the studios were unsure how to react to the much-changed audience demographics. The change in the market during the period went from a middle-aged high school-educated audience in the mid-1960s to a younger, more affluent, college-educated demographic: by the mid-1970s, 76% of all movie-goers were under 30, 64% of whom had gone to college. European films, both arthouse and commercial (especially the Commedia all'italiana, the French New Wave, the Spaghetti Western), and Japanese cinema were making a splash in the United States — the huge market of disaffected youth seemed to find relevance and artistic meaning in movies like Michelangelo Antonioni's "Blowup", with its oblique narrative structure and full-frontal female nudity.


title: New Hollywood

text: The desperation felt by studios during this period of economic downturn, and after the losses from expensive movie flops, led to innovation and risk-taking, allowing greater control by younger directors and producers. Therefore, in an attempt to capture that audience that found a connection to the "art films" of Europe, the studios hired a host of young filmmakers and allowed them to make their films with relatively little studio control. Some of whom, like actor Jack Nicholson and director Peter Bogdanovich, were mentored by "King of the Bs" Roger Corman while others like celebrated cinematographer Vilmos Zsigmond worked for lesser-known B movie directors like Ray Dennis Steckler, known for the 1962 Arch Hall Jr. vehicle "Wild Guitar" and the 1963 horror musical flick "The Incredibly Strange Creatures Who Stopped Living and Became Mixed-Up Zombies". This, together with the breakdown of the Motion Picture Production Code in 1966 and the new ratings system in 1968 (reflecting growing market segmentation) set the scene for the New Hollywood.


title: New Hollywood

text: A defining film of the New Hollywood generation was "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967). Produced by and starring Warren Beatty and directed by Arthur Penn, its combination of graphic violence and humor, as well as its theme of glamorous disaffected youth, was a hit with audiences. The film won Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actress (Estelle Parsons) and Best Cinematography.


title: New Hollywood

text: When Jack L. Warner, then-CEO of Warner Bros., first saw a rough cut of "Bonnie and Clyde" in the summer of 1967, he hated it. Distribution executives at Warner Brothers agreed, giving the film a low-key premiere and limited release. Their strategy appeared justified when Bosley Crowther, middlebrow film critic at "The New York Times", gave the movie a scathing review. "It is a cheap piece of bald-faced slapstick comedy," he wrote, "that treats the hideous depredations of that sleazy, moronic pair as though they were as full of fun and frolic as the jazz-age cut-ups in "Thoroughly Modern Millie"..." Other notices, including those from "Time" and "Newsweek" magazines, were equally dismissive.


title: New Hollywood

text: Its portrayal of violence and ambiguity in regard to moral values, and its startling ending, divided critics. Following one of the negative reviews, "Time" magazine received letters from fans of the movie, and according to journalist Peter Biskind, the impact of critic Pauline Kael in her positive review of the film (October 1967, "New Yorker") led other reviewers to follow her lead and re-evaluate the film (notably "Newsweek" and "Time"). Kael drew attention to the innocence of the characters in the film and the artistic merit of the contrast of that with the violence in the film: "In a sense, it is the absence of sadism — it is the violence without sadism — that throws the audience off balance at "Bonnie and Clyde". The brutality that comes out of this innocence is far more shocking than the calculated brutalities of mean killers." Kael also noted the reaction of audiences to the violent climax of the movie, and the potential to empathize with the gang of criminals in terms of their naiveté and innocence reflecting a change in expectations of American cinema.


title: New Hollywood

text: The cover story in "Time" magazine in December 1967, celebrated the movie and innovation in American New Wave cinema. This influential article by Stefan Kanfer claimed that "Bonnie and Clyde" represented a "New Cinema" through its blurred genre lines, and disregard for honored aspects of plot and motivation, and that "In both conception and execution, "Bonnie and Clyde" is a watershed picture, the kind that signals a new style, a new trend." Biskind states that this review and turnaround by some critics allowed the film to be re-released, thus proving its commercial success and reflecting the move toward the New Hollywood. The impact of this film is important in understanding the rest of the American New Wave, as well as the conditions that were necessary for it.


title: New Hollywood

text: These initial successes paved the way for the studio to relinquish almost complete control to these innovative young filmmakers. In the mid-1970s, idiosyncratic, startling original films such as "Paper Moon", "Dog Day Afternoon", "Chinatown", and "Taxi Driver" among others, enjoyed enormous critical and commercial success. These successes by the members of the New Hollywood led each of them in turn to make more and more extravagant demands, both on the studio and eventually on the audience.


title: New Hollywood

text: This new generation of Hollywood filmmaker was most importantly, from the point of view of the studios, young, therefore able to reach the youth audience they were losing. This group of young filmmakers—actors, writers and directors—dubbed the "New Hollywood" by the press, briefly changed the business from the producer-driven Hollywood system of the past.


title: New Hollywood

text: Todd Berliner has written about the period's unusual narrative practices. The 1970s, Berliner says, marks Hollywood's most significant formal transformation since the conversion to sound film and is the defining period separating the storytelling modes of the studio era and contemporary Hollywood. New Hollywood films deviate from classical narrative norms more than Hollywood films from any other era or movement. Their narrative and stylistic devices threaten to derail an otherwise straightforward narration. Berliner argues that five principles govern the narrative strategies characteristic of Hollywood films of the 1970s:


title: New Hollywood

text: Thomas Schatz points to another difference with the Hollywood Golden Age, which deals with the relationship of characters and plot. He argues that plot in classical Hollywood films (and some of the earlier New Hollywood films like "The Godfather") "tended to emerge more organically as a function of the drives, desires, motivations, and goals of the central characters". However, beginning with mid-1970s, he points to a trend that "characters became plot functions".


title: New Hollywood

text: During the height of the studio system, films were made almost exclusively on set in isolated studios. The content of films was limited by the Motion Picture Production Code, and though golden-age film-makers found loopholes in its rules, the discussion of more taboo content through film was effectively prevented. The shift towards a "new realism" was made possible when the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system was introduced and location shooting was becoming more viable. New York City was a favorite spot for this new set of filmmakers due to its gritty atmosphere.


title: New Hollywood

text: Because of breakthroughs in film technology (e.g. the Panavision Panaflex camera, introduced in 1972), the New Hollywood filmmakers could shoot 35mm camera film in exteriors with relative ease. Since location shooting was cheaper (no sets need to be built) New Hollywood filmmakers rapidly developed the taste for location shooting, resulting in a more naturalistic approach to filmmaking, especially when compared to the mostly stylized approach of classical Hollywood musicals and spectacles made to compete with television during the 1950s and early 1960s. The documentary films of D.A. Pennebaker, the Maysles Brothers and Frederick Wiseman, among others, also influenced filmmakers of this era.


title: New Hollywood

text: However, in editing, New Hollywood filmmakers adhered to realism more liberally than most of their classical Hollywood predecessors, often using editing for artistic purposes rather than for continuity alone, a practice inspired by European art films and classical Hollywood directors such as D. W. Griffith and Alfred Hitchcock. Films with unorthodox editing included "Easy Rider"'s use of jump cuts (influenced by the works of experimental collage filmmaker Bruce Conner) to foreshadow the climax of the movie, as well as subtler uses, such as those to reflect the feeling of frustration in "Bonnie and Clyde", the subjectivity of the protagonist in "The Graduate" and the passage of time in the famous match cut from "". Also influential were the works of experimental filmmakers Arthur Lipsett, Bruce Baillie and Kenneth Anger with their combinations of music and imagery and each were cited by George Lucas and Martin Scorsese as influences.


title: New Hollywood

text: The end of the production code enabled New Hollywood films to feature anti-establishment political themes, the use of rock music, and sexual freedom deemed "counter-cultural" by the studios. The youth movement of the 1960s turned anti-heroes like "Bonnie and Clyde" and "Cool Hand Luke" into pop-culture idols, and "Life" magazine called the characters in "Easy Rider" "part of the fundamental myth central to the counterculture of the late 1960s." "Easy Rider" also affected the way studios looked to reach the youth market. The success of "Midnight Cowboy", in spite of its "X" rating, was evidence for the interest in controversial themes at the time and also showed the weakness of the rating system and segmentation of the audience.


title: New Hollywood

text: For Peter Biskind, the new wave was foreshadowed by "Bonnie and Clyde" and began in earnest with "Easy Rider". Biskind's book "Easy Riders, Raging Bulls" argues that the New Hollywood movement marked a significant shift towards independently produced and innovative works by a new wave of directors, but that this shift began to reverse itself when the commercial success of "Jaws" and "Star Wars" led to the realization by studios of the importance of blockbusters, advertising and control over production (even though the success of "The Godfather" was said to be the precursor to the blockbuster phenomenon).


title: New Hollywood

text: Writing in 1968, critic Pauline Kael argued that the importance of "The Graduate" was in its social significance in relation to a new young audience, and the role of mass media, rather than any artistic aspects. Kael argued that college students identifying with "The Graduate" were not too different from audiences identifying with characters in dramas of the previous decade.


title: New Hollywood

text: In 1980, film historian/scholar Robert P. Kolker examined New Hollywood film directors in his book "A Cinema of Loneliness: Penn, Kubrick, Coppola, Scorsese, Altman", and how their films influenced American society of the 1960s and 1970s. Kolker observed that "for all the challenge and adventure, their films speak to a continual impotence in the world, an inability to change and to create change."


title: New Hollywood

text: John Belton points to the changing demographic to even younger, more conservative audiences in the mid 1970s (50% aged 12–20) and the move to less politically subversive themes in mainstream cinema, as did Thomas Schatz, who saw the mid- to late 1970s as the decline of the art cinema movement as a significant industry force with its peak in 1974–75 with "Nashville" and "Chinatown".


title: New Hollywood

text: Geoff King sees the period as an interim movement in American cinema where a conjunction of forces led to a measure of freedom in filmmaking, while Todd Berliner says that 70s cinema resists the efficiency and harmony that normally characterize classical Hollywood cinema and tests the limits of Hollywood's classical model.


title: New Hollywood

text: According to author and film critic Charles Taylor ("Opening Wednesday at a Theater or Drive-In Near You"), he stated that "the 1970s remain the third — and, to date, last — great period in American movies".


title: New Hollywood

text: Author A.D. Jameson ("I Find Your Lack of Faith Disturbing"), on the other hand, claimed that "Star Wars" was New Hollywood's finest achievement that actually embodied the characteristics of the respected "serious, sophisticated adult films".