title: Roald Amundsen

text: The team arrived at Framheim on 25 January 1912, with 11 surviving dogs. They made their way off the continent and to Hobart, Australia, where Amundsen publicly announced his success on 7 March 1912. He telegraphed news to backers.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Amundsen's expedition benefited from his careful preparation, good equipment, appropriate clothing, a simple primary task, an understanding of dogs and their handling, and the effective use of skis. In contrast to the misfortunes of Scott's team, Amundsen's trek proved relatively smooth and uneventful.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: In 1918, an expedition Amundsen began with a new ship, , lasted until 1925. "Maud" was carefully navigated through the ice west to east through the Northeast Passage. With him on this expedition were Oscar Wisting and Helmer Hanssen, both of whom had been part of the team to reach the South Pole. In addition, Henrik Lindstrøm was included as a cook. He suffered a stroke and was so physically reduced that he could not participate.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: The goal of the expedition was to explore the unknown areas of the Arctic Ocean, strongly inspired by Fridtjof Nansen's earlier expedition with "Fram". The plan was to sail along the coast of Siberia and go into the ice farther to the north and east than Nansen had. In contrast to Amundsen's earlier expeditions, this was expected to yield more material for academic research, and he carried the geophysicist Harald Sverdrup on board.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: The voyage was to the northeasterly direction over the Kara Sea. Amundsen planned to freeze the "Maud" into the polar ice cap and drift towards the North Poleas Nansen had done with the "Fram"and he did so off Cape Chelyuskin. But, the ice became so thick that the ship was unable to break free, although it was designed for such a journey in heavy ice. In September 1919, the crew got the ship loose from the ice, but it froze again after eleven days somewhere between the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: During this time, Amundsen suffered a broken arm and was attacked by polar bears. As a result, he participated little in the work outdoors, such as sleigh rides and hunting. He, Hanssen, and Wisting, along with two other men, embarked on an expedition by dog sled to Nome, Alaska, more than away. But they found that the ice was not frozen solid in the Bering Strait, and it could not be crossed. They sent a telegram from Anadyr to signal their location.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: After two winters frozen in the ice, without having achieved the goal of drifting over the North Pole, Amundsen decided to go to Nome to repair the ship and buy provisions. Several of the crew ashore there, including Hanssen, did not return on time to the ship. Amundsen considered Hanssen to be in breach of contract, and dismissed him from the crew.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: During the third winter, "Maud" was frozen in the western Bering Strait. She finally became free and the expedition sailed south, reaching Seattle, in the American Pacific Northwest in 1921 for repairs. Amundsen returned to Norway, needing to put his finances in order. He took with him two young indigenous girls, a four-year-old he adopted, Kakonita, and her companion Camilla. When Amundsen went bankrupt two years later, however, he sent the girls to be cared for by Camilla's father, who lived in eastern Russia.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: In June 1922, Amundsen returned to "Maud", which had been sailed to Nome. He decided to shift from the planned naval expedition to aerial ones, and arranged to charter a plane. He divided the expedition team in two: one part, led by him, was to winter over and prepare for an attempt to fly over the pole in 1923. The second team on "Maud", under the command of Wisting, was to resume the original plan to drift over the North Pole in the ice. The ship drifted in the ice for three years east of the New Siberian Islands, never reaching the North Pole. It was finally seized by Amundsen's creditors as collateral for his mounting debt.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Although they were unable to reach the North Pole, the scientific results of the expedition, mainly the work of Sverdrup, have proven to be of considerable value. Much of the carefully collected scientific data was lost during the ill-fated journey of Peter Tessem and Paul Knutsen, two crew members sent on a mission by Amundsen. The scientific materials were later retrieved by Russian scientist Nikolay Urvantsev from where they had been abandoned on the shores of the Kara Sea.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: The 1923 attempt to fly over the Pole failed. Amundsen and Oskar Omdal, of the Royal Norwegian Navy, tried to fly from Wainwright, Alaska, to Spitsbergen across the North Pole. When their aircraft was damaged, they abandoned the journey. To raise additional funds, Amundsen traveled around the United States in 1924 on a lecture tour.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: In 1925, accompanied by Lincoln Ellsworth, pilot Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen, flight mechanic Karl Feucht and two other team members, Amundsen took two Dornier Do J flying boats, the N-24 and N-25, to 87° 44′ north. It was the northernmost latitude reached by plane up to that time. The aircraft landed a few miles apart without radio contact, yet the crews managed to reunite. The N-24 was damaged. Amundsen and his crew worked for more than three weeks to clean up an airstrip to take off from ice. They shovelled 600 tons of ice while consuming only one pound (400 g) of daily food rations. In the end, the six crew members were packed into the N-25. In a remarkable feat, Riiser-Larsen took off, and they barely became airborne over the cracking ice. They returned triumphant when everyone thought they had been lost forever.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: In 1926, Amundsen and 15 other men (including Ellsworth, Riiser-Larsen, Oscar Wisting, and the Italian air crew led by aeronautical engineer Umberto Nobile) made the first crossing of the Arctic in the airship "Norge," designed by Nobile. They left Spitsbergen on 11 May 1926, flew over the North Pole on 12 May, and landed in Alaska the following day.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: The three previous claims to have arrived at the North Pole: Frederick Cook in 1908; Robert Peary in 1909; and Richard E. Byrd in 1926 (just a few days before the "Norge") are disputed by some, as being either of dubious accuracy or outrightly fraudulent. If these other claims are false, the crew of the "Norge" would be the first explorers verified to have reached the North Pole, when they floated over it in the "Norge" in 1926. If the "Norge" expedition was the first to the North Pole, Amundsen and Oscar Wisting were the first men to have reached both geographical poles, by ground or by air.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Amundsen disappeared on 18 June 1928 while flying on a rescue mission in the Arctic. His team included Norwegian pilot Leif Dietrichson, French pilot René Guilbaud, and three more Frenchmen. They were seeking missing members of Nobile's crew, whose new airship had crashed while returning from the North Pole. Amundsen's French Latham 47 flying boat never returned.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Later, a wing-float and bottom gasoline tank from the plane, which had been adapted as a replacement wing-float, were found near the Tromsø coast. It is assumed that the plane crashed in the Barents Sea, and that Amundsen and his crew were killed in the wreck, or died shortly afterward. The search for Amundsen and team was called off in September 1928 by the Norwegian government, and the bodies were never found.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: In 2004 and in late August 2009, the Royal Norwegian Navy used the unmanned submarine "Hugin 1000" to search for the wreckage of Amundsen's plane. The searches focused on a area of the sea floor, and were documented by the German production company ContextTV. They found nothing from the Amundsen flight.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Amundsen was a lifelong bachelor, though he had a long-time relationship with the Norwegian-born Kristine Elisabeth ('Kiss') Bennett, the wife of an Englishman, Charles Peto Bennett. He met her in London in 1907 and they remained close for many years, although Amundsen kept the relationship a secret from everyone outside his intimate circle. Later, he became engaged to Bess Magids, an American divorcée whom he had met in Alaska. Though there is little evidence, it was said that Amundsen had a brief affair with his landlady in Antwerp – until he came home and found her dead of an apparent suicide. His biographer Tor Bomann-Larsen also suggests a romantic relationship between Amundsen and Sigrid Castberg, wife of the lawyer Leif Castberg from Gjøvik, in the years before the South Pole expedition, a relationship Amundsen broke up after that expedition in favour of Kiss Bennett.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Author Julian Sancton noted that in his younger years, Amundsen was said to have ignored romantic relationships in pursuit of his goals. He "found little use in activities that didn't help him fulfill his polar ambitions".


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Owing to Amundsen's numerous significant accomplishments in polar exploration, many places in both the Arctic and Antarctic are named after him. The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, operated by the United States Antarctic Program, was jointly named in honour of Amundsen and his British rival Robert Falcon Scott. Amundsen's name has also reached the moon. The Amundsen crater was named after him and the rim of said crater is being considered by NASA as a potential landing location for their Artemis 3 lunar lander.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: The 1969 film "The Red Tent" tells the story of the Nobile expedition and Amundsen's disappearance. Sean Connery plays the role of Amundsen.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Huntford's book was adapted into the TV serial "The Last Place on Earth". It aired in 1985 and featured Sverre Anker Ousdal as Amundsen.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: On 15 February 2019, a biographic Norwegian film titled "Amundsen", directed by Espen Sandberg, was released.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: At least two Inuit in Gjøa Haven with European ancestry have claimed to be descendants of Amundsen, from the period of their extended winter stay on King William Island from 1903 to 1905. Accounts by members of the expedition told of their relations with Inuit women, and historians have speculated that Amundsen might also have taken a partner, although he wrote a warning against this.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: Specifically, half-brothers Bob Konona and Paul Ikuallaq say that their father Luke Ikuallaq told them on his deathbed that he was the son of Amundsen. Konona said that their father Ikuallaq was left out on the ice to die after his birth, as his European ancestry made him illegitimate to the Inuit, threatening their community. His Inuit grandparents saved him.


title: Roald Amundsen

text: In 2012, Y-DNA analysis, with the families' permission, showed that Ikuallaq was not a match to the direct male line of Amundsen. Not all descendants claiming European ancestry have been tested for a match to Amundsen, nor has there been a comparison of Ikuallaq's DNA to that of other European members of Amundsen's crew.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Umberto Eco (5 January 1932 – 19 February 2016) was an Italian medievalist, philosopher, semiotician, novelist, cultural critic, and political and social commentator. In English, he is best known for his popular 1980 novel "The Name of the Rose", a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies and literary theory, as well as "Foucault's Pendulum," his 1988 novel which touches on similar themes.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco wrote prolifically throughout his life, with his output including children's books, translations from French and English, in addition to a twice-monthly newspaper column "La Bustina di Minerva" (Minerva's Matchbook) in the magazine "L'Espresso" beginning in 1985, with his last column (a critical appraisal of the Romantic paintings of Francesco Hayez) appearing 27 January 2016. At the time of his death, he was an Emeritus professor at the University of Bologna, where he taught for much of his life. In the 21st century, he has continued to gain recognition for his 1995 essay "Ur-Fascism", where Eco lists fourteen general properties he believes comprise fascist ideologies.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco was born on 5 January 1932 in the city of Alessandria, in Piedmont in northern Italy. The spread of Italian Fascism throughout the region influenced his childhood. At the age of ten, he received the First Provincial Award of Ludi Juveniles after responding positively to the young Italian fascist writing prompt of "Should we die for the glory of Mussolini and the immortal destiny of Italy?” His father, Giulio, one of thirteen children, was an accountant before the government called him to serve in three wars. During World War II, Umberto and his mother, Giovanna (Bisio), moved to a small village in the Piedmontese mountainside. His village was liberated in 1945, and he was exposed to American comic books, the European Resistance, and the Holocaust. Eco received a Salesian education and made references to the order and its founder in his works and interviews.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Towards the end of his life, Eco came to believe that his family name was an acronym of "ex caelis oblatus" (from Latin: a gift from the heavens). As was the custom at the time, the name had been given to his grandfather (a foundling) by an official in city hall. In a 2011 interview, Eco explained that a friend happened to come across the acronym on a list of Jesuit acronyms in the Vatican Library, informing him of the likely origin of the name.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Umberto's father urged him to become a lawyer, but he entered the University of Turin (UNITO), writing his thesis on the aesthetics of medieval philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas under the supervision of Luigi Pareyson, for which he earned his Laurea degree in philosophy in 1954.


title: Umberto Eco

text: After graduating, Eco worked for the state broadcasting station Radiotelevisione Italiana (RAI) in Milan, producing a variety of cultural programming. Following the publication of his first book in 1956, he became an assistant lecturer at his alma mater. In 1958, Eco left RAI and the University of Turin to complete 18 months of compulsory military service in the Italian Army.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 1959, following his return to university teaching, Eco was approached by Valentino Bompiani to edit a series on "Idee nuove" (New Ideas) for his eponymous publishing house in Milan. According to the publisher, he became aware of Eco through his short pamphlet of cartoons and verse "Filosofi in libertà" (Philosophers in Freedom, or Liberated Philosophers), which had originally been published in a limited print run of 550 under the James Joyce-inspired pseudonym Daedalus.


title: Umberto Eco

text: That same year, Eco published his second book, "Sviluppo dell'estetica medievale" ("The Development of Medieval Aesthetics"), a scholarly monograph building on his work on Aquinas. Earning his libera docenza in aesthetics in 1961, Eco was promoted to the position of Lecturer in the same subject in 1963, before leaving the University of Turin to take a position as lecturer in Architecture at the University of Milan in 1964.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Among his work for a general audience, in 1961 Eco's short essay "Phenomenology of Mike Bongiorno", a critical analysis of a popular but unrefined quiz show host, appeared as part of series of articles by Eco on mass media published in the magazine of the tyre manufacturer Pirelli. In it, Eco, observed that, "[Bongiorno] does not provoke inferiority complexes, despite presenting himself as an idol, and the public acknowledge him, by being grateful to him and loving him. He represents an ideal that nobody need strive to reach because everyone is already at his level.” Receiving notoriety among the general public thanks to widespread media coverage, the essay was later included in the collection "Diario minimo" (1963).


title: Umberto Eco

text: Over this period, Eco began seriously developing his ideas on the "open" text and on semiotics, writing many essays on these subjects. In 1962 he published "Opera aperta" (translated into English as "The Open Work"). In it, Eco argued that literary texts are fields of meaning, rather than strings of meaning; and that they are understood as open, internally dynamic and psychologically engaged fields. Literature which limits one's potential understanding to a single, unequivocal line, the "closed text", remains the least rewarding, while texts that are the most active between mind, society and life (open texts) are the liveliest and best—although valuation terminology was not his primary focus. Eco came to these positions through study of language and from semiotics, rather than from psychology or historical analysis (as did theorists such as Wolfgang Iser, on the one hand, and Hans Robert Jauss, on the other).


title: Umberto Eco

text: In his 1964 book "Apocalittici e integrati," Eco continued his exploration of popular culture, analyzing the phenomenon of mass communication from a sociological perspective.


title: Umberto Eco

text: From 1965 to 1969, he was Professor of Visual Communications at the University of Florence, where he gave the influential lecture "Towards a Semiological Guerrilla Warfare", which coined the influential term "semiological guerrilla", and influenced the theorization of guerrilla tactics against mainstream mass media culture, such as guerrilla television and culture jamming. Among the expressions used in the essay are "communications guerrilla warfare" and "cultural guerrilla". The essay was later included in Eco's book "Faith in Fakes".


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco's approach to semiotics is often referred to as "interpretative semiotics." His first book length elaboration his theory appears in "La struttura assente" (1968; literally: "The Absent Structure").


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 1969, he left to become Professor of Semiotics at Milan Polytechnic, spending his first year as a visiting professor at New York University. In 1971 he took up a position as associate professor at the University of Bologna, spending 1972 as a visiting professor at Northwestern University. Following the publication of "A Theory of Semiotics" in 1975"," he was promoted to Professor of Semiotics at the University of Bologna. That same year, Eco stepped down from his position as senior non-fiction editor at Bompiani.


title: Umberto Eco

text: From 1977 to 1978 Eco was a visiting professor in the US, first at Yale University and then at Columbia University. He returned to Yale from 1980 to 1981, and Columbia in 1984. During this time he completed "The Role of the Reader" (1979) and "Semiotics and Philosophy of Language" (1984).


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco drew on his background as a medievalist in his first novel "The Name of the Rose" (1980), a historical mystery set in a 14th-century monastery. Franciscan friar William of Baskerville, aided by his assistant Adso, a Benedictine novice, investigates a series of murders at a monastery that is to host an important religious debate. The novel contains many direct or indirect metatextual references to other sources, requiring the detective work of the reader to 'solve'. The title is unexplained in the body of the book, but at the end, there is a Latin verse " (). The rose serves as an example of the destiny of all remarkable things. There is a tribute to Jorge Luis Borges, a major influence on Eco, in the character Jorge of Burgos: Borges, like the blind monk Jorge, lived a celibate life consecrated to his passion for books, and also went blind in later life. The labyrinthine library in "The Name of the Rose" also alludes to Borges's short story "The Library of Babel". William of Baskerville is a logically minded Englishman who is a friar and a detective, and his name evokes both William of Ockham and Sherlock Holmes (by way of "The Hound of the Baskervilles"); several passages describing him are strongly reminiscent of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's descriptions of Holmes. The underlying mystery of the murder is borrowed from the "Arabian Nights". "The Name of the Rose" was later made into a motion picture starring Sean Connery, F. Murray Abraham, Christian Slater and Ron Perlman, which follows the plot, though not the philosophical and historical themes, of the novel and a made-for-television mini-series.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In "Foucault's Pendulum" (1988), three under-employed editors who work for a minor publishing house decide to amuse themselves by inventing a conspiracy theory. Their conspiracy, which they call "The Plan", is about an immense and intricate plot to take over the world by a secret order descended from the Knights Templar. As the game goes on, the three slowly become obsessed with the details of this plan. The game turns dangerous when outsiders learn of The Plan, and believe that the men have really discovered the secret to regaining the lost treasure of the Templars.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 1988, Eco founded the Department of Media Studies at the University of the Republic of San Marino, and in 1992 he founded the Institute of Communication Disciplines at University of Bologna, later founding the Higher School for the Study of the Humanities at the same institution.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 1988, at the University of Bologna, Eco created an unusual program called "Anthropology of the West" from the perspective of non-Westerners (African and Chinese scholars), as defined by their own criteria. Eco developed this transcultural international network based on the idea of Alain le Pichon in West Africa. The Bologna program resulted in the first conference in Guangzhou, China, in 1991 entitled "Frontiers of Knowledge". The first event was soon followed by an Itinerant Euro-Chinese seminar on "Misunderstandings in the Quest for the Universal" along the silk trade route from Guangzhou to Beijing. The latter culminated in a book entitled "The Unicorn and the Dragon", which discussed the question of the creation of knowledge in China and in Europe. Scholars contributing to this volume were from China, including Tang Yijie, Wang Bin and Yue Daiyun, as well as from Europe: Furio Colombo, Antoine Danchin, Jacques Le Goff, Paolo Fabbri and Alain Rey.


title: Umberto Eco

text: From 1992 to 1993, Eco was a visiting professor at Harvard University and from 2001 to 2002, at St Anne's College, Oxford.


title: Umberto Eco

text: "The Island of the Day Before" (1994) was Eco's third novel. The book, set in the 17th century, is about a man stranded on a ship within sight of an island which he believes is on the other side of the international date-line. The main character is trapped by his inability to swim and instead spends the bulk of the book reminiscing on his life and the adventures that brought him to be stranded.


title: Umberto Eco

text: He returned to semiotics in "Kant and the Platypus" in 1997, a book which Eco himself reputedly warned fans of his novels away from, saying, "This a hard-core book. It’s not a page turner. You have to stay on every page for two weeks with your pencil. In other words, don’t buy it if you are not Einstein."


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 2000 a seminar in Timbuktu, Mali, was followed up with another gathering in Bologna to reflect on the conditions of reciprocal knowledge between East and West. This, in turn, gave rise to a series of conferences in Brussels, Paris and Goa, culminating in Beijing in 2007. The topics of the Beijing conference were "Order and Disorder", "New Concepts of War and Peace", "Human Rights" and "Social Justice and Harmony". Eco presented the opening lecture. Among those giving presentations were anthropologists Balveer Arora, Varun Sahni, and Rukmini Bhaya Nair from India, Moussa Sow from Africa, Roland Marti and Maurice Olender from Europe, Cha Insuk from Korea, and Huang Ping and Zhao Tinyang from China. Also on the program were scholars from the fields of law and science including Antoine Danchin, Ahmed Djebbar and Dieter Grimm. Eco's interest in east–west dialogue to facilitate international communication and understanding also correlates with his related interest in the international auxiliary language Esperanto.


title: Umberto Eco

text: "Baudolino" was published in 2000. Baudolino is a much-travelled polyglot Piedmontese scholar who saves the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates during the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. Claiming to be an accomplished liar, he confides his history, from his childhood as a peasant lad endowed with a vivid imagination, through his role as adopted son of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, to his mission to visit the mythical realm of Prester John. Throughout his retelling, Baudolino brags of his ability to swindle and tell tall tales, leaving the historian (and the reader) unsure of just how much of his story was a lie.


title: Umberto Eco

text: "The Mysterious Flame of Queen Loana" (2005) is about Giambattista Bodoni, an old bookseller specializing in antiques who emerges from a coma with only some memories to recover his past. Bodoni is pressed to make a very difficult choice, one between his past and his future. He must either abandon his past to live his future or regain his past and sacrifice his future.


title: Umberto Eco

text: "The Prague Cemetery", Eco's sixth novel, was published in 2010. It is the story of a secret agent who "weaves plots, conspiracies, intrigues and attacks, and helps determine the historical and political fate of the European Continent". The book is a narrative of the rise of Modern-day antisemitism, by way of the Dreyfus affair, "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion" and other important 19th-century events which gave rise to hatred and hostility toward the Jewish people.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 2012, Eco and Jean-Claude Carrière published a book of conversations on the future of information carriers. Eco criticized social networks, saying for example that "Social media gives legions of idiots the right to speak when they once only spoke at a bar after a glass of wine, without harming the community ... but now they have the same right to speak as a Nobel Prize winner. It's the invasion of the idiots."


title: Umberto Eco

text: "Numero Zero" was published in 2015. Set in 1992 and narrated by Colonna, a hack journalist working on a Milan newspaper, it offers a satire of Italy's kickback and bribery culture as well as, among many things, the legacy of Fascism.


title: Umberto Eco

text: A group of avant-garde artists, painters, musicians and writers, whom he had befriended at RAI, the Neoavanguardia or Gruppo '63, became an important and influential component in Eco's writing career.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 1971, Eco co-founded "Versus: Quaderni di studi semiotici" (known as "VS "among Italian academics), a semiotic journal. "VS" is used by scholars whose work is related to signs and signification. The journal's foundation and activities have contributed to semiotics as an academic field in its own right, both in Italy and in the rest of Europe. Most of the well-known European semioticians, including Eco, A. J. Greimas, Jean-Marie Floch, and Jacques Fontanille, as well as philosophers and linguists like John Searle and George Lakoff, have published original articles in "VS". His work with Serbian and Russian scholars and writers included thought on Milorad Pavić and a meeting with Alexander Genis.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Beginning in the early 1990s, Eco collaborated with artists and philosophers such as Enrico Baj, Jean Baudrillard, and Donald Kuspit to publish a number of tongue-in-cheek texts on the imaginary science of 'pataphysics.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco's fiction has enjoyed a wide audience around the world, with many translations. His novels are full of subtle, often multilingual, references to literature and history. Eco's work illustrates the concept of intertextuality, or the inter-connectedness of all literary works. Eco cited James Joyce and Jorge Luis Borges as the two modern authors who have influenced his work the most.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco was also a translator: he translated into Italian Raymond Queneau's "Exercices de style" (1947). Eco's translation was published under the title "Esercizi di stile" in 1983. He was also the translator of "Sylvie," a novella by Gérard de Nerval.


title: Umberto Eco

text: As an academic studying philosophy, semiotics, and culture, Eco divided critics as to whether his theorizing should be seen as brilliant or an unnecessary vanity project obsessing over minutiae, while his fiction writing stunned critics with its simultaneous complexity and popularity. In his 1980 review of "The Role of the Reader", philosopher Roger Scruton, attacking Eco's esoteric tendencies, writes that, "[Eco seeks] the rhetoric of technicality, the means of generating so much smoke for so long that the reader will begin to blame his own lack of perception, rather than the author’s lack of illumination, for the fact that he has ceased to see." In his 1986 review of "Faith in Fakes" and "Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages", art historian Nicholas Penny, meanwhile, accuses Eco of pandering, writing "I suspect that Eco may have first been seduced from intellectual caution, if not modesty, by the righteous cause of ‘relevance’ (a word much in favour when the earlier of these essays appeared) – a cause which Medievalists may be driven to embrace with particularly desperate abandon."


title: Umberto Eco

text: At the other end of the spectrum, Eco has been praised for his levity and encyclopedic knowledge, which allowed him to make abstruse academic subjects accessible and engaging. In a 1980 review of "The Name of the Rose", literary critic and scholar Frank Kermode refers to "Theory of Semiotics", as "a vigorous but difficult treatise", finding Eco's novel, "a wonderfully interesting book – a very odd thing to be born of a passion for the Middle Ages and for semiotics, and a very modern pleasure." Gilles Deleuze cites Eco's 1962 book "The Open Work" approvingly in his seminal 1968 text "Difference and Repetition", a book which poststructuralist philosopher Jacques Derrida is said to have also taken inspiration from. In an obituary by the philosopher and literary critic Carlin Romano, meanwhile, Eco is described as having "[become], over time, the critical conscience at the center of Italian humanistic culture, uniting smaller worlds like no one before him."


title: Umberto Eco

text: In 2017, a retrospective of Eco's work was published by Open Court as the 35th volume in the prestigious "Library of Living Philosophers," edited by Sara G. Beardsworth and Randall E. Auxier, featuring essays by 23 contemporary scholars.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Following the publication of "The Name of the Rose" in 1980"," Eco was awarded the Strega prize in 1981, Italy's most prestigious literary award, receiving the Anghiari prize the same year. The following year, he received the Mendicis prize, and in 1985 the McLuhan Teleglobe prize. In 2005, Eco was honoured with the "Kenyon Review" Award for Literary Achievement, along with Roger Angell. In 2010, Eco was invited to join the Accademia dei Lincei.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco was awarded honorary doctorate degrees by the University of Odense in 1986, Loyola University Chicago in 1987, the University of Glasgow in 1990, the University of Kent in 1992, Indiana University Bloomington in 1992, University of Tartu in 1996, Rutgers University in 2002, and the University of Belgrade in 2009. Additionally, Eco was an honorary fellow of Kellogg College, Oxford.


title: Umberto Eco

text: During his university studies, Eco stopped believing in God and left the Catholic Church, later helping co-found the Italian skeptic organization "Comitato Italiano per il Controllo delle Affermazioni sulle Pseudoscienze" (Italian Committee for the Investigation of Claims of the Pseudosciences) CICAP.


title: Umberto Eco

text: In September 1962 he married , a German graphic designer and art teacher with whom he had a son and a daughter.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco divided his time between an apartment in Milan and a vacation house near Urbino. He had a 30,000-volume library in the former and a 20,000-volume library in the latter.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Eco died at his Milanese home of pancreatic cancer, from which he had been suffering for two years, on the night of 19 February 2016. From 2008 to the time of his death at the age of 84, he was a professor emeritus at the University of Bologna, where he had taught since 1971.


title: Umberto Eco

text: Ten essays on methods of abductive inference in Poe's Dupin, Doyle's Holmes, Peirce and many others, 236 pages.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius of Loyola, S.J. (born Íñigo López de Oñaz y Loyola; ; ; ; – 31 July 1556), venerated as Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was a Spanish Catholic priest and theologian, who, with Peter Faber and Francis Xavier, founded the religious order of the Society of Jesus (The Jesuits), and became its first Superior General, in Paris in 1541. He envisioned the purpose of the Society of Jesus to be missionary work and teaching. In addition to the vows of chastity, obedience and poverty of other religious orders in the church, Loyola instituted a fourth vow for Jesuits of obedience to the Pope, to engage in projects ordained by the pontiff. Jesuits were instrumental in leading the Counter-Reformation.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: As a former soldier, Ignatius paid particular attention to the spiritual formation of his recruits and recorded his method in the "Spiritual Exercises" (1548). In time, the method has become known as Ignatian spirituality.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius of Loyola was beatified in 1609 and canonized saint, on 12 March 1622. His feast day is celebrated on 31 July. He is the patron saint of the Basque provinces of Gipuzkoa and Biscay as well as of the Society of Jesus. He was declared patron saint of all spiritual retreats by Pope Pius XI in 1922.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius of Loyola was born Iñigo López de Oñaz y Loyola in the castle at Loyola, in the municipality of Azpeitia, Gipuzkoa, in the Basque region of Spain. His parents, Don Beltrán Ibáñez de Oñaz y Loyola and Doña María (or Marina) Sáenz de Licona y Balda, who were of the minor nobility, from the clan of Loyola, involved in the Basque war of the bands. Their manor house was demolished on the orders of the King of Castile in 1456 for their depredations in Gipuzkoa, with Iñigo's paternal grandfather being expelled to Andalusia by Henry IV. Íñigo was the youngest of their thirteen children. Their eldest son, Juan Pérez, had soldiered in forces commanded by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, but died fighting in the Italian Wars (1494–1559).


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: He was baptized "Íñigo" on honour of Íñigo of Oña, Abbot of Oña; the name also is a medieval Basque diminutive for "My little one". It is not clear when he began using the Latin name "Ignatius" instead of his baptismal name "Íñigo". Historian Gabriel María Verd says that Íñigo did not intend to change his name, but rather adopted a name which he believed was a simple variant of his own, for use in France and Italy where it was better understood. Íñigo adopted the surname "de Loyola" in reference to the Basque village of Loyola where he was born.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Soon after the birth of Íñigo, his mother died. Maternal care fell to María de Garín, the wife of the local blacksmith. In 1498, his second eldest brother, Martin, heir to the estate, took his new wife to live in the castle, and she became mistress of the household. Later, the seven-year-old boy Íñigo returned to Casa Loyola. Anticipating his possible ecclesiastic career, Don Beltrán had Íñigo's hair cut as a tonsure.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Instead, Íñigo became a page in the service of a relative, Juan Velázquez de Cuéllar, treasurer ("contador mayor") of the kingdom of Castile. During his time in the household of Don Velázquez, Íñigo took up dancing, fencing, gambling, the pursuit of the young ladies, and duelling. Íñigo was keen on military exercises and was driven by a desire for fame. He patterned his life after the stories of El Cid, the knights of Camelot, "The Song of Roland" and other tales of romantic chivalry.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: He joined the army at seventeen, and according to one biographer, he strutted about "with his cape flying open to reveal his tight-fitting hose and boots; a sword and dagger at his waist". According to another he was "a fancy dresser, an expert dancer, a womanizer, sensitive to insult, and a rough punkish swordsman who used his privileged status to escape prosecution for violent crimes committed with his priest brother at carnival time."


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: In 1509, aged 18, Íñigo took up arms for Antonio Manrique de Lara, 2nd Duke of Nájera. His diplomacy and leadership qualities earned him the title "servant of the court", and made him very useful to the Duke.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Under the Duke's leadership, Íñigo participated in many battles without injury. However at the Battle of Pamplona on 20 May 1521 he was gravely injured when a French-Navarrese expedition force stormed the fortress of Pamplona, and a cannonball ricocheting off a nearby wall shattered his right leg.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Íñigo was returned to his father's castle in Loyola, where, in an era before anesthetics, he underwent several surgical operations to repair the leg, with his bones set and rebroken. In the end, the operations left his right leg shorter than the other. He would limp for the rest of his life, with his military career over.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: While recovering from surgery, Íñigo underwent a spiritual conversion and discerned a call to the religious life. In order to divert the weary hours of convalescence, he asked for the romances of chivalry, his favourite reading, but there were none in the castle, and instead his beloved sister-in-law, Magdalena de Araoz brought him the lives of Christ and of the saints.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: The religious work which most particularly struck him was the "De Vita Christi" of Ludolph of Saxony. This book would influence his whole life, inspiring him to devote himself to God and follow the example of Francis of Assisi and other great monks. It also inspired his method of meditation, since Ludolph proposes that the reader place himself mentally at the scene of the Gospel story, visualising the crib at the Nativity, etc. This type of meditation, known as Simple Contemplation, was the basis for the method that Ignatius outlined in his "Spiritual Exercises".


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Aside from dreaming about imitating the saints in his readings, Íñigo was still wandering off in his mind about what "he would do in service to his king and in honour of the royal lady he was in love with". Cautiously he came to realize the after-effect of both kinds of his dreams. He experienced desolation and dissatisfaction when the romantic heroism dream was over, but, the saintly dream ended with much joy and peace. It was the first time he learned about discernment.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: After he had recovered sufficiently to walk again, Íñigo resolved to begin a pilgrimage to the Holy Land to "kiss the earth where our Lord had walked", and to do stricter penances. He thought that his plan was confirmed by a vision of the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus he experienced one night, which resulted in much consolation to him. In March 1522, he visited the Benedictine monastery of Santa Maria de Montserrat. There, he carefully examined his past sins, confessed, gave his fine clothes to the poor he met, wore a "garment of sack-cloth", then hung his sword and dagger at the Virgin's altar during an overnight vigil at the shrine.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: From Montserrat he walked on to the nearby town of Manresa (Catalonia), where he lived for about a year, begging for his keep, and then eventually doing chores at a local hospital in exchange for food and lodging. For several months he spent much of his time praying in a cave nearby where he practised rigorous asceticism, praying for seven hours a day, and formulating the fundamentals of his "Spiritual Exercises".


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Íñigo also experienced a series of visions in full daylight while at the hospital. These repeated visions appeared as "a form in the air near him and this form gave him much consolation because it was exceedingly beautiful ... it somehow seemed to have the shape of a serpent and had many things that shone like eyes, but were not eyes. He received much delight and consolation from gazing upon this object ... but when the object vanished he became disconsolate". He came to interpret this vision as diabolical in nature.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: In September 1523, Íñigo made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land with the aim of settling there. He remained there from 3 to 23 September but was sent back to Europe by the Franciscans.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: He returned to Barcelona and at the age of 33 attended a free public grammar school in preparation for university entrance. He went on to the University of Alcalá, where he studied theology and Latin from 1526 to 1527.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: There he encountered a number of devout women who had been called before the Inquisition. These women were considered "alumbrados" – a group linked in their zeal and spirituality to Franciscan reforms, but they had incurred mounting suspicion from the administrators of the Inquisition. Once when Íñigo was preaching on the street, three of these devout women began to experience ecstatic states. "One fell senseless, another sometimes rolled about on the ground, another had been seen in the grip of convulsions or shuddering and sweating in anguish." The suspicious activity took place while Íñigo had preached without a degree in theology. As a result, he was singled out for interrogation by the Inquisition, but was later released.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Following these risky activities, Íñigo (by this time, he had changed his name to Ignatius, probably to make it more acceptable to other Europeans) adopted the surname "de Loyola" in reference to the Basque village of Loyola where he was born. moved to France to study at the University of Paris. He attended first the ascetic Collège de Montaigu, moving on to the Collège Sainte-Barbe to study for a master's degree.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: He arrived in France at a time of anti-Protestant turmoil which had forced John Calvin to flee France. Very soon after, Ignatius had gathered around him six companions, all of them fellow students at the university. They were the Spaniards Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laynez, and Nicholas Bobadilla, with the Portuguese Simão Rodrigues, the Basque, Francis Xavier, and Peter Faber, a Savoyard, the latter two becoming his first companions, and his closest associates in the foundation of the future Jesuit order.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: "On the morning of the 15th of August, 1534, in the chapel of church of Saint Peter, at Montmartre, Loyola and his six companions, of whom only one was a priest, met and took upon themselves the solemn vows of their lifelong work."


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius gained a Magisterium from the University of Paris at the age of forty-three in 1535. In later life he would often be called "Master Ignatius" because of this.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: In 1539, with Peter Faber and Francis Xavier, Ignatius formed the Society of Jesus, which was approved in 1540 by Pope Paul III. He was chosen as the first Superior General of the order and invested with the title of "Father General" by the Jesuits.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius sent his companions on missions across Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries. Juan de Vega, then ambassador of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, met Ignatius there and having formed a good impression of the Jesuits, invited them to travel with him to his new appointment as Viceroy of Sicily. As a result, a Jesuit college was opened in Messina, which proved a success, so that its rules and methods were later copied in subsequent colleges. In a letter to Francis Xavier before his departure to India in 1541, Ignatius famously used the Latin phrase "Ite, inflammate omnia", meaning, "Go, set the world on fire", a phrase used in the Jesuit order to this day.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: With the assistance of his personal secretary, Juan Alfonso de Polanco, Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, which were adopted in 1553. They created a centralised organisation of the order, and stressed absolute self-denial and obedience to the Pope and to superiors in the Church hierarchy. This was summarised in the motto "perinde ac cadaver" – "as if a dead body", meaning that a Jesuit should be as emptied of ego as is a corpse. However the overarching Jesuit principle became: "Ad maiorem Dei gloriam" ("for the greater glory of God").


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius died in Rome on 31 July 1556, probably of the "Roman Fever", a severe variant of malaria which was endemic in Rome throughout medieval history. An autopsy revealed that he also had kidney and bladder stones, a probable cause of the abdominal pains he suffered from in later life.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: The anatomist Matthew Colombo was present at the necropsy of St. Ignatius. He describes the results in his :


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: From the facts presented the exact cause of death cannot be established. The stones mentioned in the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and gall bladder appear to indicate nephrolithiasis and cholelithiasis. The so-called stones in the veins appear to be thrombosed hemorrhoids. Those mentioned in the colon, liver, and lungs suggest the possibility of a malignant gastro-intestinal growth with metastases to the liver and lungs. Because of the inadequacy of the protocols of the sixteenth century the exact final anatomical diagnosis on the autopsy of Ignatius cannot be established beyond doubt.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: His body was dressed in his priestly robes and placed in a wooden coffin and buried in the crypt of the Maria della Strada Church on 1 August 1556. In 1568 the church was demolished and replaced with the Church of the Gesù. Ignatius' remains were reinterred in the new church in a new coffin.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Ignatius was beatified by Pope Paul V on 27 July 1609, and canonized by Pope Gregory XV on 12 March 1622. His feast day is celebrated annually on 31 July, the day he died. He is venerated as the patron saint of Catholic soldiers, the Military Ordinariate of the Philippines, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Baltimore, in his native Basque Country, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Antwerp, Belo Horizonte, Junín, and Rome.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Numerous institutions across the world are named for him, including many educational institutions and Ateneo Universities institutions in the Philippines.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: In 1949 he was the subject of a Spanish biographical film "Loyola, the Soldier Saint" starring Rafael Durán in the role of Ignatius.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: In 2016, he was the subject of a Filipino film, "Ignacio de Loyola", in which he was portrayed by Andreas Muñoz.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: The Shield of Oñaz-Loyola is a symbol of Ignatius family's Oñaz lineage, and is used by many Jesuit institutions around the world. As the official colours of the Loyola family are maroon and gold, the Oñaz shield consists of seven maroon bars going diagonally from the upper left to the lower right on a goldfield. The bands were granted by the King of Spain to each of the Oñaz brothers, in recognition of their bravery in battle. The Loyola shield features a pair of rampant gray wolves flanking each side of a cooking pot. The wolf was a symbol of nobility, while the entire design represented the family's generosity towards their military followers. According to legend, wolves had enough to feast on after the soldiers had eaten. Both shields were combined as a result of the intermarriage of the two families in 1261. Former coat of arms of the Argentine city, Junín, Buenos Aires used until 1941 bore Loyola shield under the Sun of May and surrounded by laurel wreath.


title: Ignatius of Loyola

text: Martín García Óñez de Loyola, soldier and Governor of Chile killed by Mapuches at the Battle of Curalaba, is likely Ignatius's nephew.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine, sold under the brand name Plaquenil among others, is a medication used to prevent and treat malaria in areas where malaria remains sensitive to chloroquine. Other uses include treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and porphyria cutanea tarda. It is taken by mouth, often in the form of hydroxychloroquine sulfate.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Common side effects may include vomiting, headache, changes in vision, and muscle weakness. Severe side effects may include allergic reactions, vision problems, and heart problems. Although all risk cannot be excluded, it remains a treatment for rheumatic disease during pregnancy. Hydroxychloroquine is in the antimalarial and 4-aminoquinoline families of medication.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1955. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2020, it was the 126th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4million prescriptions.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine has been studied for an ability to prevent and treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but clinical trials found it ineffective for this purpose and a possible risk of dangerous side effects. Among studies that deemed hydroxychloroquine intake to cause harmful side effects, a publication by "The Lancet" was retracted due to data flaws. The speculative use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 threatens its availability for people with established indications.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine treats rheumatic disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and porphyria cutanea tarda, and certain infections such as Q fever and certain types of malaria. It is considered the first-line treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus. Certain types of malaria, resistant strains, and complicated cases require different or additional medication.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: It is widely used to treat primary Sjögren syndrome but does not appear to be effective. Hydroxychloroquine is widely used in the treatment of post-Lyme arthritis. It may have both an anti-spirochete activity and an anti-inflammatory activity, similar to the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: The drug label advises that hydroxychloroquine should not be prescribed to individuals with known hypersensitivity to 4-aminoquinoline compounds. There are several other contraindications, and caution is required if the person considered for treatment has certain heart conditions, diabetes, or psoriasis.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine has a narrow therapeutic index, meaning there is little difference between toxic and therapeutic doses. The most common adverse effects are nausea, stomach cramps, and diarrhea. Other common adverse effects include itching and headache. The most serious adverse effects affect the eye, with dose-related retinopathy as a concern even after hydroxychloroquine use is discontinued. Serious reported neuropsychiatric adverse effects of hydroxychloroquine use include agitation, mania, difficulty sleeping, hallucinations, psychosis, catatonia, paranoia, depression, and suicidal thoughts. In rare situations, hydroxychloroquine has been implicated in cases of serious skin reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms. Reported blood abnormalities with its use include lymphopenia, eosinophilia, and atypical lymphocytosis.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: For short-term treatment of acute malaria, adverse effects can include abdominal cramps, diarrhea, heart problems, reduced appetite, headache, nausea and vomiting. Other adverse effects noted with short-term use of Hydroxychloroquine include low blood sugar and QT interval prolongation. Idiosyncratic hypersensitivity reactions have occurred.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: For prolonged treatment of lupus or rheumatoid arthritis, adverse effects include the acute symptoms, plus altered eye pigmentation, acne, anemia, bleaching of hair, blisters in mouth and eyes, blood disorders, cardiomyopathy, convulsions, vision difficulties, diminished reflexes, emotional changes, excessive coloring of the skin, hearing loss, hives, itching, liver problems or liver failure, loss of hair, muscle paralysis, weakness or atrophy, nightmares, psoriasis, reading difficulties, tinnitus, skin inflammation and scaling, skin rash, vertigo, weight loss, and occasionally urinary incontinence. Hydroxychloroquine can worsen existing cases of both psoriasis and porphyria.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Children may be especially vulnerable to developing adverse effects from hydroxychloroquine overdoses.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: One of the most serious side effects is retinopathy (generally with chronic use). People taking 400 mg of hydroxychloroquine or less per day generally have a negligible risk of macular toxicity, whereas the risk begins to increase when a person takes the medication over five years or has a cumulative dose of more than 1000 grams. The daily safe maximum dose for eye toxicity can be estimated from a person's height and weight. Macular toxicity is related to the total cumulative dose rather than the daily dose. Regular eye screening, even in the absence of visual symptoms, is recommended to begin when either of these risk factors occurs.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Toxicity from hydroxychloroquine may be seen in two distinct areas of the eye: the cornea and the macula. The cornea may become affected (relatively commonly) by an innocuous cornea verticillata or vortex keratopathy and is characterized by whorl-like corneal epithelial deposits. These changes bear no relationship to dosage and are usually reversible on cessation of hydroxychloroquine.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: The macular changes are potentially serious. Advanced retinopathy is characterized by reduction of visual acuity and a "bull's eye" macular lesion which is absent in early involvement.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Overdoses of hydroxychloroquine are extremely rare, but extremely toxic. Eight people are known to have overdosed since the drug's introduction in the mid-1950s, of which three have died. Chloroquine has a risk of death in overdose in adults of about 20%, while hydroxychloroquine is estimated to be two or threefold less toxic.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Serious signs and symptoms of overdose generally occur within an hour of ingestion. These may include sleepiness, vision changes, seizures, coma, stopping of breathing, and heart problems such as ventricular fibrillation and low blood pressure. Loss of vision may be permanent. Low blood potassium, to levels of 1 to 2 mmol/L, may also occur. Cardiovascular abnormalities such as QRS complex widening and QT interval prolongation may also occur.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Treatment recommendations include early mechanical ventilation, heart monitoring, and activated charcoal. Supportive treatment with intravenous fluids and vasopressors may be required with epinephrine being the vasopressor of choice. Stomach pumping may also be used. Sodium bicarbonate and hypertonic saline may be used in cases of severe QRS complex widening. Seizures may be treated with benzodiazepines. Intravenous potassium chloride may be required, however this may result in high blood potassium later in the course of the disease. Dialysis does not appear to be useful.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine may be quantified in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims or in whole blood to assist in a forensic investigation of a case of sudden or unexpected death. Plasma or serum concentrations are usually in a range of 0.1-1.6 mg/L during therapy and 6–20 mg/L in cases of clinical intoxication, while blood levels of 20–100 mg/L have been observed in deaths due to acute overdosage.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: The drug transfers into breast milk. There is no evidence that its use during pregnancy is harmful to the developing fetus and its use is not contraindicated in pregnancy.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: The concurrent use of hydroxychloroquine and the antibiotic azithromycin appears to increase the risk for certain serious side effects with short-term use, such as an increased risk of chest pain, congestive heart failure, and mortality from cardiovascular causes. Care should be taken if combined with medication altering liver function as well as aurothioglucose (Solganal), cimetidine (Tagamet) or digoxin (Lanoxin). Hydroxychloroquinecan increase plasma concentrations of penicillamine which may contribute to the development of severe side effects. It enhances hypoglycemic effects of insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents. Dose altering is recommended to prevent profound hypoglycemia. Antacids may decrease the absorption of hydroxychloroquine. Both neostigmine and pyridostigmine antagonize the action of hydroxychloroquine.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: While there may be a link between hydroxychloroquine and hemolytic anemia in those with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, this risk may be low in those of African descent.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Specifically, the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) drug label for hydroxychloroquine lists the following drug interactions:


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine has similar pharmacokinetics to chloroquine, with rapid gastrointestinal absorption, large distribution volume, and elimination by the kidneys. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP2D6, 2C8, 3A4 and 3A5) metabolize hydroxychloroquine to "N"-desethylhydroxychloroquine. Both agents also inhibit CYP2D6 activity and may interact with other medications that depend on this enzyme.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Antimalarials are lipophilic weak bases and easily pass plasma membranes. The free base form accumulates in lysosomes (acidic cytoplasmic vesicles) and is then protonated, resulting in concentrations within lysosomes up to 1000 times higher than in culture media. This increases the pH of the lysosome from four to six. Alteration in pH causes inhibition of lysosomal acidic proteases causing a diminished proteolysis effect. Higher pH within lysosomes causes decreased intracellular processing, glycosylation and secretion of proteins with many immunologic and nonimmunologic consequences. These effects are believed to be the cause of a decreased immune cell functioning such as chemotaxis, phagocytosis and superoxide production by neutrophils. Hydroxychloroquine is a weak diprotic base that can pass through the lipid cell membrane and preferentially concentrate in acidic cytoplasmic vesicles. The higher pH of these vesicles in macrophages or other antigen-presenting cells limits the association of autoantigenic (any) peptides with class II MHC molecules in the compartment for peptide loading and/or the subsequent processing and transport of the peptide-MHC complex to the cell membrane.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine increases lysosomal pH in antigen-presenting cells by two mechanisms: As a weak base, it is a proton acceptor and via this chemical interaction, its accumulation in lysozymes raises the intralysosomal pH, but this mechanism does not fully account for the effect of hydroxychloroquine on pH. Additionally, in parasites that are susceptible to hydroxychloroquine, it interferes with the endocytosis and proteolysis of hemoglobin and inhibits the activity of lysosomal enzymes, thereby raising the lysosomal pH by more than 2 orders of magnitude over the weak base effect alone. In 2003, a novel mechanism was described wherein hydroxychloroquine inhibits stimulation of the toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 family receptors. TLRs are cellular receptors for microbial products that induce inflammatory responses through activation of the innate immune system.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: As with other quinoline antimalarial drugs, the antimalarial mechanism of action of quinine has not been fully resolved. The most accepted model is based on hydrochloroquinine and involves the inhibition of hemozoin biocrystallization, which facilitates the aggregation of cytotoxic heme. Free cytotoxic heme accumulates in the parasites, causing death.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Hydroxychloroquine increases the risk of low blood sugar through several mechanisms. These include decreased clearance of the hormone insulin from the blood, increased insulin sensitivity, and increased release of insulin from the pancreas.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: After World War I, the German government sought alternatives to quinine as an anti-malarial. Chloroquine, a synthetic analogue with the same mechanism of action was discovered in 1934, by Hans Andersag and coworkers at the Bayer laboratories. This was introduced into clinical practice in 1947 for the prophylactic treatment of malaria. Researchers subsequently attempted to discover structural analogs with superior properties and one of these was hydroxychloroquine.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: The first synthesis of hydroxychloroquine was disclosed in a patent filed by Sterling Drug in 1949. In the final step, 4,7-dichloroquinoline was reacted with a primary amine which in turn had been made from the chloro-ketone shown:


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: It is frequently sold as a sulfate salt known as hydroxychloroquine sulfate. In the sulfate salt form, 200 mg is equal to 155 mg of the pure form.


title: Hydroxychloroquine

text: Brand names of hydroxychloroquine include Plaquenil, Hydroquin, Axemal (in India), Dolquine, Quensyl, and Quinoric.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tiangong (), officially the "Tiangong" space station (), is a space station constructed by China and operated by China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) in low Earth orbit between above the surface. It is China's first long-term space station and the core of the "Third Step" of the China Manned Space Program (CMS); it has a mass between , roughly one-fifth the mass of the International Space Station and about the size of the decommissioned Russian "Mir" space station.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The construction of the station is based on the experience gained from its precursors, Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. The first module, the "Tianhe" ("Harmony of the Heavens") core module, was launched on 29 April 2021, followed by multiple crewed and uncrewed missions and two more laboratory cabin modules "Wentian" ("Quest for the Heavens") launched on 24 July 2022 and "Mengtian" ("Dreaming of the Heavens") launched on 31 October 2022. The research conducted on the station aims to improve researchers' ability to conduct science experiments in space.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The names used in the space program, previously all chosen from the revolutionary history of the People's Republic, have been replaced with mystical-religious ones. Thus, the new "Long March" launch vehicles were renamed "Divine Arrow" (), space capsule "Divine Vessel" (神舟), spaceplane "Divine Dragon" (神龙), land-based high-power laser "Divine Light" (神光), and supercomputer "Divine Might" (神威).


title: Tiangong space station

text: These poetic names continue as the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and future Chinese Lunar probes are called Chang'e after the Moon goddess. The name "Tiangong" means "heavenly palace". Across China, the launch of Tiangong-1 was reported to have inspired a variety of feelings, including love poetry. The rendezvous of the space vehicles has been compared to the reunion of the cowherd and the weaver girl.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Wang Wenbao, director of the CMSA, told a news conference in 2011: "Considering past achievements and the bright future, we feel the manned space programme should have a more vivid symbol, and that the future space station should carry a resounding and encouraging name. We now feel that the public should be involved in the names and symbols, as this major project will enhance national prestige and strengthen the national sense of cohesion and pride".


title: Tiangong space station

text: According to CMSA, which operates the space station, the purpose and mission of Tiangong is to develop and gain experience in spacecraft rendezvous technology, permanent human operations in orbit, long-term autonomous spaceflight of the space station, regenerative life support technology and autonomous cargo and fuel supply technology. It will also serve the platform for the next-generation orbit transportation vehicles, scientific and practical applications at large-scale in orbit, and technology for future deep space exploration.


title: Tiangong space station

text: CMSA also encourages commercial activities led by the private sector and hopes their involvement could bring cost-effective aerospace innovations. Space tourism at the space station is also considered.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The space station will have 23 experimental racks in an enclosed, pressurized environment. There will also be platforms for exposed experiments; 22 and 30 on the Wentian and Mengtian laboratory modules, respectively. Over 1,000 experiments are tentatively approved by CMSA, and scheduled to be conducted on the space station.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Agriculture in microgravity was explored with plantation of rice and Arabidopsis thaliana to sustainable food source for long-term spaceflight.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The space station features space lectures and popular science experiments to educate, motivate and inspire the younger Chinese generation and world audience in science and technology. Each lecture is concluded with a Question-and-Answer (Q&A) session with schoolchildren's questions from classrooms across China. The first and second Tiangong space lesson was conducted in December 2021 and March 2022, as a part of the Shenzhou 13 mission. This tradition continued with the Shenzhou 14.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The CSSARC is the Amateur Radio payload for the Chinese Space Station, proposed by the Chinese Radio Amateurs Club (CRAC), Aerospace System Engineering Research Institute of Shanghai (ASES) and Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT). The payload will provide resources for radio amateurs worldwide to contact onboard astronauts or communicate with each other, aim to inspire students to take interests and careers in science, technology, engineering, and math, and encourage more people to get interested in amateur radio.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The first phase of the payload is capable of providing the following functions utilizing the VHF/UHF amateur radio band:


title: Tiangong space station

text: The space station is a third-generation modular space station. First-generation space stations, such as early "Salyut", "Almaz", and "Skylab", were single-piece stations and not designed for resupply. Second generation "Salyut" 6 and 7, and "Tiangong" 1 and 2 stations, are designed for mid-mission resupply. Third-generation stations, such as "Mir" and the International Space Station, are modular space stations, assembled in orbit from pieces launched separately. Modular design can greatly improve reliability, reduce costs, shorten development cycles, and meet diversified task requirements.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The initial target configuration for the end of 2022 consists of three modules, which may be expanded to six in the future.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The "Tianhe" Core Cabin Module (CCM) provides life support and living quarters for three crew members and provides guidance, navigation, and orientation control for the station. The module also provides the station's power, propulsion, and life support systems. The module consists of three sections: living quarters, a service section, and a docking hub. The living quarters will contain a kitchen and toilet, fire control equipment, atmospheric processing and control equipment, computers, scientific apparatus, communications equipment to send and receive communications via ground control in Beijing, and other equipment.


title: Tiangong space station

text: In 2018 full-scale mockup of CCM was publicly presented at China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition in Zhuhai. The video from CMSA revealed that two of these core modules have been built. Artist impressions have also depicted the two core modules docked together to enlarge the overall station.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The first of two Laboratory Cabin Modules (LCM), "Wentian", provides additional avionics, propulsion, and life support systems as backup functions for the CCM. The "Wentian" is also fitted with an independent airlock cabin to serve as the main entry-exit point for extravehicular activities (EVA), replacing the "Tianhe" docking hub. For the scientific payload, the LCM is equipped with multiple internal science racks and 22 payload adapters on the exterior for various types of experiments. Aside from scientific equipment, the module features three additional living quarters designed for short-term stay, which will be used during crew rotation. "Wentian" was launched and docked with the "Tianhe" on 24 July 2022.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The second LCM, "Mengtian", was launched on 31 October 2022. The "Mengtian" module is equipped with expanded in-orbit experiment capacity. The module is divided into multiple sections, including the pressurized crew working compartment, the unpressurized cargo section, the cargo airlock/on-orbit release mechanism, as well as the control module section featuring external experiment adapters, a communication antenna, and two solar arrays. In total, it carries 13 experimental racks and 37 external payload adapters. The cargo airlock is specifically designed for conveying payloads from inside the station to the exterior.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Both LCMs provide a pressurized environment for researchers to conduct science experiments in freefall or microgravity which could not be conducted on Earth for more than a few minutes. Experiments can also be placed on the outside of the modules for exposure to the space environment, cosmic rays, vacuum, and solar winds. Overall, "Wentian" prioritizes life science, while the "Mengtian" focus on microgavity experiments.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The axial port of the LCMs is fitted with rendezvous equipment for docking at the axial port of the CCM. A mechanical arm called the indexing robotic arm, externally resembling the Lyappa arm used on the Mir space station, moves "Wentian" LCM to the starboard side, and the "Mengtian" LCM module to a port-side port of the CCM. The Indexing robot arms differentiate from the Lyappa arm as they are used when docking is needed in the same plane, while the Lyappa arm controls the pitch of the spacecraft to re-dock it at a different plane. The "Chinarm" on the "Tianhe" module can be used as a backup for docking relocation.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The real-time communications, including live audio and video links, are provided by the Tianlian II series of data relay satellites. A constellation of three satellites was launched into geostationary orbits, providing communication and data support for the station.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tiangong is fitted with the Chinese Docking Mechanism used by Shenzhou spacecraft and previous Tiangong prototypes. The Chinese docking mechanism is based on the Russian APAS-89/APAS-95 system. Despite NASA describing it as a "clone" to APAS, there have been contradictory claims on the compatibility of the Chinese system with both current and future docking mechanisms on the ISS, which are also based on APAS. It has a circular transfer passage that has a diameter of . The androgynous variant has a mass of 310 kg and the non-androgynous variant has a mass of 200 kg.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The Chinese Docking Mechanism was used for the first time on Shenzhou 8 and Tiangong 1 space stations and will be used on future Chinese space stations and with future CMSA cargo resupply vehicles.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Electrical power is provided by two steerable solar power arrays on each module, which use gallium arsenide photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Energy is stored to power the station when it passes into the Earth's shadow. Resupply spacecraft will replenish fuel for the station's propulsion engines for station keeping, to counter the effects of atmospheric drag. The solar arrays are designed to last up to 15 years.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tiangong space station is fitted with conventional chemical propulsion and ion thrusters to adjust and maintain the station's orbit. Four Hall-effect thrusters are mounted on the hull of "Tianhe" core module. The development of the Hall-effect thrusters is considered a sensitive topic in China, with scientists "working to improve the technology without attracting attention". Hall-effect thrusters are created with manned mission safety in mind with effort to prevent erosion and damage caused by the accelerated ion particles.


title: Tiangong space station

text: A magnetic field and specially designed ceramic shield were created to repel damaging particles and maintain the integrity of the thrusters. According to a report by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the ion drive used on Tiangong ran continuously for 8,240 hours without a glitch during the testing phase, indicating its suitability for Tiangong's designated 15-year lifespan. These are the world's first Hall thrusters to be used on a human-rated mission.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The Tiangong station features five robotic arms. The longest one is the 10-meter-long, ISS Canadian-style SSRMS robotic arm, nicknamed "Chinarm", mounted on the "Tianhe" core module.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The "Wentian" module features a smaller, long SSRMS robotic arm that is 5 times more accurate in positioning than the "Chinarm". The "Wentian" arm is primarily used to transfer extravehicular experiments and other hardware outside the station during astronaut EVAs. A dual-arm connector is installed on the "Chinarm", providing it the capability to link with the " Wentian" robotic arm, extending its reach and weight-carrying limits.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The "Mengtian" module carries a payload release mechanism, installed to assist in cargo transfer. The robotic arm can retrieve experiments from the cargo airlock, then install them onto the external adapters fitted on the module exterior. It can also be used to launch microsatellites.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Two Indexing robotic arms are fitted on top of docking ports for the two laboratory modules to help relocate them during construction.


title: Tiangong space station

text: In 2011, it was announced that the future space station was planned to be assembled from 2020 to 2022. By 2013, the space station's core module was planned to be launched earlier, in 2018, followed by the first laboratory module in 2020, and a second in 2022. By 2018, it was reported that this had slipped to 2020–2023. In February 2020, a total of 11 launches were planned for the whole construction phase, beginning in 2021. In 2021, it was reported China National Space Administration planned to complete the construction of the space station in 2022.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tiangong modules are self-contained and pre-assembled, in contrast to the US Orbital Segment of the ISS, which required spacewalking to interconnect cables, piping, and structural elements manually. The assembly method of the station can be compared with the Soviet-Russian Mir space station and the Russian orbital segment of the International Space Station, making China the second nation to develop and use automatic rendezvous and docking for modular space station construction. The technologies in the construction are derived from decades of Chinese manned spaceflight experiences, including those gained from Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2 prototypes, as well as the purchase of aerospace technology from Russia in the early 1990s. A representative of the Chinese crewed space program stated that around 2000, China and Russia were engaged in technological exchanges regarding the development of a docking mechanism used for space stations. Deputy Chief Designer, Huang Weifen, stated that near the end of 2009, China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) began to train astronauts on how to dock spacecraft.


title: Tiangong space station

text: In accordance to the plan, by the end of 2022, the fully assembled Tiangong space station had three 22 metric-ton modules in a basic T-shape. With the modular design, the Tiangong space station can be further expanded into six modules prospectively enabling for more astronaut participation in the future.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The construction of the Chinese Space Station officially began in April 2021. The planned 11 missions include three module launches, four crewed missions, and four autonomous cargo flights. On 29 April 2021, the first component of the station, "Tianhe" core module, was launched to the orbit aboard the Long March 5B rocket from Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site. On 29 May 2021, Tianzhou 2 autonomous cargo spacecraft was launched to the "Tianhe" core module in preparation for the Shenzhou 12 crew, who will be responsible for testing "Tianhe"'s various systems and preparing for future operations. On 17 June 2021, Shenzhou 12 team docked with the space station, marking them the first visitors to the Tiangong station. The first crew mission began the examination of the core module and verification of key technologies. On 4 July 2021, Liu Boming and Tang Hongbo began their first spacewalk in upgraded Chinese Feitian spacesuits, outfitting the space stations with extravehicular activity (EVA) equipment, such as foot restraints and the standing platform for "Chinarm". Shenzhou 12 commander Nie Haisheng stayed inside the station and tested the robotic arm movements. Liu Boming and Nie Haisheng completed the second spacewalk on 20 August 2021 and installed various devices outside of the station, including a thermal control system, a panoramic camera, and other equipment. On 16 September 2021, the Shenzhou 12 crew entered the returning spacecraft and undocked from "Tianhe". Before leaving the orbit, the crew performed various radial rendezvous (R-Bar) maneuvers to circumnavigate around the space station. They tested the guidance system and recorded lighting conditions while approaching the "Tianhe" from different angles. The crew landed in the Gobi Desert of Inner Mongolia on the same day. Tianzhou 3 cargo spacecraft, which arrived at the launch facility a month earlier, was immediately rolled out onto the launch pad for the next supply mission.


title: Tiangong space station

text: On 20 September 2021, Tianzhou 3 autonomous freighter was launched from the Wenchang Satellite Launch Center in preparation for the arrival of Shenzhou 13 crew. The Shenzhou 13 was the first six-month mission on the Tiangong station, whereas previous Shenzhou 12 was only three months in length. The Shenzhou 13 docked with the space station on 15 October 2021. Missions for the Shenzhou 13 crew included orbit experiments, spacewalks, and preparations for the station's future expansion. On 7 November 2021, Shenzhou 13 crew Zhai Zhigang and Wang Yaping conducted the first spacewalks to test the next-generation EVA suit and robotic "Chinarm", making Wang Yaping China's first female spacewalker. One of the missions in the 6.5-hour extravehicular activity was to install a dual-arm connector to the 10-meter-long robotic arm. The connector can provide the capability for "Chinarm" to extend in length with another 5-meter-long segment mounted on the "Wentian" module that will arrive in 2022. According to Gao Shen of the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), the combined 15-meter "Chinarm" will have greater range and weight-carrying capacity. During spacewalks, various preparations were performed on the robotic arm for manipulation and construction of future modules.


title: Tiangong space station

text: On 26 December 2021, Shenzhou 13 crew Zhai Zhigang and Ye Guangfu conducted the second spacewalk to install a panoramic camera, which will be used for space station monitoring and robotic arm observation. They also practiced various movements with the help of "Chinarm" controlled by the monitoring astronaut Wang Yaping inside the station. During the construction phase of the station in 2021, according to documents filed by China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs and reported by Reuters, the station had two "close encounters" with SpaceX's Starlink satellites on July 1 and October 21, with the station conducting evasive adjustment maneuvers. On 5 January 2022, Shenzhou 13 team used the 10-meter long "Chinarm" to relocate the Tianzhou 2 supply ship by 20 degrees before returning it to the original location. This maneuver was conducted to practice the procedures, equipment, and backup operation system needed for future module assembly. On January 13, the crew tested the emergency docking system by controlling the cargo spacecraft manually. In March 2022, Shenzhou 13 crew began the preparation to undock from the space station. The crew landed in China on 16 April 2022, after staying 182 days in the low-Earth orbit. Soon afterward, China launched Tianzhou 4 cargo spacecraft in preparation for the next crewed mission in May. The automated freighter docked with the space station on 9 May 2022, and carried vital maintenance equipment and a refrigerator for scientific experiment.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Beginning with the Shenzhou 14, China officially started the final construction phase for the space station, with three astronauts tasked to oversee the arrival of two labotorary modules in 2022. On 5 June 2022, Shenzhou 14 crew arrived at the space station, docking at the Earth-facing nadir port. Shenzhou 14 crew will begin the assembly for both "Wentian" and "Mengtian" modules, arriving in second half of the year. The crew installed carbon dioxide reduction system for the space station, tested Feitian spacesuits, and debugged "Tianhe" core module. On 19 July 2022, Tianzhou 3 was undocked from the station, making way for the arrival of the "Wentian" module. On 24 July 2022, the "Wentian" laboratory module was launched from the Wenchang space center and rendezvoused with the "Tianhe" core module on the same day. "Wentian" is the second module for the Tiangong space station, and the first laboratory cabin module (LCM). The module is equipped with an airlock cabin, which will become the primary entry-exit point for future EVAs. The module also feature backup avionics, propulsion, and life support systems, improving Tiangong space station's operational redundancy. On 2 September 2022, the crew member Chen Dong and Liu Yang performed their first spacewalk from the new "Wentian" airlock, installing and adjusting various external equipment as well as testing emergency return procedures. On 17 September 2022, astronauts Chen Dong and Cai Xuzhe performed the second spacewalk, installing external pumps and verified emergency rescue capability. On 30 September 2022, all crew members worked in coordination, moving the "Wentian" module from the forward port to the starboard lateral docking port, which is its planned permanent location on 30 September 2022 at 04:44 UTC. The relocation process was largely automated with the assistance of the Indexing robotic arm. In October 2022, CMSA prepared to launch the third and final module, "Mengtian", to complete the construction for the Tiangong space station.


title: Tiangong space station

text: On 31 October 2022, "Mengtian" module was launched from the Wenchang space center, and docked with the station 13 hours later. The assembly of the "Mengtian" marks the final step in the 1.5-year construction process. According to China Academy of Space Technology, the rendezvous and docking process for "Mengtian" was conducted expeditiously, as then L-shaped Tiangong station consumed large amount of energy to stay oriented in its asymmetrical arrangement. On 3 November 2022, "Mengtian" was relocated autonomously from the forward docking port to port-side lateral docking port via Indexing robotic arm, and successfully berthed at its planned permanent location with "Tianhe" module at 01:32UTC (9:32BJT), forming a T-shape. Subsequently, CMSA announced the construction of the Tiangong space station is officially complete. Designer of "Mengtian" module, Li Guangxing, explained the space station was maneuvered to a special position, utilizing the Earth's gravity to help stabilized the docking process. At 07:12UTC, The Shenzhou 14 crew entered the "Mengtian" module. On 10 November 2022, Tianzhou 4 cargo spacecraft undocked from the Tiangong, and Tianzhou 5 was prepared to launch on the same day. Tianzhou 5 was launched on 12 November 2022, carrying supplies, experiments, and microsatellites to the space station. It also contained gifts for China's first crew handover ceremony in orbit. The completed station had extra capacity for expanded crew activities and living space for six, allowing crew rotation. On 29 November 2022, the Shenzhou 15 crew Fei Junlong, Deng Qingming, and Zhang Lu was launched to the space station. The crew spent one week together for handover and verification for sustainable six-man operations. With the crew rotation and contentious operation, China commenced its permanent space presence.


title: Tiangong space station

text: According to CMSA, the Tiangong space station is expected to be expanded from three to six modules, with improved versions of the "Tianhe", "Wentian", and "Mengtian" modules.


title: Tiangong space station

text: According Wang Xiang, commander of the space station system at the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), the potential next phase would be adding a new core module. “Following our current design, we can continue to launch an extension module to dock with the forward section of the space station, and the extension module can carry a new hub for docking with the subsequent space vehicles,” Wang told CCTV.


title: Tiangong space station

text: China's incentive to build its own space station was amplified after US Congress prohibited NASA from any direct engagement & cooperation with CNSA thus effectively prohibiting any Chinese participation in the International Space Station (ISS) in 2011, although China, Russia and Europe mutually vowed intentions to maintain a cooperative and multilateral approach in space. Between 2007 and 2011, the space agencies of Russia, Europe, and China carried out the ground-based preparations in the Mars500 project, which complement the ISS-based preparations for a human mission to Mars.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Cooperation in the field of crewed space flight between the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA, formerly known as CMSEO) and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) was examined in 2011, and participation in the development of China crewed space stations and cooperation with China in the fields such as visiting astronauts, and scientific research was discussed.


title: Tiangong space station

text: An initial cooperative agreement with China National Space Administration and the Italian Space Agency was subsequently signed in November 2011, covering areas of collaboration within space transportation, telecommunications, Earth observation, etc. In 2019, an Italian experiment High Energy cosmic-Radiation Detection (HERD) was scheduled on board the Chinese station. Tiangong also involved cooperation from France, Sweden, and Russia.


title: Tiangong space station

text: On 22 February 2017, the CMSA and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) signed an agreement to cooperate on long-term human spaceflight activities. The agreement holds importance due to Italy's leading position in the field of human spaceflight with regards to the creation and exploitation of the International Space Station (Node 2, Node 3, Columbus, Cupola, Leonardo, Raffaello, Donatello, PMM, etc.) and it signified Italy's increased anticipation in China's developing space station programme. The European Space Agency (ESA) started human spaceflight training with CMSA in 2017, with the ultimate goal of sending ESA astronauts to Tiangong. To prepare for the future missions, selected ESA astronauts lived together with their Chinese counterparts and engaged in training sessions such as splashes-down survival, language learning, and spacecraft operations.


title: Tiangong space station

text: International experiments were selected by the CMSA and the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) in a UN session in 2019. 42 applications were submitted, and nine experiments were accepted. Some of the experiments are a continuation to the ones on Tiangong-2 such as POLAR-2, an experiment of researching Gamma-ray burst polarimetry, proposed by Switzerland, Poland, Germany and China. Canadian Professor Dr. Tricia Larose from the University of Oslo develops a cutting-edge cancer research experiment for the station. The 31-day experiment will test to see if weightlessness has a positive effect in stopping cancer growth. The High Energy Cosmic Ray Detector project is conducted by a 200 scientists team from Europe, mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Under UNOOSA framework, Tiangong is also expected to host experiments from Belgium, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, the Netherlands, Peru, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Spain, involving 23 institutions and 17 countries.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Regarding the participation of foreign astronauts, CMSA has repeatedly communicated its support for such proposals. During the press conference of the Shenzhou 12 mission, Zhou Jianping, the chief designer of China Manned Space Program explained that multiple countries had expressed their wishes to participate. He told journalists that the future participation of foreign astronauts "will be guaranteed". Ji Qiming, an assistant director at CMSA told reporters that he believes "in the near future, after the completion of the Chinese space station, we will see Chinese and foreign astronauts fly and work together." In October 2022, the station opened its selection process to Hong Kong and Macau, the two special administrative regions of China.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Astronauts on the Tiangong station follow China Standard Time (CST) for their daily schedule. The crew often wakes up around 7:00 and begins their daily conference with Mission Control in Beijing before starting work at 08:00 (00:00UTC). The crew will then follow their planned schedule until 21:00, after which they report their work process to Mission Control. At 13:30, astronauts enter their living quarters to take a nap, which typically takes an hour. The crew also has multiple breaks for eating and resting. The Tiangong station features a lighting scene function to simulate lighting conditions on Earth, including daylight, dusk, and night. As the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day in low Earth orbit, this function helps to avoid disruption to the crew's circadian rhythm.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The Tiangong space station is fitted with home automation functions, including remote-controlled appliances and a logistics management system. The crew can use their tablet computers to identify, locate, and organize items inside the station, as all items in the station are marked by QR codes. This will help ensure an orderly environment as more cargo arrives. The station possesses a Wi-Fi network for wireless connections and each astronaut wears a bone-conduction headphone and microphone for easy communication. Inter-device communication inside the station is completely wireless via the Wi-Fi network to avoid cord mess.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Meals consisting of 120 different types of food, selected based on astronauts' preferences, are stored aboard. Staples including shredded pork in garlic sauce, kung pao chicken, black pepper beef, yuxiang shredded pork, pickled cabbage, and beverages, including a variety of teas and juices, are resupplied by trips of the Tianzhou-class robotic cargo spacecraft. Fresh fruits and vegetables are stored in coolers. Huang Weifen, the chief astronaut trainer of CMSA, explains that most of the food is prepared to be solid, boneless, small-piece. Condiments such as pork sauce and Sichuan pepper sauce are used to compensate for the changes in the sense of taste in microgravity. The station is equipped with a small kitchen table for food preparation, a refrigerator, a water dispenser, and the first-ever microwave oven in spaceflight so that astronauts can "always have hot food whenever they need." Following the astronauts' feedback, larger supplies of vegetables were included since Tianzhou 4, making the variety of vegetable increased to 32.


title: Tiangong space station

text: The station's core module, "Tianhe," provides the living quarters for the crew members, containing of three separate sleeping berths, a space toilet, shower facility, and gym equipment. Each berth features one small circular window, a headphone set, ventilation, and other amenities. Neuromuscular electrical stimulator is used to prevent muscle atrophy. The noise level in the working area is set at 58 decibels, while in the sleeping area, the noise is kept at 49 decibels. The ventilation system provides air circulation to the crew, with 0.08m/s wind speed for the working areas and 0.05m/s for the sleeping stations. Three additional living quarters for short-term stay are located in the "Wentian" laboratory module.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tiangong is a permanently crewed station (from 5 June 2022), typically staffed with a crew of 3 people and can support up to 6 people. After the completion of the station in November 2022, it housed a crew of 6 people for the first time for 5 days during the crew rotation from Shenzhou 14 to Shenzhou 15 in December 2022. Operations will be controlled from the Beijing Aerospace Flight Control Center in China. To guarantee the safety of astronauts on board, a Long March 2F with a Shenzhou spacecraft will always be on standby for an emergency rescue mission.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Initial crewed missions to Tiangong, including its first mission Shenzhou 12, which lasted the planned 90 days, used the Shenzhou spacecraft. Subsequent missions starting with Shenzhou 13 will last a planned 180 days, which became the normal duration of a mission cycle at Tiangong.


title: Tiangong space station

text: CMSA announced the testing of a next-generation crewed spacecraft to eventually replace Shenzhou. It is designed to carry astronauts to Tiangong and offer the capability for lunar exploration. China's next-generation crew carrier is reusable with a detachable heat shield built to handle higher-temperature returns through Earth's atmosphere. According to CMSA officials, the new capsule design is larger than the Shenzhou. The spacecraft is capable of carrying astronauts to the Moon, and can accommodate up to six to seven crew members at a time, three more astronauts than Shenzhou. The new crewed spacecraft has a cargo section that allows astronauts to bring cargo back to Earth, whereas the Tianzhou cargo resupply spacecraft is not designed to bring any cargo back to Earth.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tianzhou ("Heavenly Vessel"), a modified derivative of the Tiangong-1 spacecraft, is used as robotic cargo spacecraft to resupply this station. The launch mass of Tianzhou is around 13,000 kg with a payload of around 6,000 kg. Launch, rendezvous and docking shall be fully autonomous, with mission control and crew used in override or monitoring roles. This system becomes very reliable with standardizations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive routine operations. An automated approach could allow the assembly of modules orbiting other worlds prior to crewed missions.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Tiangong is designed to be used for 10 years, though it could be extended to 15 years and will accommodate three astronauts. CMSA crewed spacecraft use deorbital burns to slow their velocity, resulting in their re-entry to the Earth's atmosphere. Vehicles carrying a crew have a heat shield which prevents the vehicle's destruction caused by aerodynamic heating upon contact with the Earth's atmosphere. The station itself has no heat-shield; however, small parts of space stations can reach the surface of the Earth, so uninhabited areas will be targeted for de-orbit manoeuvres.


title: Tiangong space station

text: Similar to the ISS, the Tiangong space station can also be seen from earth with the naked eye. However, as it is smaller in size to the ISS, it will not be as bright as the ISS. The Tiangong space station can reach a brightness of at least -2.2 mag .


title: Tiangong space station

text: The Tiangong space station and the International Space Station are subjects in feature movie "Gravity" (2013).