title: Doula

text: In 2017 the United Kingdom's Royal College of Midwives published a position statement on doulas, which supports the choice of the individual to hire a doula for their birth as long as the doula does not provide medical care.


title: Doula

text: A 2018 study examined women's perceptions of doulas in several different countries, including Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Malawi, Sweden, Nepal, Russia, Canada, and the United States of America and found that having continuous support from a companion such as a doula was highly appreciated by most women. However, perceptions may vary from country to country due to cultural factors, such as an emphasis on modesty and privacy, which may affect what kind of support a woman prefers.


title: Doula

text: A 2018 study examined news media discourse in China noted that Chinese doulas needed to register with official departments or organizations and are closely linked with midwifery. The doula profession was introduced in 1996 to mainland China and demand of their services increased since then, with women citing a dissatisfaction of medical care. After China's implementation of the Second-Child Policy, doula care was strongly linked to doula support in regards to family planning.


title: Doula

text: Tensions between doctors, nurses and doulas have sometimes been described as a "turf battle," though it is also recognized that doulas and nurses can occupy complementary roles that provide opportunities for mutual learning and assistance. Some hospitals have created internal doula training programs to reduce conflict between doulas and medical staff.


title: Doula

text: There is no law requiring doulas to become certified, however certification can benefit professional doulas by providing structured education prior to entry into the field, access to a mentor, opportunities for networking, and client confidence. In North America, training generally takes the form of a two- to three-day seminar, and some experience with childbirth. Trainees may have hands-on practice with various techniques used during childbirth, including maternal positions and movements, relaxation and breathing exercises and other measures that could be used for comfort. Certification can occur through organizations at various levels (local, national or international) and some require positive evaluations from medical professionals. Certification may also require, in addition to attending a training course, time spent working or learning about maternity care and childbirth classes and possibly a written exam. Some doulas train through distance education.


title: Doula

text: There is a movement to encourage certification, and provide documentation of it on consumer websites such as DoulaMatch where an individual can find certified doulas, childbirth educators, yoga instructors, and other birth-related professionals. Doulas not trained by a formal organization can be controversial within medical settings due to a lack of formal medical education when a discussion regarding medical interventions in labor versus pursuing natural childbirth without an epidural or caesarean section arises.


title: Doula

text: Major doula organizations that offer certification programs include Birth Arts International, Birth Works, Birthing from Within, Childbirth and Postpartum Professional Association (CAPPA), DONA International, Hypnobirthing, International Childbirth Education Association (ICEA), and ProDoula. Because of the lack of standardization, doula organizations provide different courses with varying requirements and anyone can refer to themselves as a doula. Doulamatch.net, an online referral page for doulas, has offered a list of items that students should look for as they begin looking for training. Amy Gilliland, a researcher on doula care and culture, also lists some qualities a training program should have. Some theorists have stated that it may take college-level work or more in-depth online education in order to provide some of the communication skills that may be necessary.


title: Doula

text: In 2010, a survey of professional Canadian doulas found that the common motivations for doula work include "desire to support women in childbirth, personal interest, and a wish to share their own positive birth experience with others" but did not see the work as a means to create steady income. Doulas of color also found motivation in providing care for their racial, ethnic and cultural communities so as to provide culturally competent care. Volunteer doulas often saw doula work as a way to "help others, to establish a practice as an employed doula, and to have a route into nursing or midwifery."


title: Doula

text: A 2004 study of North American doulas identified challenges to doula work such as lack of support from clinicians, balancing doula work with family and other work obligations, and being on call. Volunteer doulas also found challenges in individuals' poor understanding of the doula's role, lack of clear boundaries, and complex socio-economic issues. Additionally, doulas often are challenged with the task to navigate their role in medicalized (hospital) births. Due to the social hierarchy and privilege that medical professionals have in medical settings doulas are often subordinate to doctors and physicians. Doulas have to negotiate the power dynamics between the patient and medical provider, while also establishing their legitimacy and role in the process of childbirth. They, therefore, have to be cognizant of the medical environment in which their client chooses to give birth in order to effectively advocate for their client's needs.


title: Doula

text: An antepartum doula provides help and support to someone who has been put on bed rest or is experiencing a high-risk pregnancy. Emotional, physical and practical support can be provided by an antepartum doula in this circumstance.


title: Doula

text: Postpartum doulas provide educational support and practical support in the home in the first weeks and months after childbirth or after adding an infant to the family. The same doula often provides both birth and postpartum services. Their services include a mixture of emotional support and practical help, such as infant care, breastfeeding support, information, advocacy and referral, partner support, sibling care, and household organization/work as the family adjusts to the addition of a new baby. There is some evidence that postpartum doula support can increase breastfeeding and decrease postpartum depression.


title: Doula

text: Other workers overlap in some of these services, such as maternity nurses, health visitors, newborn care specialists, lactation consultants, and, historically, monthly nurses.


title: Doula

text: Full-spectrum doulas extend the role of a birth attendant and provide support for all reproductive experiences which connect the role to the larger reproductive justice movement. This can include support for abortion, miscarriage, stillbirth, queer family planning, adoption, and fertility as well as extending services to women, men, transgender and gender non-conforming individuals. Abortion doulas focus on providing support to clients having an induced abortion. They provide emotional, physical, and informational support virtually or in person. Full-spectrum doulas often identify as activists as well as service providers and emphasize the human rights of their clients in the hopes of ending social stereotypes.


title: Doula

text: Abortion doulas provide care before, during, and after an abortion, with support varying by person and their informational, emotional, physical, and practical needs. Doulas work in a variety of situations, including community collectives and as solo practitioners and provide abortion support as a service in their full-spectrum practice. There are no certifications specifically for abortion doulas that are administered nationally or through individual states.


title: Doula

text: In the United States following the landmark decision, "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization", doulas expect to be contacted more frequently about abortion support as access becomes more limited. They are taking precautions to retain online anonymity to better protect patients and themselves and navigating threat of legal action.


title: Doula

text: End-of-life or death doulas care for critically ill adults in geriatric care, and during death. While some doulas may work independently or on a volunteer basis, others may work in association with a health care service, such as a palliative care service. The roles of an end-of-life doula include not only physical tasks, such as assisting with posture or making the bed comfortable, but also emotional and psychological tasks, such as providing guidance and support.


title: Doula

text: In the United States, doulas may be found in hospital, community-based programs as well as private practice or doula agencies and may be reimbursed by insurance companies or out-of-pocket by clients. Because insurance companies typically do not cover the cost of hiring a doula, they are more popular among middle- and upper-class parents. Since doula care has the potential to lower maternity costs and reduce health disparities, there is a push to cover doula services through Medicaid reimbursement programs. Three states, Oregon, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, have currently implemented reimbursement programs. In 2019, New York State launched a doula pilot program for Medicaid reimbursement in Erie and Kings Counties. Also that year, New York State passed a bill to certify doulas to lend legitimacy to the profession and to pave the way for Medicaid reimbursement from the federal government, becoming the first state to do so. Doulas in New York however have taken issue with the bill, having not been involved with the bill's writing, citing that state certification would make doulas more beholden to the formal medical system, be a hit to business if certification programs are not approved by the state, and hurt community doulas from working with low-income individuals.


title: Doula

text: In the UK, the National Health Service and promotion of midwifery for low-risk pregnancies provide a continuity of care not available to North American pregnant individuals, but still are seeing an upswing in doulas. This pattern has been suggested to be a result of the lack of midwives available and a move to provide doulas to individuals at greater risk for poor outcomes.


title: Doula

text: A 2019 study reviewed perceptions of labor companionship across mostly high income countries and found barriers that prevent doula care from being universally implemented. These challenges are due to a multitude of factors dealing with perception (providers not understanding the benefits or roles, other medical aspects being seen as more important) and logistics (gaps in policy, difficulty of integration, lack of training).


title: Doula

text: Community-based doulas work with underserved communities of which they are often members of to provide a sense of cultural humility that fosters trust and strengthens relationships between the doula and their client. The services provided are often low cost, and expand in the amount of support offered compared to traditional doulas and consider physical, social spiritual and emotional needs. Services include an increased amount of home visits, preparation for the birthing experience, education, guidance navigating health care systems, language support, screening for mental health, and food security needs.


title: Doula

text: Additionally, community-based doula models provide insight in the creation of policies that will support those families and underserved communities. These doulas also actively engage policy makers by recommendations on certification and Medicaid coverage, integration into medical care, and participating on advisory boards.


title: Doula

text: Since the 1980s, women incarcerated in the US has increased nearly 800 percent, of which an estimated 12,000 pregnant women are incarcerated annually. Pregnant prisoners are allowed to be shackled in more than 20 states and are forced to return to jail within 24 hours without their infants. The environmental factors of the penal system are shown to increase the risks associated with poor perinatal outcomes and have long-term health risks for the women and their children. The implementation of prison doulas rose out of the movement to end shackling for pregnant and laboring women from the prison abolition, human rights, reproductive justice, and birth justice movements in the early 2000s. Prison doula organizations work with those incarcerated to provide prenatal care, childbirth education, birth attendance, and breast feeding support. By providing doula services to jails, prisons, recovery centers, and county hospitals, doulas work to improve birth experiences and bonding as well as to challenge the dehumanizing penal environment. In studies of women who received doula services while incarcerated, the women reported increased happiness around their pregnancy; greater feelings of empowerment; a sense of normalcy around birth; and support during separation from their infant.


title: Doula

text: While well-received, prison doula support is not widespread in the United States and most programs are local due to the lack of an established federal standard of medical care for pregnant incarcerated individuals. In 2018, Washington was the first state to provide access to midwifery and doula services for incarcerated women for prenatal care, delivery, and postpartum care. However, the bill does not establish means of funding the services, and does not establish guidelines for care.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Finnish Air Force (FAF or FiAF; ; ) is one of the branches of the Finnish Defence Forces. Its peacetime tasks are airspace surveillance, identification flights, and production of readiness formations for wartime conditions. The Finnish Air Force was founded on 6 March 1918.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Finnish Air Force, one of the oldest air forces of the world, pre-dates the British RAF (founded as an independent entity on 1 April 1918) and the Swedish (founded on 1 July 1926). The first steps in the history of Finnish aviation involved Russian aircraft. The Russian military had a number of early designs stationed in the Grand Duchy of Finland, which until the Russian Revolution of 1917 formed part of the Russian Empire. Soon after the Finnish declaration of independence of 6 December 1917, the Finnish Civil War of January to May 1918 broke out, in which the Soviets sided with the "Reds" – the socialist rebels with ties to Lenin's Bolshevik Party. Finland's White Guard, the "Whites", managed to seize a few aircraft from the Soviets, but were forced to rely on foreign pilots and aircraft. Sweden refused to send men and materiel, but individual Swedish citizens came to the aid of the "Whites". The editor of the Swedish newspaper , Valdemar Langlet, bought a N.A.B. Albatros aircraft from the Nordiska Aviatik A.B. factory with funds gathered by the () organization. This aircraft, the first to arrive from Sweden, was flown via Haparanda on 25 February 1918 by Swedish pilot John-Allan Hygerth (who on 10 March became the first commander of the Finnish Air Force) and Per Svanbäck. The aircraft made a stop at Kokkola and had to make a forced landing in Jakobstad when its engine broke down. It was later given the Finnish Air Force designation F.2 ("F" coming from the Swedish word "", meaning "aircraft").


title: Finnish Air Force

text: Swedish count Eric von Rosen gave the Finnish White government its second aircraft, a Thulin Typ D. Von Rosen, one of the founding members of the "Nationalsocialistiska Blocket" ("National Socialist Bloc"), a Swedish National Socialist political party, and later brother-in-law to Hermann Goering, had painted his personal good-luck charm on the Thulin Type D aircraft. This logo – a blue swastika, the ancient symbol of the sun and of good luck, which was back then still used with non-political connotations – gave rise to the insignia of the Finnish Air Force. The white circular background originated when the Finns painted over the advertisement from the Thulin air academy. The swastika was officially taken into use after an order by Commander-in-Chief C. G. E. Mannerheim on 18 March 1918. The FAF changed its aircraft insignia, which resembled the swastika of the Third Reich, after 1944 due to an Allied Control Commission decree, which prohibited fascist organizations. It nevertheless continues to feature in some unit emblems, unit flags and decorations, including on uniforms. In 2020, the BBC reported that the FAF had "quietly stopped" using the symbol in the emblem of the Air Force Command.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The von Rosen aircraft received the designation F.1. Its pilot, Lieutenant Nils Kindberg, flew the aircraft to Vaasa on 6 March 1918, carrying von Rosen as a passenger. As this gift ran counter to the policy of the Swedish government, and no flight permit had been granted, Sweden fined Kindberg 100 Swedish crowns for leaving the country without permission. The F.1 aircraft is considered by some to be the first aircraft of the Finnish Air Force, which did not exist during the Civil War, while the "Red" side flew a few aircraft with the help of some Russian pilots. The F.1 aircraft was destroyed in an accident which killed its crew, not long after it had been handed over to the Finns. On 7 September 1920, two newly-purchased Savoia flying boats crashed in the Swiss Alps "en route" to Finland, killing all on-board (three Finns and one Italian). This day has since become the memorial day for fallen pilots.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Finnish Air Force assigns the matriculation numbers to its aircraft by assigning each type a two-letter code following by dash and an individual aircraft number. The two-letter code usually refers to the aircraft manufacturer or model, such as HN for F/A-18 Hornet, DK for Saab 35 Draken, VN for Valmet Vinka etc.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Whites occupied most of the airbases that the Russians left in Finland after the Russian pilots had returned to Russia.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Reds possessed a few airbases and a few Russian aircraft, mainly amphibious aircraft – they had 12 aircraft in all. The Reds did not have any pilots themselves, so they hired some of the Russian pilots who had stayed behind. On 24 February 1918 five aircraft arrived at Viipuri, and were quickly transferred to Riihimäki.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Reds established air units in Helsinki, Tampere, Kouvola, and Viipuri. There were no overall headquarters, but the individual units served under the commanders of the individual front lines. A flight school was set up in Helsinki, but no students were trained there before the fall of Helsinki.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: Two of the aircraft, one reconnaissance aircraft (Nieuport 10) and one fighter aircraft (Nieuport 17) that had arrived at Riihimäki were sent to Tampere, and three to Kouvola. Four Russian pilots and six mechanics also arrived at Tampere. The first war sortie was flown on 1 March 1918 over Naistenlahti.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: It seems likely that the Reds also operated two aircraft over the Eastern front. The Reds mainly performed reconnaissance, bombing sorties, spreading of propaganda leaflets, and artillery spotting. The Reds' air activity was not particularly successful. Their air operations suffered from bad leadership, worn-out aircraft, and un-motivated Russian pilots. Some of the aircraft were captured by the Whites, while the rest were destroyed.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: In January 1918 the Whites did not have a single aircraft, let alone pilots, so they asked the Swedes for help. Sweden, a neutral country, could not send any official help. Sweden also forbade its pilots to aid Finland.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: Despite this official stance, however, one Morane-Saulnier Parasol, and three N.A.B. Albatros arrived from Sweden by the end of February 1918. Two of the Albatross aircraft were gifts from private citizens supporting the White Finnish cause, while the third was purchased. It was initially intended that the aircraft would support the air operations of the Whites, but the aircraft ultimately proved unsuitable.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: Along with aircraft shortages, the Whites also did not have any personnel, so all the pilots and mechanics also came from Sweden. One of the Finnish Jägers, Lieutenant Bertil Månsson, had received pilot training in Imperial Germany, but he stayed behind in Germany, trying to secure further aircraft deals for Finland.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The air activity consisted mainly of reconnaissance sorties. The Germans brought several of their own aircraft, but they did not contribute much to the overall outcome of the war.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The first air-force base of independent Finland was founded on a lake shore near Kolho. The base could operate three aircraft. The first aircraft arrived by rail on 7 March 1918, and on 17 March 1918 took off from the base for the first time. In 1918 the Finns took over nine Russian Stetinin M-9 aircraft that had been left behind.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The first air operation of the Whites during the war was flown over Lyly. It was a reconnaissance-gathering mission as the front-line moved south. As the line neared Tampere, the base moved first to Orivesi and then to Kaukajärvi near Tampere. The contribution of the White air force during the war was almost insignificant.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: From 10 March 1918 the Swedish Lt. John-Allan Hygerth led the Finnish Air Force. He was however replaced on 18 April 1918, due to his unsuitability for the position and numerous accidents. The German Captain Carl Seber took over the role and commanded the air force from 28 April 1918 until 13 December 1918.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: By the end of the Civil War the Finnish Air Force had 40 aircraft, of which 20 had been captured from the Reds (the Reds did not operate this many aircraft, but some had been found abandoned on Åland). Five of the aircraft had been flown by the Allies from Russia, four had been gifts from Sweden and eight had been bought from Germany.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Winter War began on 30 November 1939, when the Soviet Air Force bombed 21 Finnish cities and municipalities. The Soviet Union had an estimated 5,000 aircraft in 1939, and of these, some 700 fighters and 800 medium bombers came to the Finnish front to support the Red Army's operations. As with most aerial bombardments in the early stages of World War II, the damage to Finnish industry and railways was quite limited.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: At the beginning of the Winter War the Finnish Air Force was equipped with only 18 Bristol Blenheim bombers and 46 fighters (32 modern Fokker D.XXIs and 14 obsolete Bristol Bulldogs). There were also 58 liaison aircraft, but 20 of these were only used for messengers. The most modern aircraft in the Finnish arsenal were British-designed and -built Bristol Blenheim bombers. The primary fighter aircraft, the Fokker D.XXI, featured a cheap but maneuverable design with fabric-covered fuselage and fixed landing-gear. On paper, the Finnish air assets should have been no match for the attacking Soviet Red Air Force. However, the Finnish Air Force had already adopted the finger-four formation in the mid-1930s, which proved a much more effective formation than the Vic formation that many other militaries continued to use in 1939.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: To prevent their aircraft from being destroyed on the ground, the Finns distributed their aircraft to many different airfields and hid them in the nearby forests. The Finns constructed many decoys and built shrapnel-protection walls for the aircraft. Soviet air-raids on Finnish airfields usually caused little or no damage as a result, and often resulted in interception of the attackers by the Finns as the Soviet bombers flew homeward.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: As the war progressed, the Finns tried desperately to purchase aircraft wherever they could. This policy resulted in a very diverse aircraft inventory, which caused some major logistical problems until the inventory became more standardized. The Finnish Air Force included numerous American, British, Czechoslovakian, Dutch, French, German, Italian, Soviet, and Swedish designs. Other countries, like South Africa and Denmark, sent aircraft to assist in the Finnish war effort. Many of these purchases and gifts did not arrive until the end of the hostilities, but would see action later during the Continuation and Lapland wars.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: To make up for its weaknesses (few and obsolete fighters) the FAF mainly focused on attacking enemy bombers from directions that were disadvantageous to the enemy. Soviet fighters were usually superior in firepower, speed and agility, and Finnish pilots avoided them unless the enemy was in a disadvantageous position.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: As a result of these tactics, the Finnish Air Force managed to shoot down 218 Soviet aircraft during the Winter War while losing only 47 to enemy fire. Finnish anti-aircraft guns also had 314 confirmed downed enemy planes. 30 Soviet planes were captured – these were "kills" that landed more or less intact within Finland and were quickly repaired.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Finnish Air Force found itself better prepared when the Continuation War against the Soviet Union started in 1941. It had been considerably strengthened and consisted of some 550 aircraft, though many were considered second-rate and thus "exportable" by their countries of origin. Finland purchased a large number of aircraft during the Winter War, but few of those had reached service during the short conflict. Politics had also played a role, since Hitler did not wish to antagonize the Soviet Union by allowing aircraft exports through German-controlled territory during the Winter War. In addition to Fokker fighters and Bristol Blenheim bombers built under license, new aircraft types were in place by the time hostilities with Soviet Union resumed in 1941. Small numbers of Hawker Hurricanes arrived from the United Kingdom, Morane-Saulnier M.S.406s from France, Fiat G.50s from Italy, and one liaison aircraft. Numerous Brewster F2A Buffaloes from the neutral USA strengthened the FAF. A few dozen Curtiss Hawk 75s captured by the Germans in France and Norway were sold to Finland when Germany began warming up its ties with Finland. Finns reconditioned captured Tupolev SBs, Ilyushin DB-3s, and Polikarpov I-153s for service.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The FAF proved capable of holding its own in the upcoming battles with the Red Air Force. Older models, such as the Fokker D.XXI and Gloster Gladiator, had been replaced with new aircraft in front-line combat units.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The FAF's main mission was to achieve air superiority over Finnish-held territory and to prevent Soviet air power from reinforcing the Red Army's front lines. The fighter squadrons proved very successful in the Finnish offensive of 1941. A stripped-down, more manoeuvrable, and significantly lightened version of the American Brewster Buffalo was the FAF's main fighter until 1943. Results with this fighter were very good, even though the type was considered to be a failure in the US Navy and with British and Dutch Far East forces. In Finnish use, the Brewster had a victory rate of 32:1 – 459 kills to 15 losses. German Bf 109s replaced the Brewster as the primary front-line fighter of the FAF in 1943, though the Buffalos continued in secondary roles until the end of the fighting. Other types, including the Italian Fiat G.50 and Curtiss Hawk 75, also proved capable in the hands of well-trained Finnish pilots. The principle reconnaissance type was the German Arado Ar 196, which had been purchased in 1943 and continued to serve throughout the war, though by mid-1944 the planes' pre-war roots were showing and were subsequently modified to a later A-5 model in an attempt to stave off obsolescence. Various Russian designs also saw action when lightly damaged "kills" were repaired and made airworthy.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: Dornier Do 17s (received as a gift from Hermann Göring in 1942) and Junkers Ju 88s improved the bombing capability of the Finnish Air Force. The bomber force was also strengthened with a number of captured Soviet bombers, which had been taken in large numbers by the Wehrmacht during Operation Barbarossa. The bomber units flew assorted missions with varying results, but a large part of their time was spent in training, waiting until the time came to use the aircraft. Thus the bomber squadrons of Flying Regiment 4 were ready for the summer battles of 1944, which included for example the Battle of Tali-Ihantala (June to July 1944).


title: Finnish Air Force

text: While the FAF was successful in its mission, conditions were not easy. Spare parts for the FAF planes were scarce — parts from the US (Buffalo and Hawk), Britain (Hurricanes), and Italy (G.50) were unavailable for much of the war. Repairs took often a long time, and the State Aircraft Factory was burdened with restoration/repair of captured Soviet planes and of foreign aircraft with many hours of flight time, and with the development of indigenous Finnish fighter types. Also, one damaged bomber took up workshop space equalling three fighters.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: Finland was required to expel or intern remaining German forces as part of its peace agreement with the Soviets in September 1944. As a result, the Finns' fought their final air battles against retreating Luftwaffe units.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Finnish Air Force did not bomb any civilian targets during either war. Curiously, overflying Soviet towns and bases was also forbidden, as to avoid any unneeded provocations and to spare equipment.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Finnish Air Force shot down 1,621 Soviet aircraft while losing 210 of its own aircraft during the Continuation War.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The end of World War II in 1945 and the Paris peace talks of 1947 brought about some limitations imposed on the FAF. For example, the Finnish Air Force could have:


title: Finnish Air Force

text: These revisions followed Soviet demands closely. When Britain, fearing that the provisions only augmented Soviet air-defences, tried to vary some of the conditions, the Soviets opposed such proposals. The revisions were again revised in 1963, and Finland was allowed to buy guided missiles and a few bombers that were used as target-tugs. The FAF also used a loop-hole to strengthen its capabilities by purchasing large numbers of two-seater aircraft, which counted as trainer aircraft and were not included in the revisions. These aircraft could have secondary roles.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: During the Cold War years ( to ), Finland tried to balance its purchases between east, west and domestic producers. This led to a diverse inventory of Soviet, British, Swedish, French and Finnish aircraft. After leading Finnish politicians held unofficial talks with their Swedish counterparts, Sweden began storing surplus Saab 35 Drakens, intended for transfer to Finland in the event of a war against the Soviet Union. This practice continued until the 1980s.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: On 22 September 1990, a week before the unification of Germany, Finland declared that the limiting treaties were no longer active and that all the provisions of the Paris Peace Treaties were nullified.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: In the 1990s, with the Cold War over, the Finnish Air Force ended its policy of purchasing Soviet/Russian aircraft and replaced the Saab Draken and MiG-21s in its fighter wing with US F/A-18C/D Hornets.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The current Hornet fleet is set to begin being phased out from 2025, and to be completely decommissioned by 2030. The Finnish MoD initiated its Hornet replacement programme in June 2015, and named it the "HX Fighter Program". A working group was created and it identified suitable aircraft.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The final decision for choosing the new Air Force jet is based on five key considerations, which are the multi-role fighter's military capability, security of supply, industrial cooperation solutions, procurement and life cycle costs, and security and defence policy implications. An extensive questionnaire had been sent out the producers asking what their products can offer Finland in form of capabilities, cost, security of supply and the domestic industry's role, as well as security and defence policy impacts.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The goal is to retain the numerical strength of the FAF fighter fleet, which means that the goal is to obtain some 64 aircraft. The MoD has estimated that the programme will cost somewhere between 7–10 billion Euros. In October 2019, the government of Finland stipulated a budget ceiling of for the HX fighter programme.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: In December 2015 the Finnish MoD sent a letter to Britain, France, Sweden and the US informing them that the fighter project had been launched in the Defence Forces. The request for information concerning the HX Fighter Program was sent in April 2016. Responses were received from all five participants in November 2016. The official Request for Quotation was sent in the spring of 2018. The goal is to start the fighter candidates’ environmental testing in Finland in 2019. The buying decision took place in 2021.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: On 10 December 2021, it was announced that F-35A was the winner of the HX program. It was also revealed that both Rafale and Typhoon had not gone through to the final round.


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The cost for 64 aircraft was , and the initial weapons package () and other associated costs (service equipment, reserve and replacement parts, training equipment and other systems and services were ) bringing the package to . Additionally are going to used to upgrade facilities, and are saved for later expenses, such as air-to-ground weapons, resulting in total expenses of , below the limit of . Costs per aircraft frame is .


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The aircraft are planned to be delivered between 2026 and 2030, and is expected to replace the F/A-18s during the period 2028–2030. The F-35s are intended to be in service until the 2070s. The FAF expects the annual operating costs not to exceed , which are the current operating costs for the F/A-18 fleet. The first weapons package will include AIM-9X Block II+ Sidewinder and AIM-120C-8 AMRAAM missiles, and later on air-to-ground weaponry will be obtained when they reach sufficient maturity and will match their shelf life with the introduction of the aircraft. The air-to-ground package might consist of GBU-53/B SDB II bombs, GBU-31 JDAM bombs, JSM and AGM-158B-2 JASSM-ER missiles, which all were offered in the deal. The DSCA notification also mentioned BLU-117, BLU-111 and BLU-109 bombs, as well as AGM-154C-1 Joint Stand Off Weapons (although the latter is unlikely as production is ending after 2023).


title: Finnish Air Force

text: The Air Force is organised into three air commands, each of which operates a fighter squadron. In addition, the Air Force includes a number of other units:


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: Reginald VelJohnson (born Reginald VelJohnson; August 16, 1952) is an American actor. He is best known for playing police officer characters, such as Carl Winslow on the sitcom "Family Matters," which ran from 1989 to 1998, and LAPD Sergeant Al Powell in the films "Die Hard" and "Die Hard 2".


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: VelJohnson was born Reginald Vel Johnson on August 16, 1952, in the Queens borough of New York City, the son of Eva, a nurse’s aid, and Dan, a hospital attendant. His father left the family, which included Reginald's brother Barry, when Johnson was 13 years old. Their mother subsequently married John Reilly. Johnson attended Benjamin N. Cardozo High School . He later obtained a Bachelor of Fine Arts in theater from New York University, where he had a chance to work with Joseph Papp's "Black/Hispanic Shakespeare Company", in which Morgan Freeman and CCH Pounder were among his fellow actors. Early in his acting career, he changed his name from Reginald Vel Johnson (his birth name) to Reginald VelJohnson. He later said he changed the spelling "because I wanted a name people would remember."


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: VelJohnson is known for playing police officers in films and on television. His early career included a brief appearance in "Ghostbusters" (1984) as a municipal corrections officer, and an appearance in "Crocodile Dundee" (1986) as a limo driver. VelJohnson played a police officer alongside Tom Hanks in "Turner & Hooch" (1989). He would also play an ambulance driver in "" (1985) in which he was credited by the stage name Ivory Ocean.


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: VelJohnson had his breakthrough role as Sgt. Al Powell in the 1988 film "Die Hard". VelJohnson was hired after Gene Hackman, originally hired to play the role, became unavailable, and producers decided to hire a relatively unknown actor for the part. He came from New York to California to film it for nine months, which was so long that he just ended up residing in California permanently thereafter. He also later reprised the character in the 1990 sequel "Die Hard 2". VelJohnson again portrayed Sgt. Powell in the GameCube video game title, "", in 2002.


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: In 1989, VelJohnson was cast as the memorable police officer and family patriarch Carl Winslow in the ABC (later CBS) sitcom "Family Matters," alongside Jo Marie Payton, who played his wife Harriette Winslow. It was a spinoff of the popular show "Perfect Strangers" on which he appeared only once, though Harriette appeared as a re-occurring guest star. He starred on the show until it ended in 1998.


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: Since the end of "Family Matters", VelJohnson has done mostly voice and guest star work. VelJohnson has also made guest appearances in several TV shows, including "The Equalizer", "", "Twice in a Lifetime", "Will & Grace", "Monk", "", "Eve", "Crossing Jordan", "The Parkers", "That's So Raven", and "Bones". He also had a minor role in the 2002 film "Like Mike".


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: In 2007, he appeared in the short films "Reverse", "Nerve Endings", and "Time Upon A Once" which were made during the reality show "On the Lot". The following year he appeared as the "Sgt. Al Powell" character from the "Die Hard" series in an episode of NBC's "Chuck" titled "Chuck Versus the Santa Claus", as the cousin of Big Mike (Mark Christopher Lawrence). In 2010, VelJohnson started a recurring role as Principal, later Superintendent, Strickland on the Disney sitcom "I'm in the Band" and also Funnyordie.com's short HBO film titled "Just 3 Boyz" starring Tim Heidecker, Eric Wareheim, and Zach Galifianakis. He has also appeared in the comedy film, "The Formula", starring alongside Brandon Baker and Sasha Jackson. He played air traffic controller Bob Abbot in the 2012 film "Air Collision".


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: In 2021 VelJohnson voiced Principal Winslow in the animated adaptation of the comic "Invincible". In both the comic and the television series the main character attends a high school named after the actor, and the character itself is named after his previous role of Carl Winslow from "Family Matters". VelJohnson also voices several minor characters in the series. He later reprised his role as David Sutton on Disney's "Turner & Hooch".


title: Reginald VelJohnson

text: As of 2009, VelJohnson had homes in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Los Angeles, and resided primarily in Oceanside, New York. He has never married and has no children.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat ( or ) is a fictional cat popularised by Lewis Carroll in "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" and known for its distinctive mischievous grin. While now most often used in "Alice"-related contexts, the association of a "Cheshire cat" with grinning predates the 1865 book. It has transcended the context of literature and become enmeshed in popular culture, appearing in various forms of media, from political cartoons to television, as well as in cross-disciplinary studies, from business to science. One distinguishing feature of the "Alice"-style Cheshire Cat involves a periodic gradual disappearance of its body, leaving only one last visible trace: its iconic grin.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The first known appearance of the expression in literature is in the 18th century, in Francis Grose's "A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue", Second, Corrected and Enlarged Edition (1788), which contains the following entry:


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The phrase appears again in print in John Wolcot's pseudonymous Peter Pindar's "Pair of Lyric Epistles" (1792):


title: Cheshire Cat

text: There are numerous theories about the origin of the phrase "grinning like a Cheshire Cat" in English history. A possible origin of the phrase is one favoured by the people of Cheshire, a county in England which boasts numerous dairy farms; hence the cats grin because of the abundance of milk and cream.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: According to "Brewer's Dictionary" (1870), "The phrase has never been satisfactorily accounted for, but it has been said that cheese was formerly sold in Cheshire moulded like a cat that looked as though it was grinning". The cheese was cut from the tail end, so that the last part eaten was the head of the smiling cat.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: A survey published in 2015 showed how highly fanciful were many purported explanations seen on the internet.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat is now largely identified with the character of the same name in Lewis Carroll's novel "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland". Alice first encounters the Cheshire Cat at the Duchess's house in her kitchen, and later on the branches of a tree, where it appears and disappears at will, and engages Alice in amusing but sometimes perplexing conversation. The cat sometimes raises philosophical points that annoy or baffle Alice; but appears to cheer her when it appears suddenly at the Queen of Hearts' croquet field; and when sentenced to death, baffles everyone by having made its head appear without its body, sparking a debate between the executioner and the King and Queen of Hearts about whether a disembodied head can indeed be beheaded. At one point, the cat disappears gradually until nothing is left but its grin, prompting Alice to remark that "she has often seen a cat without a grin but never a grin without a cat".


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The scholar David Day has proposed Lewis Carroll's cat was Edward Bouverie Pusey, Oxford professor of Hebrew and Carroll's mentor.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The name Pusey was suggested by Alice's deferential address of the cat as "Cheshire Puss". Pusey was an authority on the fathers of the Christian Church, and in Carroll's time Pusey was known as the Patristic Catenary (or chain), after the chain of authority of Church patriarchs.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: As a mathematician, Carroll would have been well familiar with the other meaning of catenary: the curve of a horizontally-suspended chain, which suggests the shape of the cat's grin.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: There is a suggestion that Carroll found inspiration for the name and expression of the Cheshire Cat in the 16th century sandstone carving of a grinning cat, on the west face of St Wilfrid's Church tower in Grappenhall, a village from his birthplace in Daresbury, Cheshire.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Carroll wrote in his memoirs that he "saw a Cheshire cat with a gigantic smile at Brimstage carved into the wall". This refers to a roughly-cut corbel in Brimstage Hall, Wirral (previously in Cheshire) which resembles a smiling cat. This is another possible inspiration for the character.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Lewis Carroll's father, Reverend Charles Dodgson, was Rector of Croft and Archdeacon of Richmond in North Yorkshire, England, from 1843 to 1868; Carroll lived here from 1843 to 1850. Some historians believe Lewis Carroll's Cheshire Cat in "Alice in Wonderland" was inspired by a carving in Croft church.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Another possible inspiration was the British Shorthair: Carroll saw a representative British Shorthair illustrated on a label of Cheshire cheese. The Cat Fanciers' Association profile reads: “When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a 'Cheshire cat smile'”.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In 1992, members of the Lewis Carroll Society attributed it to a gargoyle found on a pillar in St Nicolas's Church, Cranleigh, where Carroll used to travel frequently when he lived in Guildford (though this is doubtful, as he moved to Guildford some three years after "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" had been published) and a carving in a church in the village of Croft-on-Tees, in the north east of England, where his father had been rector.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Carroll is believed to have visited St Christopher's church in Pott Shrigley, Cheshire, which has a stone sculpture resembling the pictorial cat in the book.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat character has been re-depicted by other creators and used as the inspiration for new characters, primarily in screen media (film, television, video games) and print media (literature, comics, art). Other non-media contexts that embrace the Cheshire Cat include music, business, and science.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Prior to 1951 when Walt Disney released an animated adaptation of the story (see below), there were few post-Alice allusions to the character. Martin Gardner, author of "The Annotated Alice", wondered if T. S. Eliot had the Cheshire Cat in mind when writing "Morning at the Window", but notes no other significant allusions in the pre-war period.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Images of and references to the Cheshire Cat cropped up with increasing frequency in the 1960s and 1970s, along with more frequent references to Carroll's works in general. ("See generally" the lyrics to "White Rabbit" by the rock group Jefferson Airplane). The Cheshire Cat appeared on LSD blotters, as well as in song lyrics and popular fiction.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In Disney's 1951 animated film, "Alice in Wonderland", the Cheshire Cat is depicted as an intelligent and mischievous character that sometimes helps Alice and sometimes gets her into trouble. He frequently sings the first verse of the Jabberwocky poem. The animated character was voiced by Sterling Holloway ("Alice in Wonderland") and Jim Cummings (2004–present).


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In the 1985 television adaptation of Carroll's books, the Cheshire Cat is portrayed by Telly Savalas. He sings a morose song called "There's No Way Home", which simply drives Alice to try and find a way home even more.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In the 1999 television adaptation of Carroll's books, the Cheshire Cat is portrayed by Whoopi Goldberg. She acts as an ally and friend to Alice.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat appears in Walt Disney's 2010 "Alice in Wonderland", directed by Tim Burton. British actor Stephen Fry voices the character. In the film, Cheshire (as he is often called; or sometimes "Ches") binds the wound Alice suffered earlier by the Bandersnatch and guides her to Tarrant Hightopp, the Mad Hatter and Thackery Earwicket, the March Hare. He is blamed by the Hatter for desertion when the White Queen is deposed by the Red; but later impersonates the Hatter when the latter is sentenced to decapitation. Throughout his appearances, "Ches" is able to make himself intangible or weightless, as well as invisible (and thus to survive decapitation), and is usually depicted in mid-air, at shoulder-height to human-sized characters. In the video game adaptation of the movie, "Ches" is a playable character who can not only turn himself invisible, but other objects around him as well.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In October 2019, it was reported that an undetermined Cheshire Cat project is being developed by Disney for its streaming service, Disney+.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In "Alice's Wonderland Bakery", a series set several generations after the Disney film, the Cheshire Cat, voiced by Max Mittelman, is depicted as an immortal, being the only character besides the Doorknob not to be represented through a descendant.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: Each major film adaptation of Lewis Carroll's tale represents the Cheshire Cat character and his traits uniquely.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In addition to the Cheshire Cat's appearances in films central to its Lewis Carroll origins, the Cheshire Cat has been featured in other cinematic works. The late filmmaker Chris Marker gave his monumental documentary on the New Left movement of 1967–1977, "Le fond de l'air est rouge" (1977), the English title "Grin without a Cat". Like the original, it signifies that revolution was in the air, but failed to take root. In the film, it is also stated: "a spearhead without a spear, a grin without a cat". A later Marker film, "Chats perchés (2004) (The Case of the Grinning Cat" in English)"," examined the context of M. Chat street art in France"."


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat has been seen by television audiences in a broadcast spin-off. The Cheshire Cat appears in "Once Upon a Time in Wonderland" (a spin-off of "Once Upon a Time") voiced by Keith David. While looking for the Mad Hatter's house from the trees, Alice encounters the Cheshire Cat in giant form where the Red Queen had promised him that Alice would be good food for him. They end up engaging each other in combat until the Knave of Hearts arrives and throws a piece of one mushroom side into his mouth, which shrinks the Cat back to normal size, and he leaves.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat appears as an avatar character in the video games "American McGee's Alice" (2000); and the sequel "" (2011), the Cheshire Cat is portrayed as an enigmatic and snarky, yet wise guide for Alice in the corrupted Wonderland. In keeping with the twisted tone of the game, the Cheshire Cat is mangy and emaciated in appearance. His voice was provided by Roger L. Jackson, who also voiced the Mad Hatter and The Jabberwock in the game.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat appears in Sunsoft's 2006 mobile game , serving as the guide to Ariko (the "Alice" of the game) and helps her chase after The White Rabbit. In the game, Cheshire Cat is portrayed with a humanoid body and wears a long gray cloak with a red-string bell around his neck, leaving only his nose, razor-sharp teeth, and wide grin visible. In Wonderland, Cheshire Cat is the "Guide", an important role that makes him feared by the other residents, and is compelled by Ariko's inner will to help her unlock her suppressed, traumatic memories and overcome her suicidal depression. Later in the game, Cheshire Cat gets beheaded by the Queen Of Hearts, but is still alive and his body is able to move on its own. Due to the White Rabbit's deranged state, Cheshire Cat fulfills his role of absorbing Ariko's negative emotions, though the task puts a large strain on him.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: The Cheshire Cat appears in "Heart no Kuni no Alice", a dating sim game and its related media, as a young man named "Boris Airay", with cat-like attributes such as a tail and cat ears, and is one of the many love interests for Alice in Wonderland.


title: Cheshire Cat

text: In the third volume of "Shazam!", the Cheshire Cat is shown to live in the Magiclands location called the Wozenderlands. When the Scarecrow and the Munchkins were taking Billy Batson, Mary Bromfield, and C.C. Batson to Dorothy Gale, the Cheshire Cat appeared near the Blue Brick Road. He went on the attack only to be fought off by Shazam and Lady Shazam.


title: Forspoken

text: Forspoken is an upcoming action role-playing game developed by Luminous Productions and published by Square Enix. It is to be released on January 24, 2023, on PlayStation 5 and Windows.


title: Forspoken

text: According to director Takeshi Aramaki, the gameplay will be focused on terrain traversal speed and fluidity. Square Enix also described the game as a "narrative-driven adventure". The character will exist in an open world game format where players are able to travel anywhere at any time.


title: Forspoken

text: The player character, Frey, has access to a variety of magical spells. Following each combat encounter, the player will earn experience points. Frey's cloak can be upgraded in order to improve her combat efficiency and stats, while applying nail polish unlocks special abilities. The player can also craft new items, or rest at a safe location in order to restore health. While the player is exploring the game world, they may encounter a "breakstorm", a scenario similar to a horde mode in which waves of demonic creatures spawn and attack Frey. The storm will end with the appearance of a named boss character.


title: Forspoken

text: The protagonist, Frey Holland (Ella Balinska) is a young woman who is transported from New York City to the fantasy world of Athia. She uses magical powers to journey through it and survive in order to find her way home. Athia is under the tyrannical rule of the Tantas, which include Tanta Sila (Janina Gavankar) and Tanta Prave (Pollyanna McIntosh). Other characters include Frey's sentient bracelet Cuff (Jonathan Cake), the archivist Johedy (Keala Settle), and Auden (Monica Barbaro).


title: Forspoken

text: "Forspoken" is the debut project for Luminous Productions; the company was originally assembled from employees working on "Final Fantasy XV". Earlier in development, the game was known under the title "Project Athia". It is being developed to take advantage of the graphical capabilities of the PlayStation 5 and will also release for Windows. Technologies featured in the game include ray tracing for greatly enhanced lighting effects, and procedural generation for the creation of large-scale locations. Initially set to be released on May 24, 2022, Square Enix delayed its release to October 11, 2022, and then to January 24, 2023.


title: Forspoken

text: The game's writing team includes Gary Whitta, Amy Hennig, Allison Rymer, and Todd Stashwick. Bear McCreary and Garry Schyman are composing music for the game. The game will be a PlayStation 5 console exclusive for two years.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: Terms of Endearment is a 1983 American family comedy-drama film directed, written, and produced by James L. Brooks, adapted from Larry McMurtry's 1975 novel of the same name. It stars Debra Winger, Shirley MacLaine, Jack Nicholson, Danny DeVito, Jeff Daniels, and John Lithgow. The film covers 30 years of the relationship between Aurora Greenway (MacLaine) and her daughter Emma (Winger).


title: Terms of Endearment

text: "Terms of Endearment" was theatrically released in limited theatres on November 23, 1983 and to a wider release on December 9 by Paramount Pictures. The film received critical acclaim and was a major commercial success, grossing $165 million at the box office, becoming the second-highest-grossing film of 1983. The film received a leading eleven nominations at the 56th Academy Awards, and won five (more than any other film nominated that year): Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress (for MacLaine), Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Supporting Actor (for Nicholson). A sequel, "The Evening Star", was released in 1996.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: Widowed Aurora Greenway keeps several suitors at arm's length in River Oaks, Houston, focusing instead on her close, but controlling, relationship with daughter Emma. Anxious to escape her mother, Emma marries callow young college professor Flap Horton over her mother's objections. Despite their frequent spats and difficulty getting along with each other, Emma and Aurora have very close ties and keep in touch by telephone.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: Emma and Flap move to Iowa in order for him to pursue a career as an English professor, but they run into financial difficulties. Emma has three children, and over the course of the next few years the marriage begins to fray. While at the grocery store, Emma does not have the money to pay for her groceries and meets Sam Burns, who pays for them. They strike up a friendship and quickly an affair as Sam's wife refuses to have sex with him and Emma suspects Flap of infidelity. Meanwhile, the lonely Aurora overcomes her repression and begins a whirlwind romance with her next-door neighbor, retired astronaut Garrett Breedlove. Emma catches Flap flirting with one of his students and drives back to Texas immediately. There, Garrett develops cold feet about his relationship with Aurora and breaks it off. While Emma is gone, Flap decides to take a promotion in Nebraska, Emma and the children return to Iowa and they move there.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: Emma finds out Flap moved them to Nebraska so he could work with his girlfriend. Emma is diagnosed with cancer, which becomes terminal. Aurora and Flap stay by Emma's side through her treatment and hospitalization. Garrett flies to Nebraska to be with Aurora and the family during this. The dying Emma shows her love for her mother by entrusting her children to Aurora's care.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: Brooks wrote the supporting role of Garrett Breedlove for Burt Reynolds, who turned down the role because of a verbal commitment he had made to appear in "Stroker Ace". "There are no awards in Hollywood for being an idiot", Reynolds later said of the decision. Harrison Ford and Paul Newman also turned down the role.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: The exterior shots of Aurora Greenway's home were filmed at 3060 Locke Lane, Houston, Texas. The exterior shots of locations intended to be in Des Moines, Iowa and Kearney, Nebraska were instead filmed in Lincoln, Nebraska. Many scenes were filmed on, or near, the campus of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. While filming in Lincoln, the state capital, Winger met then-governor of Nebraska Bob Kerrey; the two wound up dating for two years.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: MacLaine and Winger reportedly did not get along with each other during production. MacLaine confirmed in an interview that "it was a very tough shoot ... Chaotic...(Jim) likes working with tension on the set."


title: Terms of Endearment

text: On working with Nicholson, MacLaine said, "Working with Jack Nicholson was crazy", but that his spontaneity may have contributed to her performance. She also said,We're like old smoothies working together. You know the old smoothies they used to show whenever you went to the Ice Follies. They would have this elderly man and woman – who at that time were 40 – and they had a little bit too much weight around the waist and were moving a little slower. But they danced so elegantly and so in synch with each other that the audience just laid back and sort of sighed. That's the way it is working with Jack. We both know what the other is going to do. And we don't socialize, or anything. It's an amazing chemistry – a wonderful, wonderful feeling.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: MacLaine also confirmed in an interview with "USA Today" that Nicholson improvised when he put his hand down her dress in the beach scene.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: "Terms of Endearment" was commercially successful. On its opening weekend, it grossed $3.4 million, ranking number two at the US box office, until its second weekend, when it grossed $3.1 million, ranking number one at the box office. Three weekends later, it arrived number one again, with $9,000,000, having wide release. For four weekends, it remained number one at the box office, until slipping to number two on its tenth weekend. On the film's 11th weekend, it arrived number one (for the sixth and final time), grossing $3,000,000. For the last weekends of the film, it later dwindled downward. The film grossed $108,423,489 in the United States and Canada and $165 million worldwide.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: "Terms of Endearment" received critical acclaim at the time of its release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an 81% approval rating based on 106 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.8/10. The site's consensus reads: "A classic tearjerker, "Terms of Endearment" isn't shy about reaching for the heartstrings – but is so well-acted and smartly scripted that it's almost impossible to resist." Metacritic reports a score of 79/100 based on reviews from ten critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews".


title: Terms of Endearment

text: Roger Ebert gave the film a four-out-of-four star rating, calling it "a wonderful film" and stating, "There isn't a thing that I would change, and I was exhilarated by the freedom it gives itself to move from the high comedy of Nicholson's best moments to the acting of Debra Winger in the closing scenes." Gene Siskel, who gave the film a highly enthusiastic review, correctly predicted upon its release that it would go on to win the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1983.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: In his movie guide, Leonard Maltin awarded the film a rare four-star rating, calling it a "Wonderful mix of humor and heartache", and concluded the film was "Consistently offbeat and unpredictable, with exceptional performances by all three stars".


title: Terms of Endearment

text: As of July 2022, Nicholson is one of the few supporting actors to ever sweep "The Big Four" critics awards (LA, NBR, NY, NSFC) for his performance of Garrett Breedlove.


title: Terms of Endearment

text: A sequel to the film, "The Evening Star" (1996), in which MacLaine and Nicholson reprised their roles, was a critical and commercial failure.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Calcium hydroxide (traditionally called slaked lime) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca(OH). It is a colorless crystal or white powder and is produced when quicklime (calcium oxide) is mixed or slaked with water. It has many names including hydrated lime, caustic lime, builders' lime, slaked lime, cal, and pickling lime. Calcium hydroxide is used in many applications, including food preparation, where it has been identified as E number E526. Limewater, also called milk of lime, is the common name for a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Calcium hydroxide is poorly soluble in water, with a retrograde solubility increasing from 0.66 g/L at 100 °C to 1.89 g/L at 0 °C. With a solubility product "K" of 5.02 at 25 °C, its dissociation in water is large enough that its solutions are basic according to the following dissolution reaction:


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: At ambient temperature, calcium hydroxide (portlandite) dissolves in pure water to produce an alkaline solution with a pH of about 12.5. Calcium hydroxide solutions can cause chemical burns. At high pH values due to a common-ion effect with the hydroxide anion , its solubility drastically decreases. This behavior is relevant to cement pastes. Aqueous solutions of calcium hydroxide are called limewater and are medium-strength bases, which react with acids and can attack some metals such as aluminium (amphoteric hydroxide dissolving at high pH), while protecting other metals, such as iron and steel, from corrosion by passivation of their surface. Limewater turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide due to the formation of insoluble calcium carbonate, a process called carbonatation:


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: When heated to 512 °C, the partial pressure of water in equilibrium with calcium hydroxide reaches 101kPa (normal atmospheric pressure), which decomposes calcium hydroxide into calcium oxide and water:


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Calcium hydroxide adopts a polymeric structure, as do all metal hydroxides. The structure is identical to that of Mg(OH) ("brucite structure"); i.e., the cadmium iodide motif. Strong hydrogen bonds exist between the layers.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: In the laboratory it can be prepared by mixing aqueous solutions of calcium chloride and sodium hydroxide. The mineral form, portlandite, is relatively rare but can be found in some volcanic, plutonic, and metamorphic rocks. It has also been known to arise in burning coal dumps.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: According to Hopkins and Wulff (1965), the decrease of calcium hydroxide solubility with temperature was known since the works of Marcellin Berthelot (1875) and Julius Thomsen (1883) (see Thomsen–Berthelot principle), when the presence of ions in aqueous solutions was still questioned. Since, it has been studied in detail by many authors, a.o., Miller and Witt (1929) or Johnston and Grove (1931) and refined many times ("e.g.", Greenberg and Copeland (1960); Hopkins and Wulff (1965); Seewald and Seyfried (1991); Duchesne and Reardon (1995)).


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: The reason for this rather uncommon behavior is that the dissolution of calcium hydroxide in water is an exothermic process. Thus, according to Le Chatelier's principle, a lowering of temperature favours the elimination of the heat liberated through the process of dissolution and increases the equilibrium constant of dissolution of Ca(OH), and so increases its solubility at low temperature. This counter-intuitive temperature dependence of the solubility is referred to as "retrograde" or "inverse" solubility. The variably hydrated phases of calcium sulfate (gypsum, bassanite and anhydrite) also exhibit a retrograde solubility for the same reason because their dissolution reactions are exothermic.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: One significant application of calcium hydroxide is as a flocculant, in water and sewage treatment. It forms a fluffy charged solid that aids in the removal of smaller particles from water, resulting in a clearer product. This application is enabled by the low cost and low toxicity of calcium hydroxide. It is also used in fresh-water treatment for raising the pH of the water so that pipes will not corrode where the base water is acidic, because it is self-regulating and does not raise the pH too much.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Another large application is in the paper industry, where it is an intermediate in the reaction in the production of sodium hydroxide. This conversion is part of the "causticizing" step in the Kraft process for making pulp. In the causticizing operation, burned lime is added to "green liquor", which is a solution primarily of sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate produced by dissolving "smelt", which is the molten form of these chemicals from the recovery furnace.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: In orchard crops, calcium hydroxide is used as a fungicide. Applications of 'lime water' prevent the development of cankers caused by the fungal pathogen "Neonectria galligena". The trees are sprayed when they are dormant in winter to prevent toxic burns from the highly reactive calcium hydroxide. This use is authorised in the European Union and the United Kingdom under Basic Substance regulations.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Because of its low toxicity and the mildness of its basic properties, slaked lime is widely used in the food industry:


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: In Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, the word for calcium hydroxide is "nextli". In a process called "nixtamalization", maize is cooked with nextli to become , also known as hominy. Nixtamalization significantly increases the bioavailability of niacin (vitamin B3), and is also considered tastier and easier to digest. Nixtamal is often ground into a flour, known as "masa", which is used to make tortillas and tamales.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: In chewing coca leaves, calcium hydroxide is usually chewed alongside to keep the alkaloid stimulants chemically available for absorption by the body. Similarly, Native Americans traditionally chewed tobacco leaves with calcium hydroxide derived from burnt mollusc shells to enhance the effects. It has also been used by some indigenous American tribes as an ingredient in "yopo", a psychedelic snuff prepared from the beans of some "Anadenanthera" species.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Calcium hydroxide is typically added to a bundle of areca nut and betel leaf called "paan" to keep the alkaloid stimulants chemically available to enter the bloodstream via sublingual absorption.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: It is used in making "naswar" (also known as "nass" or "niswar"), a type of dipping tobacco made from fresh tobacco leaves, calcium hydroxide ("chuna" or "soon"), and wood ash. It is consumed most in the Pathan diaspora, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Villagers also use calcium hydroxide to paint their mud houses in Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.


title: Calcium hydroxide

text: Unprotected exposure to Ca(OH) can cause severe skin irritation, chemical burns, blindness, lung damage or rashes.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The curse of Cain and the mark of Cain are phrases that originated in the story of Cain and Abel in the Book of Genesis. In the stories, if someone harmed Cain, the damage would come back sevenfold. Some interpretations view this as a physical mark, whereas other interpretations see the "mark" as a sign, and not as a physical mark on Cain himself. The King James Version of the Bible reads "set a mark upon Cain."


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: There is no clear consensus as to what Cain's mark was. The word translated as "mark" in Genesis 4:15 is ("’ōṯ"), which could mean a sign, omen, warning, remembrance, motion, gesture, agreement, miracle, wonder, or, most commonly, a letter. In the Torah, the same word is used to describe the stars as signs or omens (Genesis 1:14), the rainbow as the sign of God's promise never again to destroy his creation with a flood (Genesis 9:12), circumcision as a token of God's covenant with Abraham (Genesis 17:11), and the miracles performed by Moses before the Pharaoh (Exodus 4:8,9,17,28; 7:3; 8:23; 10:1,2).


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The narrative of the curse of Cain is found in the text of . The curse was the result of Cain murdering his brother, Abel, and lying about the murder to God. When Cain spilled his brother's blood, the earth became cursed as soon as the blood hit the ground. In a sense, the earth was left "drinking Abel's blood". gives a two-part sentencing for Cain's curse. The first concerns the earth that was cursed by Abel's blood. Should Cain attempt to farm the land, the earth would not yield produce for him. This may imply why he went on to build cities, namely the City of Enoch. The second part of the curse marks Cain as a fugitive () and a wanderer (). The combination making up this Hebrew phrase , "fugitive and wanderer," is unique in the Hebrew Bible. Modern interpretations of the Hebrew verse 12 suggest that Cain went on to live a nomadic lifestyle and that he was also excluded from the family unit. In the Septuagint, the emphasis on Cain's curse is dramatically increased by the combination of the Greek participles στένων καὶ τρέμων ("groaning and shaking upon the earth"). Syriac Christianity interprets the Greek version to mean that Cain experienced a real physical affliction that would enable others to know who he was when they saw him. Philo interprets the Greek verse 12 as an allegory for Cain's fear of being soulless. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Targums translate the same verse to mean that Cain feared being "an exile and an unstable man".


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The Hebrew word for "mark" ("<nowiki>'</nowiki>Oth", ) could mean a sign, an omen, a warning, or a remembrance. The "mark of Cain" is God's promise to offer Cain divine protection from premature death with the stated purpose of preventing anyone from killing him. It is not known what the mark was, but it is assumed that the mark was visible. Some have speculated that the mark was a Hebrew or Sumerian letter placed on either the face or the arm. The Septuagint translates the "mark" as a "sign." Thus, it is speculated that the mark served as a "sign" to others not to commit the same offense.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: Abba Arika ("Rav") said that God gave Cain a dog, making him an example for murderers. Abba Jose ben Hanan said that God made a horn grow out of Cain. R. Hanin said that God made Cain an example to penitents ("Gen. Rab." 22:12).


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: Rashi comments on Genesis 4:15 by saying that the mark was one of the Hebrew letters of the Tetragrammaton:


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: In Kabbalah, the Zohar states that the mark of Cain was one of the twenty-two Hebrew letters of the Torah, although the Zohar's native Aramaic does not actually tell us which of the letters it was. Some commentators, such as Rabbi Michael Berg in his English commentary on the Zohar, suggest that the mark of Cain was the letter vav.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: According to author Ruth Mellinkoff, commentators' interpretations of the nature of the "mark" depended on their views regarding the status of Cain, as either being given additional time to repent or as being further shamed.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: At some point after the start of the slave trade in the United States, many Protestant denominations began teaching the belief that the mark of Cain was a dark skin tone in an attempt to justify their actions, although early descriptions of Romani as "descendants of Cain" written by Franciscan friar Symon Semeonis suggest that this belief had existed for some time. Protestant preachers wrote exegetical analyses of the curse, with the assumption that it was dark skin.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The split between the Northern and Southern Baptist organizations arose over doctrinal issues pertaining to slavery and the education of slaves. At the time of the split, the Southern Baptist group used the curse of Cain as a justification for slavery. Some 19th- and 20th-century Baptist ministers in the Southern United States taught the belief that there were two separate heavens; one for Black people, and one for White people. Southern Baptists either taught or practiced various forms of racial segregation well into the mid-20th century, though members of all races were accepted at worship services. In 1995, the Southern Baptist Convention officially denounced racism and apologized for its past defense of slavery.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The curse of Cain was used to support a ban on ordaining Black people to most Protestant clergies until the 1960s in both the United States and Europe. The majority of Christian churches in the world, including the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox churches, Anglican churches, and Oriental Orthodox churches, did not recognize these interpretations and did not participate in the religious movement to support them. Certain Catholic dioceses in the Southern United States adopted a policy of not ordaining Black people to oversee, administer the sacraments to, or accept confessions from White parishioners. This policy was not based on a "curse of Cain" teaching, but was justified by the widely held perception that slaves should not rule over their masters. However, this was not approved of by the Pope or by any papal teaching.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The Curse of Cain was often conflated with the Curse of Ham. According to the Bible, Ham discovered his father Noah drunk and naked in his tent, but instead of honoring his father by covering his nakedness, he ran and told his brothers about it. It is also believed Ham had sexual relations with his unconscious father. Because of this, Noah cursed Ham's son, Canaan by saying that he was to be "a servant of servants" (). One interpretation of this passage states that Ham married a descendant of Cain. While there is no indication in the Bible of Ham's wife descending from Cain, this interpretation was used to justify slavery and it was particularly popular in North America during the Atlantic slave trade.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: Mormonism began during the height of Protestant acceptance of the curse of Cain doctrine in North America, as well as the even more popular curse of Ham doctrine. Like many North Americans, Mormons of the 19th century commonly assumed that Black Africans had Cain's "mark" of black skin, and Ham's curse to be servants of servants. Joseph Smith and Brigham Young both taught that Black people were cursed descendents of Cain, and used it to justify slavery In the Pearl of Great Price, considered scripture to most Mormons, Enoch talks about shunning the descendants of Cain and that they had black skin: "And Enoch also beheld the residue of the people which were the sons of Adam; and they were a mixture of all the seed of Adam save it was the seed of Cain, for the seed of Cain were black, and had not place among them." () Church president Brigham Young stated, "What is the mark? You will see it on the countenance of every African you ever did see..."


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: As related by Abraham O. Smoot after his death, apostle David W. Patten said he encountered a Black man in Paris, Tennessee, who said that he was Cain. The account states that Cain had earnestly sought death but was denied it, and that his mission was to destroy the souls of men. The recollection of Patten's story is quoted in apostle Spencer W. Kimball's "The Miracle of Forgiveness".


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: Although not explicitly stated in Latter-day Saint scripture, at least one publication of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) still teaches that Ham's wife was a descendant of Cain. The "Guide to the Scriptures," published as an explanatory companion to the scriptures, states "Ham’s wife, Egyptus, was a descendant of Cain; the sons of their daughter Egyptus settled in Egypt".


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: There is evidence that Joseph Smith did not consider the ban on Black men to the priesthood to be relevant in modern times, since he himself (and other church leaders close to him) ordained Black men into it, notably Elijah Abel and Walker Lewis.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: After the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young (the second President of the Church) accepted the idea that people of African ancestry were generally under the curse of Cain, and in 1852, he stated that people of Black African descent were not eligible to hold the church's priesthood. Young taught that in the war in heaven, both Cain and Abel were leaders. The spirits of Black people fought under Cain and were assigned to be Cain's descendants. Those that fought under Abel were assigned to be Abel's descendants. Cain hoped that by killing his brother, the spirits that were under him would have an advantage over the spirits under Abel. However, God cursed Cain and his descendants not to have the priesthood until all of Abel's descendants had the priesthood. The spirits of Black people understood this and stood with Cain and accepted the punishment.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The ban on the priesthood affected Black members differently than it did in other churches because the LDS Church has a lay priesthood in which virtually all worthy male members become priesthood holders.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: Several of Young's successors defended the priesthood ban as being a result of the curse of Cain, though some disagreed. Sterling M. McMurrin reported that, in 1954, church president David O. McKay said: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. We believe that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it."


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: In 1978, LDS Church president Spencer W. Kimball reported receiving a revelation from God allowing all worthy male members of the church to receive the priesthood without regard to race or color. Although the church had previously been criticized for its policy during the civil rights movement, the change seems to have been prompted by problems facing mixed-race converts in Brazil.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: There has neither been an official or an explicit church repudiation of its policy, nor has there been a statement made that it was a mistake. Many Black church members think that giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst for further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says: "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating: "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology [...] We're the result of an apology." Many Black Mormons say that they are willing to look beyond the former teachings and cleave to the doctrines of the church, in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: The LDS Church has issued an official statement about past practices and theories regarding skin color, stating: "[t]oday, the Church disavows the theories advanced in the past that black skin is a sign of divine disfavor or curse, [...] Church leaders today unequivocally condemn all racism, past and present, in any form."


title: Curse and mark of Cain

text: When Utah was considering slavery, Brigham Young told the Utah Territorial Legislature that the curse of Cain required slavery. He argued that until all of the descendants of Abel have access to the priesthood, all of the descendants of Cain should remain in servitude. He argued that because they did not have the right to govern the affairs of the Church due to the priesthood ban, they also should not have the right to govern the affairs of the state, including the right to vote. He warned that if they made the children of Cain equal to them, they would be cursed. He also argued that if someone married a descendant of Cain, that they would also have the same curse. The church has since repudiated all of these teachings.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Ralph Lauren Corporation is an American publicly traded fashion company that was founded in 1967 by American fashion designer Ralph Lauren. The company is headquartered in New York City, producing products ranging from the mid-range to the luxury segments. They are known for marketing and distributing products in four categories: apparel, home, accessories, and fragrances. The company's brands include the mid-range Chaps brand, to the sub-premium Lauren Ralph Lauren brand, to the premium Polo Ralph Lauren, Double RL, Ralph Lauren Childrenswear, and Denim & Supply Ralph Lauren brands, up to the full luxury Ralph Lauren Purple Label and Ralph Lauren Collection brands. Ralph Lauren licenses its name and branding to Luxottica for eyewear; L'Oréal for fragrances and cosmetics; Hanesbrands for underwear and sleepwear; Kohl's and Hollander Sleep Products for bedding; Designers Guild for fabric and wallpaper; and EJ Victor for home furniture.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Ralph Lauren was one of several design leaders raised in the Jewish community in the Bronx, along with Calvin Klein and Robert Denning.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Lauren started The Ralph Lauren Corporation in 1967 with men's ties. At 28 years-old, Lauren worked for the tie manufacturer Beau Brummell. He persuaded the company's president to let him start his own line. Drawing on his interests in sports, Lauren named his first full line of menswear "Polo" in 1968. He worked out of a single "drawer" from a showroom in the Empire State Building and made deliveries to stores himself.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: By 1969, the Manhattan department store Bloomingdale's sold Lauren's men line exclusively. It was the first time that Bloomingdale's had given a designer his own in-store shop. In 1971, Ralph Lauren Corporation launched a line of tailored shirts for women, introducing the Polo player emblem on the shirt cuff. The first full women's collection was launched the following year.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: 1972 marked the opening of Ralph Lauren's store on Rodeo Drive in Beverly Hills, California, his first freestanding store. In 1972, Lauren released a short-sleeve cotton shirt in 24 colors. This design, emblazoned with the company's famed logo—that of a polo player, became the brand's signature look. In 1977 Ralph Lauren Corporation introduced a signature cotton mesh polo shirt in various colours, featuring the polo player logo on the chest.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 1974, Ralph Lauren outfitted the male cast of "The Great Gatsby" in costumes chosen from his Polo line - a 1920s-style series of men's suits and sweaters, except for the pink suit which Lauren designed especially for Robert Redford’s "Jay Gatsby". In 1977, Diane Keaton and Woody Allen wore Lauren's clothes in the Oscar-winning film, "Annie Hall".


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 1978, the first Ralph Lauren fragrances, produced by Warner-Lauren, Ltd were launched at Bloomingdale's. Lauren for women, and Polo the men's cologne. This was the first time that a designer introduced two fragrances – one for men and one for women – simultaneously.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: The company entered the European market and went international in 1981 with the opening of the first freestanding store in New Bond Street in the West End of London, England. Lauren opened his first flagship in the Rhinelander mansion on Madison Avenue and 72nd Street in New York City in 1986. On June 12, 1997, the company becomes a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: The 98-seat restaurant, RL, opened in March 1999 in Chicago adjacent to its largest and world flagship Ralph Lauren store at the corner of Chicago and Michigan Avenues on the Magnificent Mile. It was followed by the opening of two additional restaurants – Ralph's at 173 Boulevard Saint Germain Paris store in 2010 and The Polo Bar at Polo's store in New York in 2015.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: The company launched its website and online shop in 2000 as polo.com by RL Media (a cooperation between Ralph Lauren and NBC). In 2007, Ralph Lauren Corporation acquired the NBC share of RL Media and the website was relaunched as ralphlauren.com. In September 2015, it was announced that Stefan Larsson would replace the company's founder, Ralph Lauren, as CEO in November. Lauren stayed on as executive chairman and chief creative officer.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In February 2017, it was announced that Larsson had agreed to leave his position as CEO effective May 1, 2017 due to differences with Lauren. On May 17, 2017, Ralph Lauren named Patrice Louvet President and Chief Executive Officer. Louvet most recently served as Group President, Global Beauty at Procter & Gamble (P&G). He took over on July 17, 2017.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In October 2020, Ralph Lauren Corporation announced that it would transition its Chaps brand to a fully licensed business model to focus on its core brands, reduce its direct exposure to the North American department store channel, and setting up the Chaps brand to be nurtured with an experienced partner. Also in October, Ralph Lauren Corporation has appointed former Obama administration consultant Valerie Jarrett to the board of directors.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In May 2021, Ralph Lauren Corporation announced it would sell its Club Monaco brand to private equity firm Regent LP.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: The Company ended Fiscal 2016 with 493 directly operated stores: 144 Ralph Lauren stores, 77 Club Monaco stores and 272 Polo factory stores. The company also operated 583 concession shop locations worldwide at the end of the year.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In addition to Company-operated locations, international licensing partners operated 93 Ralph Lauren stores and 42 dedicated shops, as well as 133 Club Monaco stores and shops at the end of Fiscal 2016.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Ralph Lauren operates its representative flagship stores in New York City on Madison Avenue – for menswear in the former Rhinelander Mansion, and for womenswear and home in another structure, across the street, which opened in 2010. The company also manages flagships, for retailing Ralph Lauren collections, in Chicago, Manhasset, Greenwich (USA), London, Milan, Tokyo, Moscow, Kyiv and Paris.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2005, The United States Tennis Association selects Ralph Lauren Corporation as the official apparel sponsor for the U.S. Open. As part of the partnership, all on-court ball persons and officials were dressed in specially-designed Ralph Lauren apparel. This was Polo's first tennis sponsorship.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2006, Ralph Lauren Corporation became the official outfitter of Wimbledon. Lauren is the first designer in the tennis tournament's history to be chosen to create uniforms for all on-court officials.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Ralph Lauren Corporation is the exclusive Official Parade Outfitter for the U.S. Olympic and Paralympic Teams, with the right to manufacture, distribute, advertise, promote, and sell products in the U.S. which replicate the Parade Outfits and associated leisure wear. The company has established a partnership with athletes serving as brand ambassadors and as the faces of the advertising, marketing, and public relations campaigns.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Ralph Lauren Corporation partners with the United States Olympic Committee to become an Official Outfitter of the U.S. Olympic Team, for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, 2012 Summer Olympics in London, 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi and 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Ralph Lauren designs the official Opening Ceremony and Closing Ceremony parade outfits for the U.S. teams in addition to an assortment of village-wear apparel and accessories.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Previously, the corporation received negative press when it was found to have sourced the clothing it supplied to the 2012 athletes from China, so it vowed to source everything it produced for the 2014 Olympics from the US. Kraemer Textiles Inc. spun around 6,000 pounds of Merino wool yarn from Imperial Stock Ranch in Oregon, which was then sent to Longview Yarns in North Carolina to be dyed. The clothing assembly was completed by Ball of Cotton in California. Ultimately, 40 American vendors were involved with production.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 1989, it co-founded the Nina Hyde Center for Breast Cancer Research at Georgetown University Hospital in Washington D.C. in memory of the late Post fashion correspondent.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 1994, Ralph Lauren acted as chairman and creates the name and symbol for Fashion Targets Breast Cancer, a charitable initiative of the CFDA that marshals the goodwill and services of the fashion industry to raise public awareness and funds for breast cancer internationally.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2000, Ralph Lauren Corporation launched its Volunteer Program, which energises employees and creates meaningful connections with the communities in which they work.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: On September 15, 2000, Ralph Lauren Corporation launched the Pink Pony Campaign, a national initiative to reduce disparities in cancer care by raising awareness as well as enhancing prevention, screening, and treatment in poor and underserved communities.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2001, the Polo Ralph Lauren Foundation established the American Heroes Fund following September 11 to allow Polo's 10,000 employees worldwide, as well as their customers, the opportunity to participate in the relief effort.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2003, Ralph Lauren established the Ralph Lauren Center for Cancer Care and Prevention in Harlem. The center is a collaboration between Ralph Lauren, Memorial Sloan-Kettering, and North General Hospital in Harlem, New York City.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2004, the Polo Fashion School was established, in which company executives work with inner-city youth to offer insights into the fashion business.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Established in 2006, the Polo Jeans G.I.V.E. (Get Involved Volunteer Exceed) campaign was created to inspire and encourage community service through volunteerism by supporting the efforts of dedicated volunteers and their causes.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2008, the Star-Spangled Banner, the original 1813 flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write the National Anthem, was preserved by a $10 million contribution to Save America's Treasures from Polo Ralph Lauren in 1998. The flag was then unveiled on Wednesday, November 19, 2008, in a new gallery at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, in Washington D.C.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In July 2013, Ralph Lauren Corporation announced its commitment to restore the elite École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, one of the most influential art schools in France.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2014, Ralph Lauren Corporation partnered with The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, the largest and most comprehensive cancer center in Europe, to develop a world-class breast cancer research facility. In 2016, Ralph Lauren Corporation opened the Royal Marsden Ralph Lauren Center for Breast Cancer Research.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In March 2020, Ralph Lauren Corporation donated $10m and started making isolation gowns and medical masks to support the COVID-19 fight.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In May 2022, The Ralph Lauren Foundation announced $25 million worth of commitments to fund, expand or establish five Ralph Lauren cancer centers. The commitment will benefit institutions with a National Cancer institute (NCI) designation, including Georgetown Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, the Memorial Sloan Kettering (MSK) ralph Lauren Center and three additional locations.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: Levi Strauss & Co. filed a lawsuit against Abercrombie & Fitch and the RL Corporation in July 2007 for trademark infringement. It alleged that the separate retailers used Levi's trademarked pocket design of connected arches in the design of some of their respective products.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: The Polo brand sold in South Africa is not affiliated with the Ralph Lauren brand. An independent South African company trademarked the Polo name and logo in South Africa.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In 2009, Ralph Lauren apologized for digitally retouching a photograph of model Filippa Hamilton to make her look thinner. Hamilton also claims that she was fired by the company a few days later.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: After branding the sale of sweaters online as "Cowichan", it was reported that Cowichan Tribes would take "steps to communicate with Ralph Lauren and ensure that our product and name is protected". A petition through Change.org was set up to encourage Ralph Lauren to take action. This resulted in the product line being taken out of circulation and all mention of the name was removed from the Ralph Lauren website; there have been no further complaints from the Cowichan Tribe since.


title: Ralph Lauren Corporation

text: In March 2022, Howard Smith, Ralph Lauren Corp.'s chief commercial officer, resigned after a board investigation found that his actions had breached the company's code of conduct. The apparel said it “learned of concerns about Mr. Smith's personal behavior recently”, and the board of directors' audit committee initiated an independent investigation with the help of outside counsel. The firm didn't go into detail about the claims but said the inquiry found that Mr. Smith's actions broke the company's code of conduct and ethics and that his resignation was required.


title: 6666 Ranch

text: The 6666 Ranch (also known as the Four Sixes Ranch or Quad Sixes) is a ranch in King County, Texas as well as Carson County and Hutchinson County.


title: 6666 Ranch

text: The main section of the ranch is located near the town of Guthrie in King County, Texas. It spans 350,000 acres of land. The main ranch house is off U.S. Highway 82. The Dixon Creek section spans 108,000 acres of land in Carson and Hutchinson counties. The Dixon Creek runs through this section of the ranch near Panhandle, Texas.


title: 6666 Ranch

text: The ranch was established by Samuel Burk Burnett in 1900 after he purchased the land from the Louisville Land and Cattle Company. Legend has it that he won the ranch from a card game, where he scored four sixes. However, Burnett and his descendants have denied this folklore tale. Instead, the name comes from the first herd he raised on the ranch, which was branded "6666".


title: 6666 Ranch

text: Burnett raised purebred Herefords and Durham bulls, which won national prizes at livestock shows all over the United States. He also bred purebred quarter horses. In 1918, 2,000 head of cattle were killed by a blizzard. Three years later, in 1921, oil was found on the ranch, thus turning it into a very profitable enterprise.


title: 6666 Ranch

text: After Burnett's death in 1920, the ranch was inherited by his granddaughter, Anne Valliant Burnett Tandy. She purchased Grey Badger II and Hollywood Gold, two show horses which lived on the ranch. By 1936, there were 20,000 Hereford cattle on the ranch. In the 1960s and 1970s, the barn on the ranch was used in advertisements for Marlboro, the cigarette brand. In 1975, scenes of the movie "Mackintosh and T.J." were filmed on the ranch.


title: 6666 Ranch

text: In 1980, the ranch was passed on to Burnett's great-granddaughter, Anne Windfohr Marion, and his great-great-granddaughter, Wendi Grimes. Marion co-managed the ranch with her fourth husband, John L. Marion. They have bred Brangus cattle with Herefords to produce the Black Baldy, a cattle breed resistant to cedar flies. A hundred broodmares are bred on the ranch every year.