title: Badshah (rapper)

text: His 2019 song "Paagal" reached 74.8 million views on YouTube within 24 hours, setting the record for the most-viewed video in 24 hours on YouTube. BTS fans claimed that the artist had bought the views to cross the global record due to his low number of likes in the first 24 hours, but YouTube did not confirm whether the views are real or fake. The song also did not appear in the 100-position Global Top Music Videos chart for the week. However, Badshah denied it was fake views, but admitted his record label Sony Music India bought paid Google Ads.


title: Badshah (rapper)

text: An explanation for YouTube not acknowledging the record was that Badshah's record label Sony Music India had purchased advertisements from Google and YouTube that embedded the video or directed fans to it in some way. However, it has emerged that this is a common practice in the global music industry, and that similar practices had previously been used by the record labels of previous record holders such as Ariana Grande and Blackpink. This has cast doubt on some of the 24-hour viewership records on YouTube.


title: Badshah (rapper)

text: His song "Genda Phool" was released by Sony Music India in 2020. It had mixing with a Bengali folk song "Boro Loker Biti Lo". Ratan Kahar, a Bengali artist, claimed to be the original writer and composer of the folk song. Though Badshah later released a statement saying that it was a traditional Baul folk song which was not copyrighted, since folk music does not fall under copyright protections and is thus in the public domain.


title: Badshah (rapper)

text: He again collaborated with Jacqueline Fernandez in the song "Pani Pani", the song is sung by Aastha Gill along with him. The song was instant hit and has been viewed more than 500 million times on YouTube. He further released the Bhojpuri version of the song by collaborating with Khesari Lal Yadav. He rapped in the song in Bhojpuri language. The Bhojpuri version got more in One million views in less than an hour and became first Bhojpuri song to do so.


title: Badshah (rapper)

text: Badshah said that Karan Johar offered him Vicky Kaushal's role in a Netflix original film "Lust Stories" and Diljit Dosanjh's role in "Good Newwz", but the popstar denied citing busy schedule and "things-didn't-work-out" things, hence below-mentioned Khandaani Shafakhana is hitherto his only film as an actor.


title: Badshah (rapper)

text: Badshah, in the film, played the role of himself but with a different name, Gabru Ghaatak, wherein he was a patient of the protagonist, Babita Bedi played by Sonakshi Sinha, with sex disorders who shied away to openly succour Ms. Bedi owing to the taboo around sex in Indian society.


title: Badshah (rapper)

text: Badshah on few occasions has talked about his business ventures, he claimed in 2018 in the song "Take Off" that he has business ventures that are worth at least 9-digits, some of his known brands are BADFIT Clothing, Dragonfly Experience, Afterhours Productions.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome (WS) is a genetic disorder that affects many parts of the body. Facial features frequently include a broad forehead, underdeveloped chin, short nose, and full cheeks. Mild to moderate intellectual disability is observed in people with WS, with particular challenges with visual spatial tasks such as drawing. Verbal skills are relatively unaffected. Many people with WS have an outgoing personality, an openness to engaging with other people, and a happy disposition. Medical issues with teeth, heart problems (especially supravalvular aortic stenosis), and periods of high blood calcium are common.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome is caused by a genetic abnormality, specifically a deletion of about 27 genes from the long arm of one of the two chromosome 7s. Typically, this occurs as a random event during the formation of the egg or sperm from which a person develops. In a small number of cases, it is inherited from an affected parent in an autosomal dominant manner. The different characteristic features have been linked to the loss of specific genes. The diagnosis is typically suspected based on symptoms and confirmed by genetic testing.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Treatment of WS includes special education programs and various types of therapy. Surgery may be done to correct heart problems. Dietary changes or medications may be required for high blood calcium. The syndrome was first described in 1961 by New Zealander John C. P. Williams. Williams syndrome affects between one in 20,000 and one in 7,500 people at birth. Life expectancy is less than that of the general population, mostly due to the increased rates of heart disease.


title: Williams syndrome

text: The most common symptoms of Williams syndrome are heart defects and unusual facial features. Other symptoms include failure to gain weight appropriately in infancy (failure to thrive) and low muscle tone. People with WS tend to have widely spaced teeth, a long philtrum, and a flattened nasal bridge.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Most people with WS are highly verbal relative to their intelligence, and are often very sociable, having what has been described as a "cocktail party"-type personality. People with Williams syndrome hyperfocus on the eyes of others in social engagements.


title: Williams syndrome

text: People with WS experience many cardiac problems, commonly heart murmurs and the narrowing of major blood vessels, as well as supravalvular aortic stenosis. Other symptoms may include gastrointestinal problems, such as severe or prolonged colic, abdominal pain and diverticulitis, nocturnal enuresis (bed wetting) and urinary difficulties, dental irregularities and defective tooth enamel, and hormone problems, the most common being hypercalcemia. Hypothyroidism has been reported to occur in children, although no proof has been found of it occurring in adults; adults with WS have a higher risk of developing type-2 diabetes, with some cases apparent as young as 21 years old.


title: Williams syndrome

text: People with WS often have hyperacusia and phonophobia, which resembles noise-induced hearing loss, but this may be due to a malfunctioning auditory nerve. People with WS can also tend to demonstrate a love of music, and they appear significantly more likely to possess absolute pitch. Also, higher prevalences of left-handedness and left-eye dominance seem to occur.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Ophthalmologic issues are common in WS. Up to 75% of subjects in some studies have strabismus (ocular misalignment), particularly esotropia, due to inherent subnormal binocular visual function


title: Williams syndrome

text: and cognitive deficits in visuospatial construction. People with WS have problems with visual processing, but this is related to difficulty in dealing with complex spatial relationships rather than depth perception" per se".


title: Williams syndrome

text: Because of missing multiple genes, many effects on the brain are seen, including abnormalities in the cerebellum, right parietal lobe, and left frontal cortical regions. This pattern is consistent with the visual-spatial disabilities and problems with behavioral timing often seen in WS.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Frontal-cerebellar pathways, involved in behavioral timing, are often abnormally developed in people with WS, which may be related to their deficits in coordination and execution of fine motor tasks such as drawing and writing. In addition, people with WS often exhibit gross motor difficulties, including trouble walking downstairs, overactive motor reflexes (hyperreflexia), and hyperactive, involuntary movement of the eyes (nystagmus).


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome is also noteworthy for exhibiting abnormalities in the parietal-dorsal areas of the neocortex, but not the ventral areas. The parietal-dorsal area handles visual processing that supports visual-spatial analysis of the environment, while the ventral is related to semantic recognition of visual stimuli, and the recognition of faces. Thus, people with WS are often able to visually identify and recognize whole objects, and refer to them by name, but struggle with visuospatial construction (seeing an object as being composed of many smaller parts, and recreating it) and orienting themselves in space.


title: Williams syndrome

text: People with WS are often affable and hyperverbal, demonstrating the decreased inhibition ability that stems from dorsal-frontal deficits. Some studies suggest that the amygdala of a person with Williams syndrome has greater volume than the average person's (though it is smaller than average in childhood).


title: Williams syndrome

text: In general, neuroimaging studies demonstrate that people with WS have diminished amygdala reactivity in response to socially frightening stimuli (such as disapproving faces), but demonstrate hyperreactivity in the amygdala when presented with nonsocial fear stimuli (such as frightening animals). This may partially account for the apparent absence of social inhibition observed in people with the syndrome, as well as the prevalence of anxious symptoms (but see fear for details on the relationship between the amygdala and fear response). Also, some evidence indicates that people with WS exhibit amygdalal hyperactivity when viewing happy facial expressions. They are talkative and eager to please, indicating a cocktail party personality.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Increased volume and activation of the left auditory cortex has been observed in people with WS, which has been interpreted as a neural correlation of patients' rhythm propensity and fondness of music. Similar sizes of the auditory cortex have been previously reported only in professional musicians.


title: Williams syndrome

text: The earliest observable symptoms of WS include low birth weight, failure to thrive, trouble breastfeeding, nocturnal irritability, and gastroesophageal reflux. Facial dysmorphies thought to be characteristic of the syndrome are also present early in development, as are heart murmurs. Research on the development of the syndrome suggests that congenital heart disease is typically present at an early age, often at the infant's first pediatric appointment. Heart problems in infancy often lead to the initial diagnosis of WS.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Developmental delays are present in most cases of WS, and include delay of language abilities and delayed motor-skill development. People with WS develop language abilities quite late relative to other children, with the child's first word often occurring as late as 3 years of age. Language abilities are often observed to be deficient until adolescence, in terms of semantics, morphology, and phonology, though not in vocabulary.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome is also marked by a delay in the development of motor skills. Infants with WS develop the ability to lift their heads and sit without support months later than typically developing children. These delays continue into childhood, where patients with WS are delayed in learning to walk. In young children, the observed motor delay is around 5–6 months, though some research suggests that children with WS have a delay in development that becomes more extreme with age. Children with motor delays as a result of WS are particularly behind in the development of coordination, fine motor skills such as writing and drawing, response time, and strength and dexterity of the arms. Impaired motor ability persists (and possibly worsens) as children with WS reach adolescence.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Adults and adolescents with Williams syndrome typically achieve a below-average height and weight, compared with unaffected populations. As people with WS age, they frequently develop joint limitations and hypertonia, or abnormally increased muscle tone. Hypertension, gastrointestinal problems, and genitourinary symptoms often persist into adulthood, as well as cardiovascular problems. Adults are typically limited in their ability to live independently or work in competitive employment settings, but this developmental impairment is attributed more to psychological symptoms than physiological problems.


title: Williams syndrome

text: People with Williams syndrome report higher anxiety levels as well as phobia development, which may be associated with hyperacusis (high sensitivity to certain frequencies of sound). Compared with other children with delays, those with Williams syndrome display a significantly greater number of fears. 35% of these children met the DSM definition of having a phobia as compared with 1–4.3% for those with other types of developmental delays. Williams syndrome is also strongly associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and related psychological symptoms such as poor concentration, hyperactivity, and social disinhibition.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Furthermore, cognitive abilities (IQs) of people with WMS typically range from mild to moderate levels of intellectual disability. One study of 306 children with Williams syndrome found IQ scores ranging from 40 to 112 with a mean of 69.32 (the mean IQ score of the general population is 100). IQ scores above this range have been reported in people with smaller genetic deletions. In particular, people with Williams syndrome experience challenges in visual-motor skills and visuospatial construction. Most affected people are unable to spatially orient themselves and many experience difficulty when given a task that requires even the most basic visual problem-solving. Many adults with Williams syndrome cannot complete a simple six-piece puzzle designed for young children, for example. These visuospatial deficits may be related to damage to the dorsal cortical pathway for visual processing.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Despite their physical and cognitive deficits, people with Williams syndrome exhibit impressive social and verbal abilities. Williams patients can be highly verbal relative to their IQ. When children with Williams syndrome are asked to name an array of animals, they may well list a wild assortment of creatures such as a koala, saber-toothed cat, vulture, unicorn, sea lion, yak, ibex and Brontosaurus, a far greater verbal array than would be expected of children with IQs in the 60s. Some other strengths that have been associated with Williams syndrome are auditory short-term memory and facial recognition skills. The language used by people with Williams syndrome differs notably from unaffected populations, including people matched for IQ. People with Williams syndrome tend to use speech that is rich in emotional descriptors, high in prosody (exaggerated rhythm and emotional intensity), and features unusual terms and strange idioms.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Among the hallmark traits of people with Williams syndrome is an apparent lack of social inhibition. Dykens and Rosner (1999) found that 100% of those with Williams syndrome were kind-spirited, 90% sought the company of others, 87% empathize with others' pain, 84% are caring, 83% are unselfish/forgiving, 75% never go unnoticed in a group, and 75% are happy when others do well. Infants with Williams syndrome make normal and frequent eye contact, and young children with Williams will often approach and hug strangers. People affected by Williams syndrome typically have high empathy, showing relative strength in reading people's eyes to gauge intentions, emotions, and mental states. The level of friendliness observed in people with Williams is often inappropriate for the social setting, however, and teens and adults with Williams syndrome often experience social isolation, frustration, and loneliness despite their clear desire to connect to other people.


title: Williams syndrome

text: While these children often came off as happy due to their sociable nature, often there are internal drawbacks to the way they act. 76–86% of these children were reported as believing that they either had few friends or problems with their friends. This is possibly due to the fact that although they are very friendly to strangers and love meeting new people, they may have trouble interacting on a deeper level. 73–93% were reported as unreserved with strangers, 67% highly sensitive to rejection, 65% susceptible to teasing, and the statistic for exploitation and abuse was unavailable. There are external problems as well. 91–96% demonstrate inattention, 75% impulsivity, 59–71% hyperactivity 46–74% tantrums, 32–60% disobedience, and 25–37% fighting and aggressive behavior.


title: Williams syndrome

text: In one experiment, a group of children with Williams syndrome showed no signs of racial bias, unlike children without the syndrome. They did show gender bias, however, to a similar degree to children without the syndrome, suggesting separate mechanisms for these biases.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome is a microdeletion syndrome caused by the spontaneous deletion of genetic material from the chromosomal region 7q11.23. This is a hemizygous deletion, which results in haploinsufficient expression of the 25–27 genes in this region. "CLIP2", "ELN", "GTF2I", "GTF2IRD1", and "LIMK1" are among the genes typically deleted. Hemizygosity for the "ELN" gene, which codes for the extracellular matrix protein elastin, is associated with connective-tissue abnormalities and cardiovascular disease (specifically supravalvular aortic stenosis and supravalvular pulmonary stenosis). Elastin insufficiency may also contribute to distinct faces, harsh or hoarse voice, hernias, and bladder diverticula often found in those with Williams syndrome. Hemizygosity in "LIMK1", "GTF2I", "GTF2IRD1", and perhaps other genes may help explain the characteristic difficulties with visual–spatial tasks. Additionally, some evidence shows that the hemizygosity in several of these genes, including "CLIP2", may contribute to the unique behavioral characteristics, learning disabilities, and other cognitive difficulties seen in WS.


title: Williams syndrome

text: According to the Williams Syndrome Association, its diagnosis begins with the recognition of physical symptoms and markers, which is followed by a confirmatory genetic test. The physical signs that often indicate a suspected case of WS include puffiness around the eyes, a long philtrum, and a stellate pattern in the iris. Physiological symptoms that often contribute to a WS diagnosis are cardiovascular problems, particularly aortic or pulmonary stenosis, and feeding disturbance in infants. Developmental delays are often taken as an initial sign of the syndrome, as well.


title: Williams syndrome

text: If a physician suspects a case of WS, the diagnosis is confirmed using one of two possible genetic tests: Micro-array analysis or the fluorescent "in situ" hybridization test, which examines chromosome 7 and probes for the existence of two copies of the elastin gene. Since 98-99% of individuals with WS lack half of the 7q11.23 region of chromosome 7, where the elastin gene is located, the presence of only one copy of the gene is a strong sign of WS. This confirmatory genetic test has been validated in epidemiological studies and has been demonstrated to be a more effective method of identifying WS than previous methods, which often relied on the presence of cardiovascular problems and facial features (which, while common, are not always present).


title: Williams syndrome

text: Reliance on facial features to identify WS may cause a misdiagnosis of the condition. Among the more reliable features suggestive of WS are congenital heart disease, periorbital fullness ("puffy" eyes), and the presence of a long, smooth philtrum. Less reliable signs of the syndrome include anteverted nostrils, a wide mouth, and an elongated neck. Even with significant clinical experience, reliably identifying Williams syndrome based on facial features alone is difficult.


title: Williams syndrome

text: This is particularly the case in individuals of non-white backgrounds, where typical WS facial features (such as full lips) are more prevalent.


title: Williams syndrome

text: No cure for Williams syndrome has been found. Suggested treatments include avoidance of extra calcium and vitamin D, and treating high levels of blood calcium. Blood-vessel narrowing can be a significant health problem and is treated on an individual basis.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Physical therapy is helpful to patients with joint stiffness and low muscle tone. Developmental and speech therapy can also help children and increase the success of their social interactions. Other treatments are based on a patient's particular symptoms.


title: Williams syndrome

text: The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends annual cardiology evaluations for individuals with WS. Other recommended assessments include ophthalmologic evaluations, an examination for inguinal hernia, objective hearing assessment, blood-pressure measurement, developmental and growth evaluation, orthopedic assessments on joints and muscle tone, and ongoing feeding and dietary assessments to manage constipation and urinary problems.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Behavioral treatments have been shown to be effective. In regards to social skills, it may be effective to channel their nature by teaching basic skills. Some of these are the appropriate way to approach someone, how and when to socialize in settings such as school or the workplace, and warning of the signs and dangers of exploitation. For the fear that they demonstrate cognitive-behavioral approaches, such as therapy, they are the recommended treatments. One of the things to be careful of with this approach is to make sure that the patients' charming nature does not mask any underlying feelings.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Perhaps the most effective treatment for those with WS is music. Those affected have shown relative strength in regards to music, albeit only in pitch and rhythm tasks. Not only do they show strength in the field, but also a particular fondness for it. Music may help with the internal and external anxiety with which these people are more likely to be afflicted. Notably, the typical person processes music in the superior temporal and middle temporal gyri. Those with WS have reduced activation in these areas, but an increase in the right amygdala and cerebellum.


title: Williams syndrome

text: People affected by WS are supported by multiple organizations, including the Canadian Association for Williams Syndrome and the Williams Syndrome Registry.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome has historically been estimated to occur in roughly one in every 20,000 live births, but more recent epidemiological studies have placed the occurrence rate at closer to one in every 7,500 live births, a significantly larger prevalence. As increasing evidence suggests WS is more common than originally noted (about 6% of all genetic cases of developmental disability), researchers have begun to theorize past underdiagnosis of the syndrome. One theorized reason for the increase in epidemiological estimates is that a substantial minority of individuals with the genetic markers of WS syndrome lack the characteristic facial features or the diminished intelligence considered to be diagnostic of the syndrome, and often are not immediately recognized as having the syndrome.


title: Williams syndrome

text: Williams syndrome was first described by J. C. P. Williams and his colleagues, who wrote in 1961 of four patients with supravalvular aortic stenosis, mental disability, and facial features including a broad forehead, large chin, low-set, "drooping" cheeks, widely spaced eyes, and wide-set mouth. A year after this report, German physician A. J. Beuren described three new patients with the same presentation. This led to the syndrome's full original name, Williams-Beuren syndrome, which is still used in some medical publications. From 1964 to 1975, small research reports broadened medical knowledge of this syndrome's cardiovascular problems. Then in 1975, K. Jones and D. Smith conducted a large-scale report on numerous patients with WS, ranging in age from infancy to adulthood, and described the behavioral and observable physical symptoms in greater detail than previously recorded.


title: Williams syndrome

text: The adjective "elfin" may have originated to describe the facial features of people with WS; before its scientific cause was understood, people believed that individuals with the syndrome, who have exceptionally charming and kind personalities, had extraordinary, even magical, powers. This has been proposed to be the origin of the folklore of elves, fairies, and other forms of the 'good people' or 'wee folk' present in English folklore.


title: Williams syndrome

text: In a review of the symptoms and features of the syndrome, Laskari, Smith, and Graham emphasized that many family members of individuals with WS reject use of terminology such as "elfin", as well as descriptions of social symptoms as "cocktail party syndrome". Physicians, family members of individuals with WS syndrome, and WS associations alike have called for the curtailment of such terms.


title: Williams syndrome

text: One notable person with the syndrome is Gabrielle Marion-Rivard, a Canadian actress and singer who won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Actress in 2014 for her performance in the film "Gabrielle". Another is Jeremy Vest, member of the "How's Your News?" team, featured in the TV series and film of the same name.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Todrick Hall (born April 4, 1985) is an American singer, choreographer, and YouTuber. He gained national attention on the ninth season of the televised singing competition "American Idol". Following this, he amassed a huge following on YouTube with viral videos including original songs, parodies, and skits. A documentary series about his video-making process titled "Todrick" aired on MTV in 2015.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Starting with season eight, Hall became a resident choreographer and occasional judge on "RuPaul's Drag Race". From 2016 to 2017, Hall starred as Lola in "Kinky Boots" on Broadway. Later in 2017, he began appearances as Billy Flynn in "Chicago" on Broadway and the West End.


title: Todrick Hall

text: As a singer-songwriter he has released four studio albums, including the visual albums "Straight Outta Oz" (2016) and "Forbidden" (2018). In 2020 he released an EP, "Quarantine Queen", in response to the COVID-19 pandemic featuring "Mask, Gloves, Soap, Scrub", and was the international host of Global Pride 2020.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Todrick Hall was born on April 4, 1985, in Plainview, Texas, a farming community in the state's panhandle. He was raised by a single mother until she married when he was a teen, when he gained a brother and stepfather. Later the family would move to Dallas.


title: Todrick Hall

text: As a child, he adored "The Wizard of Oz". As an adult, he would create "Oz, the Musical"; the pop song "The Wizard of Ahhhs" featuring the pop a cappella quintet Pentatonix; and the visual album and tour "Straight Out of Oz". An elementary teacher in Dallas led Hall toward the arts, including theater, the orchestra, and ballet.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall is gay, and came out to his family when he was 15. At age 16, he began performing on weekends at the amusement park Six Flags Over Texas; it was the first time he combined singing and dancing. He also performed on cruises with Royal Caribbean, Holland America Line, and at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. Hall has said that his work ethic comes from the lack of opportunities he had in the entertainment industry as a black gay man.


title: Todrick Hall

text: When Hall was twenty he auditioned for the Broadway production of "The Color Purple" with Oprah Winfrey and Fantasia Barrino. He was cast in the ensemble, and as understudy for the role of Harpo. Barrino rose to fame as the winner of the third season of the reality singing competition "American Idol", and working with her would inspire Hall to later audition for the show as well. After "The Color Purple" he performed in "Memphis: The Musical" and touring productions of "Beauty and the Beast", "Radio City Christmas Spectacular" featuring the Rockettes, and "Hairspray".


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall relocated to Los Angeles, living in a four-bedroom "nondescript three-story home in the Hollywood Hills". He joined the video-sharing platform YouTube in May 2006, and made over 300 videos in the next five years. His first video, filmed while still living in Texas, was "a hilarious clip of him singing his order to a McDonald's drive-through speaker (complete with backup singers)". The video has since received over ten million views. In 2008 he uploaded a video of a performance of "Hard to Say Goodbye," which boosted his subscribers to two million. YouTube became a full-time pursuit for Hall in 2011. He says the platform showcases "how I can write a song, create the concepts, execute them, direct, choreograph and do hair and makeup" as well as perform. Some of his popular videos were the basis of later concert tours like "Twerk Du Soleil" and the "Toddlerz Ball."


title: Todrick Hall

text: In August 2009, Hall auditioned for the ninth season of "American Idol" in Dallas, Texas. He sang a self-composed song mentioning the judges – Simon Cowell, Randy Jackson, Kara DioGuardi, and guest judge Joe Jonas – to make his case for inclusion in the program. Years later, reflecting on his "Idol" experiences, Hall said his "fondest memory" was the audition song. All four approved of his participation; he went into Hollywood week and eventually the semi-finals. In the Top 24, he sang Kelly Clarkson's "Since U Been Gone", and in the Top Twenty performed Tina Turner's "What's Love Got to Do with It". He was eliminated in the Top 16 on March 11, 2010, after his rendition of Queen's "Somebody to Love;" he was one of four contestants eliminated in that round, and thus ranked between 13th and 16th overall. Judge Simon Cowell dismissively told Hall he "wouldn't amount to anything beyond a Broadway actor". Later Hall stated that he regretted hiding his sexuality on the show: he had a girl wait for his post-audition walk outside with his golden ticket.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In August 2010, Hall returned to Broadway in the musical "Memphis". Hall feels, in contrast to producing shows and managing staff, that his Broadway work was less stressful as he was an employee who did his job then was done. As a producer he was responsible for every facet of production.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall's audience has grown considerably: as of June 2019, Hall currently has 3.1 million subscribers on YouTube, and as of March 2018, his videos have been viewed 531.9 million times. Hall's videos include several of his own original songs and music videos, choreographed flash mobs for Ariana Grande and Beyoncé performed in an actual Target store, the latter of which Beyoncé personally recognized Hall for, musical collaborations with Pentatonix, and personal updates.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In May 2011, he released a video audition for the third season of "Glee" titled "I Wanna Be on Glee", for possible inclusion in the show. Though the video was popular, Hall was not cast in the program.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In November 2013, Virgin America produced a pop-music safety video directed by Jon M. Chu with music by Jean-Yves Decornet. Hall wrote the song and lyrics and starred in the video. In December 2013, Hall released a Christmas album entitled "Dear Santa", with covers of "This Christmas" and "Sleigh Bells", produced by wiidope as well as original songs "So Cold" and "SplitsOnXmasTrees".


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall did a choreographed flash mob in a Target store to Beyoncé's "End of Time" prompting her to hire Hall as a choreographer on her roller-disco video, "Blow" which came out in November 2013.


title: Todrick Hall

text: From April 1 to May 13, 2014, Hall released an eight episode web series on his YouTube channel called "Pop Star High". The series takes place in a world where all of the most famous Pop Stars of our day all went to high school together. The series portrays and parodies pop stars like Lady Gaga, Beyoncé, Britney Spears, Nicki Minaj, Christina Aguilera, Justin Timberlake, Taylor Swift, Ne-Yo, Kanye West, Eminem, Jay-Z, and Tyga, and draws on the tropes of high school comedy movies. The soundtrack for the series was released on April 1, 2014.


title: Todrick Hall

text: On October 22, 2014, MTV announced "Todrick", a docuseries following Hall, would premiere in 2015. On December 20, 2014, Hall produced and appeared in a commercial for the series and featured other celebrities' holiday wishes. Eight episodes of the docuseries were ordered and aired throughout 2015. The soundtrack for the show was released on October 13, 2015. In October 2015, he was picked as Elvis Duran's Artist of the Month and was featured on NBC's "Today" show hosted by Kathie Lee Gifford and Hoda Kotb and broadcast nationally where he performed live his single "Wind It Up".


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall first appeared as a guest judge on the eighth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race" for an episode which featured a "Wizard of Oz"-inspired challenge and aired April 11, 2016; they did not know his lifelong passion for "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz". Hall reappeared as a full-time judge for "" later in 2016 and again for the ninth season aired throughout 2017. Along with "Drag Race", Hall frequently appeared on Logo TV's game show "Gay for Play Game Show Starring RuPaul" alongside other celebrities.


title: Todrick Hall

text: On June 23, 2016, Todrick self-released his second album, "Straight Outta Oz". The album is a visual concept album that uses the imagery of "The Wizard of Oz" to explore Todrick's own life and rise to fame. He was inspired to create the project after seeing Disney's "Zootopia", Lin-Manuel Miranda's "Hamilton", and Beyoncé's visual album "Lemonade". The album has seventeen songs, the tour had over twenty; it took about six weeks to write, and then filming the videos happened in two weeks. The project's first video was posted to YouTube on June 23, 2016. The videos had cameos from Kim Chi, Bob the Drag Queen, Willam Belli, Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Nicole Scherzinger, Pentatonix, Perez Hilton, and Amber Riley. "Color" ruminates on his first boyfriend, a handsome Londoner, "the first to really know me." Hall announced the "Straight Outta Oz Tour" to promote the album which originally ran between July 7, and August 12, 2016 in the United States and Canada. The album debuted in ITunes Top Ten Pop Album Chart after its release in late June 2016.


title: Todrick Hall

text: The "Straight Outta Oz Tour" was interrupted by Hall's casting in the Broadway musical "Kinky Boots". They offered the lead in "Kinky Boots" "without even auditioning, because they felt my story was so similar to that of Lola's", a drag queen cabaret performer. Hall's performance was well received by critics. He performed 155 shows from November 1, 2016, to March 1, 2017.


title: Todrick Hall

text: The "Straight Outta Oz Tour" was revived in 2017 and ran between March 30, and June 5, in various North American, European, and Australian locations. It was accompanied by an expanded deluxe edition that included songs that were featured on the tour but not on the original version of the album. Additionally, the album included an extended version and new video for "Wrong Bitch" featuring Bob the Drag Queen, and a rerecorded version of Todrick's previous single "Low" featuring RuPaul. In August 2017, he had a cameo as a back-up dancer in the music video for Taylor Swift's song, "Look What You Made Me Do"; the two had become friends in 2015, and would collaborate on several projects.


title: Todrick Hall

text: From November 30, 2017, to January 14, 2018, played Billy Flynn in a limited engagement role in "Chicago". During his tenure, the show had its best-grossing week in its 21-year Broadway history.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In December he released the documentary film "Behind the Curtain" about the production behind "Straight Outta Oz" filmed in conjunction with AwesomenessTV who had released a successful documentary about another gay YouTuber Tyler Oakley. It was screened in select theaters and later released on home video. Later that month he had a guest appearance in the "Bob's Burgers" Season 8 episode "The Bleakening" as drag queen Miss Triple-Xmas (or Cleavage to Beaver) performing the song "Twinkly Lights". He also released a medley of covers of songs from the "Pitch Perfect" film series that was featured on the "Pitch Perfect 3" Special Edition soundtrack.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In March 2018 he released his new visual album follow-up to "Straight Outta Oz" called "Forbidden". To promote the album, Hall embarked on "Forbidden: The Tour" across the United States, Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In May 2019, Hall revealed that he will be releasing a trilogy of extended plays to be released across the next six months. The first EP, "Haus Party, Pt. 1", with its first single "Glitter" was released May 16, 2019. The EP also contained the hit "Nails, Hair, Hips, Heels", with a remix featuring Ciara. The EPs were supported by the Haus Party World Tour. Part Two was originally planned to be released in July 2019 but was delayed to September 19, 2019. It was supported by the singles "Wig", "Fag", and "Dripeesha" (the latter featuring Tiffany Haddish). Part Three was released in February 2021.


title: Todrick Hall

text: On June 17, 2019, Hall appeared in and co-executive produced the music video for singer-songwriter Taylor Swift's song "You Need to Calm Down". Hall also helped recruit guests for the cameo-filled video. In June 2019, Hall announced that he will be returning to Broadway to play Ogie Anhorn in the musical "Waitress" opposite fellow YouTuber Colleen Ballinger. In August 2019 he joined the panel of Dance Captains for the second series of "The Greatest Dancer" alongside the other Dance Captains Cheryl, Oti Mabuse and Matthew Morrison. From November 2019 to January 2020 Hall will play the lead, Billy Flynn, in the West End version of the musical "Chicago".


title: Todrick Hall

text: In February 2020, Hall released a song for Disneyland's new twice daily parade, called "Magic Happens". Hall "learned to dance by watching Disney parades". On April 27, 2020, Hall announced on social media that he had spent the past week writing and recording an EP entitled "Quarantine Queen" (themed around the COVID-19 pandemic). The album was released on April 29, 2020. In May 2020 Hall signed with CAA Management. On November 26, 2020, Hall released a live album of the "Haus Party" world tour recorded in Atlanta, alongside a full video recording for free on YouTube.


title: Todrick Hall

text: On February 12, 2021, Hall released the third volume of the "Haus Party" trilogy after being delayed sixteen months past its original release date. On June 8, 2021, Hall released his fourth studio album, "Femuline", which was preceded by the singles "Boys in the Ocean" and "Rainin' Fellas". The album is inspired by gay pride and features appearances from Chaka Khan, Tyra Banks, Brandy, Nicole Scherzinger and Ts Madison.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In September 2021, Hall and Samsung teamed up for a remix video of his breakthrough single, "Nails, Hair, Hips, Heels," centered around the new Samsung Galaxy Z Flip3 foldable smartphone. The reworked lyrics -- "Flip, Fold, Snap, Clack"—reference the phone's ability to flip up and fold down.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In December 2021, Hall competed in season six of "The Masked Singer" as "Bull" and finished in second place.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In January 2022, it was announced that Hall would be participating in the third season of "Celebrity Big Brother" as a contestant. He made it into the final three and then placed runner up for the season. During his stint in the show, he was widely criticized for his comments regarding Shanna Moakler which viewers and critics alike identified as body shaming. Additionally, Hall received backlash following his criticisms of aspects of Chris Kirkpatrick's personal life.


title: Todrick Hall

text: On June 1st 2022, Todrick released his 5th album ALGORHYTHM, with an 80's inspired tracklist of bops!


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall is a baritenor with a soulful, expressive voice, including falsetto; in addition to a singer, Hall is also a rapper. The genre of his works include R&B, pop, hip hop, neo-soul, funk, and musical theater. Many of his lyrics include elements of social commentary, such as racism, gun violence in and against black communities in "Water Guns" (featuring Jordin Sparks), acceptance of interracial relationships in "Color" (featuring Jay Armstrong Johnson), and queer culture; Hall writes and produces much of his own music with WiiDope & Jeeve (Ducornet). Hall also posts musical tributes to his favorite musical artists such as Beyoncé, Rihanna, and Taylor Swift. These tributes feature elaborately-produced mashups of the artists' songs sung by Hall. Many are done in his "signature split-screen a cappella style" showing four Halls singing together.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall's music videos often feature extravagant production value not typically associated with artists outside major labels. Hall's videos often include bespoke costumes and urban fashion, elaborate sets, and extensive choreography, much of which is designed or created by Hall himself. Some of the productions are mini-musicals like his renditions of "The Wizard of Oz" and "Singin' in Rain". He frequently directs his own videos as well. The "acting is freewheeling, the tunes catchy, the writing sharp". As part of his style, many of Hall's music videos include drag as a central component, either featuring Hall in drag himself or famous drag queens including RuPaul, Bob the Drag Queen, Willam Belli, and Alaska Thunderfuck, among others. He makes regular appearances on "RuPaul's Drag Race" as a resident choreographer and as a judge on the show.


title: Todrick Hall

text: Hall came out as gay at the age of fifteen, and has stated a desire to be a role model for LGBTQ people and people of color.


title: Todrick Hall

text: In 2019, several former dancers and collaborators on Hall's YouTube videos and visual albums accused him of never compensating them for their work. Hall has denied these allegations. Also in 2019, Hall's former assistant shared documents alleging Hall was involved in a sexual harassment lawsuit, and that he witnessed predatory behavior. The allegations were reiterated in 2022 following Hall's controversial appearance on "Celebrity Big Brother".


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The CASA C-295 (now Airbus C295) is a medium tactical transport aircraft that was designed and initially manufactured by the Spanish aerospace company CASA.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: Work on what would become the C-295 was started during the 1990s as a derivative of the successful CASA/IPTN CN-235 transport aircraft. On 28 November 1997, the prototype performed its maiden flight; quantity production commenced shortly thereafter. In April 1999, the Spanish Air Force became its launch customer with an order for nine military-configured C-295s; two years later, the type was declared operational with the service. Further orders for the C-295 would promptly follow. Following the incorporation of CASA into the pan-European aeronautical group EADS in 2000, it was redesignated as the EADS CASA C-295.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: Both manufacturing and final assembly of the C-295 is normally performed at the Airbus Defence and Space facilities in San Pablo Airport, located in Seville, Spain. Additional manufacturing arrangements have been agreed with some customers. Since 2011, Indonesian Aerospace has produced the CN-295 under license at their facilities in Bandung, Indonesia, via an industrial collaboration with Airbus Defence & Space. During 2021, it was agreed that, as a part of a larger purchase, a batch of 40 C-295s would be license-manufactured in India by Tata Advanced Systems Limited.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: Beyond its use as a tactical transporter, the C-295 is capable of performing a wide variety of missions effectively. These included parachute and cargo dropping, electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), and maritime patrol. Some of the equipment for adapting the aircraft to performing various roles has been mounted onto pallets, allowing for its rapid installation and removal. On account of the lack of sales achieved by the CN-235 in the commercial aviation segment, although civil certification was obtained as to facilitate its use by government agencies, a commercial version of the C-295 was not pursued for some time by the company. It was not until 2017, over a decade after military-orientated C-295s had entered regular service, that the first contract for a civilian C-295 was finalised.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The C-295 has been acquired by various nations such as Spain, Egypt, Poland, Canada, Brazil, Mexico, and Portugal. It has also participated in numerous international operations, including those in the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon, and Chad.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: During November 1996, the Spanish aerospace company CASA formally started development work on the C-295. It was derived from the CASA/IPTN CN-235, a Spanish–Indonesian transport aircraft; its principal differences were its stretched fuselage, a 50% increase in payload capacity and the adoption of more powerful Pratt & Whitney Canada PW127G turboprop engines. On 28 November 1997, the first prototype made its maiden flight. During April 1999, it was announced that the C-295's first order had been placed by the Spanish Air Force, which sought nine military transport aircraft. During December 1999, it was certificated as airworthy by both the Spanish "Dirección General de Aviación Civil" and the American Federal Aviation Administration. In November 2001, deliveries began to the Spanish Air Force began.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: During June 2012, Airbus Military announced several enhancements to the base C-295 design, changes included the adoption of winglets and an ability to carry the Marte anti-ship missile; a dedicated airborne early warning and control variant was also planned. In November 2015, a C-295 successfully demonstrated a new self-protection suite, which incorporated elements such as directional infrared countermeasures from Elbit Systems and infrared passive airborne warning system. During January 2016, Airbus was in the process of developing a new probe-and-drogue aerial refuelling rig to be optionally installed in the centerline of the C295, facilitating the aerial refuelling of helicopters. Furthermore, the company was also implementing flap optimisations and other modifications upon the type to enable it to perform extremely short takeoff and landing capabilities. In November 2019, it was announced that Airbus had selected Collins Aerospace to integrate its Pro Line Fusion flight deck onto future C-295s, which shall reportedly reduced pilot workload and easily facilitate further upgrades via its modular design.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: In January 2022, it was announced that Airbus had flown its C295 "Flight Test Bed 2 Sky 2" for the first time; development of this upgraded aircraft was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research program and it is intended to test various technologies related future regional multi-mission aircraft. Modifications include a high-efficiency semi-morphing wing, dynamic winglets, a flat panel SATCOM antenna integrated into the upper fuselage, along with innovative flight controls for the primary control surfaces to achieve improved aerodynamics and contribute to a more efficient high-lift system. New materials and technologies were used to reduce the emission of , , and noise alike; Airbus aims for 43% and 70% reductions to be achieved in a typical search-and-rescue mission of 400 nautical miles, as well as 45% less noise during takeoff.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The EADS CASA C-295 is a tactical transport aircraft, designed for the movement of personnel and cargo within military conditions. Accordingly, it can be operated from austere airstrips with minimal reliance on ground support infrastructures; it can reportedly be operated on soft ground without major issues even when heavily loaded. It has an auto-reverse capability, being able to turn 180º on runways as narrow as 12 meters wide. The dimensions of its cargo hold, 12.69 × 1.90 × 2.70 meters, are roughly three meters longer in comparison to the preceding CN-235. It has sufficient volume to carry up to 71 soldiers, 24 stretchers along with up to seven medical attendants, five standard 108" pallets of cargo, or three Land Rover-sized light vehicles. It is suitable for airdropping paratroopers and cargo on 88-inch-wide platforms.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The C-295 has also been designed to facilitate multi-role operations and has been produced a wide range of configurations. Numerous customers have opted to arm their aircraft to perform intelligence surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) operations, being outfitted with various sensors such as a multi-mission radar unit; it can even be equipped as a gunship and tasked with providing close air support to ground forces. When appropriately furnished, the C-295 can conduct electronic signals intelligence (ELINT), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), and maritime patrol aircraft (MPA) duties. Palletised equipment, enabling its rapid installation and removal, is available to outfit the aircraft for use as a VIP transport, aerial refuelling tanker, and water bomber.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The cockpit of the C-295 is furnished with dual controls, having been intended to be flown by a pilot and a co-pilot. It is typically equipped with the Highly Integrated Avionics System (HIAS), based on the digital Topdeck suite produced by the French avionics firm Thales. It also features an Integrated Engine Data and Warning System that manages the engine and fuel systems and alerts pilots to detected faults along with other key information. A Honeywell RDR-1400C weather radar is also typically installed to facilitate instrument flight rules (IFR) operations. The avionics have been designed so that the aircraft can also be operated according to civil standards as well as military ones, including the stringent FAR-25 requirements.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: Typically, the C-295 is powered by a pair of Pratt & Whitney Canada PW127G turboprop engines, each capable of providing up to 2,645 HP (1,972 kW). These feature a modular design that facilitates easy access and reduced maintenance requirements, reportedly enabling up to 10,000 flight hours of uninterrupted operation before requiring servicing. The normal propellers used are six-bladed scimitar-shaped units, having a diameter of 3.89 meters and built from composite materials by Hamilton Standard.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The C-295 is equipped with a retractable undercarriage in a tricycle configuration, designed by Messier-Dowty. Two side fairings on the lower part of the fuselage accommodate the retracted main landing gear, while an alcove almost directly beneath the cockpit houses the forward landing gear. The undercarriage is durable enough to enable operations from semi-prepared runways. It is equipped with oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers, disc brakes capable of differential braking, and an anti-skid system.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The first order for the C-295 was for the Spanish Air Force: during 2000, the Future Medium Transport Aircraft II (FATAM II) program was launched, under which a batch of nine C-295s was ordered to take the place of eight CN-235s that had been converted from general transports into maritime patrol and search-and-rescue aircraft, their reassignment having noticeably depleted the service's medium transport fleet.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The first export customer of the C-295 was the Polish Air Force, initially ordering eight aircraft in 2001, with deliveries commencing two years later. The service bought the type to supplement and eventually replace their Cold War-era Antonov An-26 transports. Further C-295s were ordered by Poland, including to two each in both 2006 and 2007. In June 2012, another five aircraft were ordered, all of which were delivered by the end of 2013. Polish C-295s are typically based at Kraków-Balice Air Base. They have participated in overseas activities, including NATO operations, such as humanitarian air efforts in Kosovo in 2020. A single C-295 is routinely deployed as a support aircraft for the Orlik Aerobatic Team, the Polish Air Force's aerial display unit. One aircraft crashed on 23 January 2008.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: Another key country for the C-295 has been Indonesia. Indonesian Aerospace (Indonesian: "PT Dirgantara Indonesia"), which also locally manufactured the CN-235, performs the final assembly of C-295s for customers within Indonesia. The company has been keen to secure a license that would allow it to produce the aircraft for export customers outside of the domestic market, although Airbus has been allegedly reluctant to agree terms for such an extension. In September 2012, the first part of C-295s were delivered to the Indonesian Air Force. Further aircraft has since been delivered to the service to replace the aged Fokker F27 fleet for tactical and logistical transport duties.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: During the 2010s, Egypt became the largest operator of the C-295, having a fleet of 21 aircraft as of April 2021. In October 2010, the order of an initial three aircraft for tactical and logistical transport by Egypt was announced. The first delivery was on 24 September 2011. During January 2013, a follow-on order was signed for six more aircraft and a further eight was ordered on 16 July 2014. In early 2021, Egypt signed a five-year performance-based servicing agreement with Airbus regarding its C-295 fleet, which included the provision of material services, on-site support, and on-wing maintenance activities.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: During the 2020s, India stated its intent to place the largest single order for the type; the Cabinet Committee on Security approved the ordering of 56 C-295Ws to equip the Indian Air Force in September 2021. Of these, it is planned for 16 aircraft to be delivered in flyaway condition from Spain within 48 months of the contract's signing, while a further 40 aircraft are to be manufactured in India by Tata Advanced Systems Limited within the following ten years.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: A major competitor for export sales of the C-295 has been the C-27J Spartan, manufactured previously by Alenia Aeronautica (2006-2012) and Alenia Aermacchi (2012-2016), and now by Leonardo S.p.A. The C-295 was a major bidder for the US Army–US Air Force Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA) programme but lost to the L-3 Communications/Alenia team for the C-27J in June 2007. The C-295 was reportedly considered by the US Army to pose a greater risk due to its use of a new operational mode to meet altitude and range requirements. Among other contracts the C-295 lost to the C-27J are the Peruvian Air Force's Antonov An-32 replacement and the Royal Australian Air Force's de Havilland Canada DHC-4 Caribou replacement.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: While the vast majority of C-295 sales have been to military operators, it has been certified for civil purposes as well. During August 2018, it was announced that the Irish leasing company Stellwagen Group has leased a single C-295 to DAC Aviation International, it being the first civil operator of the type in Africa. This aircraft has participated in humanitarian operations, such as the delivery of anti-cholera kits, food, water, sanitation, and hygiene goods to Mozambique.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: In 2019, the Royal Canadian Air Force ordered 16 CC-295s as a replacement search and rescue aircraft for its ageing fleets of CC-115 Buffalo and older-model C-130H Hercules. They are to be operated from Greenwood, Nova Scotia (413 Transport and Rescue Squadron); Trenton, Ontario (424 Transport and Rescue Squadron); Winnipeg, Manitoba (435 Transport and Rescue Squadron); and Comox, British Columbia (442 Transport and Rescue Squadron and 418 Search and Rescue Operational Training Squadron). The aircraft will be primarily operated at CFB Comox, where Airbus set up an RCAF Search & Rescue Training Facility for the CC-295. The first aircraft arrived in Canada in September 2020. Another aircraft that arrived in January 2020 is a trainer for the maintenance personnel, and is not included in the 16 aircraft ordered.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The C-295 MPA was a candidate to replace the German Navy's P-3C maritime patrol aircraft, possibly as a stopgap solution from 2025 to 2032. During 2021, it was speculated that a combined order with Spain could be achieved. However, during July 2021, Germany announced that it had ordered five P-8 Poseidons to fulfil this need.


title: EADS CASA C-295

text: The C-295 is in service with the armed forces of 15 countries. By 31 August 2015, 136 C-295s had been ordered with 134 in service and two lost in accidents.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Rebecca is a 1938 Gothic novel written by English author Daphne du Maurier. The novel depicts an unnamed young woman who impetuously marries a wealthy widower, before discovering that both he and his household are haunted by the memory of his late first wife, the title character.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: A bestseller which has never gone out of print, "Rebecca" sold 2.8 million copies between its publication in 1938 and 1965. It has been adapted numerous times for stage and screen, including a 1939 play by du Maurier herself, the film "Rebecca" (1940), directed by Alfred Hitchcock, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture, and the 2020 remake directed by Ben Wheatley for Netflix.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The novel is remembered especially for the character Mrs Danvers, the West Country estate Manderley, and its opening line: "Last night, I dreamt I went to Manderley again."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: While working as the companion to a rich American woman on holiday in Monte Carlo, the unnamed narrator, a naïve young woman in her early 20s, becomes acquainted with a wealthy Englishman, Maxim de Winter, a 42-year-old widower. After a fortnight of courtship, she agrees to marry him and, after the wedding and honeymoon, accompanies him to his mansion in Cornwall, the beautiful estate Manderley.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Mrs Danvers, the sinister housekeeper, was profoundly devoted to the first Mrs de Winter, Rebecca, who died in a sailing accident about a year before Maxim and the second Mrs de Winter met. She continually attempts to undermine the narrator psychologically, subtly suggesting to her that she will never attain the beauty, urbanity, and charm her predecessor possessed. Whenever the narrator attempts to make changes at Manderley, Mrs Danvers describes how Rebecca ran it when she was alive. Cowed by Mrs Danvers' imposing manner and the other members of West Country society's unwavering reverence for Rebecca, the narrator becomes isolated.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The narrator is soon convinced that Maxim regrets his impetuous decision to marry her and is still deeply in love with the seemingly perfect Rebecca. In an attempt to please him, she revives the Manderley costume ball, a custom Rebecca had instated, with the help of Mrs Danvers. On her suggestion, the narrator wears a replica of the dress shown in a portrait of one of the house's former inhabitants, ignorant of the fact that Rebecca had worn the same costume to much acclaim shortly before her death. When the narrator enters the hall and Maxim sees the dress, he angrily orders her to change.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Shortly after the ball, Mrs Danvers reveals her contempt for the narrator, believing she is trying to replace Rebecca, and reveals her deep, unhealthy obsession with the dead woman. Mrs Danvers tries to get the narrator to commit suicide by encouraging her to jump out of the window. However, she is interrupted before the narrator does so by the disturbance caused by a nearby shipwreck. A diver investigating the wrecked ship's hull's condition also discovers the remains of Rebecca's sailing boat, with her decomposed body still on board, despite Maxim having identified another body that had washed ashore shortly after Rebecca's death.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: This discovery causes Maxim to confess to the narrator that his marriage to Rebecca was a sham. Rebecca, Maxim reveals, was a cruel and selfish woman who manipulated everyone around her into believing her to be the perfect wife and a paragon of virtue. On the night of her death, she told Maxim that she was pregnant with another man's child, which she would raise under the pretense that it was Maxim's, and he would be powerless to stop her. In a rage Maxim shot and killed her. He then disposed of her body by placing it in her boat and sinking it at sea. The narrator is relieved to hear that Maxim has always loved her and never Rebecca.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Rebecca's boat is raised, and it is discovered to have been deliberately sunk. An inquest brings a verdict of suicide. However, Rebecca's first cousin and lover, Jack Favell, attempts to blackmail Maxim, claiming to have proof that she could not have intended suicide based on a note she sent to him the night she died. It is revealed that Rebecca had had an appointment with a doctor in London shortly before her death, presumably to confirm her pregnancy. When the doctor is found, he reveals that Rebecca had cancer and would have died within a few months. Furthermore, due to the malformation of her uterus, she could never have been pregnant. Maxim assumes that Rebecca, knowing that she would die, manipulated him into killing her quickly. Mrs Danvers had said after the inquiry that Rebecca feared nothing except dying a lingering death.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Maxim feels a great sense of foreboding and insists on driving through the night to return to Manderley. However, before he comes in sight of the house, it is clear from a glow on the horizon and wind-borne ashes that it is ablaze.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In 1937, Daphne du Maurier signed a three-book deal with Victor Gollancz and accepted an advance of £1,000. A 2008 article in "The Daily Telegraph" indicates she had been toying with the theme of jealousy for the five years since her marriage in 1932. She started "sluggishly" and wrote a desperate apology to Gollancz: "The first 15,000 words I tore up in disgust and this literary miscarriage has cast me down rather."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Her husband, Tommy "Boy" Browning, was Lieutenant Colonel of the Grenadier Guards and they were posted to Alexandria, Egypt, with the Second Battalion, leaving Britain on 30 July 1937. Gollancz expected her manuscript on their return to Britain in December but she wrote that she was "ashamed to tell you that progress is slow on the new novel...There is little likelihood of my bringing back a finished manuscript in December."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: On returning to Britain in December 1937, du Maurier decided to spend Christmas away from her family to write the book and she successfully delivered it to her publisher less than four months later. Du Maurier described the plot as "a sinister tale about a woman who marries a widower...Psychological and rather macabre."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Some commentators have noted parallels with Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre". Another of du Maurier's works, "Jamaica Inn," is also linked to one of the Brontë sisters' works, Emily's "Wuthering Heights". Du Maurier commented publicly in her lifetime that the book was based on her own memories of Menabilly and Cornwall, as well as her relationship with her father.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: While du Maurier "categorised "Rebecca" as a study in jealousy...she admitted its origins in her own life to few." Her husband had been "engaged before—to glamorous, dark-haired Jan Ricardo. The suspicion that Tommy remained attracted to Ricardo haunted Daphne." In "The Rebecca Notebook" of 1981, du Maurier "'remembered' Rebecca's gestation … Seeds began to drop. A beautiful home...a first wife...jealousy, a wreck, perhaps at sea, near to the house... But something terrible would have to happen, I did not know what..." She wrote in her notes prior to writing: 'I want to build up the character of the first [wife] in the mind of the second...until wife 2 is haunted day and night...a tragedy is looming very close and CRASH! BANG! something happens.'"


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Du Maurier and her husband, "Tommy Browning, like Rebecca and Maximilian de Winter, were not faithful to one another." Subsequent to the novel's publication, "Jan Ricardo, tragically, died during the Second World War. She threw herself under a train."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Childhood visits to Milton Hall, Cambridgeshire (then in Northamptonshire) home of the Wentworth-Fitzwilliam family, may have influenced the descriptions of Manderley.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The famous opening line of the book "Last night I dreamt I went to Manderley again." is an iambic hexameter. The last line of the book "And the ashes blew towards us with the salt wind from the sea" is too in metrical form; almost but not quite an anapestic tetrameter.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Shortly after "Rebecca" was published in Brazil, critic Álvaro Lins pointed out many resemblances between du Maurier's book and the work of Brazilian writer Carolina Nabuco. Nabuco's "A Sucessora" ("The Successor"), published in 1934, has a main plot similar to "Rebecca", for example a young woman marrying a widower and the strange presence of the first wife—plot features also shared with the far older "Jane Eyre". Nina Auerbach alleged in her book "Daphne du Maurier, Haunted Heiress", that du Maurier read the English version of the Brazilian book when the first drafts were sent to the same publisher as hers in order to be published in England, and based her famous best-seller on it.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Immediately following a 1941 article in "The New York Times Book Review" highlighting the two novels' many similarities, du Maurier issued a rebuttal in a letter to the editor. According to Nabuco's autobiography, "Eight Decades", she (Nabuco) refused to sign an agreement brought to her by a United Artists' representative in which she would concede that the similarities between her book and the movie were mere coincidence. A further, ironic complication in Nabuco's allegations is the similarity between her novel and the novel "Encarnação", written by José de Alencar, one of Brazil's most celebrated novelists of the nineteenth century, and published posthumously in 1893.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In 1944, according to "The Hollywood Reporter", du Maurier; her U.S. publishers Doubleday; and United Artists, distributors of the film adaptation, were sued for plagiarism by Edwina Levin MacDonald who alleged that du Maurier had copied her 1927 novel "Blind Windows", and sought an undisclosed amount of accounting and damages. The complaint was eventually dismissed on January 14, 1948.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Du Maurier delivered the manuscript to her publisher, Victor Gollancz, in April 1938. On receipt, the book was read in Gollancz's office, and her "editor, Norman Collins, reported simply: 'The new Daphne du Maurier contains everything that the public could want.'" Gollancz's "reaction to "Rebecca" was relief and jubilation" and "a 'rollicking success' was predicted by him." He "did not hang around" and "ordered a first print run of 20,000 copies and within a month "Rebecca" had sold more than twice that number." The novel has been continuously in print since 1938 and in 1993 "du Maurier's US publishers Avon estimated ongoing monthly paperback sales of "Rebecca" at more than 4,000 copies."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Du Maurier "did several radio interviews with BBC and other stations" and "attended Foyle's Literary Lunch" in August 1938 while "Good Housekeeping", "Ladies Home Journal", and "House & Garden" published articles on du Maurier.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "The Times" stated that "the material is of the humblest...nothing in this is beyond the novelette." In the "Christian Science Monitor" of 14 September 1938, V.S. Pritchett predicted the novel "would be here today, gone tomorrow."


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: More recently, in a column for "The Independent", the critics Ceri Radford and Chris Harvey recommended the book and argued that "Rebecca" is a "marvellously gothic tale" with a good dose of atmospheric and psychological horror.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Few critics saw in the novel what the author wanted them to see: the exploration of the relationship between a man who is powerful and a woman who is not.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Rebecca" is listed in the 20th-Century American Bestsellers descriptive bibliography database maintained by the University of Illinois. The entry, by Katherine Huber, provided the detailed information on the English and American editions as well as translations listed below.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In the U.S., du Maurier won the National Book Award for favourite novel of 1938, voted by members of the American Booksellers Association. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 14 on the UK survey The Big Read.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In 2017, it was voted the UK's favourite book of the past 225 years in a poll by bookseller W H Smith. Other novels in the shortlist were "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee, "Pride and Prejudice" by Jane Austen, "Jane Eyre" by Charlotte Brontë, and "1984" by George Orwell.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The best known of the theatrical film adaptations is the Academy Award–winning 1940 Alfred Hitchcock film version "Rebecca", the first film Hitchcock made under his contract with David O. Selznick. The film, which starred Laurence Olivier as Maxim, Joan Fontaine as his wife, and Dame Judith Anderson as Mrs Danvers, was based on the novel. However, the Hollywood Production Code required that if Maxim had murdered his wife, he would have to be punished for his crime. Therefore, the key turning point of the novel—the revelation that Maxim, in fact, murdered Rebecca—was altered so that Rebecca's death was accidental. This change had not been made in Orson Welles' previous radio play which included a promotion of the film. At the end of the film version, Mrs Danvers perishes in the fire, which she had started. The film quickly became a classic, and at the time, was a major technical achievement in film-making.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In 2020, there was a Netflix adaptation, directed by Ben Wheatley and written by Jane Goldman, starring Lily James as the second Mrs de Winter, Armie Hammer as Maxim, and Kristin Scott Thomas as Mrs Danvers.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Rebecca" was adapted for "The Philco Television Playhouse" (10 October 1948), with Mary Anderson and Bramwell Fletcher; "Robert Montgomery Presents" (22 May 1950), with Barbara Bel Geddes and Peter Cookson; and "Broadway Television Theatre" (1 September 1952), with Patricia Breslin and Scott Forbes.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Theatre '62" presented an NBC-TV adaptation starring James Mason as Maxim, Joan Hackett as the second Mrs de Winter, and Nina Foch as Mrs Danvers.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Rebecca", a 1979 BBC adaptation, was directed by Simon Langton and starred Jeremy Brett as Maxim, Joanna David as the second Mrs de Winter, and Anna Massey (Jeremy Brett's former wife) as Mrs Danvers. It ran for four 55-minute episodes. It was broadcast in the United States on PBS as part of its "Mystery!" series.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Rebecca", a 1997 Carlton Television drama serial, starred Emilia Fox (Joanna David's daughter, in the same role played by her mother in 1979), Charles Dance as de Winter, and Dame Diana Rigg as Mrs Danvers. It was directed by Jim O'Brien, with a screenplay by Arthur Hopcraft. It was broadcast in the United States by PBS as part of "Masterpiece Theatre". This adaptation is noteworthy for featuring an appearance by Rebecca, played by Lucy Cohu. It also shows Maxim saving Mrs Danvers from the fire, ending with an epilogue showing Maxim and the second Mrs de Winter relaxing abroad, as she explains what she and Maxim do with their days now they are unlikely ever to return to Manderley.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In 2008, a two-part Italian TV adaption, loosely based on the novel and named "", aired on the national public broadcaster RAI. The episodes feature Alessio Boni as Maxim de Winter, Cristiana Capotondi as Jennifer de Winter and Mariangela Melato as Mrs Danvers. The mini-series was filmed in Trieste.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Noor Pur Ki Rani", an Urdu language Pakistani drama television series adaptation directed by Haissam Hussain and dramatized by Pakistani writer and author Samira Fazal, was broadcast on Hum TV in 2009. The main role was played by Sanam Baloch.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The first adaptation of "Rebecca" for any medium was presented 9 December 1938, by Orson Welles, as the debut program of his live CBS Radio series "The Campbell Playhouse" (the sponsored continuation of "The Mercury Theatre on the Air"). Introducing the story, Welles refers to the forthcoming motion picture adaptation by David O. Selznick; at the conclusion of the show he interviews Daphne du Maurier in London via shortwave radio. The novel was adapted by Howard E. Koch. Welles and Margaret Sullavan starred as Max de Winter and the second Mrs de Winter. Other cast included Mildred Natwick (Mrs Danvers), Ray Collins (Frank Crawley), George Coulouris (Captain Searle), Frank Readick (as Ben), Alfred Shirley (Frith), Eustace Wyatt (Coroner) and Agnes Moorehead (Mrs Van Hopper). Bernard Herrmann composed and conducted the score, which later formed the basis of his score for the 1943 film "Jane Eyre".


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "The Screen Guild Theater" presented half-hour adaptions with Joan Fontaine, her husband at the time Brian Aherne, and Agnes Moorehead (31 May 1943), and with Loretta Young, John Lund and Agnes Moorehead (18 November 1948). Joan Fontaine and Joseph Cotten performed a half-hour adaptation 1 October 1946 on "The Cresta Blanca Hollywood Players".


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "The Lux Radio Theatre" presented hour-long adaptations with Ronald Colman, Ida Lupino and Judith Anderson (3 February 1941), and with Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh and Betty Blythe (6 November 1950). These were tie-ins to the Hitchcock film, and perpetuated the censorship of the novel which the Hays Office had imposed on that film, although Orson Welles' radio version which predated the film (and including a promotion for the film) was faithful to the original, asserting that Max de Winter had deliberately murdered Rebecca.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Du Maurier herself adapted "Rebecca" as a stage play in 1939; it had a successful London run in 1940 of over 350 performances. The Talking Books for the blind edition read by Barbara Caruso borrows heavily from this stage adaptation which differs materially from the novel in many respects including changing the iconic ending of the novel.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: A Broadway stage adaptation starring Diana Barrymore, Bramwell Fletcher and Florence Reed ran 18 January – 3 February 1945, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The book has also been adapted into a German-language musical, "Rebecca", which opened in Vienna in 2006 and ran for three years.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: "Rebecca" was adapted as an opera with music by Wilfred Josephs, premiered by Opera North in Leeds, England, 15 October 1983.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In addition, a number of fan fiction websites feature sequels, prequels, and adaptations of this novel.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: One edition of the book was used by the Germans in World War II as the key to a book code. Sentences would be made using single words in the book, referred to by page number, line and position in the line. One copy was kept at Rommel's headquarters, and the other was carried by German Abwehr agents infiltrated into Cairo after crossing Egypt by car, guided by Count László Almásy. This code never was used, however, because the radio section of the headquarters was captured in a skirmish and hence the Germans suspected that the code was compromised.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: This use of the book is referred to in Ken Follett's novel "The Key to Rebecca"—where a (fictional) spy does use it to pass critical information to Rommel. This use was also referenced in Michael Ondaatje's 1992 novel "The English Patient".


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The character of Mrs Danvers is alluded to numerous times throughout Stephen King's "Bag of Bones". In the book, Mrs Danvers serves as something of a bogeyman for the main character Mike Noonan.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The 1970 Parallel Time storyline of the Gothic soap opera "Dark Shadows" was heavily inspired by "Rebecca" including the costume ball scene. The second "Dark Shadows" motion picture "Night of Dark Shadows" also took inspiration from the novel.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The film was parodied on "The Carol Burnett Show" in a 1972 skit called "Rebecky", with Carol Burnett as the heroine, Daphne; Harvey Korman as Max "de Wintry" and in the guise of Mother Marcus as Rebecky de Wintry; and Vicki Lawrence as Mrs Dampers.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Another parody of the famed story is found in the second series of the sketch show "That Mitchell and Webb Look" from 2008. The sketch, which stars Robert Webb as Maxim, David Mitchell as Mrs Danvers, and Jo Neary as Rebecca, explores an alternate approach to a filmatization of the novel. Here, the story is narrated by Rebecca, who is haunted by the household’s anticipation of a second Mrs De Winter.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: The plots of certain Latin-American soap operas have also been inspired by the novel, such as "Manuela" (Argentina), "Infierno en el paraíso" (Mexico), the Venezuelan telenovela "Julia" and its remake "El Fantasma de Elena" on Telemundo, and "La Sombra de Belinda" a telenovela from Puerto Rico.


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: Kansas alumnus Steve Walsh's solo recording "Glossolalia" includes a song titled "Rebecca", including the lyrics "I suppose I was the lucky one, returning like a wayward son to Manderley, I'd never be the same...".


title: Rebecca (novel)

text: In 2013, Devon watchmakers Du Maurier Watches, founded by the grandson of Daphne du Maurier, released a limited edition collection of two watches inspired by the characters from the novel—The Rebecca and The Maxim.


title: Tetrahedron

text: In geometry, a tetrahedron (plural: tetrahedra or tetrahedrons), also known as a triangular pyramid, is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertex corners. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra and the only one that has fewer than 5 faces.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The tetrahedron is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a Euclidean simplex, and may thus also be called a 3-simplex.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The tetrahedron is one kind of pyramid, which is a polyhedron with a flat polygon base and triangular faces connecting the base to a common point. In the case of a tetrahedron the base is a triangle (any of the four faces can be considered the base), so a tetrahedron is also known as a "triangular pyramid".


title: Tetrahedron

text: Like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. It has two such nets.


title: Tetrahedron

text: For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere (called the circumsphere) on which all four vertices lie, and another sphere (the insphere) tangent to the tetrahedron's faces.


title: Tetrahedron

text: A regular tetrahedron is a tetrahedron in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have been known since antiquity.


title: Tetrahedron

text: In a regular tetrahedron, all faces are the same size and shape (congruent) and all edges are the same length.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Regular tetrahedra alone do not tessellate (fill space), but if alternated with regular octahedra in the ratio of two tetrahedra to one octahedron, they form the alternated cubic honeycomb, which is a tessellation. Some tetrahedra that are not regular, including the Schläfli orthoscheme and the Hill tetrahedron, can tessellate.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The regular tetrahedron is self-dual, which means that its dual is another regular tetrahedron. The compound figure comprising two such dual tetrahedra form a stellated octahedron or stella octangula.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The following Cartesian coordinates define the four vertices of a tetrahedron with edge length 2, centered at the origin, and two level edges:


title: Tetrahedron

text: Expressed symmetrically as 4 points on the unit sphere, centroid at the origin, with lower face level, the vertices are:


title: Tetrahedron

text: Still another set of coordinates are based on an alternated cube or demicube with edge length 2. This form has Coxeter diagram and Schläfli symbol h{4,3}. The tetrahedron in this case has edge length 2. Inverting these coordinates generates the dual tetrahedron, and the pair together form the stellated octahedron, whose vertices are those of the original cube.


title: Tetrahedron

text: With respect to the base plane the slope of a face (2) is twice that of an edge (), corresponding to the fact that the "horizontal" distance covered from the base to the apex along an edge is twice that along the median of a face. In other words, if "C" is the centroid of the base, the distance from "C" to a vertex of the base is twice that from "C" to the midpoint of an edge of the base. This follows from the fact that the medians of a triangle intersect at its centroid, and this point divides each of them in two segments, one of which is twice as long as the other (see ).


title: Tetrahedron

text: For a regular tetrahedron with side length "a", radius "R" of its circumscribing sphere, and distances "d" from an arbitrary point in 3-space to its four vertices, we have


title: Tetrahedron

text: The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron (see above, and also , showing one of the two tetrahedra in the cube). The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to half of those of a cube: those that map the tetrahedra to themselves, and not to each other.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The regular tetrahedron has 24 isometries, forming the symmetry group T, [3,3], (*332), isomorphic to the symmetric group, "S". They can be categorized as follows:


title: Tetrahedron

text: The regular "tetrahedron" has two special orthogonal projections, one centered on a vertex or equivalently on a face, and one centered on an edge. The first corresponds to the A Coxeter plane.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The two skew perpendicular opposite edges of a "regular tetrahedron" define a set of parallel planes. When one of these planes intersects the tetrahedron the resulting cross section is a rectangle. When the intersecting plane is near one of the edges the rectangle is long and skinny. When halfway between the two edges the intersection is a square. The aspect ratio of the rectangle reverses as you pass this halfway point. For the midpoint square intersection the resulting boundary line traverses every face of the tetrahedron similarly. If the tetrahedron is bisected on this plane, both halves become wedges.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The tetrahedron can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths. Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Regular tetrahedra can be stacked face-to-face in a chiral aperiodic chain called the Boerdijk–Coxeter helix.


title: Tetrahedron

text: In four dimensions, all the convex regular 4-polytopes with tetrahedral cells (the 5-cell, 16-cell and 600-cell) can be constructed as tilings of the 3-sphere by these chains, which become periodic in the three-dimensional space of the 4-polytope's boundary surface.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Tetrahedra which do not have four equilateral faces are categorized and named by the symmetries they do possess.


title: Tetrahedron

text: If all three pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are perpendicular, then it is called an orthocentric tetrahedron. When only one pair of opposite edges are perpendicular, it is called a semi-orthocentric tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: An isodynamic tetrahedron is one in which the cevians that join the vertices to the incenters of the opposite faces are concurrent.


title: Tetrahedron

text: An isogonic tetrahedron has concurrent cevians that join the vertices to the points of contact of the opposite faces with the inscribed sphere of the tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: In a trirectangular tetrahedron the three face angles at "one" vertex are right angles, as at the corner of a cube.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Kepler discovered the relationship between the cube, regular tetrahedron and trirectangular tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: A disphenoid is a tetrahedron with four congruent triangles as faces; the triangles necessarily have all angles acute. The regular tetrahedron is a special case of a disphenoid. Other names for the same shape include bisphenoid, isosceles tetrahedron and equifacial tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: A 3-orthoscheme is a tetrahedron where all four faces are right triangles. An orthoscheme is an irregular simplex that is the convex hull of a tree in which all edges are mutually perpendicular. In a 3-dimensional orthoscheme, the tree consists of three perpendicular edges connecting all four vertices in a linear path that makes two right-angled turns. The 3-orthoscheme is a tetrahedron having two right angles at each of two vertices, so another name for it is birectangular tetrahedron. It is also called a quadrirectangular tetrahedron because it contains four right angles.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Coxeter also calls quadrirectangular tetrahedra characteristic tetrahedra, because of their integral relationship to the regular polytopes and their symmetry groups. For example, the special case of a 3-orthoscheme with equal-length perpendicular edges is characteristic of the cube, which means that the cube can be subdivided into instances of this orthoscheme. If its three perpendicular edges are of unit length, its remaining edges are two of length and one of length , so all its edges are edges or diagonals of the cube. The cube can be dissected into six such 3-orthoschemes four different ways, with all six surrounding the same cube diagonal. The cube can also be dissected into 48 "smaller" instances of this same characteristic 3-orthoscheme (just one way, by all of its symmetry planes at once). The characteristic tetrahedron of the cube is an example of a Heronian tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Every regular polytope, including the regular tetrahedron, has its characteristic orthoscheme. There is a 3-orthoscheme which is the characteristic tetrahedron of the regular tetrahedron. The regular tetrahedron is subdivided into 24 instances of its characteristic tetrahedron by its planes of symmetry.


title: Tetrahedron

text: If the regular tetrahedron has edge length 𝒍 = 2, its characteristic tetrahedron's six edges have lengths , , (the exterior right triangle face, the "characteristic triangle" 𝟀, 𝝓, 𝟁), plus , , (edges that are the "characteristic radii" of the regular tetrahedron). The 3-edge path along orthogonal edges of the orthoscheme is , , , first from a tetrahedron vertex to an tetrahedron edge center, then turning 90° to an tetrahedron face center, then turning 90° to the tetrahedron center. The orthoscheme has four dissimilar right triangle faces. The exterior face is a 60-90-30 triangle which is one-sixth of a tetrahedron face. The three faces interior to the tetrahedron are: a right triangle with edges , , , a right triangle with edges , , , and a right triangle with edges , , .


title: Tetrahedron

text: A space-filling tetrahedron packs with directly congruent or enantiomorphous (mirror image) copies of itself to tile space. The cube can be dissected into six 3-orthoschemes, three left-handed and three right-handed (one of each at each cube face), and cubes can fill space, so the characteristic 3-orthoscheme of the cube is a space-filling tetrahedron in this sense. A disphenoid can be a space-filling tetrahedron in the directly congruent sense, as in the disphenoid tetrahedral honeycomb. Regular tetrahedra, however, cannot fill space by themselves.


title: Tetrahedron

text: An irregular tetrahedron which is the fundamental domain of a symmetry group is an example of a Goursat tetrahedron. The Goursat tetrahedra generate all the regular polyhedra (and many other uniform polyhedra) by mirror reflections, a process referred to as Wythoff's kaleidoscopic construction.


title: Tetrahedron

text: For polyhedra, Wythoff's construction arranges three mirrors at angles to each other, as in a kaleidoscope. Unlike a cylindrical kaleidoscope, Wythoff's mirrors are located at three faces of a Goursat tetrahedron such that all three mirrors intersect at a single point.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Among the Goursat tetrahedra which generate 3-dimensional honeycombs we can recognize an orthoscheme (the characteristic tetrahedron of the cube), a double orthoscheme (the characteristic tetrahedron of the cube face-bonded to its mirror image), and the space-filling disphenoid illustrated above. The disphenoid is the double orthoscheme face-bonded to its mirror image (a quadruple orthoscheme). Thus all three of these Goursat tetrahedra, and all the polyhedra they generate by reflections, can be dissected into characteristic tetrahedra of the cube.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The isometries of an irregular (unmarked) tetrahedron depend on the geometry of the tetrahedron, with 7 cases possible. In each case a 3-dimensional point group is formed. Two other isometries (C, [3]), and (S, [2,4]) can exist if the face or edge marking are included. Tetrahedral diagrams are included for each type below, with edges colored by isometric equivalence, and are gray colored for unique edges.


title: Tetrahedron

text: where "A" is the area of the base and "h" is the height from the base to the apex. This applies for each of the four choices of the base, so the distances from the apices to the opposite faces are inversely proportional to the areas of these faces.


title: Tetrahedron

text: , the volume is , or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a simply connected graph. This can be rewritten using a dot product and a cross product, yielding


title: Tetrahedron

text: where a, b, and c represent three edges that meet at one vertex, and is a scalar triple product. Comparing this formula with that used to compute the volume of a parallelepiped, we conclude that the volume of a tetrahedron is equal to of the volume of any parallelepiped that shares three converging edges with it.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The absolute value of the scalar triple product can be represented as the following absolute values of determinants:


title: Tetrahedron

text: where "α", "β", "γ" are the plane angles occurring in vertex d. The angle "α", is the angle between the two edges connecting the vertex d to the vertices b and c. The angle "β", does so for the vertices a and c, while "γ", is defined by the position of the vertices a and b.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Given the distances between the vertices of a tetrahedron the volume can be computed using the Cayley–Menger determinant:


title: Tetrahedron

text: where the subscripts represent the vertices and "d" is the pairwise distance between them – i.e., the length of the edge connecting the two vertices. A negative value of the determinant means that a tetrahedron cannot be constructed with the given distances. This formula, sometimes called Tartaglia's formula, is essentially due to the painter Piero della Francesca in the 15th century, as a three dimensional analogue of the 1st century Heron's formula for the area of a triangle.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Let be three edges that meet at a point, and the opposite edges. Let be the volume of the tetrahedron; then


title: Tetrahedron

text: The above formula uses six lengths of edges, and the following formula uses three lengths of edges and three angles.


title: Tetrahedron

text: If , , , , , are lengths of edges of the tetrahedron (first three form a triangle; with opposite , opposite , opposite ), then


title: Tetrahedron

text: Any plane containing a bimedian (connector of opposite edges' midpoints) of a tetrahedron bisects the volume of the tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: For tetrahedra in hyperbolic space or in three-dimensional elliptic geometry, the dihedral angles of the tetrahedron determine its shape and hence its volume. In these cases, the volume is given by the Murakami–Yano formula. However, in Euclidean space, scaling a tetrahedron changes its volume but not its dihedral angles, so no such formula can exist.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Any two opposite edges of a tetrahedron lie on two skew lines, and the distance between the edges is defined as the distance between the two skew lines. Let "d" be the distance between the skew lines formed by opposite edges a and as calculated here. Then another volume formula is given by


title: Tetrahedron

text: The tetrahedron has many properties analogous to those of a triangle, including an insphere, circumsphere, medial tetrahedron, and exspheres. It has respective centers such as incenter, circumcenter, excenters, Spieker center and points such as a centroid. However, there is generally no orthocenter in the sense of intersecting altitudes.


title: Tetrahedron

text: Gaspard Monge found a center that exists in every tetrahedron, now known as the Monge point: the point where the six midplanes of a tetrahedron intersect. A midplane is defined as a plane that is orthogonal to an edge joining any two vertices that also contains the centroid of an opposite edge formed by joining the other two vertices. If the tetrahedron's altitudes do intersect, then the Monge point and the orthocenter coincide to give the class of orthocentric tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: An orthogonal line dropped from the Monge point to any face meets that face at the midpoint of the line segment between that face's orthocenter and the foot of the altitude dropped from the opposite vertex.


title: Tetrahedron

text: A line segment joining a vertex of a tetrahedron with the centroid of the opposite face is called a "median" and a line segment joining the midpoints of two opposite edges is called a "bimedian" of the tetrahedron. Hence there are four medians and three bimedians in a tetrahedron. These seven line segments are all concurrent at a point called the "centroid" of the tetrahedron. In addition the four medians are divided in a 3:1 ratio by the centroid (see Commandino's theorem). The centroid of a tetrahedron is the midpoint between its Monge point and circumcenter. These points define the "Euler line" of the tetrahedron that is analogous to the Euler line of a triangle.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The nine-point circle of the general triangle has an analogue in the circumsphere of a tetrahedron's medial tetrahedron. It is the twelve-point sphere and besides the centroids of the four faces of the reference tetrahedron, it passes through four substitute "Euler points", one third of the way from the Monge point toward each of the four vertices. Finally it passes through the four base points of orthogonal lines dropped from each Euler point to the face not containing the vertex that generated the Euler point.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The center "T" of the twelve-point sphere also lies on the Euler line. Unlike its triangular counterpart, this center lies one third of the way from the Monge point "M" towards the circumcenter. Also, an orthogonal line through "T" to a chosen face is coplanar with two other orthogonal lines to the same face. The first is an orthogonal line passing through the corresponding Euler point to the chosen face. The second is an orthogonal line passing through the centroid of the chosen face. This orthogonal line through the twelve-point center lies midway between the Euler point orthogonal line and the centroidal orthogonal line. Furthermore, for any face, the twelve-point center lies at the midpoint of the corresponding Euler point and the orthocenter for that face.


title: Tetrahedron

text: The geometric median of the vertex position coordinates of a tetrahedron and its isogonic center are associated, under circumstances analogous to those observed for a triangle. Lorenz Lindelöf found that, corresponding to any given tetrahedron is a point now known as an isogonic center, "O", at which the solid angles subtended by the faces are equal, having a common value of π sr, and at which the angles subtended by opposite edges are equal. A solid angle of π sr is one quarter of that subtended by all of space. When all the solid angles at the vertices of a tetrahedron are smaller than π sr, "O" lies inside the tetrahedron, and because the sum of distances from "O" to the vertices is a minimum, "O" coincides with the geometric median, "M", of the vertices. In the event that the solid angle at one of the vertices, "v", measures exactly π sr, then "O" and "M" coincide with "v". If however, a tetrahedron has a vertex, "v", with solid angle greater than π sr, "M" still corresponds to "v", but "O" lies outside the tetrahedron.


title: Tetrahedron

text: A tetrahedron is a 3-simplex. Unlike the case of the other Platonic solids, all the vertices of a regular tetrahedron are equidistant from each other (they are the only possible arrangement of four equidistant points in 3-dimensional space).