title: Shaivism

text: Patanjali's "", dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions the term "Shiva-bhagavata" in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an "ayah sulikah" (iron spear, trident lance) as an icon representing his god. The "Shvetashvatara Upanishad" (late 1st mill. BCE) mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram, but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed. In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism.


title: Shaivism

text: The "Mahabharata" mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140. Other evidence that is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho. According to Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography, but this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences.


title: Shaivism

text: The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest that Shaivism (particularly Pashupata monism) was established in this region during the Mauryas and the Guptas reign of the Indian subcontinent, by the 5th century. These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.


title: Shaivism

text: During the Gupta Empire (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purana literature developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then. The most important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the "Shiva Purana" and the "Linga Purana".


title: Shaivism

text: Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of Vaishnavism. But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting. The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva. Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.


title: Shaivism

text: In the early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian subcontinent, including in the Hindu Kush region such as Nuristan. Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those at Badami cave temples, Aihole, Elephanta Caves, Ellora Caves (Kailasha, cave 16), Khajuraho, Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram.


title: Shaivism

text: Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation, while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnava expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as the "Mahabharata", Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.


title: Shaivism

text: The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnava. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as the "Isvarasamhita", "Padmasamhita" and "Paramesvarasamhita".


title: Shaivism

text: Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India. The region was also the source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE.


title: Shaivism

text: There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or svayambhu). Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Certain regions have a greater density of Shiva temples, such as in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu, where numerous Shaiva temples were built during the Chola empire era, between 800 and 1200 CE. Gudimallam is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many cases. For example, in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, a few caves include Shaivism ideas. The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period, that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE. In Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam, and persists today in the province of Bali.


title: Shaivism

text: The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century. Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed. In the centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.


title: Shaivism

text: In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided "Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya"" into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-Puranic, who use the terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they use iconography such as the Linga, Nandi, Trishula (trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in temples to help focus their practices. Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it with abstract "Sivata" (feminine energy) or "Sivatva" (neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates the goddess (Shakti) and the god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus.


title: Shaivism

text: Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik (esoteric, tantric). They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:


title: Shaivism

text: Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises. These include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Agamas, and the "Bhasya". According to Gavin Flood – a professor at Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology, in its diverse traditions. Among the notable and influential commentaries by "dvaita" (dualistic) theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th century Bhojadeva. The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of "advaita" (nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta, the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.


title: Shaivism

text: The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism, while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sub-traditions. The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era. The Vedic literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, will be acceptable to the Shaivas. According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas". This school's view can be summed as,


title: Shaivism

text: The "Upanishad" (400–200 BCE) is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva Upanishads. These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature. The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.


title: Shaivism

text: The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.


title: Shaivism

text: The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology. These texts include Shaiva cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of practice. These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit and in south Indian languages such as Tamil.


title: Shaivism

text: The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism. In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts. The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.


title: Shaivism

text: The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (Self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman) which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism. The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two. Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God. While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the Shaivas.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions. These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or practices of the two. Sanderson presents the historic classification found in Indian texts, namely "Atimarga" of the Shaiva monks and "Mantramarga" that was followed by both the renunciates ("sannyasi") and householders ("grihastha") in Shaivism. Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on Shiva, but others such as the Devi (goddess) Shaktism.


title: Shaivism

text: The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation) – or the end of all Dukkha – as the primary goal of spiritual pursuits. It was the path for Shaiva ascetics, in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and pleasures in life. The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic Rudra).


title: Shaivism

text: Pashupata: (IAST: "") are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era. It is a monist tradition, that considers Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is one of asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males. Pashupata theology, according to "Shiva Sutras", aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.


title: Shaivism

text: The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the beast, and the Atman (Self, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati. The tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive literature, and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha) and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).


title: Shaivism

text: The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd century CE). He is the purported author of the "Pashupata-sutra", a foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include the bhasya (commentary) on "Pashupata-sutra" by Kaudinya, the "Gaṇakārikā", "Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā" and "Rāśikara-bhāshya". The Pashupatha monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required renunciation from four Ashrama (stage) into the fifth stage of "Siddha-Ashrama". The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his death.


title: Shaivism

text: The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kashmir and Nepal. The community is found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics became extinct.


title: Shaivism

text: This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas. Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, for example, almost naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food. The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognized no act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However, according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.


title: Shaivism

text: Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their canons on theology, rituals and literature on pramanas (epistemology). However, their primary texts are believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.


title: Shaivism

text: "Mantramārga" (Sanskrit: मन्त्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both householders and monks. It grew from the Atimarga tradition. This tradition sought not just liberation from "Dukkha" (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers ("siddhi") and pleasures ("bhoga"), both in this life and next. The "siddhi" were particularly the pursuit of "Mantramarga" monks, and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic techniques and mantras. Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient than the date of their texts that have survived, according to Sanderson. Mantramārga grew to become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia's Khmer Empire, Java, Bali and Cham.


title: Shaivism

text: The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra. This literature was highly influential not just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism. Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism. Shaiva Siddhanta is a major subtradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions. Its central premise has been that the Atman (Self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found in Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools consider Maya as Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity.


title: Shaivism

text: Srikantha, influenced by Ramanuja, formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita. In this theology, Atman (Self) is not identical with Brahman, but shares with the Supreme all its qualities. Appayya Dikshita (1520–1592), an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the Karnataka region. His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam (Tiruvannamalai district).


title: Shaivism

text: The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest sampradaya (tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th century. The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva, uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called "Tirumurai". A key philosophical text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-century Meykandar. This theology presents three universal realities: the "pashu" (individual Self), the "pati" (lord, Shiva), and the "pasha" (Self's bondage) through ignorance, karma and maya. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual Self from bondage.


title: Shaivism

text: The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000). However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south. The philosophy of Shaiva Siddhanta, is particularly popular in south India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.


title: Shaivism

text: The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts. The tradition includes both Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction. Unlike the experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat". Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality, worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas. This tradition diversified in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.


title: Shaivism

text: By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in ancient Tamil Nadu with a focus on Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars. The devotional Tamil poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together known as "Tirumurai", along with a Tamil Purana called the "Periya Puranam". The first seven collections are known as the "Tevaram" and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas. They were composed in the 7th century by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar.


title: Shaivism

text: Tirumular (also spelled or ), the author of the "Tirumantiram" (also spelled "Tirumandiram") is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas. Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz. The "Tirumantiram" is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon. The "Tiruvacakam" by Manikkavacagar is an important collection of hymns.


title: Shaivism

text: The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divinely revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru.


title: Shaivism

text: A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and "bala" (powers), such as averting danger ("santih") and the ability to harm enemies ("abhicarah"). Ganachakras, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis. The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.


title: Shaivism

text: Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers as "anima" (awareness than one is present in everything), "laghima" (lightness, be free from presumed diversity or differences), "mahima" (heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own consciousness), "prapti" (attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature), "prakamya" (forebearance, grasp and accept cosmic diversity), "vasita" (control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one wants), "isitva" (self lordship, a yogi is always free). More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning ("yuktih"), scriptures ("sastras") and the initiating Guru.


title: Shaivism

text: Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was overwhelmed by the Islamic invasions from the Hindu Kush region. The Kashmir Shaivism traditions became nearly extinct due to Islam except for their preservation by Kashmiri Pandits.


title: Shaivism

text: Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school, and is distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also existed in medieval Kashmir. A notable philosophy of monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been the Pratyabhijna ideas, particularly those by the 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th century Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja. Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in an advaita (monism) framework. The "Siva Sutras" of 9th century Vasugupta and his ideas about "Spanda" have also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed.


title: Shaivism

text: A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism. For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was "Trika", or modal triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century.


title: Shaivism

text: Nath: a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition based on Yoga. The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru, and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose devotees were called "Yogi" or "Jogi", given their monastic unconventional ways and emphasis on Yoga.


title: Shaivism

text: Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises, exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th century Matsyendranath and to ideas and organization developed by Gorakshanath. They combined both theistic practices such as worshipping goddesses and their historic Gurus in temples, as well monistic goals of achieving liberation or "jivan-mukti" while alive, by reaching the perfect ("siddha") state of realizing oneness of self and everything with Shiva.


title: Shaivism

text: They formed monastic organisations, and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.


title: Shaivism

text: Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism: is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India. It was founded by the 12th-century philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers, called Sharanas.


title: Shaivism

text: Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja. Its worship is notable for the iconographic form of "Ishtalinga", which the adherents wear. Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of Karnataka and nearby regions. Lingayatism has its own theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.


title: Shaivism

text: They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their scripture to be "Basava Purana", which was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I. Lingayat (Veerashaiva) thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge. The 13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras."


title: Shaivism

text: There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism. Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. Substantial communities are also found in Haryana, Maharashtra and central Uttar Pradesh.


title: Shaivism

text: According to Galvin Flood, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly. The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.


title: Shaivism

text: Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts (Nataraja) have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of Indo-China, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java and Bali. This influence on classical Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with the same Indians.


title: Shaivism

text: In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been "Bhattara Guru", which is derived from Sanskrit "Bhattaraka" which means "noble lord". He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms. The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).


title: Shaivism

text: As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion (though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the Chola and the Rajputs. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre-Islamic Malaya. In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.


title: Shaivism

text: The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, Shaivism itself got influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva). The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable partner of god Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate. Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.


title: Shaivism

text: Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of Hinduism. The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva along with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called the Panchayatana puja. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.


title: Shaivism

text: Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons of "saguna" Brahman, a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal God with form), rather than as distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman (metaphysical Ultimate Reality) – as "That art Thou".


title: Shaivism

text: Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval India and is attributed to 8th century Adi Shankara, but archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE). According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded the "pancayatana" architecture, from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir. Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple complex, while some explicitly include fusion deities such as Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu).


title: Shaivism

text: Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the "Vishnu Purana" primarily focuses on the theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu. The Vishnu Sahasranama in the "Mahabharata" list a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.


title: Shaivism

text: Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India. Harihara temples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.


title: Shaivism

text: Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the same divine. The "Skanda Purana", for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva".


title: Shaivism

text: The sun god called "Surya" is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges these. For example, the Shaiva text "Srikanthiyasamhita" mentions 85 Saura texts, almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains. Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as "Saurasamhita" acknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of Shaiva text "Vathula-Kalottara".


title: Shaivism

text: Yoga and meditation has been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha Yoga. Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva "tritha" (pilgrimage) centers depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein Shiva is a loner yogi meditating, as do Shaiva texts.


title: Shaivism

text: In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi. The "Shiva Sutras" (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms. According to Mark Dyczkowski, yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the "realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive", and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one is.


title: Shaivism

text: Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods such as by introducing Hatha Yoga techniques. One such movement had been the "Nath" Yogis, a Shaivism sub-tradition that integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. It was founded by Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath. The texts of these Yoga emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.


title: Shaivism

text: Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism. This is celebrated in Shaiva temples as Nataraja, which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on performance arts called the "Natya Shastra".


title: Shaivism

text: Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu temples. For example, it is found in Badami cave temples, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as Bharatanatyam and Chhau.


title: Shaivism

text: Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient times, in both South Asia and Southeast Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and Hindus would worship in the same temple such as in the Seto Machindranath. In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler. Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.


title: Shaivism

text: The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the 1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts. The Buddhist Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts, but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests. According to Richard Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in common with Shiva in Shaivism. The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia. In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts, syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common.


title: Shaivism

text: The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions. This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva. In the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions. This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya (Hindu Sun god) on left.


title: Shaivism

text: On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the Nyepi – a "festival of silence", the observations are officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.


title: Shaivism

text: Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India where it received royal support from Hindu kings of Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties. In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-goddesses. These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using "japas" (mantra recitation) and making offerings into Homa fire.


title: Shaivism

text: According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism. The 11th-century Jain text ‘’Bhairavapadmavatikalpa’’, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon, particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology, Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world according to Jainism.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava. While Shaiva and Jain practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.


title: Shaivism

text: Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other regional literature refer to temples by various terms such as "Mandir", "Shivayatana", "Shivalaya", "Shambhunatha", "Jyotirlingam", "Shristhala", "Chattraka", "Bhavaggana", "Bhuvaneshvara", "Goputika", "Harayatana", "Kailasha", "Mahadevagriha", "Saudhala" and others. In Southeast Asia Shaiva temples are called Candi (Java), Pura (Bali), and Wat (Cambodia and nearby regions).


title: Shaivism

text: Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage sites such as Varanasi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, and others are broadly considered holy in Hinduism. They are called "kṣétra" (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).


title: Shaivism

text: Many of the historic Puranas literature embed tourism guide to Shaivism-related pilgrimage centers and temples. For example, the "Skanda Purana" deals primarily with "Tirtha Mahatmyas" (pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points, but also includes a chapter stating that a temple and "tirtha" is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.


title: Shaivism

text: Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence ("sangam"), natural springs, origin of Ganges River (and "pancha-ganga"), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are particularly revered spots in Shaivism. Twelve "jyotirlinga" sites across India have been particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of infiniteness, as per Śiva Mahāpurāṇa. They are Somnatha, Mallikarjuna, Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnatha, Bhimashankar, Visheshvara, Trayambakesvara, Vaidyanatha, Nageshvara, Rameshvara and Grishneshwar. Other texts mention five Kedras (Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha, Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others. Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads such as the "Jabala Upanishad".


title: Shaivism

text: The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.


title: Shaivism

text: B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao, Religion in Andhra: A Survey of Religious Developments in Andhra from Early Times Upto A.D. 1325. Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of A.P., 1993


title: Binturong

text: The binturong (Arctictis binturong) (, ), also known as the bearcat, is a viverrid native to South and Southeast Asia. It is uncommon in much of its range, and has been assessed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List because of a declining population trend that is estimated at more than 30% since the mid-1980s. The binturong is the only living species in the genus Arctictis.


title: Binturong

text: The name "Arctictis" means 'bear-weasel', from Greek "arkt-" 'bear' + "iktis" 'weasel'. In Riau, Indonesia it is called 'benturong' and 'tenturun'. Its common name in Borneo is "binturong", which is related to the Western Malayo-Polynesian root "ma-tuRun".


title: Binturong

text: "Viverra binturong" was the scientific name proposed by Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1822 for a specimen from Malacca. The generic name "Arctictis" was proposed by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1824. "Arctictis" is a monotypic taxon; its morphology is similar to that of members of the genera "Paradoxurus" and "Paguma".


title: Binturong

text: Nine subspecies have been recognized forming two clades. The northern clade in mainland Asia is separated from the Sundaic clade by the Isthmus of Kra.


title: Binturong

text: The binturong is long and heavy, with short, stout legs. It has a thick coat of coarse black hair. The bushy and prehensile tail is thick at the root, gradually tapering, and curls inwards at the tip. The muzzle is short and pointed, somewhat turned up at the nose, and is covered with bristly hairs, brown at the points, which lengthen as they diverge, and form a peculiar radiated circle round the face. The eyes are large, black and prominent. The ears are short, rounded, edged with white, and terminated by tufts of black hair. There are six short rounded incisors in each jaw, two canines, which are long and sharp, and six molars on each side. The hair on the legs is short and of a yellowish tinge. The feet are five-toed, with large strong claws; the soles are bare, and are plantigrade: applied to the ground throughout the whole of their length; the hind ones are longer than the fore ones.


title: Binturong

text: In general build the binturong is essentially like "Paradoxurus" and "Paguma", but more massive in the length of the tail, legs and feet, in the structure of the scent glands and larger size of the rhinarium, which is more convex with a median groove being much narrower above the philtrum. The contour hairs of the coat are much longer and coarser, and the long hairs clothing the whole of the back of the ears project beyond the tip as a definite tuft. The anterior bursa flap of the ears is more widely and less deeply emarginate. The tail is more muscular, especially at the base, and in colour generally like the body, but commonly paler at the base beneath. The body hairs are frequently partly whitish or buff, giving a speckled appearance to the pelage, sometimes so pale that the whole body is mostly straw-coloured or grey, the young being often at all events paler than the adults, but the head is always closely speckled with grey or buff. The long mystacial vibrissae are conspicuously white, and there is a white rim on the summit of the otherwise black ear. The glandular area is whitish.


title: Binturong

text: The tail is nearly as long as the head and body, which ranges from ; the tail is long. Some captive binturongs measured from in head and body with a tail of . Mean weight of captive adult females is with a range from . Captive animals often weigh more than wild counterparts. 12 captive female binturongs were found to weigh a mean of while 22 males weighed a mean of . The estimated mean weight of wild females per one study was . However, seven wild male binturongs in Thailand were found to weigh a mean of , while one female was of similar weight at . One estimate of the mean body mass of wild binturongs was .


title: Binturong

text: Both sexes have scent glands; females on either side of the vulva, and males between the scrotum and penis. The musk glands emit an odor reminiscent of popcorn or corn chips, likely due to the volatile compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline in the urine, which is also produced in the Maillard reaction at high temperatures. Unlike most other carnivorans, the male binturong does not have a baculum.


title: Binturong

text: The binturong occurs from India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia to Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Yunnan in China, and Sumatra, Kalimantan and Java in Indonesia to Palawan in the Philippines.


title: Binturong

text: In Assam, it is common in foothills and hills with good tree cover, but less so in the forested plains. It has been recorded in Manas National Park, in Dulung and Kakoi Reserved Forests of the Lakhimpur district, in the hill forests of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar Hills, Cachar and Hailakandi Districts.


title: Binturong

text: In Myanmar, binturongs were photographed on the ground in Tanintharyi Nature Reserve at an elevation of , in the Hukaung Valley at elevations from , in the Rakhine Yoma Elephant Reserve at and at three other sites up to elevation.


title: Binturong

text: In Thailand's Khao Yai National Park, several individuals were observed feeding in a fig tree and on a vine.


title: Binturong

text: In Malaysia, binturongs were recorded in secondary forest surrounding a palm estate that was logged in the 1970s.


title: Binturong

text: In Palawan, it inhabits primary and secondary lowland forest, including grassland–forest mosaic from sea level to .


title: Binturong

text: The binturong is active during the day and at night. Three sightings in Pakke Tiger Reserve were by day. Thirteen camera trap photograph events in Myanmar involved one around dusk, seven in full night and five in broad daylight. All photographs were of single animals, and all were taken on the ground. As binturongs are not very nimble, they may have to descend to the ground relatively frequently when moving between trees.


title: Binturong

text: Five radio-collared binturongs in the Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary exhibited an arrhythmic activity dominated by crepuscular and nocturnal tendencies with peaks in the early morning and late evening. Reduced inactivity periods occurred from midday to late afternoon. They moved between and daily in the dry season and increased their daily movement to in the wet season. Ranges sizes of males varied between . Two males showed slightly larger ranges in the wet season. Their ranges overlapped between 30 and 70%. The average home range of a radio-collared female in the Khao Yai National Park was estimated at , and the one of a male at .


title: Binturong

text: The binturong is essentially arboreal. Pocock observed the behaviour of several captive individuals in the London Zoological Gardens. When resting they lie curled up, with the head tucked under the tail. They seldom leaped, but climbed skillfully, albeit slowly, progressing with equal ease and confidence along the upper side of branches or, upside down, beneath them. The prehensile tail was always ready as a help. They descended the vertical bars of the cage head first, gripping them between their paws and using the prehensile tail as a check. When irritated they growled fiercely. When on the prowl they periodically uttered a series of low grunts or a hissing sound made by expelling air through partially opened lips.


title: Binturong

text: It moves about gently, often coming to a stop, and often using the tail to keep balance, clinging to a branch. It shows a pronounced comfort behaviour associated with grooming the fur, shaking and licking the hair, and scratching. Shaking is the most characteristic element of comfort behaviour.


title: Binturong

text: The binturong is omnivorous, feeding on small mammals, birds, fish, earthworms, insects and fruits. It also preys on rodents. Fish and earthworms are likely unimportant items in its diet, as it is neither aquatic nor fossorial, coming across such prey only when opportunities present themselves. Since it does not have the attributes of a predatory mammal, most of the binturong's diet is probably of vegetable matter. Figs are a major component of its diet. Captive binturongs are particularly fond of plantains, but also eat fowls' heads and eggs.


title: Binturong

text: The binturong is an important agent for seed dispersal, especially for those of the strangler fig, because of its ability to scarify the seed's tough outer covering.


title: Binturong

text: In captivity, the binturong's diet includes commercially prepared meat mix, bananas, apples, oranges, canned peaches and mineral supplement.


title: Binturong

text: The average age of sexual maturation is 30.4 months for females and 27.7 months for males. The estrous cycle of the binturong lasts 18 to 187 days, with an average of 82.5 days. Gestation lasts 84 to 99 days. Litter size in captivity varies from one to six young, with an average of two young per birth. Neonates weigh between , and are often referred to as . Fertility lasts until 15 years of age.


title: Binturong

text: Major threats to the binturong are habitat loss and degradation of forests through logging and conversion of forests to non-forest land-uses throughout the binturong's range. Habitat loss has been severe in the lowlands of the Sundaic part of its range, and there is no evidence that the binturong uses the plantations that are largely replacing natural forest. In China, rampant deforestation and opportunistic logging practices have fragmented suitable habitat or eliminated sites altogether. In the Philippines, it is captured for the wildlife trade, and in the south of its range it is also taken for human consumption. In Laos, it is one of the most frequently displayed caged live carnivores and skins are traded frequently in at least Vientiane. In parts of Laos, it is considered a delicacy and also traded as a food item to Vietnam.


title: Binturong

text: The binturong is included in CITES Appendix III and in Schedule I of the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, so that it has the highest level of protection. In China, it is listed as critically endangered. It is completely protected in Bangladesh, and partially in Thailand, Malaysia, and Vietnam. Licensed hunting of binturong is allowed in Indonesia, and it is not protected in Brunei.


title: Binturong

text: World Binturong Day, an event dedicated to binturong awareness and conservation, takes place yearly every second Saturday of May.


title: Binturong

text: Binturongs are common in zoos, and captive individuals represent a source of genetic diversity essential for long-term conservation. Their geographic origin is either usually unknown, or they are offspring of several generations of captive-bred animals.


title: Allosaurus

text: Allosaurus () is a genus of large carnosaurian theropod dinosaur that lived 155 to 145 million years ago during the Late Jurassic epoch (Kimmeridgian to late Tithonian). The name ""Allosaurus"" means "different lizard" alluding to its unique (at the time of its discovery) concave vertebrae. It is derived from the Greek (') ("different, other") and (') ("lizard / generic reptile"). The first fossil remains that could definitively be ascribed to this genus were described in 1877 by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh. As one of the first well-known theropod dinosaurs, it has long attracted attention outside of paleontological circles.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus" was a large bipedal predator. Its skull was light, robust and equipped with dozens of sharp, serrated teeth. It averaged in length for "A. fragilis", with the largest specimens estimated as being long. Relative to the large and powerful hindlimbs, its three-fingered forelimbs were small, and the body was balanced by a long and heavily muscled tail. It is classified as an allosaurid, a type of carnosaurian theropod dinosaur.


title: Allosaurus

text: The genus has a complicated taxonomy, and includes at least three valid species, the best known of which is "A. fragilis". The bulk of "Allosaurus" remains have come from North America's Morrison Formation, with material also known from Portugal. It was known for over half of the 20th century as "Antrodemus", but a study of the abundant remains from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry brought the name ""Allosaurus"" back to prominence and established it as one of the best-known dinosaurs.


title: Allosaurus

text: As the most abundant large predator in the Morrison Formation, "Allosaurus" was at the top of the food chain, probably preying on contemporaneous large herbivorous dinosaurs, and perhaps other predators. Potential prey included ornithopods, stegosaurids, and sauropods. Some paleontologists interpret "Allosaurus" as having had cooperative social behavior, and hunting in packs, while others believe individuals may have been aggressive toward each other, and that congregations of this genus are the result of lone individuals feeding on the same carcasses.


title: Allosaurus

text: The discovery and early study of "Allosaurus" is complicated by the multiplicity of names coined during the Bone Wars of the late 19th century. The first described fossil in this history was a bone obtained secondhand by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden in 1869. It came from Middle Park, near Granby, Colorado, probably from Morrison Formation rocks. The locals had identified such bones as "petrified horse hoofs". Hayden sent his specimen to Joseph Leidy, who identified it as half of a tail vertebra, and tentatively assigned it to the European dinosaur genus "Poekilopleuron" as "Poicilopleuron" "valens". He later decided it deserved its own genus, "Antrodemus".


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus" itself is based on YPM 1930, a small collection of fragmentary bones including parts of three vertebrae, a rib fragment, a tooth, a toe bone, and, most useful for later discussions, the shaft of the right humerus (upper arm). Othniel Charles Marsh gave these remains the formal name "Allosaurus fragilis" in 1877. "Allosaurus" comes from the Greek "/", meaning "strange" or "different" and "/", meaning "lizard" or "reptile". It was named 'different lizard' because its vertebrae were different from those of other dinosaurs known at the time of its discovery. The species epithet "fragilis" is Latin for "fragile", referring to lightening features in the vertebrae. The bones were collected from the Morrison Formation of Garden Park, north of Cañon City. Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope, who were in scientific competition with each other, went on to coin several other genera based on similarly sparse material that would later figure in the taxonomy of "Allosaurus". These include Marsh's "Creosaurus" and "Labrosaurus", and Cope's "Epanterias".


title: Allosaurus

text: In their haste, Cope and Marsh did not always follow up on their discoveries (or, more commonly, those made by their subordinates). For example, after the discovery by Benjamin Mudge of the type specimen of "Allosaurus" in Colorado, Marsh elected to concentrate work in Wyoming; when work resumed at Garden Park in 1883, M. P. Felch found an almost complete "Allosaurus" and several partial skeletons. In addition, one of Cope's collectors, H. F. Hubbell, found a specimen in the Como Bluff area of Wyoming in 1879, but apparently did not mention its completeness, and Cope never unpacked it. Upon unpacking in 1903 (several years after Cope had died), it was found to be one of the most complete theropod specimens then known, and in 1908 the skeleton, now cataloged as AMNH 5753, was put on public view. This is the well-known mount poised over a partial "Apatosaurus" skeleton as if scavenging it, illustrated as such by Charles R. Knight. Although notable as the first free-standing mount of a theropod dinosaur, and often illustrated and photographed, it has never been scientifically described.


title: Allosaurus

text: The multiplicity of early names complicated later research, with the situation compounded by the terse descriptions provided by Marsh and Cope. Even at the time, authors such as Samuel Wendell Williston suggested that too many names had been coined. For example, Williston pointed out in 1901 that Marsh had never been able to adequately distinguish "Allosaurus" from "Creosaurus". The most influential early attempt to sort out the convoluted situation was produced by Charles W. Gilmore in 1920. He came to the conclusion that the tail vertebra named "Antrodemus" by Leidy was indistinguishable from those of "Allosaurus", and "Antrodemus" thus should be the preferred name because, as the older name, it had priority. "Antrodemus" became the accepted name for this familiar genus for over 50 years, until James Henry Madsen published on the Cleveland-Lloyd specimens and concluded that "Allosaurus" should be used because "Antrodemus" was based on material with poor, if any, diagnostic features and locality information (for example, the geological formation that the single bone of "Antrodemus" came from is unknown). ""Antrodemus"" has been used informally for convenience when distinguishing between the skull Gilmore restored and the composite skull restored by Madsen.


title: Allosaurus

text: Although sporadic work at what became known as the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Emery County, Utah, had taken place as early as 1927, and the fossil site itself described by William L. Stokes in 1945, major operations did not begin there until 1960. Under a cooperative effort involving nearly 40 institutions, thousands of bones were recovered between 1960 and 1965, led by James Henry Madsen. The quarry is notable for the predominance of "Allosaurus" remains, the condition of the specimens, and the lack of scientific resolution on how it came to be. The majority of bones belong to the large theropod "Allosaurus fragilis" (it is estimated that the remains of at least 46 "A. fragilis" have been found there, out of at a minimum 73 dinosaurs), and the fossils found there are disarticulated and well-mixed. Nearly a dozen scientific papers have been written on the taphonomy of the site, suggesting numerous mutually exclusive explanations for how it may have formed. Suggestions have ranged from animals getting stuck in a bog, to becoming trapped in deep mud, to falling victim to drought-induced mortality around a waterhole, to getting trapped in a spring-fed pond or seep. Regardless of the actual cause, the great quantity of well-preserved "Allosaurus" remains has allowed this genus to be known in detail, making it among the best-known theropods. Skeletal remains from the quarry pertain to individuals of almost all ages and sizes, from less than to long, and the disarticulation is an advantage for describing bones usually found fused. Due to being one of Utah's two fossil quarries where many "Allosaurus" specimens have been discovered, "Allosaurus" was designated as the state fossil of Utah in 1988.


title: Allosaurus

text: The period since Madsen's monograph has been marked by a great expansion in studies dealing with topics concerning "Allosaurus" in life (paleobiological and paleoecological topics). Such studies have covered topics including skeletal variation, growth, skull construction, hunting methods, the brain, and the possibility of gregarious living and parental care. Reanalysis of old material (particularly of large 'allosaur' specimens), new discoveries in Portugal, and several very complete new specimens have also contributed to the growing knowledge base.


title: Allosaurus

text: In 1991, "Big Al" (MOR 693), a 95% complete, partially articulated specimen of "Allosaurus" was discovered. It measured about 8 meters (about 26 ft) in length. MOR 693 was excavated near Shell, Wyoming, by a joint Museum of the Rockies and University of Wyoming Geological Museum team. This skeleton was discovered by a Swiss team, led by Kirby Siber. Chure and Loewen in 2020 identified the individual as a representative of the species "Allosaurus jimmadseni". In 1996, the same team discovered a second "Allosaurus", "Big Al II". This specimen, the best preserved skeleton of its kind to date, is also referred to "Allosaurus jimmadseni".


title: Allosaurus

text: The completeness, preservation, and scientific importance of this skeleton gave "Big Al" its name; the individual itself was below the average size for "Allosaurus fragilis", and was a subadult estimated at only 87% grown. The specimen was described by Breithaupt in 1996. Nineteen of its bones were broken or showed signs of infection, which may have contributed to "Big Al's" death. Pathologic bones included five ribs, five vertebrae, and four bones of the feet; several damaged bones showed osteomyelitis, a bone infection. A particular problem for the living animal was infection and trauma to the right foot that probably affected movement and may have also predisposed the other foot to injury because of a change in gait. Al had an infection on the first phalanx on the third toe that was afflicted by an involucrum. The infection was long-lived, perhaps up to six months. Big Al Two is also known to have multiple injuries.


title: Allosaurus

text: Six species of "Allosaurus" have been named: "A. amplus", "A. atrox", "A. europaeus", the type species "A. fragilis", "A. jimmadseni" and "A. lucasi". Among these, Daniel Chure and Mark Loewen in 2020 only recognized the species "A. fragilis", "A. europaeus", and the newly-named "A. jimmadseni" as being valid species. However, "A. europaeus" does not show any unique characters compared to the North American species, so a reevaluation of its validity is required.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. fragilis" is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877. It is known from the remains of at least 60 individuals, all found in the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian Upper Jurassic-age Morrison Formation of the United States, spread across the states of Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. Details of the humerus (upper arm) of "A. fragilis" have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods, but "A. jimmadseni" indicates that this is no longer the case at the species level.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. jimmadseni" has been scientifically described based on two nearly complete skeletons. The first specimen to wear the identification was unearthed in Dinosaur National Monument in northeastern Utah, with the original "Big Al" individual subsequently recognized as belonging to the same species. This species differs from "A. fragilis" in several anatomical details, including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin. Fossils are confined to the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation, with "A. fragilis" only found in the higher Brushy Basin Member.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. fragilis", "A. jimmadseni", "A. amplus", and "A. lucasi" are all known from remains discovered in the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian Upper Jurassic-age Morrison Formation of the United States, spread across the states of Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. "A. fragilis" is regarded as the most common, known from the remains of at least 60 individuals. For a while in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was common to recognize "A. fragilis" as the short-snouted species, with the long-snouted taxon being "A. atrox"; however, subsequent analysis of specimens from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, Como Bluff, and Dry Mesa Quarry showed that the differences seen in the Morrison Formation material could be attributed to individual variation. A study of skull elements from the Cleveland-Lloyd site found wide variation between individuals, calling into question previous species-level distinctions based on such features as the shape of the lacrimal horns, and the proposed differentiation of "A. jimmadseni" based on the shape of the jugal. "A. europaeus" was found in the Kimmeridgian-age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation, but may be the same as "A. fragilis".


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus" material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of MHNUL/AND.001, a partial skeleton including a quadrate, vertebrae, ribs, gastralia, chevrons, part of the hips, and hindlimbs. This specimen was assigned to "A. fragilis", but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck (ML 415) near Lourinhã, in the Kimmeridgian-age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation, spurred the naming of the new species "A. europaeus" by Octávio Mateus and colleagues. The species appeared earlier in the Jurassic than "A. fragilis" and differs from other species of "Allosaurus" in cranial details. However, more material may show it to be "A. fragilis", as originally described.


title: Allosaurus

text: The issue of species and potential synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of "Allosaurus fragilis" (catalog number YPM 1930) being extremely fragmentary, consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae, limb bone fragments, rib fragments, and a tooth. Because of this, several scientists have interpreted the type specimen as potentially dubious, and thus the genus "Allosaurus" itself or at least the species "A. fragilis" would be a "nomen dubium" ("dubious name", based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify). To address this situation, Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter (2010) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name ""A. fragilis"" officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 (as a neotype).


title: Allosaurus

text: "Creosaurus", "Epanterias", and "Labrosaurus" are regarded as junior synonyms of "Allosaurus". Most of the species that are regarded as synonyms of "A. fragilis", or that were misassigned to the genus, are obscure and were based on scrappy remains. One exception is "Labrosaurus ferox", named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw, with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw, and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down. Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic, showing an injury to the living animal, and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction. It is now regarded as an example of "A. fragilis".


title: Allosaurus

text: In his 1988 book, "Predatory Dinosaurs of the World", the freelance dinosaurologist Gregory Paul proposed that "A. fragilis" had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species "A. atrox", and was not a different sex due to rarity. "Allosaurus atrox" was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus, "Creosaurus", and is based on YPM 1890, an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull, portions of nine tail vertebrae, two hip vertebrae, an ilium, and ankle and foot bones. Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species was followed in some semi-technical and popular works, the 2000 thesis on Allosauridae noted that Charles Gilmore mistakenly reconstructed USNM 4734 as having a shorter skull than the specimens referred by Paul to "atrox", refuting supposed differences between USNM 4734 and putative "A. atrox" specimens like DINO 2560, AMNH 600, and AMNH 666.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus agilis", seen in Zittel, 1887, and Osborn, 1912, is a typographical error for "A. fragilis." "Allosaurus ferox" is a typographical error by Marsh for "A. fragilis" in a figure caption for the partial skull YPM 1893, and YPM 1893 has been treated as a specimen of "A fragilis". Likewise, "Labrosaurus fragilis" is a typographical error by Marsh (1896) for "Labrosaurus ferox". "A. whitei" is a "nomen nudum" coined by Pickering in 1996 for the complete "Allosaurus" specimens that Paul referred to "A. atrox".


title: Allosaurus

text: "Madsenius" was coined by David Lambert in 1990, for remains from Dinosaur National Monument assigned to "Allosaurus" or "Creosaurus" (a synonym of "Allosaurus"), and was to be described by paleontologist Bob Bakker as "Madsenius trux". However, "Madsenius" is now seen as yet another synonym of "Allosaurus" because Bakker's action was predicated upon the false assumption of USNM 4734 being distinct from long-snouted "Allosaurus" due to errors in Gilmore's (1920) reconstruction of USNM 4734.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Wyomingraptor" was informally coined by Bakker for allosaurid remains from the Morrison Formation of the Late Jurassic. The remains unearthed are labeled as "Allosaurus" and are housed in the Tate Geological Museum. However, there has been no official description of the remains and "Wyomingraptor" has been dismissed as a "nomen nudum", with the remains referable to "Allosaurus".


title: Allosaurus

text: Several species initially classified within or referred to "Allosaurus" do not belong within the genus. "A. medius" was named by Marsh in 1888 for various specimens from the Early Cretaceous Arundel Formation of Maryland, although most of the remains were removed by Richard Swann Lull to the new ornithopod species "Dryosaurus grandis", except for a tooth. Gilmore considered the tooth nondiagnostic but transferred it to "Dryptosaurus", as "D. medius". The referral was not accepted in the most recent review of basal tetanurans, and "Allosaurus medius" was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod. It may be closely related to "Acrocanthosaurus".


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus valens" is a new combination for "Antrodemus valens" used by Friedrich von Huene in 1932; "Antrodemus valens" itself may also pertain to "Allosaurus fragilis", as Gilmore suggested in 1920.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. lucaris", another Marsh name, was given to a partial skeleton in 1878. He later decided it warranted its own genus, "Labrosaurus", but this has not been accepted, and "A. lucaris" is also regarded as another specimen of "A. fragilis". "Allosaurus lucaris", is known mostly from vertebrae, sharing characters with "Allosaurus". Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species, YPM 1931, was from a younger age than "Allosaurus", and might represent a different genus. However, they found that the specimen was undiagnostic, and thus "A. lucaris" was a "nomen dubium".


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus sibiricus" was described in 1914 by A. N. Riabinin on the basis of a bone, later identified as a partial fourth metatarsal, from the Early Cretaceous of Buryatia, Russia. It was transferred to "Chilantaisaurus" in 1990, but is now considered a "nomen dubium" indeterminate beyond Theropoda.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus meriani" was a new combination by George Olshevsky for "Megalosaurus meriani" Greppin, 1870, based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland. However, a recent overview of "Ceratosaurus" included it in "Ceratosaurus" sp.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Apatodon mirus", based on a scrap of vertebra Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw, has been listed as a synonym of "Allosaurus fragilis". However, it was considered indeterminate beyond Dinosauria by Chure, and Mickey Mortimer believes that the synonymy of "Apatodon" with "Allosaurus" was due to correspondence to Ralph Molnar by John McIntosh, whereby the latter reportedly found a paper saying that Othniel Charles Marsh admitted that the "Apatodon" holotype was actually an allosaurid dorsal vertebra.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. amplexus" was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains, and included in his conception "Saurophagus maximus" (later "Saurophaganax"). "A. amplexus" was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus "Epanterias", and is based on what is now AMNH 5767, parts of three vertebrae, a coracoid, and a metatarsal. Following Paul's work, this species has been accepted as a synonym of "A. fragilis". A 2010 study by Paul and Kenneth Carpenter, however, indicates that "Epanterias" is temporally younger than the "A. fragilis" type specimen, so it is a separate species at minimum.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. maximus" was a new combination by David K. Smith for Chure's "Saurophaganax maximus", a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma. These remains had been known as "Saurophagus", but that name was already in use, leading Chure to propose a substitute. Smith, in his 1998 analysis of variation, concluded that "S. maximus" was not different enough from "Allosaurus" to be a separate genus, but did warrant its own species, "A. maximus". This reassignment was rejected in a review of basal tetanurans.


title: Allosaurus

text: There are also several species left over from the synonymizations of "Creosaurus" and "Labrosaurus" with "Allosaurus". "Creosaurus potens" was named by Lull in 1911 for a vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland. It is now regarded as a dubious theropod. "Labrosaurus stechowi", described in 1920 by Janensch based on isolated "Ceratosaurus"-like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania, was listed by Donald F. Glut as a species of "Allosaurus", is now considered a dubious ceratosaurian related to "Ceratosaurus". "L. sulcatus", named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth, which like "L. stechowi" is now regarded as a dubious "Ceratosaurus"-like ceratosaur.


title: Allosaurus

text: "A. tendagurensis" was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin (MB.R.3620) found in the Kimmeridgian-age Tendaguru Formation in Mtwara, Tanzania. Although tabulated as a tentatively valid species of "Allosaurus" in the second edition of the Dinosauria, subsequent studies place it as indeterminate beyond Tetanurae, either a carcharodontosaurian or megalosaurid. Although obscure, it was a large theropod, possibly around 10 meters long (33 ft) and 2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons) in weight.


title: Allosaurus

text: Kurzanov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as "Allosaurus" sp. (meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of "Allosaurus", but did not or could not assign a species to them). They were reclassified as an indeterminate theropod. Also, reports of "Allosaurus" in Shanxi, China go back to at least 1982. These were interpreted as "Torvosaurus" remains in 2012.


title: Allosaurus

text: An astragalus (ankle bone) thought to belong to a species of "Allosaurus" was found at Cape Paterson, Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia. It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere. This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles, who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid, but the original authors defended their identification. With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at, Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not "Allosaurus", but could represent an allosauroid. Similarly, Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie, in their description of "Fukuiraptor", noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus. This specimen is sometimes referred to as "Allosaurus robustus", an informal museum name. It may have belonged to something similar to, or the same as, "Australovenator", or it may represent an abelisaur.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus" was a typical large theropod, having a massive skull on a short neck, a long, slightly sloping tail, and reduced forelimbs. "Allosaurus fragilis", the best-known species, had an average length of and mass of , with the largest definitive "Allosaurus" specimen (AMNH 680) estimated at long, with an estimated weight of . In his 1976 monograph on "Allosaurus", James H. Madsen mentioned a range of bone sizes which he interpreted to show a maximum length of . As with dinosaurs in general, weight estimates are debatable, and since 1980 have ranged between , , and approximately for modal adult weight (not maximum). John Foster, a specialist on the Morrison Formation, suggests that is reasonable for large adults of "A. fragilis", but that is a closer estimate for individuals represented by the average-sized thigh bones he has measured. Using the subadult specimen nicknamed "Big Al", since assigned to the species "Allosaurus jimmadseni", researchers using computer modelling arrived at a best estimate of for the individual, but by varying parameters they found a range from approximately to approximately . "A. europaeus" has been measured up to in length and in body mass.


title: Allosaurus

text: Several gigantic specimens have been attributed to "Allosaurus", but may in fact belong to other genera. The closely related genus "Saurophaganax" (OMNH 1708) reached perhaps in length, and its single species has sometimes been included in the genus "Allosaurus" as "Allosaurus maximus", though recent studies support it as a separate genus. Another potential specimen of "Allosaurus", once assigned to the genus "Epanterias" (AMNH 5767), may have measured in length. A more recent discovery is a partial skeleton from the Peterson Quarry in Morrison rocks of New Mexico; this large allosaurid may be another individual of "Saurophaganax".


title: Allosaurus

text: David K. Smith, examining "Allosaurus" fossils by quarry, found that the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry (Utah) specimens are generally smaller than those from Como Bluff (Wyoming) or Brigham Young University's Dry Mesa Quarry (Colorado), but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites. A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park (Colorado) and Dinosaur National Monument (Utah) specimens found no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation; skull variation was most common and was gradational, suggesting individual variation was responsible. Further work on size-related variation again found no consistent differences, although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the astragalus, an ankle bone. Kenneth Carpenter, using skull elements from the Cleveland-Lloyd site, found wide variation between individuals, calling into question previous species-level distinctions based on such features as the shape of the horns, and the proposed differentiation of "A. jimmadseni" based on the shape of the jugal. A study published by Motani "et al.," in 2020 suggests that "Allosaurus" was also sexually dimorphic in the width of the femur's head against its length.


title: Allosaurus

text: The skull and teeth of "Allosaurus" were modestly proportioned for a theropod of its size. Paleontologist Gregory S. Paul gives a length of for a skull belonging to an individual he estimates at long. Each premaxilla (the bones that formed the tip of the snout) held five teeth with D-shaped cross-sections, and each maxilla (the main tooth-bearing bones in the upper jaw) had between 14 and 17 teeth; the number of teeth does not exactly correspond to the size of the bone. Each dentary (the tooth-bearing bone of the lower jaw) had between 14 and 17 teeth, with an average count of 16. The teeth became shorter, narrower, and more curved toward the back of the skull. All of the teeth had saw-like edges. They were shed easily, and were replaced continually, making them common fossils. Its skull was light, robust and equipped with dozens of sharp, serrated teeth.


title: Allosaurus

text: The skull had a pair of horns above and in front of the eyes. These horns were composed of extensions of the lacrimal bones, and varied in shape and size. There were also lower paired ridges running along the top edges of the nasal bones that led into the horns. The horns were probably covered in a keratin sheath and may have had a variety of functions, including acting as sunshades for the eyes, being used for display, and being used in combat against other members of the same species (although they were fragile). There was a ridge along the back of the skull roof for muscle attachment, as is also seen in tyrannosaurids.


title: Allosaurus

text: Inside the lacrimal bones were depressions that may have held glands, such as salt glands. Within the maxillae were sinuses that were better developed than those of more basal theropods such as "Ceratosaurus" and "Marshosaurus"; they may have been related to the sense of smell, perhaps holding something like Jacobson's organs. The roof of the braincase was thin, perhaps to improve thermoregulation for the brain. The skull and lower jaws had joints that permitted motion within these units. In the lower jaws, the bones of the front and back halves loosely articulated, permitting the jaws to bow outward and increasing the animal's gape. The braincase and frontals may also have had a joint.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus" had nine vertebrae in the neck, 14 in the back, and five in the sacrum supporting the hips. The number of tail vertebrae is unknown and varied with individual size; James Madsen estimated about 50, while Gregory S. Paul considered that to be too many and suggested 45 or less. There were hollow spaces in the neck and anterior back vertebrae. Such spaces, which are also found in modern theropods (that is, the birds), are interpreted as having held air sacs used in respiration. The rib cage was broad, giving it a barrel chest, especially in comparison to less derived theropods like "Ceratosaurus". "Allosaurus" had gastralia (belly ribs), but these are not common findings, and they may have ossified poorly. In one published case, the gastralia show evidence of injury during life. A furcula (wishbone) was also present, but has only been recognized since 1996; in some cases furculae were confused with gastralia. The ilium, the main hip bone, was massive, and the pubic bone had a prominent foot that may have been used for both muscle attachment and as a prop for resting the body on the ground. Madsen noted that in about half of the individuals from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, independent of size, the pubes had not fused to each other at their foot ends. He suggested that this was a sexual characteristic, with females lacking fused bones to make egg-laying easier. This proposal has not attracted further attention, however.


title: Allosaurus

text: The forelimbs of "Allosaurus" were short in comparison to the hindlimbs (only about 35% the length of the hindlimbs in adults) and had three fingers per hand, tipped with large, strongly curved and pointed claws. The arms were powerful, and the forearm was somewhat shorter than the upper arm (1:1.2 ulna/humerus ratio). The wrist had a version of the semilunate carpal also found in more derived theropods like maniraptorans. Of the three fingers, the innermost (or thumb) was the largest, and diverged from the others. The phalangeal formula is 2-3-4-0-0, meaning that the innermost finger (phalange) has two bones, the next has three, and the third finger has four. The legs were not as long or suited for speed as those of tyrannosaurids, and the claws of the toes were less developed and more hoof-like than those of earlier theropods. Each foot had three weight-bearing toes and an inner dewclaw, which Madsen suggested could have been used for grasping in juveniles. There was also what is interpreted as the splint-like remnant of a fifth (outermost) metatarsal, perhaps used as a lever between the Achilles tendon and foot.


title: Allosaurus

text: Skin impressions from "Allosaurus" have been described. One impression, from a juvenile specimen, measures 30 cm² and is associated with the anterior dorsal ribs/pectoral region. The impression show small scales measuring 1-3 mm in diameter. A large skin impression from the "Big Al Two" specimen, associated with the base of the tail, measures 20 cm x 20 cm, and show large scales measuring up to 2 cm in diameter. However it has been noted that these scales are more similar to those of sauropods, and due to the presence of non-theropod remains associated with the tail of "Big Al Two" there is a possibility that this skin impression is not from "Allosaurus".


title: Allosaurus

text: Another "Allosaurus" fossil feature a skin impression from the mandible, showing scales measuring 1-2 mm in diameter. The same fossil also preserves skin impressions from the ventral side of the neck, showing broad scutes. A small skin impression from an "Allosaurus" skull has been reported, but never described.


title: Allosaurus

text: "Allosaurus" was an allosaurid, a member of a family of large theropods within the larger group Carnosauria. The family name Allosauridae was created for this genus in 1878 by Othniel Charles Marsh, but the term was largely unused until the 1970s in favor of Megalosauridae, another family of large theropods that eventually became a wastebasket taxon. This, along with the use of "Antrodemus" for "Allosaurus" during the same period, is a point that needs to be remembered when searching for information on "Allosaurus" in publications that predate James Madsen's 1976 monograph. Major publications using the name "Megalosauridae" instead of "Allosauridae" include Gilmore, 1920, von Huene, 1926, Romer, 1956 and 1966, Steel, 1970, and Walker, 1964.


title: Allosaurus

text: Following the publication of Madsen's influential monograph, Allosauridae became the preferred family assignment, but it too was not strongly defined. Semi-technical works used Allosauridae for a variety of large theropods, usually those that were larger and better-known than megalosaurids. Typical theropods that were thought to be related to "Allosaurus" included "Indosaurus", "Piatnitzkysaurus", "Piveteausaurus", "Yangchuanosaurus", "Acrocanthosaurus", "Chilantaisaurus", "Compsosuchus", "Stokesosaurus", and "Szechuanosaurus". Given modern knowledge of theropod diversity and the advent of cladistic study of evolutionary relationships, none of these theropods is now recognized as an allosaurid, although several, like "Acrocanthosaurus" and "Yangchuanosaurus", are members of closely related families.


title: Allosaurus

text: Allosauridae is one of four families in Allosauroidea; the other three are Neovenatoridae, Carcharodontosauridae and Sinraptoridae. Allosauridae has at times been proposed as ancestral to the Tyrannosauridae (which would make it paraphyletic), one example being Gregory S. Paul's "Predatory Dinosaurs of the World", but this has been rejected, with tyrannosaurids identified as members of a separate branch of theropods, the Coelurosauria. Allosauridae is the smallest of the carnosaur families, with only "Saurophaganax" and a currently unnamed French allosauroid accepted as possible valid genera besides "Allosaurus" in the most recent review. Another genus, "Epanterias", is a potential valid member, but it and "Saurophaganax" may turn out to be large examples of "Allosaurus". Recent reviews have kept the genus "Saurophaganax" and included "Epanterias" with "Allosaurus".


title: Allosaurus

text: The wealth of "Allosaurus" fossils, from nearly all ages of individuals, allows scientists to study how the animal grew and how long its lifespan may have been. Remains may reach as far back in the lifespan as eggs—crushed eggs from Colorado have been suggested as those of "Allosaurus". Based on histological analysis of limb bones, bone deposition appears to stop at around 22 to 28 years, which is comparable to that of other large theropods like "Tyrannosaurus". From the same analysis, its maximum growth appears to have been at age 15, with an estimated growth rate of about 150 kilograms (330 lb) per year.


title: Allosaurus

text: Medullary bone tissue (endosteally derived, ephemeral, mineralization located inside the medulla of the long bones in gravid female birds) has been reported in at least one "Allosaurus" specimen, a shin bone from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry. Today, this bone tissue is only formed in female birds that are laying eggs, as it is used to supply calcium to shells. Its presence in the "Allosaurus" individual has been used to establish sex and show it had reached reproductive age. However, other studies have called into question some cases of medullary bone in dinosaurs, including this "Allosaurus" individual. Data from extant birds suggested that the medullary bone in this "Allosaurus" individual may have been the result of a bone pathology instead. However, with the confirmation of medullary tissue indicating sex in a specimen of "Tyrannosaurus", it may be possible to ascertain whether or not the "Allosaurus" in question was indeed female.


title: Allosaurus

text: The discovery of a juvenile specimen with a nearly complete hindlimb shows that the legs were relatively longer in juveniles, and the lower segments of the leg (shin and foot) were relatively longer than the thigh. These differences suggest that younger "Allosaurus" were faster and had different hunting strategies than adults, perhaps chasing small prey as juveniles, then becoming ambush hunters of large prey upon adulthood. The thigh bone became thicker and wider during growth, and the cross-section less circular, as muscle attachments shifted, muscles became shorter, and the growth of the leg slowed. These changes imply that juvenile legs has less predictable stresses compared with adults, which would have moved with more regular forward progression. Conversely, the skull bones appear to have generally grown isometrically, increasing in size without changing in proportion.


title: Allosaurus

text: Many paleontologists accept "Allosaurus" as an active predator of large animals. There is dramatic evidence for allosaur attacks on "Stegosaurus", including an "Allosaurus" tail vertebra with a partially healed puncture wound that fits a "Stegosaurus" tail spike, and a "Stegosaurus" neck plate with a U-shaped wound that correlates well with an "Allosaurus" snout. Sauropods seem to be likely candidates as both live prey and as objects of scavenging, based on the presence of scrapings on sauropod bones fitting allosaur teeth well and the presence of shed allosaur teeth with sauropod bones. However, as Gregory Paul noted in 1988, "Allosaurus" was probably not a predator of fully grown sauropods, unless it hunted in packs, as it had a modestly sized skull and relatively small teeth, and was greatly outweighed by contemporaneous sauropods. Another possibility is that it preferred to hunt juveniles instead of fully grown adults. Research in the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century may have found other solutions to this question. Robert T. Bakker, comparing "Allosaurus" to Cenozoic saber-toothed carnivorous mammals, found similar adaptations, such as a reduction of jaw muscles and increase in neck muscles, and the ability to open the jaws extremely wide. Although "Allosaurus" did not have saber teeth, Bakker suggested another mode of attack that would have used such neck and jaw adaptations: the short teeth in effect became small serrations on a saw-like cutting edge running the length of the upper jaw, which would have been driven into prey. This type of jaw would permit slashing attacks against much larger prey, with the goal of weakening the victim.