title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: On the other hand, David A. King affirms his nisba to Qutrubul, noting that he was called al-Khwārizmī al-Qutrubbulli because he was born just outside of Baghdad.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Ibn al-Nadīm's "Kitāb al-Fihrist" includes a short biography on al-Khwārizmī together with a list of his books. Al-Khwārizmī accomplished most of his work between 813 and 833. After the Muslim conquest of Persia, Baghdad had become the centre of scientific studies and trade, and many merchants and scientists from as far as China and India traveled there, as did al-Khwārizmī . He worked in the House of Wisdom established by the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mūn, where he studied the sciences and mathematics, including the translation of Greek and Sanskrit scientific manuscripts.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: During the reign of al-Wathiq, he is said to have been involved in the first of two embassies to the Khazars.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Douglas Morton Dunlop suggests that Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī might have been the same person as Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, the eldest of the three Banū Mūsā.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī's contributions to mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography established the basis for innovation in algebra and trigonometry. His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led to "algebra", a word derived from the title of his book on the subject, "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing".


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: "On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals," written about 820, was principally responsible for spreading the Hindu–Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as "Algoritmi de numero Indorum". Al-Khwārizmī, rendered as (Latin) "Algoritmi", led to the term "algorithm".


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Some of his work was based on Persian and Babylonian astronomy, Indian numbers, and Greek mathematics.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī systematized and corrected Ptolemy's data for Africa and the Middle East. Another major book was "Kitab surat al-ard" ("The Image of the Earth"; translated as Geography), presenting the coordinates of places based on those in the "Geography" of Ptolemy but with improved values for the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, and Africa.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: He also wrote on mechanical devices like the astrolabe and sundial. He assisted a project to determine the circumference of the Earth and in making a world map for al-Ma'mun, the caliph, overseeing 70 geographers. When, in the 12th century, his works spread to Europe through Latin translations, it had a profound impact on the advance of mathematics in Europe.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing" ( ) is a mathematical book written approximately 820 CE. The book was written with the encouragement of Caliph al-Ma'mun as a popular work on calculation and is replete with examples and applications to a wide range of problems in trade, surveying and legal inheritance. The term "algebra" is derived from the name of one of the basic operations with equations (, meaning "restoration", referring to adding a number to both sides of the equation to consolidate or cancel terms) described in this book. The book was translated in Latin as "Liber algebrae et almucabala" by Robert of Chester (Segovia, 1145) hence "algebra", and also by Gerard of Cremona. A unique Arabic copy is kept at Oxford and was translated in 1831 by F. Rosen. A Latin translation is kept in Cambridge.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: It provided an exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, and discussed the fundamental method of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing the equation to one of six standard forms (where "b" and "c" are positive integers)


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using the two operations ( "restoring" or "completion") and ("balancing"). is the process of removing negative units, roots and squares from the equation by adding the same quantity to each side. For example, "x" = 40"x" − 4"x" is reduced to 5"x" = 40"x". is the process of bringing quantities of the same type to the same side of the equation. For example, "x" + 14 = "x" + 5 is reduced to "x" + 9 = "x".


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: The above discussion uses modern mathematical notation for the types of problems that the book discusses. However, in al-Khwārizmī's day, most of this notation had not yet been invented, so he had to use ordinary text to present problems and their solutions. For


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Several authors have also published texts under the name of , including Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī, Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam, Abū Muḥammad al-'Adlī, Abū Yūsuf al-Miṣṣīṣī, 'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk, Sind ibn 'Alī, Sahl ibn Bišr, and Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: According to Swiss-American historian of mathematics, Florian Cajori, Al-Khwarizmi's algebra was different from the work of Indian mathematicians, for Indians had no rules like the <nowiki>"</nowiki>restoration<nowiki>"</nowiki> and <nowiki>"</nowiki>reduction<nowiki>"</nowiki>. Regarding the dissimilarity and significance of Al-Khwarizmi's algebraic work from that of Indian Mathematician Brahmagupta, Carl Benjamin Boyer wrote: It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khowarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khowarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek "Arithmetica" or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers. Nevertheless, the "Al-jabr" comes closer to the elementary algebra of today than the works of either Diophantus or Brahmagupta, because the book is not concerned with difficult problems in indeterminant analysis but with a straight forward and elementary exposition of the solution of equations, especially that of second degree. The Arabs in general loved a good clear argument from premise to conclusion, as well as systematic organization – respects in which neither Diophantus nor the Hindus excelled.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī's second most influential work was on the subject of arithmetic, which survived in Latin translations but is lost in the original Arabic. His writings include the text "kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī" ('Book of Indian computation'), and perhaps a more elementary text, "kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī" ('Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic'). These texts described algorithms on decimal numbers (Hindu–Arabic numerals) that could be carried out on a dust board. Called "takht" in Arabic (Latin: "tabula"), a board covered with a thin layer of dust or sand was employed for calculations, on which figures could be written with a stylus and easily erased and replaced when necessary. Al-Khwarizmi's algorithms were used for almost three centuries, until replaced by Al-Uqlidisi's algorithms that could be carried out with pen and paper.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: As part of 12th century wave of Arabic science flowing into Europe via translations, these texts proved to be revolutionary in Europe. Al-Khwarizmi's Latinized name, "Algorismus", turned into the name of method used for computations, and survives in the modern term "algorithm". It gradually replaced the previous abacus-based methods used in Europe.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Four Latin texts providing adaptions of Al-Khwarizmi's methods have survived, even though none of them is believed to be a literal translation:


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: "Dixit Algorizmi" ('Thus spake Al-Khwarizmi') is the starting phrase of a manuscript in the University of Cambridge library, which is generally referred to by its 1857 title "Algoritmi de Numero Indorum". It is attributed to the Adelard of Bath, who had also translated the astronomical tables in 1126. It is perhaps the closest to Al-Khwarizmi's own writings.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwarizmi's work on arithmetic was responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals, based on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system developed in Indian mathematics, to the Western world. The term "algorithm" is derived from the algorism, the technique of performing arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals developed by al-Khwārizmī. Both "algorithm" and "algorism" are derived from the Latinized forms of al-Khwārizmī's name, "Algoritmi" and "Algorismi", respectively.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī's (, "astronomical tables of "Siddhanta"") is a work consisting of approximately 37 chapters on calendrical and astronomical calculations and 116 tables with calendrical, astronomical and astrological data, as well as a table of sine values. This is the first of many Arabic "Zijes" based on the Indian astronomical methods known as the "sindhind". The word Sindhind is a corruption of the Sanskrit "Siddhānta", which is the usual designation of an astronomical textbook. In fact, the mean motions in the tables of al-Khwarizmi are derived from those in the "corrected Brahmasiddhanta" (Brahmasphutasiddhanta) of Brahmagupta.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. This work marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: The original Arabic version (written c. 820) is lost, but a version by the Spanish astronomer Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (c. 1000) has survived in a Latin translation, presumably by Adelard of Bath (26 January 1126). The four surviving manuscripts of the Latin translation are kept at the Bibliothèque publique (Chartres), the Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris), the Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid) and the Bodleian Library (Oxford).


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī's "Zīj al-Sindhind" also contained tables for the trigonometric functions of sines and cosine. A related treatise on spherical trigonometry is also attributed to him.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī's third major work is his (, "Book of the Description of the Earth"), also known as his "Geography", which was finished in 833. It is a major reworking of Ptolemy's second-century "Geography", consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: There is only one surviving copy of , which is kept at the Strasbourg University Library. A Latin translation is kept at the Biblioteca Nacional de España in Madrid. The book opens with the list of latitudes and longitudes, in order of "weather zones", that is to say in blocks of latitudes and, in each weather zone, by order of longitude. As Paul Gallez points out, this excellent system allows the deduction of many latitudes and longitudes where the only extant document is in such a bad condition as to make it practically illegible. Neither the Arabic copy nor the Latin translation include the map of the world itself; however, Hubert Daunicht was able to reconstruct the missing map from the list of coordinates. Daunicht read the latitudes and longitudes of the coastal points in the manuscript, or deduces them from the context where they were not legible. He transferred the points onto graph paper and connected them with straight lines, obtaining an approximation of the coastline as it was on the original map. He then does the same for the rivers and towns.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī corrected Ptolemy's gross overestimate for the length of the Mediterranean Sea from the Canary Islands to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean; Ptolemy overestimated it at 63 degrees of longitude, while al-Khwārizmī almost correctly estimated it at nearly 50 degrees of longitude. He "also depicted the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as open bodies of water, not land-locked seas as Ptolemy had done." Al-Khwārizmī's Prime Meridian at the Fortunate Isles was thus around 10° east of the line used by Marinus and Ptolemy. Most medieval Muslim gazetteers continued to use al-Khwārizmī's prime meridian.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwārizmī wrote several other works including a treatise on the Hebrew calendar, titled (, "Extraction of the Jewish Era"). It describes the Metonic cycle, a 19-year intercalation cycle; the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrei shall fall; calculates the interval between the Anno Mundi or Jewish year and the Seleucid era; and gives rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Hebrew calendar. Similar material is found in the works of Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī and Maimonides.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Ibn al-Nadim's , an index of Arabic books, mentions al-Khwārizmī's (), a book of annals. No direct manuscript survives; however, a copy had reached Nusaybin by the 11th century, where its metropolitan bishop, Mar Elias bar Shinaya, found it. Elias's chronicle quotes it from "the death of the Prophet" through to 169 AH, at which point Elias's text itself hits a lacuna.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Several Arabic manuscripts in Berlin, Istanbul, Tashkent, Cairo and Paris contain further material that surely or with some probability comes from al-Khwārizmī. The Istanbul manuscript contains a paper on sundials; the "Fihrist" credits al-Khwārizmī with (). Other papers, such as one on the determination of the direction of Mecca, are on the spherical astronomy.


title: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

text: Two texts deserve special interest on the morning width () and the determination of the azimuth from a height ().


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which a general principle is derived from a body of observations. It consists of making broad generalizations based on specific observations. Inductive reasoning is distinct from "deductive" reasoning. If the premises are correct, the conclusion of a deductive argument is "certain"; in contrast, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument is "probable", based upon the evidence given.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The types of inductive reasoning include generalization, prediction, statistical syllogism, argument from analogy, and causal inference.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: A generalization (more accurately, an "inductive generalization") proceeds from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population. The observation obtained from this sample is projected onto the broader population.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: For example, say there are 20 balls—either black or white—in an urn. To estimate their respective numbers, you draw a sample of four balls and find that three are black and one is white. An inductive generalization would be that there are 15 black and five white balls in the urn.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: How much the premises support the conclusion depends upon (1) the number in the sample group, (2) the number in the population, and (3) the degree to which the sample represents the population (which may be achieved by taking a random sample). The greater the sample size relative to the population and the more closely the sample represents the population, the stronger the generalization is. The hasty generalization and the biased sample are generalization fallacies.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: A statistical generalization is a type of inductive argument in which a conclusion about a population is inferred using a statistically-representative sample. For example:


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The measure is highly reliable within a well-defined margin of error provided the sample is large and random. It is readily quantifiable. Compare the preceding argument with the following. "Six of the ten people in my book club are Libertarians. Therefore, about 60% of people are Libertarians." The argument is weak because the sample is non-random and the sample size is very small.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: An anecdotal generalization is a type of inductive argument in which a conclusion about a population is inferred using a non-statistical sample. In other words, the generalization is based on anecdotal evidence. For example:


title: Inductive reasoning

text: This inference is less reliable (and thus more likely to commit the fallacy of hasty generalization) than a statistical generalization, first, because the sample events are non-random, and second because it is not reducible to mathematical expression. Statistically speaking, there is simply no way to know, measure and calculate the circumstances affecting performance that will occur in the future. On a philosophical level, the argument relies on the presupposition that the operation of future events will mirror the past. In other words, it takes for granted a uniformity of nature, an unproven principle that cannot be derived from the empirical data itself. Arguments that tacitly presuppose this uniformity are sometimes called "Humean" after the philosopher who was first to subject them to philosophical scrutiny.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: An inductive prediction draws a conclusion about a future, current, or past instance from a sample of other instances. Like an inductive generalization, an inductive prediction relies on a data set consisting of specific instances of a phenomenon. But rather than conclude with a general statement, the inductive prediction concludes with a specific statement about the probability that a single instance will (or will not) have an attribute shared (or not shared) by the other instances.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: A statistical syllogism proceeds from a generalization about a group to a conclusion about an individual.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: This is a "statistical syllogism". Even though one cannot be sure Bob will attend university, we can be fully assured of the exact probability of this outcome (given no further information). Arguably the argument is too strong and might be accused of "cheating". After all, the probability is given in the premise. Typically, inductive reasoning seeks to "formulate" a probability. Two dicto simpliciter fallacies can occur in statistical syllogisms: "accident" and "converse accident".


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The process of analogical inference involves noting the shared properties of two or more things and from this basis inferring that they also share some further property:


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Analogical reasoning is very frequent in common sense, science, philosophy, law, and the humanities, but sometimes it is accepted only as an auxiliary method. A refined approach is case-based reasoning.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: This is "analogical induction", according to which things alike in certain ways are more prone to be alike in other ways. This form of induction was explored in detail by philosopher John Stuart Mill in his "System of Logic", where he states, "[t]here can be no doubt that every resemblance [not known to be irrelevant] affords some degree of probability, beyond what would otherwise exist, in favor of the conclusion." See Mill's Methods.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Some thinkers contend that analogical induction is a subcategory of inductive generalization because it assumes a pre-established uniformity governing events. Analogical induction requires an auxiliary examination of the "relevancy" of the characteristics cited as common to the pair. In the preceding example, if a premise were added stating that both stones were mentioned in the records of early Spanish explorers, this common attribute is extraneous to the stones and does not contribute to their probable affinity.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: A pitfall of analogy is that features can be cherry-picked: while objects may show striking similarities, two things juxtaposed may respectively possess other characteristics not identified in the analogy that are characteristics sharply "dis"similar. Thus, analogy can mislead if not all relevant comparisons are made.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: A causal inference draws a conclusion about a causal connection based on the conditions of the occurrence of an effect. Premises about the correlation of two things can indicate a causal relationship between them, but additional factors must be confirmed to establish the exact form of the causal relationship.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The two principal methods used to reach inductive conclusions are "enumerative induction" and "eliminative induction."


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Enumerative induction is an inductive method in which a conclusion is constructed based on the "number" of instances that support it. The more supporting instances, the stronger the conclusion.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The most basic form of enumerative induction reasons from particular instances to all instances, and is thus an unrestricted generalization. If one observes 100 swans, and all 100 were white, one might infer a universal categorical proposition of the form "All swans are white". As this reasoning form's premises, even if true, do not entail the conclusion's truth, this is a form of inductive inference. The conclusion might be true, and might be thought probably true, yet it can be false. Questions regarding the justification and form of enumerative inductions have been central in philosophy of science, as enumerative induction has a pivotal role in the traditional model of the scientific method.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: This is "enumerative induction", also known as "simple induction" or "simple predictive induction". It is a subcategory of inductive generalization. In everyday practice, this is perhaps the most common form of induction. For the preceding argument, the conclusion is tempting but makes a prediction well in excess of the evidence. First, it assumes that life forms observed until now can tell us how future cases will be: an appeal to uniformity. Second, the conclusion "All" is a bold assertion. A single contrary instance foils the argument. And last, quantifying the level of probability in any mathematical form is problematic. By what standard do we measure our Earthly sample of known life against all (possible) life? Suppose we do discover some new organism—such as some microorganism floating in the mesosphere or an asteroid—and it is cellular. Does the addition of this corroborating evidence oblige us to raise our probability assessment for the subject proposition? It is generally deemed reasonable to answer this question "yes," and for a good many this "yes" is not only reasonable but incontrovertible. So then just "how much" should this new data change our probability assessment? Here, consensus melts away, and in its place arises a question about whether we can talk of probability coherently at all without numerical quantification.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: This is enumerative induction in its "weak form". It truncates "all" to a mere single instance and, by making a far weaker claim, considerably strengthens the probability of its conclusion. Otherwise, it has the same shortcomings as the strong form: its sample population is non-random, and quantification methods are elusive.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Eliminative induction, also called variative induction, is an inductive method in which a conclusion is constructed based on the "variety" of instances that support it. Unlike enumerative induction, eliminative induction reasons based on the various kinds of instances that support a conclusion, rather than the number of instances that support it. As the variety of instances increases, the more possible conclusions based on those instances can be identified as incompatible and eliminated. This, in turn, increases the strength of any conclusion that remains consistent with the various instances. This type of induction may use different methodologies such as quasi-experimentation, which tests and where possible eliminates rival hypotheses. Different evidential tests may also be employed to eliminate possibilities that are entertained.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Eliminative induction is crucial to the scientific method and is used to eliminate hypotheses that are inconsistent with observations and experiments. It focuses on possible causes instead of observed actual instances of causal connections.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: For a move from particular to universal, Aristotle in the 300s BCE used the Greek word "epagogé", which Cicero translated into the Latin word "inductio".


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Aristotle's "Posterior Analytics" covers the methods of inductive proof in natural philosophy and in the social sciences. The first book of describes the nature and science of demonstration and its elements: including definition, division, intuitive reason of first principles, particular and universal demonstration, affirmative and negative demonstration, the difference between science and opinion, etc.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The ancient Pyrrhonists were the first Western philosophers to point out the Problem of induction: that induction cannot, according to them, justify the acceptance of universal statements as true.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The Empiric school of ancient Greek medicine employed "epilogism" as a method of inference. 'Epilogism' is a theory-free method that looks at history through the accumulation of facts without major generalization and with consideration of the consequences of making causal claims. Epilogism is an inference which moves entirely within the domain of visible and evident things, it tries not to invoke unobservables.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The Dogmatic school of ancient Greek medicine employed "analogismos" as a method of inference. This method used analogy to reason from what was observed to unobservable forces.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: In 1620, early modern philosopher Francis Bacon repudiated the value of mere experience and enumerative induction alone. His method of inductivism required that minute and many-varied observations that uncovered the natural world's structure and causal relations needed to be coupled with enumerative induction in order to have knowledge beyond the present scope of experience. Inductivism therefore required enumerative induction as a component.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The empiricist David Hume's 1740 stance found enumerative induction to have no rational, let alone logical, basis; instead, induction was the product of instinct rather than reason, a custom of the mind and an everyday requirement to live. While observations, such as the motion of the sun, could be coupled with the principle of the uniformity of nature to produce conclusions that seemed to be certain, the problem of induction arose from the fact that the uniformity of nature was not a logically valid principle, therefore it could not be defended as deductively rational, but also could not be defended as inductively rational by appealing to the fact that the uniformity of nature has accurately described the past and therefore, will likely accurately describe the future because that is an inductive argument and therefore circular since induction is what needs to be justified.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Since Hume first wrote about the dilemma between the invalidity of deductive arguments and the circularity of inductive arguments in support of the uniformity of nature, this supposed dichotomy between merely two modes of inference, deduction and induction, has been contested with the discovery of a third mode of inference known as abduction, or abductive reasoning, which was first formulated and advanced by Charles Sanders Peirce, in 1886, where he referred to it as "reasoning by hypothesis." Inference to the best explanation is often yet arguably treated as synonymous to abduction as it was first identified by Gilbert Harman in 1965 where he referred to it as "abductive reasoning," yet his definition of abduction slightly differs from Pierce's definition. Regardless, if abduction is in fact a third mode of inference rationally independent from the other two, then either the uniformity of nature can be rationally justified through abduction, or Hume's dilemma is more of a trilemma. Hume was also skeptical of the application of enumerative induction and reason to reach certainty about unobservables and especially the inference of causality from the fact that modifying an aspect of a relationship prevents or produces a particular outcome.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Awakened from "dogmatic slumber" by a German translation of Hume's work, Kant sought to explain the possibility of metaphysics. In 1781, Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" introduced "rationalism" as a path toward knowledge distinct from "empiricism". Kant sorted statements into two types. Analytic statements are true by virtue of the arrangement of their terms and meanings, thus analytic statements are tautologies, merely logical truths, true by necessity. Whereas synthetic statements hold meanings to refer to states of facts, contingencies. Against both rationalist philosophers like Descartes and Leibniz as well as against empiricist philosophers like Locke and Hume, Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" is a sustained argument that in order to have knowledge we need both a contribution of our mind (concepts) as well as a contribution of our senses (intuitions). Knowledge proper is for Kant thus restricted to what we can possibly perceive ("phenomena"), whereas objects of mere thought ("things in themselves") are in principle unknowable due to the impossibility of ever perceiving them.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Reasoning that the mind must contain its own categories for organizing sense data, making experience of objects in "space" and "time (phenomena)" possible, Kant concluded that the uniformity of nature was an "a priori" truth. A class of synthetic statements that was not contingent but true by necessity, was then synthetic "a priori". Kant thus saved both metaphysics and Newton's law of universal gravitation. On the basis of the argument that what goes beyond our knowledge is "nothing to us," he discarded scientific realism. Kant's position that knowledge comes about by a cooperation of perception and our capacity to think (transcendental idealism) gave birth to the movement of German idealism. Hegel's absolute idealism subsequently flourished across continental Europe and England.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Positivism, developed by Henri de Saint-Simon and promulgated in the 1830s by his former student Auguste Comte, was the first late modern philosophy of science. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, fearing society's ruin, Comte opposed metaphysics. Human knowledge had evolved from religion to metaphysics to science, said Comte, which had flowed from mathematics to astronomy to physics to chemistry to biology to sociology—in that order—describing increasingly intricate domains. All of society's knowledge had become scientific, with questions of theology and of metaphysics being unanswerable. Comte found enumerative induction reliable as a consequence of its grounding in available experience. He asserted the use of science, rather than metaphysical truth, as the correct method for the improvement of human society.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: According to Comte, scientific method frames predictions, confirms them, and states laws—positive statements—irrefutable by theology or by metaphysics. Regarding experience as justifying enumerative induction by demonstrating the uniformity of nature, the British philosopher John Stuart Mill welcomed Comte's positivism, but thought scientific laws susceptible to recall or revision and Mill also withheld from Comte's Religion of Humanity. Comte was confident in treating scientific law as an irrefutable foundation for all knowledge, and believed that churches, honouring eminent scientists, ought to focus public mindset on "altruism"—a term Comte coined—to apply science for humankind's social welfare via sociology, Comte's leading science.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: During the 1830s and 1840s, while Comte and Mill were the leading philosophers of science, William Whewell found enumerative induction not nearly as convincing, and, despite the dominance of inductivism, formulated "superinduction". Whewell argued that "the peculiar import of the term "Induction"" should be recognised: "there is some Conception "superinduced" upon the facts", that is, "the Invention of a new Conception in every inductive inference". The creation of Conceptions is easily overlooked and prior to Whewell was rarely recognised. Whewell explained:


title: Inductive reasoning

text: These "superinduced" explanations may well be flawed, but their accuracy is suggested when they exhibit what Whewell termed "consilience"—that is, simultaneously predicting the inductive generalizations in multiple areas—a feat that, according to Whewell, can establish their truth. Perhaps to accommodate the prevailing view of science as inductivist method, Whewell devoted several chapters to "methods of induction" and sometimes used the phrase "logic of induction", despite the fact that induction lacks rules and cannot be trained.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: In the 1870s, the originator of pragmatism, C S Peirce performed vast investigations that clarified the basis of deductive inference as a mathematical proof (as, independently, did Gottlob Frege). Peirce recognized induction but always insisted on a third type of inference that Peirce variously termed "abduction" or "retroduction" or "hypothesis" or "presumption". Later philosophers termed Peirce's abduction, etc., "Inference to the Best Explanation" (IBE).


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Having highlighted Hume's problem of induction, John Maynard Keynes posed "logical probability" as its answer, or as near a solution as he could arrive at. Bertrand Russell found Keynes's "Treatise on Probability" the best examination of induction, and believed that if read with Jean Nicod's "Le Probleme logique de l'induction" as well as R B Braithwaite's review of Keynes's work in the October 1925 issue of "Mind", that would cover "most of what is known about induction", although the "subject is technical and difficult, involving a good deal of mathematics". Two decades later, Russell proposed enumerative induction as an "independent logical principle". Russell found:


title: Inductive reasoning

text: In a 1965 paper, Gilbert Harman explained that enumerative induction is not an autonomous phenomenon, but is simply a disguised consequence of Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE). IBE is otherwise synonymous with C S Peirce's "abduction". Many philosophers of science espousing scientific realism have maintained that IBE is the way that scientists develop approximately true scientific theories about nature.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Inductive reasoning is a form of argument that—in contrast to deductive reasoning—allows for the possibility that a conclusion can be false, even if all of the premises are true. This difference between deductive and inductive reasoning is reflected in the terminology used to describe deductive and inductive arguments. In deductive reasoning, an argument is "valid" when, assuming the argument's premises are true, the conclusion "must" be true. If the argument is valid and the premises "are" true, then the argument is "sound". In contrast, in inductive reasoning, an argument's premises can never guarantee that the conclusion "must" be true; therefore, inductive arguments can never be valid or sound. Instead, an argument is "strong" when, assuming the argument's premises are true, the conclusion is "probably" true. If the argument is strong and the premises "are" true, then the argument is "cogent". Less formally, an inductive argument may be called "probable", "plausible", "likely", "reasonable", or "justified", but never "certain" or "necessary". Logic affords no bridge from the probable to the certain.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The futility of attaining certainty through some critical mass of probability can be illustrated with a coin-toss exercise. Suppose someone tests whether a coin is either a fair one or two-headed. They flip the coin ten times, and ten times it comes up heads. At this point, there is a strong reason to believe it is two-headed. After all, the chance of ten heads in a row is .000976: less than one in one thousand. Then, after 100 flips, every toss has come up heads. Now there is “virtual” certainty that the coin is two-headed. Still, one can neither logically nor empirically rule out that the next toss will produce tails. No matter how many times in a row it comes up heads this remains the case. If one programmed a machine to flip a coin over and over continuously at some point the result would be a string of 100 heads. In the fullness of time, all combinations will appear.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: As for the slim prospect of getting ten out of ten heads from a fair coin—the outcome that made the coin appear biased—many may be surprised to learn that the chance of any sequence of heads or tails is equally unlikely (e.g., H-H-T-T-H-T-H-H-H-T) and yet it occurs in "every" trial of ten tosses. That means "all" results for ten tosses have the same probability as getting ten out of ten heads, which is 0.000976. If one records the heads-tails sequences, for whatever result, that exact sequence had a chance of 0.000976.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: An argument is deductive when the conclusion is necessary given the premises. That is, the conclusion must be true if the premises are true.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: If a deductive conclusion follows duly from its premises, then it is valid; otherwise, it is invalid (that an argument is invalid is not to say it is false; it may have a true conclusion, just not on account of the premises). An examination of the following examples will show that the relationship between premises and conclusion is such that the truth of the conclusion is already implicit in the premises. Bachelors are unmarried because we "say" they are; we have defined them so. Socrates is mortal because we have included him in a set of beings that are mortal. The conclusion for a valid deductive argument is already contained in the premises since its truth is strictly a matter of logical relations. It cannot say more than its premises. Inductive premises, on the other hand, draw their substance from fact and evidence, and the conclusion accordingly makes a factual claim or prediction. Its reliability varies proportionally with the evidence. Induction wants to reveal something "new" about the world. One could say that induction wants to say "more" than is contained in the premises.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: To better see the difference between inductive and deductive arguments, consider that it would not make sense to say: "all rectangles so far examined have four right angles, so the next one I see will have four right angles." This would treat logical relations as something factual and discoverable, and thus variable and uncertain. Likewise, speaking deductively we may permissibly say. "All unicorns can fly; I have a unicorn named Charlie; thus Charlie can fly." This deductive argument is valid because the logical relations hold; we are not interested in their factual soundness.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Inductive reasoning is inherently uncertain. It only deals with the extent to which, given the premises, the conclusion is "credible" according to some theory of evidence. Examples include a many-valued logic, Dempster–Shafer theory, or probability theory with rules for inference such as Bayes' rule. Unlike deductive reasoning, it does not rely on universals holding over a closed domain of discourse to draw conclusions, so it can be applicable even in cases of epistemic uncertainty (technical issues with this may arise however; for example, the second axiom of probability is a closed-world assumption).


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Another crucial difference between these two types of argument is that deductive certainty is impossible in non-axiomatic systems such as reality, leaving inductive reasoning as the primary route to (probabilistic) knowledge of such systems.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Given that "if "A" is true then that would cause "B", "C", and "D" to be true", an example of deduction would be ""A" is true therefore we can deduce that "B", "C", and "D" are true". An example of induction would be ""B", "C", and "D" are observed to be true therefore "A" might be true". "A" is a reasonable explanation for "B", "C", and "D" being true.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Note, however, that the asteroid explanation for the mass extinction is not necessarily correct. Other events with the potential to affect global climate also coincide with the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. For example, the release of volcanic gases (particularly sulfur dioxide) during the formation of the Deccan Traps in India.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: This argument could have been made every time a new biological life form was found, and would have been correct every time; however, it is still possible that in the future a biological life form not requiring liquid water could be discovered.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Succinctly put: deduction is about "certainty/necessity"; induction is about "probability". Any single assertion will answer to one of these two criteria. Another approach to the analysis of reasoning is that of modal logic, which deals with the distinction between the necessary and the "possible" in a way not concerned with probabilities among things deemed possible.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The philosophical definition of inductive reasoning is more nuanced than a simple progression from particular/individual instances to broader generalizations. Rather, the premises of an inductive logical argument indicate some degree of support (inductive probability) for the conclusion but do not entail it; that is, they suggest truth but do not ensure it. In this manner, there is the possibility of moving from general statements to individual instances (for example, statistical syllogisms).


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Note that the definition of "inductive" reasoning described here differs from mathematical induction, which, in fact, is a form of "deductive" reasoning. Mathematical induction is used to provide strict proofs of the properties of recursively defined sets. The deductive nature of mathematical induction derives from its basis in a non-finite number of cases, in contrast with the finite number of cases involved in an enumerative induction procedure like proof by exhaustion. Both mathematical induction and proof by exhaustion are examples of complete induction. Complete induction is a masked type of deductive reasoning.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Although philosophers at least as far back as the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus have pointed out the unsoundness of inductive reasoning, the classic philosophical critique of the problem of induction was given by the Scottish philosopher David Hume. Although the use of inductive reasoning demonstrates considerable success, the justification for its application has been questionable. Recognizing this, Hume highlighted the fact that our mind often draws conclusions from relatively limited experiences that appear correct but which are actually far from certain. In deduction, the truth value of the conclusion is based on the truth of the premise. In induction, however, the dependence of the conclusion on the premise is always uncertain. For example, let us assume that all ravens are black. The fact that there are numerous black ravens supports the assumption. Our assumption, however, becomes invalid once it is discovered that there are white ravens. Therefore, the general rule "all ravens are black" is not the kind of statement that can ever be certain. Hume further argued that it is impossible to justify inductive reasoning: this is because it cannot be justified deductively, so our only option is to justify it inductively. Since this argument is circular, with the help of Hume's fork he concluded that our use of induction is unjustifiable .


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Hume nevertheless stated that even if induction were proved unreliable, we would still have to rely on it. So instead of a position of severe skepticism, Hume advocated a practical skepticism based on common sense, where the inevitability of induction is accepted. Bertrand Russell illustrated Hume's skepticism in a story about a chicken, fed every morning without fail, who following the laws of induction concluded that this feeding would always continue, until his throat was eventually cut by the farmer.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: In 1963, Karl Popper wrote, "Induction, "i.e." inference based on many observations, is a myth. It is neither a psychological fact, nor a fact of ordinary life, nor one of scientific procedure." Popper's 1972 book "Objective Knowledge"—whose first chapter is devoted to the problem of induction—opens, "I think I have solved a major philosophical problem: the problem of induction". In Popper's schema, enumerative induction is "a kind of optical illusion" cast by the steps of conjecture and refutation during a "problem shift". An imaginative leap, the "tentative solution" is improvised, lacking inductive rules to guide it. The resulting, unrestricted generalization is deductive, an entailed consequence of all explanatory considerations. Controversy continued, however, with Popper's putative solution not generally accepted.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Donald A. Gillies argues that rules of inferences related to inductive reasoning are overwhelmingly absent from science, and describes most scientific inferences as "involv[ing] conjectures thought up by human ingenuity and creativity, and by no means inferred in any mechanical fashion, or according to precisely specified rules." Gillies also provides a rare counterexample "in the machine learning programs of AI."


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Inductive reasoning is also known as hypothesis construction because any conclusions made are based on current knowledge and predictions. As with deductive arguments, biases can distort the proper application of inductive argument, thereby preventing the reasoner from forming the most logical conclusion based on the clues. Examples of these biases include the availability heuristic, confirmation bias, and the predictable-world bias.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The availability heuristic causes the reasoner to depend primarily upon information that is readily available. People have a tendency to rely on information that is easily accessible in the world around them. For example, in surveys, when people are asked to estimate the percentage of people who died from various causes, most respondents choose the causes that have been most prevalent in the media such as terrorism, murders, and airplane accidents, rather than causes such as disease and traffic accidents, which have been technically "less accessible" to the individual since they are not emphasized as heavily in the world around them.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Confirmation bias is based on the natural tendency to confirm rather than deny a hypothesis. Research has demonstrated that people are inclined to seek solutions to problems that are more consistent with known hypotheses rather than attempt to refute those hypotheses. Often, in experiments, subjects will ask questions that seek answers that fit established hypotheses, thus confirming these hypotheses. For example, if it is hypothesized that Sally is a sociable individual, subjects will naturally seek to confirm the premise by asking questions that would produce answers confirming that Sally is, in fact, a sociable individual.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: The predictable-world bias revolves around the inclination to perceive order where it has not been proved to exist, either at all or at a particular level of abstraction. Gambling, for example, is one of the most popular examples of predictable-world bias. Gamblers often begin to think that they see simple and obvious patterns in the outcomes and therefore believe that they are able to predict outcomes based on what they have witnessed. In reality, however, the outcomes of these games are difficult to predict and highly complex in nature. In general, people tend to seek some type of simplistic order to explain or justify their beliefs and experiences, and it is often difficult for them to realise that their perceptions of order may be entirely different from the truth.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: As a logic of induction rather than a theory of belief, Bayesian inference does not determine which beliefs are "a priori" rational, but rather determines how we should rationally change the beliefs we have when presented with evidence. We begin by committing to a prior probability for a hypothesis based on logic or previous experience and, when faced with evidence, we adjust the strength of our belief in that hypothesis in a precise manner using Bayesian logic.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, a theory of prediction based on observations, for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. This is a formal inductive framework that combines algorithmic information theory with the Bayesian framework. Universal inductive inference is based on solid philosophical foundations, and can be considered as a mathematically formalized Occam's razor. Fundamental ingredients of the theory are the concepts of algorithmic probability and Kolmogorov complexity.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: The Autonomous Republic of Crimea, commonly known as Crimea, is a "de jure" autonomous republic of Ukraine encompassing most of Crimea that was annexed by Russia in 2014. The Autonomous Republic of Crimea occupies most of the peninsula, while the City of Sevastopol (a city with special status within Ukraine) occupies the rest.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: The Cimmerians, Bulgars, Greeks, Scythians, Goths, Huns, Khazars, the state of Kievan Rus', Byzantine Greeks, Kipchaks, Ottoman Turks, Golden Horde Tatars and the Mongols each controlled Crimea in its earlier history. In the 13th century, it was partly controlled by the Venetians and by the Genoese. They were followed by the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire in the 15th to 18th centuries, the Russian Empire in the 18th to 20th centuries, Germany during World War II, and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and later the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, within the Soviet Union during the rest of the 20th century until Crimea became part of independent Ukraine with the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Following the February 2014 Ukrainian revolution that ousted Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych, pro-Russian separatists and Russian troops took control of the territory. A controversial Crimea-wide referendum was held on the issue of becoming part of Russia, which, according to the official results, was supported by the overwhelming majority of Crimeans who voted. Russia formally annexed Crimea on 18 March 2014, incorporating the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol as the 84th and 85th federal subjects of Russia. While Russia and 17 other UN member states recognize Crimea as part of the Russian Federation, Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory, supported by most foreign governments and United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: The Autonomous Republic of Crimea is an autonomous parliamentary republic within Ukraine and is governed by the Constitution of Crimea in accordance with the laws of Ukraine. The capital and administrative seat of the republic's government is the city of Simferopol, located in the centre of the peninsula. Crimea's area is and its population was 1,973,185 as of 2007. These figures do not include the area and population of the City of Sevastopol (2007 population: 379,200), which is administratively separate from the autonomous republic. The peninsula thus has 2,352,385 people (2007 estimate).


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Crimean Tatars, a predominantly Muslim ethnic minority who in 2001 made up 12.10% of the population, formed in Crimea in the late Middle Ages, after the Crimean Khanate had come into existence. The Crimean Tatars were forcibly expelled to Central Asia by Joseph Stalin's government. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Crimean Tatars began to return to the region. According to the 2001 Ukrainian population census 58% of the population of Crimea are ethnic Russians and 24% are ethnic Ukrainians. The region has the highest proportion of Muslims in Ukraine.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Since 1954, Crimea Oblast has been administratively part of the Ukrainian SSR. Shortly prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Crimea was granted the status of Autonomous Republic by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR following a state-sanctioned referendum held on January 20, 1991. When Ukraine became independent, Crimea remained a republic within the country, leading to tensions between Russia and Ukraine as the Black Sea Fleet was based on the peninsula.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Since Ukrainian independence, more than 250,000 Crimean Tatars have returned and integrated into the region.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Between 1992-1995, a struggle about the division of powers between the Crimean and Ukrainian authorities ensued. On 26 February, the Crimean parliament renamed the ASSR the Republic of Crimea. Then on 5 May, it proclaimed self-government and twice enacted constitutions that the Ukrainian government and Parliament refused to accept on the grounds that it was inconsistent with Ukraine's constitution. Finally in June 1992, the parties reached a compromise: Crimea would be given the status of "autonomous republic" and granted special economic status, as an autonomous but integral part of Ukraine.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: In October 1993, the Crimean parliament established the post of president of Crimea. Tensions rose in 1994 with election of separatist leader Yury Meshkov as Crimean president. On 17 March 1995, the parliament of Ukraine abolished the Crimean constitution of 1992, all the laws and decrees contradicting those of Kyiv, and also removed Yuriy Meshkov, the then president of Crimea, along with the office itself. After an interim constitution, the 1998 Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea was put into effect, changing the territory's name to the Autonomous Republic of Crimea.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Following the ratification of the May 1997 Russian–Ukrainian Friendship Treaty, in which Russia recognized Ukraine's borders and sovereignty over Crimea, international tensions slowly eased. However, in 2006, anti-NATO protests broke out on the peninsula. In September 2008, the Ukrainian foreign minister Volodymyr Ohryzko accused Russia of giving out Russian passports to the population in Crimea and described it as a "real problem" given Russia's declared policy of military intervention abroad to protect Russian citizens.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: On 24 August 2009, anti-Ukrainian demonstrations were held in Crimea by ethnic Russian residents. Sergei Tsekov (of the Russian Bloc and then deputy speaker of the Crimean parliament) said then that he hoped that Russia would treat Crimea the same way as it had treated South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The 2010 Ukrainian–Russian Naval Base for Natural Gas treaty extended Russia's lease on naval facilities in Crimea until 2042, with optional five-year renewals.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Crimea voted strongly for the pro-Russian Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych and his Party of Regions in presidential and parliamentary elections, and his ousting on 22 February 2014 during the 2014 Ukrainian revolution was followed by a push by pro-Russian protesters for Crimea to secede from Ukraine and seek assistance from Russia. Four days later, thousands of pro-Russian and pro-Ukraine protesters clashed in front of the parliament building in Simferopol.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: On 28 February 2014, Russian forces occupied airports and other strategic locations in Crimea though the Russian foreign ministry stated that "movement of the Black Sea Fleet armored vehicles in Crimea (...) happens in full accordance with basic Russian-Ukrainian agreements on the Black Sea Fleet". Gunmen, either armed militants or Russian special forces, occupied the Crimean parliament and, under armed guard with doors locked, members of parliament elected Sergey Aksyonov as the new Crimean prime minister. Aksyonov then said that he asserted sole control over Crimea's security forces and appealed to Russia "for assistance in guaranteeing peace and calmness" on the peninsula. The interim government of Ukraine described events as an invasion and occupation and did not recognize the Aksyonov administration as legal. Ousted Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych sent a letter to Putin asking him to use military force in Ukraine to restore law and order. On 1 March, the Russian parliament granted president Vladimir Putin the authority to use such force. Three days later, several Ukrainian bases and navy ships in Crimea reported being intimidated by Russian forces and Ukrainian warships were also effectively blockaded in Sevastopol.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: On 6 March, the Crimean parliament asked the Russian government for the region to become a subject of the Russian Federation with a Crimea-wide referendum on the issue set for 16 March. The Ukrainian government, the European Union, and the US all challenged the legitimacy of the request and of the proposed referendum as article 73 of the constitution of Ukraine states: "Alterations to the territory of Ukraine shall be resolved exclusively by an all-Ukrainian referendum." International monitors arrived in Ukraine to assess the situation but were halted by armed militants at the Crimean border.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: The day before the referendum, Ukraine's national parliament voted to dissolve the Supreme Council of Crimea as its pro-Moscow leaders were finalising preparations for the vote.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: The 16 March referendum required voters to choose between "Do you support rejoining Crimea with Russia as a subject of the Russian Federation?" and "Do you support restoration of the 1992 Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Crimea's status as a part of Ukraine?" There was no option on the ballot to maintain the status quo. However, support for the second question would have restored the republic's autonomous status within Ukraine. The official turnout for the referendum was 83%, and the overwhelming majority of those who voted (95.5%) supported the option of rejoining Russia. However, a BBC reporter claimed that a huge number of Tatars and Ukrainians had abstained from the vote.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Following the referendum, the members of the Supreme Council voted to rename themselves the State Council of the Republic of Crimea and also formally appealed to Russia to accept Crimea as part of the Russian Federation. This was granted and on 18 March 2014 the self-proclaimed Republic of Crimea signed a treaty of accession to the Russian Federation though the accession was granted separately for each of the former regions that composed it: one accession for the Republic of Crimea, and another for Sevastopol as a federal city. On 24 March 2014 the Ukrainian government ordered the full withdrawal of all of its armed forces from Crimea and two days later the last Ukrainian military bases and Ukrainian navy ships were captured by Russian troops.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Ukraine, meanwhile, continues to claim Crimea as its territory and in 2015 the Ukrainian parliament designated 20 February 2014 as the (official) date of the start of "the temporary occupation of Crimea." On 27 March 2014 100 United Nations member states voted for United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262 affirming the General Assembly's commitment to the territorial integrity of Ukraine within its internationally recognized borders while 11 member states voted against, 58 abstained and 24 member states absented. Since then six countries (Cuba, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Syria, Afghanistan, and North Korea) have publicly recognized Russia's annexation of Crimea while others have stated support for the 16 March 2014 Crimean referendum.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: Executive power in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea was exercised by the Council of Ministers of Crimea, headed by a Chairman, appointed and dismissed by the Supreme Council of Crimea, with the consent of the President of Ukraine. Though not an official body, the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People could address grievances to the Ukrainian central government, the Crimean government, and international bodies.


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: The Autonomous Republic of Crimea had 25 administrative areas: 14 "raions" (districts) and 11 "mis'kradas" and "mistos" (city municipalities), officially known as "territories governed by city councils".


title: Autonomous Republic of Crimea

text: An administrative reform, enacted by the "Verkhovna Rada" on 17 July 2020, envisages redivision of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea into 10 enlarged raions (districts), into which cities (municipalities) of republican significance will be absorbed. Delayed until return of the peninsula under Ukrainian control, the reform envisages the following subdivision of the republic:


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The HAL Tejas Mark 2, or Medium Weight Fighter (MWF), is an Indian single-engine, canard delta wing, multirole combat aircraft designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) in collaboration with Aircraft Research and Design Centre (ARDC) of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force (IAF). It is a further development of the HAL Tejas, with an elongated airframe, close coupled canards, new sensors, and a more powerful engine.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The fighter is being designed and developed to replace multiple strike fighters of IAF viz, the SEPECAT Jaguar, Dassault Mirage 2000, and Mikoyan MiG-29. The indigenous content of the fighter will be 82% initially and will cross 90% after the licensed production of its engine.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: Dr. V. Madhusudana Rao is the Project Director of Tejas Mark 2. The development of Tejas Mark 2 or MWF was initiated to address all the shortcomings in Tejas Mark 1 and Mark 1A, and to meet the original air staff requirements set out for the LCA programme by the IAF. The development of Tejas Mark 2 was authorised in November 2009 as a continuation of LCA programme, under the phase 3 of full-scale engineering development (FSED) process. The FSED phase 3 consisted of design, development and manufacturing of two prototypes. Initially planned as an upsized Tejas, with a 0.5 m fuselage plug to accommodate more fuel and a more powerful engine, the Tejas Mark 2 design has evolved over years into a completely new medium-weight class fighter.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The preliminary design studies for the Tejas Mark 2 was completed in 2014 and was in the detailed design phase as of 2015. The redesigned fighter was first unveiled at the Aero India air show 2019, it was a 17.5-tonne-class fighter with close-coupled canards and integrated IRST system. Metal-cutting for the Tejas Mark 2 started in February 2021. The "roll out" of the first prototype was scheduled for August 2022, but has been postponed to end of 2022. Its first flight is expected to be in late 2023. In total, four prototypes are being planned initially.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The ADA completed its critical design review on 15 November 2021, with a total of 20 subsystems for the aircraft cleared by IAF for production. From 62% in Tejas Mark 1A, the plan is to touch the 70% mark in indigenization for Mark 2. More foreign components are replaced by locally developed ones that are sufficiently matured as ADA and DRDO will carry forward some of the critical technologies from the LCA programme. Private suppliers of line-replaceable units also increased from 344 during Tejas Mark 1A development to 410. HAL had already outsourced 25% of the work share to the private sector.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: On September 1, 2022, Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) cleared ₹10,000 crore for Tejas Mark 2 that includes prototype development and flight testing. The cost of fighter jet development will take ₹6,500 crore in addition to ₹2,500 crore sanctioned previously through internal funding. HAL planned high speed taxi trials from 2023 and limited series production from 2025. The entire development process will be completed by 2027 with serial production from 2030. Tejas Mark 2 will become operationally available from 2028. Apart from current commitment of 110-120 aircraft that will form six squadrons, expectations include an additional order of 210 aircraft.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: After an initial plan to involve private players failed due to no backers, HAL is planning to form its own consortium to fast track the manufacturing process. Due to delay, the first prototype will roll out by December 2023 and first flight will happen by December 2024. Four prototypes will be made until 2027 for testing purpose. Delegation from 16 countries were seeking details of Tejas Mark 2 at Defexpo 2022. Government is speeding up efforts to identify Indian private sector company to increase the production rate and decrease the cost for exports.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: Apart from design commonalities and a few critical systems from its predecessor Tejas Mark 1A, most of the technologies are to be borrowed from whatever has been developed so far for Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft programmme. Several radar cross-section-reducing measures will be incorporated in the airframe design so that a degree of frontal stealth can be achieved, including radar-absorbent material coating and composites making up its skin and twisted air-intake ducts. It has a tail-less compound delta-wing configuration with a single vertical stabilizer and close-coupled canards to provide static instability and high manoeuvrability, and is equipped with fly-by-wire systems to control instability.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: This MWF is also to feature an indigenous integrated life-support system-onboard oxygen generation system (ILSS-OBOGS), from Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory, aircraft health and usage monitoring system to integrate various sensors onboard Tejas Mark 2 from Defence Institute of Advanced Technology and a built-in integrated electro-optic electronic warfare suite, among other improvements to avionics. Utilizing extra fuselage space, ADA designed larger air-intake for GE's F414 INS6 engine.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: It will have an infra-red search and track (IRST) system and a missile approach warning system. An increase in payload capacity to and internal fuel capacity to over , will allow it to carry more weapons with a longer range.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The avionics of Tejas Mark 2 will be centered on multisensor data fusion incorporating both active and passive sensors on board. The Tejas Mark 2 would be equipped with a variant of Uttam AESA Radar developed by Electronics and Radar Development Establishment, while the combat aircraft will also have an integrated IRST system for passive target acquisition. The Tejas Mark 2 will have indigenous software-defined radio-based tactical data link for secured communication and network-centric warfare capabilities supported by the IAF's AFNet digital information grid.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The Tejas Mark 2 will have a night vision goggles-compatible glass cockpit dominated by a touch-sensitive wide area display placed in panoramic orientation and a wide-angle holographic head-up display system. The Tejas Mark 2 will have hands-on throttle-and-stick arrangement with right-hand-on-stick and left-hand-on-throttle settings to ease the pilot workload.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: In 2008, HAL issued a fresh request for proposal for the procurement of 95- to 100-kilonewton (kN) (21,000–23,000 lbf) thrust-class engine to power the Tejas Mark 2. In 2010, after extensive evaluation of both the Eurojet EJ200 and the General Electric F414, GE's F414 INS6 afterburning turbofan engine was declared as the lowest bidder. The deal covered the purchase of 99 GE F414 engines, with the initial batch supplied directly by GE, while the remainder is to be manufactured in India by HAL under a transfer-of-technology agreement.


title: HAL Tejas Mk2

text: The GE F414 INS6 engine has a maximum thrust output of 98 kN and also offers improved specific fuel consumption over the F404 IN20 engine selected to power both Mark 1 and Mark 1A variants of Tejas. The aircraft is designed keeping in mind that GE's F414 will be replaced once an Indian powerplant is available. Therefore, the future engine replacement should make minimal changes in the configuration.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Daniel Defoe (; born Daniel Foe; – 24 April 1731) was an English writer, trader, journalist, pamphleteer and spy. He is most famous for his novel "Robinson Crusoe", published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations. He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson. Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works—books, pamphlets, and journals — on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology, and the supernatural. He was also a pioneer of business journalism and economic journalism.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux. "De" is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames. His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely. His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of Flemish descent, and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In Defoe's early childhood, he experienced some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, 70,000 were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe's and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway. His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher's boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton's dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there. He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–103. During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate. She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: In 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1689, and Defoe became one of William's close allies and a secret agent. Some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe. In 1692, he was arrested for debts of £700 and, in the face of total debts that may have amounted to £17,000, was forced to declare bankruptcy. He died with little wealth and evidently embroiled in lawsuits with the royal treasury.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Following his release from debtors’ prison, he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using the name "Defoe" and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe's first notable publication was "An Essay Upon Projects", a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). His most successful poem, "The True-Born Englishman" (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally. In 1701, Defoe presented the "Legion's Memorial" to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists. Defoe was a natural target, and his pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, principally on account of his December 1702 pamphlet entitled "The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church", purporting to argue for their extermination. In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested. He was charged with seditious libel and found guilty in a trial at the Old Bailey in front of the notoriously sadistic judge Salathiel Lovell. Lovell sentenced him to a punitive fine of 200 marks (£336 then, £ in 2022), to public humiliation in a pillory, and to an indeterminate length of imprisonment which would only end upon the discharge of the punitive fine. According to legend, the publication of his poem "Hymn to the Pillory" caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health. The truth of this story is questioned by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that "no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men".


title: Daniel Defoe

text: After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's cooperation as an intelligence agent for the Tories. In exchange for such cooperation with the rival political side, Harley paid some of Defoe's outstanding debts, improving his financial situation considerably.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703, which raged through the night of 26/27 November. It caused severe damage to London and Bristol, uprooted millions of trees, and killed more than 8,000 people, mostly at sea. The event became the subject of Defoe's "The Storm" (1704), which includes a collection of witness accounts of the tempest. Many regard it as one of the world's first examples of modern journalism.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: In the same year, he set up his periodical "A Review of the Affairs of France", which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The "Review" ran three times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the "Review" to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing "Tory" pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Not all of Defoe's pamphlet writing was political. One pamphlet was originally published anonymously, entitled "A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal the Next Day after her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury the 8th of September, 1705". It deals with the interaction between the spiritual realm and the physical realm and was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt's "The Christian Defence against the Fears of Death" (1651). It describes Mrs. Bargrave's encounter with her old friend Mrs. Veal after she had died. It is clear from this piece and other writings that the political portion of Defoe's life was by no means his only focus.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: In despair during his imprisonment for the seditious libel case, Defoe wrote to William Paterson, the London Scot and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, leading minister and spymaster in the English government. Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in 1703. He immediately published "The Review", which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe began his campaign in "The Review" and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence in the Treaty of Union. He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as "The Letters of Daniel Defoe" (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind", he reported. Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that it was not known at the time that Defoe had been sent by Godolphin :


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly" but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England". He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported,


title: Daniel Defoe

text: For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union but always having the last word for himself.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: In 1709, Defoe authored a rather lengthy book entitled "The History of the Union of Great Britain", an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson.  The book cites Defoe twice as being its author and gives details leading up to the "Acts of Union 1707" by means of presenting information that dates all the way back to 6 December 1604 when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification.  And so, such so-called "first draft" for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord, which respectively preceded the commencement of "Robinson Crusoe" by another ten years.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and of course no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his "Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain", published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was "not the case, but rather the contrary".


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town's name. The Gaelic "Glas" could mean grey or green, while "chu" means dog or hollow. "Glaschu" probably means "Green Hollow". The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God".


title: Daniel Defoe

text: The "Dear Green Place" and "City of God" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against".


title: Daniel Defoe

text: The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of "Robinson Crusoe" in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia "Appeal to Honour and Justice" (1715), a defence of his part in Harley's Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include "The Family Instructor" (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; "Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager" (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and "A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy" (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including "Religious Courtship" (1722), "The Complete English Tradesman" (1726) and "The New Family Instructor" (1727). He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as "The Great Law of Subordination Considered" (1724) and "Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business" (1725) and works on the supernatural, like "The Political History of the Devil" (1726), "A System of Magick" (1727) and "An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions" (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include "A General History of Discoveries and Improvements" (1727) and "Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis" (1728). Perhaps his greatest achievement, apart from the novels, is the magisterial "A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain" (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Published in 1726, "The Complete English Tradesman" is an example of Defoe's political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior. Defoe also implied that trade was the backbone of the British economy: "estate's a pond, but trade's a spring." In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well. Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy. Oftentimes younger members of noble families entered into trade, and marriages to a tradesman's daughter by a nobleman was also common. Overall, Defoe demonstrated a high respect for tradesmen, being one himself.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Not only did Defoe elevate individual British tradesmen to the level of gentleman, but he praised the entirety of British trade as a superior system to other systems of trade. Trade, Defoe argues, is a much better catalyst for social and economic change than war. Defoe also argued that through the expansion of the British Empire and British mercantile influence, Britain would be able to "increase commerce at home" through job creations and increased consumption. He wrote in the work that increased consumption, by laws of supply and demand, increases production and in turn raises wages for the poor therefore lifting part of British society further out of poverty.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Published when Defoe was in his late fifties, "Robinson Crusoe" relates the story of a man's shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe's struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine conversion experience.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: In the opening pages of "The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe", the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire, married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of "H. F." in "A Journal of the Plague Year" retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe's family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered. Defoe went to school Newington Green with a friend named Caruso.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands, but his experience is inconsistent with the details of the narrative. The island Selkirk lived on, Más a Tierra (Closer to Land) was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966. It has been supposed that Defoe may have also been inspired by a translation of a book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail, who was known as "Abubacer" in Europe. The Latin edition was entitled "Philosophus Autodidactus"; Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled "The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan".


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe's next novel was "Captain Singleton" (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of the geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: "A Journal of the Plague Year", published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials "H. F.", suggesting the author's uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: "Colonel Jack" (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a "gentleman."


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Also in 1722, Defoe wrote "Moll Flanders", another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist, and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader's sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents. "Moll Flanders" is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society. More recently it has come to be misunderstood as an example of erotica.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe's final novel, "" (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is relating her story.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: In Defoe's writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background). Connected to Defoe's didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in "Robinson Crusoe". Another common feature of Defoe's fictional works is that he claimed them to be the true stories of their subjects.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names. It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously. As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name "the author of the True-Born Englishman," there would be about 75 works that could be attributed to him.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe. In "History of the Union", he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as "Books which are supposed to be De Foe's." Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe's work, without a means to be absolutely certain. In the "Cambridge History of English Literature", the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe's work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe.


title: Daniel Defoe

text: Defoe died on 24 April 1731, probably while in hiding from his creditors. He was often in debtors' prison. The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke. He was interred in Bunhill Fields (today Bunhill Fields Burial and Gardens), just outside the medieval boundaries of the City of London, in what is now the Borough of Islington, where a monument was erected to his memory in 1870.


title: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me

text: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is a 1992 psychological horror film directed by David Lynch and written by Lynch and Robert Engels. It serves as a prequel to the television series "Twin Peaks" (1990–1991), created by Mark Frost and Lynch, who were also executive producers. It revolves around the investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks (Pamela Gidley) and the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee), a popular high school student in the fictional Washington town of Twin Peaks. Unlike the series, which was an uncanny blend of detective fiction, horror, the supernatural, offbeat humor, and soap opera tropes, the film has a much darker, less humorous tone.


title: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me

text: Most of the television cast reprised their roles, though the majority of their scenes were cut. A few notable cast members, including Lara Flynn Boyle, Sherilyn Fenn, and Richard Beymer, did not reappear for various reasons. Boyle's character Donna Hayward was recast with Moira Kelly. Kyle MacLachlan, who starred as Special Agent Dale Cooper in the series, was reluctant to return out of fear of being typecast, which resulted in a smaller presence in the film than originally planned.


title: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me

text: At the time of its initial release "Fire Walk with Me" polarized critics in the United States. However, it became positively re-evaluated in the 21st century, with some critics considering the film one of Lynch's major works. Although it has long been reported that it received boos and jeers from the audience at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival, where it was nominated for the Palme d'Or, co-writer Robert Engels denies this happened. The film was a box office failure in the United States, but fared much better in Japan. Its two planned sequels were cancelled, but 91 minutes worth of deleted scenes were released in 2014 through the compilation "", and the story's narrative continued through the 2017 miniseries "Twin Peaks: The Return".


title: Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me

text: In 1988, in the small town of Deer Meadow, Washington teenage drifter Teresa Banks' body floats down a river, wrapped in plastic. FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole sends agents Chester Desmond and Sam Stanley to investigate.