title: Medes

text: An early description of Media from the end of the 9th century BC to the beginning of the 7th century BC comes from the Assyrians. The southern border of Media, in that period, is named as the Elamite region of Simaški in present-day Lorestan Province. To the west and northwest, Media was bounded by the Zagros Mountains and from the east by the Dasht-e Kavir desert. This region of Media was ruled by the Assyrians and for them the region fell "along the Great Khorasan Road from just east of Harhar to Alwand, and probably beyond." The location of Harhar is suggested to be "the central or eastern" Mahidasht District in Kermanshah Province.


title: Medes

text: Its borders were limited in the north by the non-Iranian states of Gizilbunda and Mannea, and to its south by Ellipi and Elam. Gizilbunda was located in the Qaflankuh Mountains, and Ellipi was located in the south of modern Lorestan Province. On the east and southeast of Media, as described by the Assyrians, another land with the name of "Patušarra" appears. This land was located near a mountain range which the Assyrians call "Bikni" and describe as "Lapis Lazuli Mountain". There are differing opinions on the location of this mountain. Mount Damavand of Tehran and Alvand of Hamadan are two proposed sites. This location is the most remote eastern area that the Assyrians knew of or reached during their expansion until the beginning of the 7th century BC.


title: Medes

text: In Achaemenid sources, specifically from the Behistun Inscription (2.76, 77–78), the capital of Media is Ecbatana, called "Hamgmatāna-" in Old Persian (Elamite:"Agmadana-"; Babylonian: "Agamtanu-") corresponding to modern-day Hamadan.


title: Medes

text: The other cities existing in Media were Laodicea (modern Nahavand) and the mound that was the largest city of the Medes, Rhages (present-day Rey). The fourth city of Media was Apamea, near Ecbatana, whose precise location is now unknown. In later periods, Medes and especially Mede soldiers are identified and portrayed prominently in ancient archaeological sites such as Persepolis, where they are shown to have a major role and presence in the military of the Achaemenid Empire.


title: Medes

text: At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Iranian tribes emerged in the region of northwest Iran. These tribes expanded their control over larger areas. Subsequently, the boundaries of Media changed over a period of several hundred years. Iranian tribes were present in western and northwestern Iran from at least the 12th or 11th centuries BC. But the significance of Iranian elements in these regions were established from the beginning of the second half of the 8th century BC. By this time the Iranian tribes were the majority in what later become the territory of the Median Kingdom and also the west of Media proper. A study of textual sources from the region shows that in the Neo-Assyrian period, the regions of Media, and further to the west and the northwest, had a population with Iranian speaking people as the majority.


title: Medes

text: This period of migration coincided with a power vacuum in the Near East with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), which had dominated northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus, going into a comparative decline. This allowed new peoples to pass through and settle. In addition Elam, the dominant power in Iran, was suffering a period of severe weakness, as was Babylonia to the west.


title: Medes

text: In western and northwestern Iran and in areas further west prior to Median rule, there is evidence of the earlier political activity of the powerful societies of Elam, Mannaea, Assyria and Urartu. There are various and up-dated opinions on the positions and activities of Iranian tribes in these societies and prior to the "major Iranian state formations" in the late 7th century BC. One opinion (of Herzfeld, "et al.") is that the ruling class were "Iranian migrants" but the society was "autonomous" while another opinion (of Grantovsky, "et al.") holds that both the ruling class and basic elements of the population were Iranian.


title: Medes

text: From the 10th to the late 7th centuries BC, the western parts of Media fell under the domination of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire based in northern Mesopotamia, which stretched from Cyprus in the west, to parts of western Iran in the east, and Egypt and the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Assyrian kings such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal and Ashur-etil-ilani imposed "Vassal Treaties" upon the Median rulers, and also protected them from predatory raids by marauding Scythians and Cimmerians.


title: Medes

text: During the reign of Sinsharishkun (622–612 BC), the Assyrian empire, which had been in a state of constant civil war since 626 BC, began to unravel. Subject peoples, such as the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Scythians, Cimmerians, Lydians and Arameans quietly ceased to pay tribute to Assyria.


title: Medes

text: Neo-Assyrian dominance over the Medians came to an end during the reign of Median King Cyaxares, who, in alliance with King Nabopolassar of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, attacked and destroyed the strife-riven Neo-Assyrian empire between 616 and 609 BC. The newfound alliance helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BC, which resulted in the eventual collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by 609 BC. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median Kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal capital) beyond their original homeland and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Kızılırmak River in Anatolia. After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East.


title: Medes

text: Cyaxares was succeeded by his son King Astyages. In 553 BC, his maternal grandson Cyrus the Great, the King of Anshan/Persia, a Median vassal, revolted against Astyages. In 550 BC, Cyrus finally won a decisive victory resulting in Astyages' capture by his own dissatisfied nobles, who promptly turned him over to the triumphant Cyrus. After Cyrus's victory against Astyages, the Medes were subjected to their close kin, the Persians. In the new empire they retained a prominent position; in honour and war, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremony was adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summer months resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes were employed as officials, satraps and generals.


title: Medes

text: The list of Median rulers and their period of reign is compiled according to two sources. Firstly, Herodotus who calls them "kings" and associates them with the same family. Secondly, the Babylonian Chronicle which in "Gadd's Chronicle on the Fall of Nineveh" gives its own list. A combined list stretching over 150 years is thus:


title: Medes

text: However, not all of these dates and personalities given by Herodotus match the other near eastern sources.


title: Medes

text: In Herodotus (book 1, chapters 95–130), Deioces is introduced as the founder of a centralised Median state. He had been known to the Median people as "a just and incorruptible man" and when asked by the Median people to solve their possible disputes he agreed and put forward the condition that they make him "king" and build a great city at Ecbatana as the capital of the Median state. Judging from the contemporary sources of the region and disregarding the account of Herodotus puts the formation of a unified Median state during the reign of Cyaxares or later.


title: Medes

text: Until the late 20th-century, scholarship generally agreed that the emergence of a Median "empire" took place following the collapse of the Assyrian Empire. The Median "empire" was said to have ruled over a vast chunk of the Ancient Near East until its last king, Astyages, was overthrown by his own vassal, Cyrus the Great. The historicity of these events was first put into question by the modern historian Heleen Sancisi‐Weerdenburg, whose works have revealed many of their complications and flaws. She especially criticized the asserted "imperial" system and style of the Medes, which she noted had noticeable contrasts with other imperial kingdoms of the Ancient Near East. She also highlighted that practically only Greek sources were used by modern historiography to construct Median history, and that Ancient Near Eastern sources were almost fully ignored. However, the majority of scholarship did not support her suggestions. In 2001, an international symposium was held in Padua to review all accessible sources in order to present an accurate as possible account of Median history. Due to the lack of sources, no consensus was reached. However, it was generally agreed that there was no proof of the existence of a Median "empire" and that it should therefore be considered a hypothesis.


title: Medes

text: Greek references to "Median" people make no clear distinction between the "Persians" and the "Medians"; in fact for a Greek to become "too closely associated with Iranian culture" was "to become Medianized, not Persianized". The Median Kingdom was a short-lived Iranian state and the textual and archaeological sources of that period are rare and little could be known from the Median culture which nevertheless made a "profound, and lasting, contribution to the greater world of Iranian culture".


title: Medes

text: Median people spoke the Median language, which was an Old Iranian language. Strabo's "Geographica" (finished in the early first century) mentions the affinity of Median with other Iranian languages: "The name of" Ariana "is further extended to a part of Persia and of Media, as also to the Bactrians and Sogdians on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, but with slight variations".


title: Medes

text: No original deciphered text has been proven to have been written in the Median language. It is suggested that similar to the later Iranian practice of keeping archives of written documents in Achaemenid Iran, there was also a maintenance of archives by the Median government in their capital Ecbatana. There are examples of "Median literature" found in later records. One is according to Herodotus that the Median king Deioces, appearing as a judge, made judgement on causes submitted in writing. There is also a report by Dinon on the existence of "Median court poets". Median literature is part of the "Old Iranian literature" (including also Saka, Old Persian, Avestan) as this Iranian affiliation of them is explicit also in ancient texts, such as Herodotus's account that many peoples including Medes were "universally called Iranian".


title: Medes

text: Words of Median origin appear in various other Iranian dialects, including Old Persian. A feature of Old Persian inscriptions is the large number of words and names from other languages and the Median language takes in this regard a special place for historical reasons. The Median words in Old Persian texts, whose Median origin can be established by "phonetic criteria", appear "more frequently among royal titles and among terms of the chancellery, military, and judicial affairs". Words of Median origin include:


title: Medes

text: There are very limited sources concerning the religion of Median people. Primary sources pointing to religious affiliations of Medes found so far include the archaeological discoveries in Tepe Nush-e Jan, personal names of Median individuals, and the Histories of Herodotus. The archaeological source gives the earliest of the temple structures in Iran and the "stepped fire altar" discovered there is linked to the common Iranian legacy of the "cult of fire". Herodotus mentions Median Magi as a Median tribe providing priests for both the Medes and the Persians. They had a "priestly caste" which passed their functions from father to son. They played a significant role in the court of the Median king Astyages who had in his court certain Medians as "advisers, dream interpreters, and soothsayers".


title: Medes

text: Classical historians "unanimously" regarded the Magi as priests of the Zoroastrian faith. From the personal names of Medes as recorded by Assyrians (in 8th and 9th centuries BC) there are examples of the use of the Indo-Iranian word "arta-" (lit. "truth") which is familiar from both Avestan and Old Persian and also examples of theophoric names containing "Maždakku" and also the name "Ahura Mazdā". Scholars disagree whether these are indications of Zoroastrian religion amongst the Medes. Diakonoff believes that "Astyages and perhaps even Cyaxares had already embraced a religion derived from the teachings of Zoroaster" and Mary Boyce believes that "the existence of the Magi in Media with their own traditions and forms of worship was an obstacle to Zoroastrian proselytizing there". Boyce wrote that the Zoroastrian traditions in the Median city of Ray probably goes back to the 8th century BC. It is suggested that from the 8th century BC, a form of "Mazdaism with common Iranian traditions" existed in Media and the strict reforms of Zarathustra began to spread in western Iran during the reign of the last Median kings in the 6th century BC.


title: Medes

text: It has also been suggested that Mithra is a Median name and Medes may have practised Mithraism and had Mithra as their supreme deity.


title: Medes

text: Russian historian and linguist Vladimir Minorsky suggested that the Medes, who widely inhabited the land where currently the Kurds form a majority, might have been forefathers of the modern Kurds. He also states that the Medes who invaded the region in the eighth century BC, linguistically resembled the Kurds. This view was accepted by many Kurdish nationalists in the twentieth century. However, Martin van Bruinessen, a Dutch scholar, argues against the attempt to take the Medes as ancestors of the Kurds."Though some Kurdish intellectuals claim that their people are descended from the Medes, there is no evidence to permit such a connection across the considerable gap in time between the political dominance of the Medes and the first attestation of the Kurds" - van Bruinessen


title: Medes

text: Contemporary linguistic evidence has challenged the previously suggested view that the Kurds are descendants of the Medes. Gernot Ludwig Windfuhr, professor of Iranian Studies, identified the Kurdish languages as Parthian, albeit with a Median substratum. David Neil MacKenzie, an authority on the Kurdish language, said Kurdish was closer to Persian and questioned the "traditional" view holding that Kurdish, because of its differences from Persian, should be regarded as a Northwestern Iranian language. The Kurdologist and Iranologist Garnik Asatrian stated that "The Central Iranian dialects, and primarily those of the Kashan area in the first place, as well as the Azari dialects (otherwise called Southern Tati) are probably the only Iranian dialects, which can pretend to be the direct offshoots of Median... In general, the relationship between Kurdish and Median is not closer than the affinities between the latter and other North Western dialects – Baluchi, Talishi, South Caspian, Zaza, Gurani, Kurdish(Soranî, Kurmancî, Kelhorî) Asatrian also stated that "there is no serious ground to suggest a special genetic affinity within North-Western Iranian between this ancient language [Median] and Kurdish. The latter does not share even the generally ephemeric peculiarity of Median."


title: Medes

text: According to Alireza Shapour Shahbazi: "The Aryan tribes including the Medes (ancestors of many Iranians, particularly the Kurds), Persians, Hyrcanians (...)".


title: Camilla Luddington

text: Camilla Anne Luddington (born 15 December 1983) is a British actress, best known for her role as Dr. Josephine "Jo" Wilson in the ABC medical drama series "Grey's Anatomy". She is known for voicing Lara Croft in the "Tomb Raider" video games, for which she provided the motion capture.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: Luddington was born in Ascot, Berkshire, and at age 11 began studying at the Italia Conti Academy in England. She moved to suburban Austin, Texas, United States when she was fourteen, and attended Westwood High School for one year.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: She returned to England after one year, and completed her education at The American International School in England (TASIS), in July 2002.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: When she was nineteen, Luddington enrolled in Susquehanna University in Pennsylvania. However, she had not visited the university before she arrived as a student, and after six months she left and transferred to the New York Film Academy.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: In 2003, she was part of the school's first one-year acting class program. After training as an actor, Luddington returned home before moving to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: Luddington had the lead role of Kate in "" (2011). In 2013 she appeared in the film "The Pact II", in which she played a crime scene cleaner. In 2015, she joined the cast of "The Healer" as Cecilia.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: Luddington has worked mainly in the United States. Luddington joined the cast of the Showtime comedy-drama series "Californication" for its fifth season, playing a nanny. She joined the cast of season five of the HBO vampire drama "True Blood", as Claudette Crane, a faerie. In July 2012, Luddington joined the cast of the ABC medical drama "Grey's Anatomy" as Dr. Jo Wilson, in a recurring role. In June 2013 it was announced that she would be a series regular from season ten onward. In October 2012, Luddington appeared on a Hallowe'en special of E!'s fashion programme "Fashion Police", alongside a panel of Joan Rivers, Kelly Osbourne, George Kotsiopoulos, and Kris Jenner.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: In June 2012, Crystal Dynamics confirmed Luddington would voice Lara Croft in the video game "Tomb Raider". Luddington originally went into the audition for Lara thinking she was auditioning for a project called "Cryptids" with a character, which may have been called Sara. In June 2014, it was revealed that a sequel was in production, titled "Rise of the Tomb Raider", and Luddington confirmed on her Twitter account that she would be returning to voice and motion capture Lara in the new game. Luddington also returned to reprise her role for "Shadow of the Tomb Raider", released in September 2018.


title: Camilla Luddington

text: On 21 October 2016, Luddington announced that she was expecting a baby with fellow actor and boyfriend Matthew Alan. Their daughter, Hayden, was born on 9 March 2017. Luddington announced their engagement on 17 January 2018. Luddington and Alan married on 17 August 2019. Their son, Lucas, was born on 7 August 2020.


title: Grenade

text: A grenade is an explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade generally consists of an explosive charge ("filler"), a detonator mechanism, an internal striker to trigger the detonator, and a safety lever secured by a cotter pin. The user removes the safety pin before throwing, and once the grenade leaves the hand the safety lever gets released, allowing the striker to trigger a primer that ignites a fuze (sometimes called the delay element), which burns down to the detonator and explodes the main charge.


title: Grenade

text: Grenades work by dispersing fragments (fragmentation grenades), shockwaves (high-explosive, anti-tank and stun grenades), chemical aerosols (smoke and gas grenades) or fire (incendiary grenades). Fragmentation grenades ("frags") are probably the most common in modern armies, and when the word "grenade" is used in everyday speech, it is generally assumed to refer to a fragmentation grenade. Their outer casings, generally made of a hard synthetic material or steel, are designed to rupture and fragment on detonation, sending out numerous fragments (shards and splinters) as fast-flying projectiles. In modern grenades, a pre-formed fragmentation matrix inside the grenade is commonly used, which may be spherical, cuboid, wire or notched wire. Most anti-personnel (AP) grenades are designed to detonate either after a time delay or on impact.


title: Grenade

text: Grenades are often spherical, cylindrical, ovoid or truncated ovoid in shape, and of a size that fits the hand of a normal adult. Some grenades are mounted at the end of a handle and known as "stick grenades". The stick design provides leverage for throwing longer distances, but at the cost of additional weight and length, and has been considered obsolete by western countries since the second World War and Cold War periods. A friction igniter inside the handle or on the top of the grenade head was used to initiate the fuse.


title: Grenade

text: The word "grenade" is likely derived from the French word spelled exactly the same, meaning pomegranate, as the bomb is reminiscent of the many-seeded fruit in size and shape. Its first use in English dates from the 1590s.


title: Grenade

text: Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, not long after the reign of Leo III (717–741). Byzantine soldiers learned that Greek fire, a Byzantine invention of the previous century, could not only be thrown by flamethrowers at the enemy but also in stone and ceramic jars. Later, glass containers were employed. The use of such explosive missiles soon spread to Muslim armies in the Near East, from where it reached China by the 10th century.


title: Grenade

text: In China, during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD), weapons known as Zhen Tian Lei (, "Sky-shaking Thunder") were created when Chinese soldiers packed gunpowder into ceramic or metal containers fitted with fuses. In 1044, a military book "Wujing Zongyao" ("Compilation of Military Classics") described various gunpowder recipes in which one can find, according to Joseph Needham, the prototype of the modern hand grenade. The mid-14th-century book "Huolongjing" (, "Fire Dragon Manual"), written by Jiao Yu (), recorded an earlier Song-era cast-iron cannon known as the "flying-cloud thunderclap cannon" (; ). The manuscript stated that (Needham's modified Wade-Giles spelling):


title: Grenade

text: Grenade-like devices were also known in ancient India. In a 12th-century work Mujmalut Tawarikh based on an Arabic work which is itself based on original Sanskrit work, a terracotta elephant filled with explosives set with a fuse was placed hidden in the van and exploded as the invading army approached near.


title: Grenade

text: The first cast-iron bombshells and grenades appeared in Europe in 1467, where their initial role was with the besieging and defense of castles and fortifications. A hoard of several hundred ceramic hand grenades was discovered during construction in front of a bastion of the Bavarian city of Ingolstadt, Germany dated to the 17th century. Many of the grenades retained their original black powder loads and igniters. The grenades were most likely intentionally dumped in the moat of the bastion prior to 1723. By the mid 17th century, infantry known as Grenadiers began to emerge in the armies of Europe, who specialized in shock and close quarters combat, mostly with the usage of grenades and fierce melee combat. In 1643, it is possible that "Grenados" were thrown amongst the Welsh at Holt Bridge during the English Civil War. The word "grenade" was also used during the events surrounding the Glorious Revolution in 1688, where cricket ball-sized ( in circumference) iron spheres packed with gunpowder and fitted with slow-burning wicks were first used against the Jacobites in the battles of Killiecrankie and Glen Shiel. These grenades were not very effective owing both to the unreliability of their fuse, as well inconsistent times to detonation, and as a result, saw little use. Grenades were also used during the Golden Age of Piracy, especially during boarding actions; pirate Captain Thompson used "vast numbers of powder flasks, grenade shells, and stinkpots" to defeat two pirate-hunters sent by the Governor of Jamaica in 1721.


title: Grenade

text: Improvised grenades were increasingly used from the mid-19th century, the confines of trenches enhancing the effect of small explosive devices. In a letter to his sister, Colonel Hugh Robert Hibbert described an improvised grenade that was employed by British troops during the Crimean War (1854–1856):


title: Grenade

text: In the American Civil War, both sides used hand grenades equipped with a plunger that detonated the device on impact. The Union relied on experimental Ketchum Grenades, which had a tail to ensure that the nose would strike the target and start the fuze. The Confederacy used spherical hand grenades that weighed about , sometimes with a paper fuze. They also used 'Rains' and 'Adams' grenades, which were similar to the Ketchum in appearance and mechanism. Improvised hand grenades were also used to great effect by the Russian defenders of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War.


title: Grenade

text: Around the turn of the 20th century, the ineffectiveness of the available types of hand grenades, coupled with their levels of danger to the user and difficulty of operation, meant that they were regarded as increasingly obsolete pieces of military equipment. In 1902, the British War Office announced that hand grenades were obsolete and had no place in modern warfare. But within two years, following the success of improvised grenades in the trench warfare conditions of the Russo-Japanese War, and reports from General Sir Aylmer Haldane, a British observer of the conflict, a reassessment was quickly made and the Board of Ordnance was instructed to develop a practical hand grenade. Various models using a percussion fuze were built, but this type of fuze suffered from various practical problems, and they were not commissioned in large numbers.


title: Grenade

text: Marten Hale, better known for patenting the Hales rifle grenade, developed a modern hand grenade in 1906 but was unsuccessful in persuading the British Army to adopt the weapon until 1913. Hale's chief competitor was Nils Waltersen Aasen, who invented his design in 1906 in Norway, receiving a patent for it in England. Aasen began his experiments with developing a grenade while serving as a sergeant in the Oscarsborg Fortress. Aasen formed the "Aasenske Granatkompani" in Denmark, which before the First World War produced and exported hand grenades in large numbers across Europe. He had success in marketing his weapon to the French and was appointed as a Knight of the French Legion of Honour in 1916 for the invention.


title: Grenade

text: The Royal Laboratory developed the No. 1 grenade in 1908. It contained explosive material with an iron fragmentation band, with an impact fuze, detonating when the top of the grenade hit the ground. A long cane handle (approximately 16 inches or 40 cm) allowed the user to throw the grenade farther than the blast of the explosion. It suffered from the handicap that the percussion fuse was armed before throwing, which meant that if the user was in a trench or other confined space, he was apt to detonate it and kill himself when he drew back his arm to throw it.


title: Grenade

text: Early in World War I, combatant nations only had small grenades, similar to Hales' and Aasen's design. The Italian Besozzi grenade had a five-second fuze with a match-tip that was ignited by striking on a ring on the soldier's hand. As an interim measure, troops often improvised their own grenades, such as the jam tin grenade.


title: Grenade

text: Improvised grenades were replaced when manufactured versions became available. The first modern fragmentation grenade was the Mills bomb, which became available to British front-line troops in 1915.


title: Grenade

text: William Mills, a hand grenade designer from Sunderland, patented, developed and manufactured the "Mills bomb" at the Mills Munition Factory in Birmingham, England in 1915, designating it the No.5. It was described as the first "safe grenade." They were explosive-filled steel canisters with a triggering pin and a distinctive deeply notched surface. This segmentation is often erroneously thought to aid fragmentation, though Mills' own notes show the external grooves were purely to aid the soldier to grip the weapon. Improved fragmentation designs were later made with the notches on the inside, but at that time they would have been too expensive to produce. The external segmentation of the original Mills bomb was retained, as it provided a positive grip surface. This basic "pin-and-pineapple" design is still used in some modern grenades.


title: Grenade

text: The Mills bomb underwent numerous modifications. The No. 23 was a variant of the No. 5 with a rodded base plug which allowed it to be fired from a rifle. This concept evolved further with the No. 36, a variant with a detachable base plate to allow use with a rifle discharger cup. The final variation of the Mills bomb, the No. 36M, was specially designed and waterproofed with shellac for use initially in the hot climate of Mesopotamia in 1917, and remained in production for many years. By 1918, the No. 5 and No. 23 were declared obsolete and the No. 36 (but not the 36M) followed in 1932.


title: Grenade

text: The Mills had a grooved cast-iron "pineapple" with a central striker held by a close hand lever and secured with a pin. A competent thrower could manage with reasonable accuracy, but the grenade could throw lethal fragments farther than this; after throwing, the user had to take cover immediately. The British Home Guard was instructed that the throwing range of the No. 36 was about with a danger area of about .


title: Grenade

text: Approximately 75,000,000 grenades were manufactured during World War I, used in the war and remaining in use through to the Second World War. At first, the grenade was fitted with a seven-second fuze, but during combat in the Battle of France in 1940, this delay proved too long, giving defenders time to escape the explosion or to throw the grenade back, so the delay was reduced to four seconds.


title: Grenade

text: The F1 grenade was first produced in limited quantities by France in May 1915. This new weapon had improvements from the experience of the first months of the war: the shape was more modern, with an external groove pattern for better grip and easier fragmentation. The second expectation proved deceptive, as the explosion in practice gave no more than 10 fragments (although the pattern was designed to split into all the 38 drawn divisions). The design proved to be very functional, especially due to its stability compared to other grenades of the same period. The F1 was used by many foreign armies from 1915 to 1940.


title: Grenade

text: Stick grenades have a long handle attached to the grenade proper, providing leverage for longer throwing distance, at the cost of additional weight.


title: Grenade

text: The British introduced their No. 1 grenade in 1908. It had been designed on reports of Japanese weapons used in the Russo-Japanese war. The handle was very long and a streamer tied to the end was used to ensure the fuse hit the ground properly.


title: Grenade

text: The term "stick grenade" is commonly associated with the German "Stielhandgranate" introduced in 1915 and developed throughout World War I. A friction igniter was used; this method was uncommon in other countries but widely used for German grenades.


title: Grenade

text: A pull cord ran down the hollow handle from the detonator within the explosive head, terminating in a porcelain ball held in place by a detachable base closing cap. To use the grenade, the base cap was unscrewed, permitting the ball and cord to fall out. Pulling the cord dragged a roughened steel rod through the igniter, causing it to spark and start the five-second fuze burning. This simple design (popularly known as the "potato masher") continued to evolve throughout the First and Second World Wars, with the Model 24 grenade becoming one of the most easily recognized of all German small arms. The German Model 43 grenade was a low-cost version introduced late in the war.


title: Grenade

text: Other stick grenades were made, including the Russian RGD-33 and Model 1914 grenades, and the British sticky bomb.


title: Grenade

text: During World War II the United Kingdom used incendiary grenades based on white phosphorus. One model, the No. 76 special incendiary grenade, was mainly issued to the Home Guard as an anti-tank weapon. It was produced in vast numbers; by August 1941 well over 6,000,000 had been manufactured.


title: Grenade

text: The United States developed the Mk 2 hand grenade before the war, nicknamed the "pineapple" for its grooved surface. This weapon was widely used by American G.I.s. The heavy, segmented bodies of "pineapple" type grenades produce an unpredictable pattern of fragmentation. After the Second World War, Britain adopted grenades that contained segmented coiled wire in smooth metal casings. Despite this, the Mills bomb remained the standard grenade of the British Armed Forces and was manufactured in the UK until 1972, when it was replaced by the L2 series.


title: Grenade

text: Fragmentation grenades are common in armies. They are weapons that are designed to disperse fragments on detonation, aimed to damage targets within as the lethal and injury radii. The body is generally made of a hard synthetic material or steel, which will provide some fragmentation as shards and splinters, though in modern grenades a pre-formed fragmentation matrix is often used. The pre-formed fragmentation may be spherical, cuboid, wire or notched wire. Most AP grenades are designed to detonate either after a time delay or on impact.


title: Grenade

text: When the word "grenade" is used without specification, and context does not suggest otherwise, it is generally assumed to refer to a fragmentation grenade.


title: Grenade

text: Fragmentation grenades can be divided into two main types, defensive and offensive, where the former are designed to be used from a position of cover (e.g. in a slit trench or behind a suitable wall) against an open area outside, and have an effective kill radius greater than the distance they can be thrown; while the latter are for use by assaulting troops, and have a smaller effective radius.


title: Grenade

text: The Mills bombs and the French/Soviet F1 are examples of defensive grenades. The Dutch V40, Swiss HG 85, and US MK3 are examples of offensive grenades.


title: Grenade

text: Modern fragmentation grenades, such as the United States M67 grenade, have a wounding radius of – half that of older style grenades, which can still be encountered – and can be thrown about . Fragments may travel more than .


title: Grenade

text: The high explosive (HE) or concussion grenade is an anti-personnel device that is designed to damage, daze or otherwise stun its targets with overpressure shockwaves. Compared to fragmentation grenades, the explosive filler is usually of a greater weight and volume, and the case is much thinner – the US MK3A2 concussion grenade, for example, has a body of fiber (similar to the packing container for the fragmentation grenade).


title: Grenade

text: These grenades are usually classed as offensive weapons because the effective casualty radius is much less than the distance it can be thrown, and its explosive power works better within more confined spaces such as fortifications or buildings, where entrenched defenders often occupy. The concussion effect, rather than any expelled fragments, is the effective killer. In the case of the US Mk3A2, the casualty radius is published as in "open" areas, but fragments and bits of fuze may be projected as far as from the detonation point.


title: Grenade

text: Concussion grenades have also been used as depth charges (underwater explosives) around boats and underwater targets; some like the US Mk 40 concussion grenade are designed for use against enemy divers and frogmen. Underwater explosions kill or otherwise incapacitate the target by creating a lethal shock wave underwater.


title: Grenade

text: The US Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) announced in 2016 that they were developing a grenade which could operate in either fragmentation or blast mode (selected at any time before throwing), the electronically fuzed "enhanced tactical multi-purpose" (ET-MP) hand grenade.


title: Grenade

text: Some concussion grenades with cylindrical bodies can be converted into fragmentation grenades by coupling with a separate factory-made payload of fragments wrapped around the outside: a "fragmentation sleeve (jacket)", as shown in the WW2 "Splitterring" sleeves for the stick grenade and M39 "egg hand grenade".


title: Grenade

text: A range of hand-thrown grenades have been designed for use against heavy armored vehicles. An early and unreliable example was the British sticky bomb of 1940, which was too short-ranged to use effectively. Designs such as the German "Panzerwurfmine" (L) and the Soviet RPG-43, RPG-40, RPG-6 and RKG-3 series of grenades used a high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead using a cone-shaped cavity on one end and some method to stabilize flight and increase the probability of right angle impact for the shaped charge's metal stream to effectively penetrate the tank armor.


title: Grenade

text: Due to improvements in modern vehicle armor, anti-tank hand grenades have become almost obsolete and replaced by rocket-propelled shaped charges. However, they were still used with limited success against lightly-armored mine-resistant ambush protected (MRAP) vehicles, designed for protection only against improvised explosive devices in the Iraqi insurgency in the early 2000s.


title: Grenade

text: A stun grenade, also known as a "flash grenade" or "flashbang", is a non-lethal weapon. The first devices like this were created in the 1960s at the order of the British Special Air Service as a distraction grenade.


title: Grenade

text: It is designed to produce a blinding flash of light and loud noise without causing permanent injury. The flash produced momentarily activates all light sensitive cells in the eye, making vision impossible for approximately five seconds, until the eye restores itself to its normal, unstimulated state. The loud blast causes temporary loss of hearing, and also disturbs the fluid in the ear, causing loss of balance.


title: Grenade

text: These grenades are designed to temporarily neutralize the combat effectiveness of enemies by disorienting their senses.


title: Grenade

text: When detonated, the fuze-grenade body assembly remains intact. The body is a tube with holes along the sides that emit the light and sound of the explosion. The explosion does not generally cause fragmentation injury, but can still burn. The concussive blast of the detonation can injure and the heat created can ignite flammable materials such as fuel. The fires that occurred during the Iranian Embassy Siege in London were caused by stun grenades. The filler consists of about of a pyrotechnic metal-oxidant mix of magnesium or aluminium and an oxidizer such as ammonium perchlorate or potassium perchlorate.


title: Grenade

text: Sting grenades, also known as stingball or sting ball grenades, are stun grenades based on the design of the fragmentation grenade. Instead of using a metal casing to produce fragmentation, they are made from hard rubber and are filled with around 100 rubber or plastic balls. On detonation, these balls, and fragments from the rubber casing explode outward in all directions as reduced lethality projectiles, which may ricochet. It is intended that people struck by the projectiles will receive a series of fast, painful stings, without serious injury. Some types have an additional payload of CS gas.


title: Grenade

text: Sting grenades do not reliably incapacitate people, so they can be dangerous to use against armed subjects. However, they can sometimes cause serious physical injury, especially the rubber fragments from the casing. People have lost eyes and hands to sting grenades.


title: Grenade

text: Sting grenades are sometimes called "stinger grenades", which is a genericized trademark as "Stinger" is trademarked by Defense Technology for its line of sting grenades.


title: Grenade

text: Smoke grenades are used as ground-to-ground or ground-to-air signaling devices, target or landing zone marking devices, and to create a smoke-screen for concealment. The body is a sheet-steel cylinder with emission holes in the top and bottom. These allow the smoke to be released when the grenade is ignited. There are two main types, one producing coloured smoke for signaling, and the other is used for screening smoke. In coloured smoke grenades, the filler consists of of coloured smoke mixture (mostly potassium chlorate, lactose and a dye). Screening smoke grenades usually contain HC (hexachloroethane/zinc) or TA (terephthalic acid) smoke mixture and white phosphorus (WP) and red phosphorus (RP). HC smoke contains hydrochloric acid and is harmful to breathe. These grenades can become hot enough to scald or burn unprotected skin, particularly the phosphorus type grenades.


title: Grenade

text: Tear gas grenades are similar to smoke grenades in shape and operation. In tear gas grenades, the filler is generally of CS gas combined with a pyrotechnic composition which burns to generate an aerosol of CS-laden smoke. This causes extreme irritation to the eyes and, if inhaled, to the nose and throat. Occasionally CR gas is used instead of CS.


title: Grenade

text: Incendiary grenades produce intense heat by means of a chemical reaction. Seventh-century "Greek fire" first used by the Byzantine Empire, which could be lit and thrown in breakable pottery, could be considered the earliest form of incendiary grenade.


title: Grenade

text: The body of modern incendiary grenades is often similar in appearance to that of a smoke grenade, though generally smaller in size. The filler can be various chemicals, and while white phosphorus is well known, red phosphorus is also used for a number of reasons, not least because it is more stable and requires ignition, making it a safer option for the troops using it.


title: Grenade

text: White phosphorus was used in the British No. 77 Mk. 1 and in a solution form for the British Home Guard's No 76 special incendiary grenade during World War II.


title: Grenade

text: The Molotov cocktail is an improvised incendiary grenade made with a glass bottle typically filled with gasoline (petrol), although sometimes another flammable liquid or mixture is used. The Molotov cocktail is ignited by a burning strip of cloth or a rag stuffed in the bottle's orifice when it shatters against its target which sets a small area on fire. The Molotov cocktail received its name during the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939 (the Winter War) by Finnish troops after the former Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov, whom they deemed responsible for the war. A similar weapon was used earlier in the decade by Franco's troops during the Spanish Civil War.


title: Grenade

text: Practice or simulation grenades are similar in handling and function to other hand grenades, except that they only produce a loud popping noise and a puff of smoke on detonation. The grenade body can be reused. Another type is the throwing practice grenade which is completely inert and often cast in one piece. It is used to give soldiers a feel for the weight and shape of real grenades and for practicing precision throwing. Examples of practice grenades include the K417 Biodegradable Practice Hand Grenade by CNOTech Korea.


title: Grenade

text: Beyond the basic "pin-and-lever" mechanism, many contemporary grenades have other safety features. The main ones are the safety clip and a locking end to the release pin. The clip was introduced in the M61 grenade (1960s, Vietnam War), and was also then known as the "jungle clip" – it provides a backup for the safety pin, in case it is dislodged, eg. by jungle flora. This is particularly important as poorly trained troops have been known to use the safety lever as a hook from which to suspend the grenade, despite the apparently obvious danger this poses. The 2016 US ET-MP uses a user-settable timed electronic fuze, though neither the fuze nor grenade have yet been accepted into service anywhere in the world.


title: Grenade

text: The classic hand grenade design has a safety handle or lever (known in the US forces as a "spoon") and a removable safety pin that prevents the handle from being released: the safety lever is spring-loaded, and once the safety pin is removed, the lever will release and ignite the detonator, then fall off. Thus, to use a grenade, the lever is grasped (to prevent release), then the pin is removed, and then the grenade is thrown, which releases the lever and ignites the detonator, triggering an explosion. Some grenade types also have a safety clip to prevent the handle from coming off in transit.


title: Grenade

text: To use a grenade, the soldier grips it with the throwing hand, ensuring that the thumb holds the safety lever in place; if there is a safety clip, it is removed prior to use. Left-handed soldiers invert the grenade, so the thumb is still the digit that holds the safety lever. The soldier then grabs the safety pin's pull ring with the index or middle finger of the other hand and removes it. They then throw the grenade towards the target. Soldiers are trained to throw grenades in standing, prone-to-standing, kneeling, prone-to-kneeling, and alternative prone positions and in under- or side-arm throws. If the grenade is thrown from a standing position the thrower must then immediately seek cover or lie prone if no cover is nearby.


title: Grenade

text: Once the soldier throws the grenade, the safety lever releases, the striker throws the safety lever away from the grenade body as it rotates to detonate the primer. The primer explodes and ignites the fuze (sometimes called the delay element). The fuze burns down to the detonator, which explodes the main charge.


title: Grenade

text: When using an antipersonnel grenade, the objective is to have the grenade explode so that the target is within its effective radius. The M67 frag grenade has an advertised effective kill zone radius of , while the casualty-inducing radius is approximately . Within this range, people are generally injured badly enough to effectively render them harmless. These ranges only indicate the area where a target is virtually certain to be incapacitated; individual fragments can still cause injuries as far as away.


title: Grenade

text: An alternative technique is to release the lever "before" throwing the grenade, which allows the fuze to burn partially and decrease the time to detonation after throwing; this is referred to as "cooking". A shorter delay is useful to reduce the ability of the enemy to take cover, throw or kick the grenade away and can also be used to allow a fragmentation grenade to explode into the air over defensive positions. This technique is inherently dangerous, due to shorter delay (meaning a closer explosion), greater complexity (must make sure to throw after waiting), and increased variability (fuzes vary from grenade to grenade), and thus is discouraged in the U.S. Marine Corps, and banned in training. Nonetheless, cooking a grenade and throwing one back is frequently seen in Hollywood films and video games.


title: Grenade

text: Tactics vary by the type of engagement. Urban warfare, particularly the attack of built-up (fortified, buildings etc.) areas, involves the heavy use of hand grenades: typically a grenade or two are thrown before each transition (entering a room or navigating a stairway). A World War II battalion fighting in a city frequently used 500 grenades per day.


title: Grenade

text: A key concern is that the grenade is picked up and thrown away or back at the thrower. The USMC's preferred technique to prevent this is a hard-throw, skip/bounce technique, where the grenade is thrown hard enough that it bounces or skips around, being hard to pick up and throw back – this is applicable when clearing a room, for instance. In other uses, such as to reach upper floors of a building, a grenade may be lobbed for greater distance or accuracy.


title: Grenade

text: Throwing a grenade upstairs is dangerous, due to the risk of it falling back down; it is much safer to throw a grenade downstairs, so it is safer to capture a building from the top, rather than the bottom. Grenades generally explode near the floor, causing spalling downwards towards lower floors.


title: Grenade

text: The preferred technique in the US forces when attacking is to show the grenade to nearby friendly forces, receiving a visual acknowledgment, to avoid alerting the enemy. Alternatively, a voice alert can be given immediately after throwing the grenade, shouting "frag out" (for "fragmentation grenade outgoing"); this reduces or eliminates the element of surprise. Conversely, on identifying an incoming enemy grenade, friendly forces shout "grenade".


title: Grenade

text: Grenades have often been used in the field to construct booby traps, using some action of the intended target (such as opening a door or starting a car) to trigger the grenade. These grenade-based booby traps are simple to construct in the field as long as instant fuzes are available; a delay in detonation can allow the intended target to take cover. The most basic technique involves wedging a grenade in a tight spot so the safety lever does not leave the grenade when the pin is pulled. A string is then tied from the head assembly to another stationary object. When a soldier steps on the string, the grenade is pulled out of the narrow passageway, the safety lever is released, and the grenade detonates.


title: Grenade

text: Abandoned booby traps and discarded grenades contribute to the problem of unexploded ordnance (UXO). The use of target triggered grenades and AP mines is banned to the signatories of the Ottawa Treaty and may be treated as a war crime wherever it is ratified. Many countries, including India, the People's Republic of China, Russia, and the United States, have not signed the treaty citing self-defense needs.


title: Grenade

text: Stylized pictures of early grenades, emitting a flame, are used as ornaments on military uniforms, particularly in Britain, France (esp. French "gendarmerie" and the French Army), and Italy ("carabinieri"). Fusilier regiments in the British and Commonwealth tradition (e.g. the Princess Louise Fusiliers, Canadian Army) wear a cap-badge depicting flaming grenade, reflecting their historic use of grenades in the assault. The British Grenadier Guards took their name and cap badge of a burning grenade from repelling an attack of French grenadiers at Waterloo. The Spanish artillery arm uses a flaming grenade as its badge. The flag of the Russian Ground Forces also bears a flaming grenade device. Ukrainian mechanized infantry and engineers use a flaming grenade in their branch insignia. The Finnish Army Corps of Engineers' emblem consists of a stick hand grenade (symbolizing demolition) and a shovel (symbolizing construction) in saltire.


title: Grenade

text: The branch insignia of the United States Army Ordnance Corps also uses this symbol, the grenade being symbolic of explosive ordnance in general. The United States Marine Corps uses the grenade as part of the insignia for one officer rank and one staff NCO rank on their uniforms. Chief warrant officers designated as marine gunners replace the rank insignia worn on the left collar with a "bursting bomb" and a larger "bursting bomb" insignia is worn above the rank insignia on both shoulder epaulets when a coat is worn. Additionally, the rank insignia for master gunnery sergeant has three chevrons pointing up, with four rockers on the bottom. In the middle of this is a bursting bomb or grenade. U.S.  Navy aviation ordnanceman's rating badge features a winged device of similar design.


title: Grenade

text: In the United States grenades are classed as destructive devices, a form of Title II weapons under the National Firearms Act. They must consequently be registered with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), are taxed, and are illegal in states that ban Title II weapons. While in principle it is possible to legally obtain and possess hand grenades in some states, in practice they are not generally available.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel Gallego Basteri (born 19 April 1970) is a Puerto Rican-born Mexican singer, often referred to as "El Sol de México" (The Sun of Mexico), which is the nickname his mother gave him as a child—"mi sol". Luis Miguel has sung in multiple genres and styles, including pop songs, ballads, boleros, tangos, jazz, big band, and mariachi. Miguel is also recognized as the only Latin singer of his generation to not cross over to the Anglo market during the "Latin Explosion" in the 1990s.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Despite recording only in Spanish, Miguel continued to be the best-selling Latin artist in the 1990s, and was credited for popularizing the bolero genre into the mainstream market. He has sold around 60 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling Latin music artists.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Latin pop music, along with his personal life and showmanship on stage, has made Luis Miguel popular for nearly his entire career, which started in Mexico in 1981. Having won his first Grammy at age 14 for his duet "Me Gustas Tal Como Eres" with Sheena Easton, he is the youngest male artist in music history to have received this accolade. In 1991, the RIAA recognized the high sales for his 1991 album "Romance", one of the best-selling Spanish language albums of all time. He was the first Latin artist to be awarded two platinum certified Spanish-language albums in the United States with "Romance" and "Segundo Romance" the latter earning him 35 platinum records throughout Central and South America. He is also recognized by Billboard, as the artist with the most top 10 hits on the "Billboard's" Hot Latin Songs chart. His album "Complices" was released in 2008 and peaked at No. 10 on the "Billboard" 200, and his most recent album "¡México Por Siempre!" was released in 2017, and it earned him his second No. 1 on the "Billboard" Regional Mexican Albums and achieved double-platinum status.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel is also known for his high-grossing live performances. He is the highest grossing Latin touring artist since Boxscore began tracking touring data in 1990, with a towering total of $278.5 million.


title: Luis Miguel

text: With the Luis Miguel Tour, which took place in 2010, he visited 22 countries in North America, South America and Europe, where he performed in a three-year span with a total of 223 shows all over the world, making it the longest and highest-grossing tour ever made by a Latin artist. He also holds the record for the most consecutive presentations in the Auditorio Nacional (National Auditorium) with a total of 30 consecutive concerts as well as the record for the most presentations in the same venue with a total of 258 concerts. , Luis Miguel ranks number two on "Billboard"s Greatest of All-Time Latin Artists chart.


title: Luis Miguel

text: During his childhood years, his father, who was also his manager, encouraged him to watch and analyze nearly every movie, recording, and concert performance of Elvis Presley. In 1982, he released his first album, "Un Sol", by the Mexican branch of EMI Records, which won him his first gold disc at the age of 11. Two years later, he started touring Latin American countries including Colombia, Venezuela, Chile, and Argentina. He scored a major hit with his single, "1+1=Dos Enamorados".


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1984, Luis Miguel turned into Spanish rock-pop style, with the international release of his fourth studio album "Palabra de Honor" produced by the then Spanish Hispavox director Honorio Herrero. In 1985, at age of 15, he took part at the Sanremo Music Festival, where he won the second place award with his song "Noi Ragazzi Di Oggi". That same year, he was also presented with the "Antorcha de Plata" Award in the Viña del Mar Music Festival for his duet single "Me Gustas Tal Como Eres" ("I Like You Just As You Are") with Scottish singer Sheena Easton. In 1983, he co-starred in the film "Ya Nunca Más" (released 1984) and in 1985, "Fiebre de Amor".


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1986, he took a brief hiatus as his relationship with his father was souring due to alleged mismanagement, poor financial decisions and risking the earnings of his career. Shortly after signing with Warner Records, in 1987, he fired his father and started to work with Juan Carlos Calderón. Luis Miguel's album "Soy Como Quiero Ser" in May 1987 sold well over 2.5 million records. The album featured covering hits such as "Cuando Calienta El Sol", "Ahora Te Puedes Marchar", and "Yo Que No Vivo Sin Ti".


title: Luis Miguel

text: On 25 November 1988, Luis Miguel's second album "Busca Una Mujer" was released. The first single "La Incondicional" became a top-ten hit throughout Latin America in the first half of 1989, and thanks in part to the music video, it spent over seven months on the top ten of many Latin American charts. The video was shocking to many fans as he had cut his signature long hair. This cemented his transition from a child star into an adult superstar. By the end of 1989, the second single "Fría Como el Viento" reached No. 1 on the Hot Latin Tracks. He also had a top-ten single with "Separados" in early 1990, peaking at #8.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1990, he made a successful transition from child singer to adult showman with the album "20 Años" and an ensuing string of sold-out shows first in Mexico then throughout Latin America and elsewhere in the world. "20 Años" sold 600,000 copies in its first week of release and resulted in the release of three singles: "Tengo Todo Excepto A Ti", "Entrégate", and "Amante Del Amor", with the two former hitting number 1 on Billboard's Hot Latin Tracks in 1990.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1991, Luis Miguel's career went to even greater heights and earned him the respect of a wider audience with the release of "Romance", an album of romantic boleros, most from the 1950s. He has been credited with reinventing the bolero for modern audiences. The album "Romance", which became his most successful material ever, eventually sold 7 million units worldwide.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1993, Luis Miguel's fifth studio album, "Aries", was released, which won him that year's Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album. That same year, Luis Miguel was invited by Frank Sinatra to join him on his "Duets II" album and to perform live in a nationally televised special in honor of Sinatra's 80th birthday, along with other stars such as Stevie Wonder and Natalie Cole.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1994, he released a sequel to "Romance", "Segundo Romance", featuring him as a convincing pop singer with mastery over timeless Latin classics such as "Solamente Una Vez" and "Historia de un Amor". The album earned Miguel another Grammy Award, as well as platinum status in the United States.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1996, for his contribution to the recording industry, Luis Miguel received a star and was inducted to the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at that time the youngest male singer to receive a star. Soon after, Luis Miguel returned to the studio and released "Nada Es Igual", a pop album featuring "Sueña", the main theme for Disney's "The Hunchback of Notre Dame".


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1997, Luis Miguel released his third album of the bolero series "Romances", which sold over 5 million copies. "Por Debajo de la Mesa" was released as the lead single from the album. The single quickly reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart, two months later; it would spend twenty-six weeks on the chart. At the 40th Annual Grammy Awards in 1998, Luis Miguel won the award for Best Latin Pop Performance. He also received the Billboard Latin Music Award for "Male Pop Album of the Year" and the World Music Award for "Best Selling Latin Artist" in the same year.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 1999, Luis Miguel released his ninth studio album "Amarte Es Un Placer" which, in 2000, earned him two Latin Grammys for being Best Album of the Year and Best Pop Album of the Year. The single "O Tú, O Ninguna" of "Amarte Es Un Placer" became number 1 on the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks and perched at the top position for eight consecutive weeks. Following the success of "Amarte Es Un Placer", Luis Miguel released "Mis Romances" in 2001, his fourth album in the bolero series. The album, which sold over two million copies worldwide was followed by the launch of "Mis Romances Tour" which took place throughout the U.S., Europe, and Latin America.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 2003, Luis Miguel released his first pop album in over four years entitled "33", indicative of his age. The album, which featured a collection of ballads and uptempo songs climbed to number 1 on Billboard's Latin Charts earning Luis Miguel two Billboard Awards as well as Grammy and Latin Grammy award nominations.


title: Luis Miguel

text: On the "33 Tour", Luis Miguel filled the largest halls in the U.S., toured throughout Latin America, including Chile where his album "33" sold 2.5 million copies and was recognized that same year by Warner Chile as the artist with the most sold records sold in the history of Chile. He also performed at Mexico's sold-out National Auditorium, and various sold-out shows at Buenos Aires, as well as other prestigious international venues such as Plaza de Toros de Las Ventas in Spain. That same year, Prince Felipe of Spain presented him with a special award for being the best-selling foreign artist in his country's history, and hosted a special party in his honor in Madrid.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In addition to his album "33" Luis Miguel was bestowed by "Lo Nuestro Awards" in 2003 a "Premio Lo Nuestro a la Excelencia", (literally, The "Ours" award for Excellence) a lifetime achievement award for his outstanding career at the mere age of 33 being the youngest artist to receive this award.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 2004, Luis Miguel released his "Mexico En La Piel". The album, which was a collection of traditional Mexican "mariachi" songs, went on to sell five million copies worldwide. For this album he received a diamond disc and won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Ranchero Album at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2005 and also the Grammy Award for Best Mexican/Mexican-American Album. He launched his "Mexico En La Piel Tour" in 2005. In 2006, Luis Miguel performed thirty shows between 18 January and 27 February at the National Auditorium in Mexico City. The 123-date tour started in September 2005 in Mexico which then stretched to Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. The "Mexico En La Piel Tour" won the "Billboard "Tour of the Year"" and positioned itself as No.1 on the "Billboard World Top Boxscore".


title: Luis Miguel

text: In 2005, Luis Miguel released "Grandes éxitos", his first greatest hits album, that featured his greatest songs he recorded during all his career, including two never-released singles: "Misterios Del Amor" and "Si Te Perdiera".


title: Luis Miguel

text: That same year, he released a Christmas album called "Navidades". The playlist includes many Christmas standards in Spanish. The album reached number one on Billboard's Top Latin Albums chart during the first week of its release. The album released two singles "Santa Claus Llegó A La Ciudad" ("Santa Claus Is Coming to Town"), and "Mi Humilde Oración" ("My Grown-up Christmas List").


title: Luis Miguel

text: On 6 May 2008, Luis Miguel released "Cómplices", produced by him and written by Spanish composer Manuel Alejandro. It sold almost 350,000 copies in the first 24 hours. The first single, "Si Tú Te Atreves" was released on 7 April 2008, the second single of the album was "Te Desean". Luis Miguel made history with his album "Complices" which debuted at No.10 on the Billboard Top 200, being the highest position a Latin artist has ever reached on the Billboard Top 200 with a fully Spanish composed album, it also reached No.1 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums making him the Latin artist with the most No.1 albums on the chart with a total of 9 albums. His "Complices Tour" began in Seattle, Washington on 3 September 2008.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel released his self-titled studio album on 14 September 2010. Its first single "Labios de Miel" is a smooth Latin pop song. The tour started on 4 November 2010 in the city of Lima, Peru and covered the United States, South America, Mexico and Spain among other countries. On 22 February 2012, he sang at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival. With one million dollars for his performance, he became the most expensive artist in the history of the festival. Luis Miguel performed at the Curaçao North Sea Jazz Festival on 31 August 2013. In August 2014, the song "Déjà Vu" was leaked on the web.


title: Luis Miguel

text: On 4 May 2017, Telemundo signed a deal for the exclusive U.S. broadcast rights to the "officially authorized TV series" based on Luis Miguel's life story and announced it will air in 2018. On the same day, Netflix also revealed it has the rights to stream the yet-unnamed bio-series in Latin America and Spain with the same target date.


title: Luis Miguel

text: In his official Facebook page it was announced that his new single "La Fiesta del Mariachi" was set to release on 27 October 2017. On 24 November, the full album, titled "¡México Por Siempre!" was released, it features 14 tracks of traditional Mexican music. The tour began on 21 February 2018, in the National Auditorium of Mexico City with 8 shows and will continue throughout Mexico, United States and Spain.


title: Luis Miguel

text: On 22 April, Netflix and Telemundo started airing the self-titled series "Luis Miguel". Together with revealing many parts both known and unknown of the singer, it also brought nostalgic moments for those watching it, like the mirroring of his Sabritas ad, called in the series "Saboritas".


title: Luis Miguel

text: His father was a Spanish singer, songwriter and guitarist, Luis Gallego Sánchez, known as "Luisito Rey", and his mother was an Italian actress, Marcela Basteri. His father was from Cádiz, a city in southwestern Spain, and his mother was from the Province of Massa-Carrara, Italy. He was named Luis Miguel in honor of Spanish bullfighter Luis Miguel Dominguín. Luis Miguel has two younger brothers, Alejandro and Sergio.


title: Luis Miguel

text: His birth date is on 18 April, but he celebrates his birthday on 19 April as that was the day his father registered him at Puerto Rico's Civil Registry.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Due to his early fame, Luis Miguel had a complicated childhood. He had a difficult relationship with his father, who was also his manager. His father was very strict and demanding during incessant rehearsals, although his father's strict discipline has also been credited with playing a large role in his success. In 1986, Luis Miguel's mother disappeared mysteriously and her whereabouts are still unknown. In the late 1980s, Luis Miguel fired his father due to financial problems caused by poor representation. After their estrangement, his father, who was a heavy drinker, fell into depression and died on 9 December 1992 in Barcelona, Spain.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel is recognized for his taste for haute cuisine and for being a self-taught sommelier. Luis Miguel released his own vintage of wine, "Único. Luis Miguel", a Cabernet Sauvignon. A native Spanish speaker, he also speaks English, Italian and Portuguese.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel is the father of three children: Michelle Salas, born on 13 June 1989, from his relationship with Stephanie Salas; Miguel, born on 1 January 2007 and Daniel, born on 18 December 2008, both from his relationship with actress Aracely Arámbula. His numerous relationships are widely covered by the Latin media.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Regarding his religious faith, he stated: "I am Catholic because I was born in a Catholic family. I believe in God, I visit church whenever I rarely have the chance due to my work commitments." He has refrained from speaking about politics, stating that an artist should be "apolitical and dedicate themselves to songs".


title: Luis Miguel

text: In April 2010, he was briefly hospitalized at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. The cause of the hospitalization was not disclosed. On 2 May 2017, Luis Miguel surrendered himself to the U.S. Marshals following a case with his former manager William Brockhaus where Luis Miguel was ordered to pay him over one million dollars in July 2016. He was released that same day by signing a promissory note.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel rarely grants interviews or attends award ceremonies. He is always escorted by a diligent security team and he is transported in several trucks to distract paparazzi and reporters. He is quoted as saying, "I maintain my sanity by keeping my distance."


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel is considered one of the top male pop singers worldwide today. His voice has been estimated to span three octaves, six notes. In a career that has spanned almost forty years, he has become the main male singer from Latin America, having performed successfully pop music, bolero, mariachi and romantic ballads. In the late 1980s, Luis Miguel made the transition from child star to consolidated international singer, and since then, he became one of the most revered and popular Latin American artists ever. Also dubbed as a crooner, his wide vocal range and performance has been praised by critics and other artists all over the world. Producer Gustavo Santaolalla described him as "one of the greatest singers of all time" and stated that "Luis Miguel is not just a singer, he's an artist."


title: Luis Miguel

text: Frank Sinatra personally invited Luis Miguel to participate on a duet in the album "Duets II". Luis Miguel has been dubbed several times by the press and the media as the "Latin Frank Sinatra".


title: Luis Miguel

text: His music has reached speaking continents such as Asia and Africa. The press stated that at the time of his capture, the dictator Saddam Hussein had the album "Segundo Romance", among his belongings.


title: Luis Miguel

text: At the age of 14, Luis Miguel received a Grammy Award for his duet "Me Gustas Tal Como Eres" ("I Like You Just The Way You Are") with Sheena Easton. In 1991, the RIAA gave him a recognition for the high sales of the albums "Romance" and "Segundo Romance". Luis Miguel is the only Latin artist to have two Spanish-language albums ("Romance" and "Segundo Romance") go platinum in the USA.


title: Luis Miguel

text: He was the only Latin artist to perform at the show ""Sinatra: 80 Years My Way"", along with other pop icons such as Bruce Springsteen, Natalie Cole and Bob Dylan. His 1997 album "Romances" became the first Spanish-language album ever debuting at No. 14 on the Billboard Top 200. Warner Music Group recognized Luis Miguel as the best-selling artist in the history of Chile with over 2.5 million records sold. In 2003, Prince Felipe of Spain presented him with a special award for being the best-selling foreign artist in his country's history. In 2008, Luis Miguel's album "Navidades" became the first Christmas album ever being nominated to the Grammy in the category of Pop. His album "Cómplices" broke records in Mexico, by selling over 320,000 copies in its first day of release. Just three days after its release, his new album achieved Quadruple Platinum certification in Mexico, Platinum in Argentina and gold records in Chile and the United States.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel is also known by his high-grossing tours in Chile, Uruguay, Venezuela, Brazil and Spain between 1999 and 2000. The tour consisted of 99 concerts and was attended by approximately 1.4 million fans. It was the highest-grossing tour ever made by a Latin artist, as well as the most extended. These two records have been broken by his Mexico En La Piel Tour. His 33 Tour peaked at No. 1 in the "Billboard World Top Boxscore". The Mexico En La Piel Tour of 2005–2007, with a total of 124 concerts, peaked at No. 1 in the "Billboard World Top Boxscore". The tour spanned two years with a total of 129 concerts attended by over 1.5 million spectators, and grossed around $95 million. In 2006, during the "Mexico En La Piel Tour", after giving 30 consecutive sold-out concerts at the Auditorio Nacional in Mexico, gathering over 260,000 spectators he was awarded with the ""Estela de Plata"" at the last concert. His Luis Miguel Tour is ranked at number five of the highest-grossing tours of 2011 in North America.


title: Luis Miguel

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States. Miguel received six awards from fifteen nominations.


title: Luis Miguel

text: The Latin Grammy Awards are awarded annually by The Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences of the United States. Miguel received six awards from nine nominations.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Marc Cucurella Saseta (born 22 July 1998) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a left-back for club Chelsea and the Spain national team.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Cucurella made his senior club debut at Barcelona, but spent most of his time there in the reserve team. He went on to play over 100 La Liga games for Eibar and Getafe, before joining Brighton & Hove Albion in 2021. He spent a season with Brighton before joining Chelsea in 2022.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Cucurella was capped for Spain over every youth level from under-16 to under-23, winning the silver medal with the latter at the 2020 Olympic tournament. He made his debut for the senior team in 2021.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Cucurella was born in Alella, Barcelona, Catalonia. He started playing futsal with FS Alella before joining Espanyol's youth teams in 2006, and in 2012, he moved to Barcelona. On 26 November 2016, while still a junior, he made his senior debut with the reserves by starting in a 4–0 home win over L'Hospitalet in the Segunda División B.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Cucurella contributed with 17 appearances for the side, achieving promotion to the Segunda División via the play-offs. On 7 July 2017, he renewed his contract until 2021, with a €12 million clause. He made his professional debut on 1 September, starting in a 2–2 away draw against Granada. He made his first-team debut on 24 October, coming on as a late substitute for Lucas Digne in a 3–0 Copa del Rey away win against Real Murcia. He scored his first senior goal for Barcelona B on 17 March 2018, equalising in a draw away to Lorca.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: On 31 August 2018, Cucurella was loaned to fellow La Liga club SD Eibar, for one year with a €2 million buyout clause. He made his top-flight debut on 25 September in a 1–0 loss away to Espanyol. Appearing as one of eight changes by manager José Luis Mendilibar, he was praised by "Marca" journalist Ander Barroso despite the result. He scored his first La Liga goal on the final day of the season on 9 May 2019, opening the scoring in 2–2 draw at home to his parent club.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: At the end of his loan, Eibar exercised Cucurella's clause, making him a permanent player for the Basque team; along with the transfer, Barcelona added a €4 million buyback option. On 16 July 2019, after just sixteen days as a permanent Eibar player, this clause was activated, only for him to be loaned to Getafe two days later for the upcoming season, with an option to buy for €6 million and 40% of the rights remaining to Barcelona.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Cucurella made his European debut on 19 September 2019 as a substitute for Kenedy in a 1–0 home win over Trabzonspor in the UEFA Europa League group stage. He played eight games of that campaign, which ended 11 months later with a 2–0 loss on aggregatre to Inter Milan in the last 16.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: On 3 March 2020, Getafe triggered his option to buy for €6 million, no longer connecting him to Barcelona. The club fully exercised his option to buy on 30 June.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: On 31 August 2021, Cucurella joined Premier League club Brighton & Hove Albion on a five-year contract. He made his debut for Brighton on 11 September, starting and playing 82 minutes before being substituted in the 1–0 away win over Brentford. Eight days later, he made his home debut, playing the whole of the 2–1 victory over Leicester City. His chipped cross set up Danny Welbeck's headed equaliser in added time, finishing 1–1 away to Chelsea on 29 December. On 7 May 2022, he scored his first goal for the club; he netted the second of a 4–0 win over Manchester United by shooting from Leandro Trossard's pull back. Three days later, at the club's end of season awards, Cucurella won Players' Player of the Season as well as being voted Player of the Season.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: On 5 August 2022, Cucurella signed for Premier League club Chelsea on a six-year contract. The fee was reported to be worth an initial £55 million, potentially rising to £62 million in add-ons, which was a record fee received by Brighton. On 6 August, he made his debut as a substitute in a 1–0 away win against Everton in the Premier League.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: On 25 March 2019, Cucurella debuted as a substitute for the non-FIFA Catalonia team in a 2–1 win over Venezuela in Girona. He was one of several new faces due to some clubs not releasing their players for the game.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: In November 2020, manager Luis Enrique called up Cucurella to the senior Spain squad for UEFA Nations League games against Switzerland and Germany, as José Gayà was injured. He did not leave the bench for the fixtures.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Due to the isolation of some national team players following the positive COVID-19 test of Sergio Busquets, Spain's under-21 squad were called up for the international friendly against Lithuania on 8 June 2021. Cucurella made his senior debut in the match as Spain won 4–0.


title: Marc Cucurella

text: Cucurella was part of the Spain under-23 team that won the silver medal at the 2020 Olympic Games, that took place in 2021 due to the previous year's postponement as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (; 27 February 1936), was a Russian and Soviet experimental neurologist, psychologist and physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, the first of eleven children, was born in Ryazan, Russian Empire. His father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov (1823–1899), was a village Russian orthodox priest. His mother, Varvara Ivanovna Uspenskaya (1826–1890), was a devoted homemaker. As a child, Pavlov willingly participated in house duties such as doing the dishes and taking care of his siblings. He loved to garden, ride his bicycle, row, swim, and play gorodki; he devoted his summer vacations to these activities. Although able to read by the age of seven, Pavlov was seriously injured when he fell from a high wall onto a stone pavement. As a result of the injuries he sustained he did not begin formal schooling until he was 11 years old.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: From his childhood days, Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as "the instinct for research". Inspired by the progressive ideas which Dmitry Pisarev, a Russian literary critic of the 1860s, and Ivan Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, were spreading, Pavlov abandoned his religious career and devoted his life to science. In 1870, he enrolled in the physics and mathematics department at the University of Saint Petersburg to study natural science.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov attended the Ryazan church school before entering the local theological seminary. In 1870, however, he left the seminary without graduating to attend the university at St. Petersburg. There he enrolled in the physics and math department and took natural science courses. In his fourth year, his first research project on the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas won him a prestigious university award. In 1875, Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record and received the degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences. Impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology, Pavlov decided to continue his studies and proceeded to the Imperial Academy of Medical Surgery. While at the academy, Pavlov became an assistant to his former teacher, Elias von Cyon. He left the department when de Cyon was replaced by another instructor.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: After some time, Pavlov obtained a position as a laboratory assistant to Konstantin Nikolaevich Ustimovich at the physiological department of the Veterinary Institute. For two years, Pavlov investigated the circulatory system for his medical dissertation. In 1878, Professor S. P. Botkin, a famous Russian clinician, invited the gifted young physiologist to work in the physiological laboratory as the clinic's chief. In 1879, Pavlov graduated from the Medical Military Academy with a gold medal award for his research work. After a competitive examination, Pavlov won a fellowship at the academy for postgraduate work.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: The fellowship and his position as director of the Physiological Laboratory at Botkin's clinic enabled Pavlov to continue his research work. In 1883, he presented his doctor's thesis on the subject of "The centrifugal nerves of the heart" and posited the idea of "nervism" and the basic principles on the trophic function of the nervous system. Additionally, his collaboration with the Botkin Clinic produced evidence of a basic pattern in the regulation of reflexes in the activity of circulatory organs.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: He was inspired to pursue a scientific career by D. I. Pisarev, a literary critique and natural science advocate of the time and I. M. Sechenov, a Russian physiologist, whom Pavlov described as "the father of physiology".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: After completing his doctorate, Pavlov went to Germany, where he studied in Leipzig with Carl Ludwig and Eimear Kelly in the Heidenhain laboratories in Breslau. He remained there from 1884 to 1886. Heidenhain was studying digestion in dogs, using an exteriorized section of the stomach. However, Pavlov perfected the technique by overcoming the problem of maintaining the external nerve supply. The exteriorized section became known as the Heidenhain or Pavlov pouch.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: In 1886, Pavlov returned to Russia to look for a new position. His application for the chair of physiology at the University of Saint Petersburg was rejected. Eventually, Pavlov was offered the chair of pharmacology at Tomsk University in Siberia and at the University of Warsaw in Poland. He did not take up either post. In 1890, he was appointed the role of professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy and occupied the position for five years. In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg to organize and direct the Department of Physiology.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Over a 45-year period, under his direction, the institute became one of the most important centers of physiological research in the world. Pavlov continued to direct the Department of Physiology at the institute, while taking up the chair of physiology at the Medical Military Academy in 1895. Pavlov would head the physiology department at the academy continuously for three decades.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Starting in 1901, Pavlov was nominated over four successive years for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He did not win the prize until 1904 because his previous nominations were not specific to any discovery, but based on a variety of laboratory findings. When Pavlov received the Nobel Prize it was specified that he did so "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: It was at the Institute of Experimental Medicine that Pavlov carried out his classical experiments on the digestive glands, which would eventually grant him the aforementioned Nobel prize. Pavlov investigated the gastric function of dogs, and later, homeless children, by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Experiments on orphaned children, involving drilling a hole in their cheeks and applying electric shocks, were continued by his assistant Nikolay Krasnogorsky.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov's laboratory housed a full-scale kennel for the experimental canines. Pavlov was interested in observing their long-term physiological processes. This required keeping them alive and healthy to conduct chronic experiments, as he called them. These were experiments over time, designed to understand the normal functions of dogs. This was a new kind of study, because previously experiments had been "acute," meaning that the dog went through vivisection which ultimately killed the canine in the process.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: A 1921 article by S. Morgulis in the journal "Science" was critical of Pavlov's work, raising concerns about the environment in which these experiments had been performed. Based on a report from H. G. Wells, claiming that Pavlov grew potatoes and carrots in his laboratory the article stated, "It is gratifying to be assured that Professor Pavlov is raising potatoes only as a pastime and still gives the best of his genius to scientific investigation". That same year, Pavlov began holding laboratory meetings known as the 'Wednesday meetings' at which he spoke frankly on many topics, including his views on psychology. These meetings lasted until he died in 1936.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov was highly regarded by the Soviet government, and he was able to continue his research until he reached a considerable age. He was praised by Lenin. Despite praise from the Soviet Union government, the money that poured in to support his laboratory, and the honours he was given, Pavlov made no attempts to conceal the disapproval and contempt with which he regarded Soviet Communism.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: In 1923, he stated that he would not sacrifice even the hind leg of a frog to the type of social experiment that the regime was conducting in Russia. Four years later he wrote to Stalin, protesting at what was being done to Russian intellectuals and saying he was ashamed to be a Russian. After the murder of Sergei Kirov in 1934, Pavlov wrote several letters to Molotov criticizing the mass persecutions which followed and asking for the reconsideration of cases pertaining to several people he knew personally.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Conscious until his final moment, Pavlov asked one of his students to sit beside his bed and to record the circumstances of his dying. He wanted to create unique evidence of subjective experiences of this terminal phase of life. Pavlov died of double pneumonia at the age of 86. He was given a grand funeral, and his study and laboratory were preserved as a museum in his honour. His grave is in the Literatorskie mostki (writers' footways) section of Volkovo Cemetery in St. Petersburg.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. Most of his work involved research in temperament, conditioning and involuntary reflex actions.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing "The Work of the Digestive Glands" in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: These experiments included surgically extracting portions of the digestive system from nonhuman animals, severing nerve bundles to determine the effects, and implanting fistulas between digestive organs and an external pouch to examine the organ's contents. This research served as a base for broad research on the digestive system. Further work on reflex actions involved involuntary reactions to stress and pain.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov was always interested in biomarkers of temperament types described by Hippocrates and Galen. He called these biomarkers "properties of nervous systems" and identified three main properties: (1) strength, (2) mobility of nervous processes and (3) a balance between excitation and inhibition and derived four types based on these three properties. He extended the definitions of the four temperament types under study at the time: phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, and melancholic, updating the names to "the strong and impetuous type, the strong equilibrated and quiet type, the strong equilibrated and lively type, and the weak type."


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov and his researchers observed and began the study of transmarginal inhibition (TMI), the body's natural response of shutting down when exposed to overwhelming stress or pain by electric shock. This research showed how all temperament types responded to the stimuli the same way, but different temperaments move through the responses at different times. He commented "that the most basic inherited difference ... was how soon they reached this shutdown point and that the quick-to-shut-down have a fundamentally different type of nervous system."


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov carried out experiments on the digestive glands, as well as investigated the gastric function of dogs, and eventually won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904, becoming the first Russian Nobel laureate. A survey in the "Review of General Psychology", published in 2002, ranked Pavlov as the 24th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov's principles of classical conditioning have been found to operate across a variety of behavior therapies and in experimental and clinical settings, such as educational classrooms and even reducing phobias with systematic desensitization.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: The basics of Pavlov's classical conditioning serve as a historical backdrop for current learning theories. However, the Russian physiologist's initial interest in classical conditioning occurred almost by accident during one of his experiments on digestion in dogs. Considering that Pavlov worked closely with nonhuman animals throughout many of his experiments, his early contributions were primarily about learning in nonhuman animals. However, the fundamentals of classical conditioning have been examined across many different organisms, including humans. The basic underlying principles of Pavlov's classical conditioning have extended to a variety of settings, such as classrooms and learning environments.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Classical conditioning focuses on using preceding conditions to alter behavioral reactions. The principles underlying classical conditioning have influenced preventative antecedent control strategies used in the classroom. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices, such as antecedent control. Antecedent events and conditions are defined as those conditions occurring before the behavior. Pavlov's early experiments used manipulation of events or stimuli preceding behavior (i.e., a tone) to produce salivation in dogs much like teachers manipulate instruction and learning environments to produce positive behaviors or decrease maladaptive behaviors. Although he did not refer to the tone as an antecedent, Pavlov was one of the first scientists to demonstrate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Pavlov systematically presented and withdrew stimuli to determine the antecedents that were eliciting responses, which is similar to the ways in which educational professionals conduct functional behavior assessments. Antecedent strategies are supported by empirical evidence to operate implicitly within classroom environments. Antecedent-based interventions are supported by research to be preventative, and to produce immediate reductions in problem behaviors.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" (or in his own words the "conditional reflex"), which he developed jointly with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901 (although Edwin B. Twitmyer, at the University of Pennsylvania, published similar research in 1902, a year before Pavlov published his). The concept was developed after observing the rates of salivation in dogs. Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of the food. If a buzzer or metronome was sounded before the food was given, the dog would later come to associate the sound with the presentation of the food and salivate upon the presentation of the sound stimulus alone.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Tolochinov, whose own term for the phenomenon had been "reflex at a distance", communicated the results at the Congress of Natural Sciences in Helsinki in 1903. Later the same year Pavlov more fully explained the findings, at the 14th International Medical Congress in Madrid, where he read a paper titled "The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, the idea of "conditioning", as an automatic form of learning, became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology that underlay it, behaviorism. Pavlov's work with classical conditioning was of huge influence on how humans perceived themselves, their behavior and learning processes; his studies of classical conditioning continue to be central to modern behavior therapy.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: British philosopher Bertrand Russell observed that "[w]hether Pavlov's methods can be made to cover the whole of human behaviour is open to question, but at any rate they cover a very large field and within this field they have shown how to apply scientific methods with quantitative exactitude".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. Pavlovian conditioning is a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, "Brave New World", and in Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signaled the occurrence of food by ringing a bell. However, his writings record the use of a wide variety of stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli, in addition to the ring of a bell. In 1994, Catania cast doubt on whether Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov's contemporaries Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev and John B. Watson. Roger K. Thomas, of the University of Georgia, however, said they had found "three additional references to Pavlov's use of a bell that strongly challenge Littman's argument". In reply, Littman suggested that Catania's recollection, that Pavlov did not use a bell in research, was "convincing ... and correct".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: In 1964, the psychologist H. J. Eysenck reviewed Pavlov's "Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes" for the "British Medical Journal": Volume I – "Twenty-five Years of Objective Study of the Higher Nervous Activity of Animals", Volume II – "Conditioned Reflexes and Psychiatry".


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: The Pavlov Institute of Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded by Pavlov in 1925 and named after him following his death.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1907


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: and was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1915. He became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1907. Pavlov's dog, the Pavlovian session and Pavlov's typology are named in his honour. The asteroid 1007 Pawlowia and the lunar crater "Pavlov" were also named after him.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Ivan Pavlov married Seraphima Vasilievna Karchevskaya on 1 May 1881, whom he had met in 1878 or 1879 when she went to St. Petersburg to study at the Pedagogical Institute. Seraphima, called Sara for short, was born in 1855. In her later years, she suffered from ill health and died in 1947.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: The first nine years of their marriage were marred by financial problems; Pavlov and his wife often had to stay with others to have a home, and for a time, the two lived apart so that they could find hospitality. Although their poverty caused despair, material welfare was a secondary consideration. Sara's first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. When she conceived again, the couple took precautions, and she safely gave birth to their first child, a boy whom they named Mirchik; Sara became deeply depressed following Mirchik's sudden death in childhood.


title: Ivan Pavlov

text: Ivan and Sara eventually had four more children: Vladimir, Victor, Vsevolod, and Vera. Their youngest son, Vsevolod, died of pancreatic cancer in 1935, only one year before his father. Pavlov was an atheist.


title: Sex education

text: Sex education, also known as sexual education, sexuality education or sex ed, is the instruction of issues relating to human sexuality, including emotional relations and responsibilities, human sexual anatomy, sexual activity, sexual reproduction, age of consent, reproductive health, reproductive rights, sexual health, safe sex and birth control. Sex education which includes all of these issues is known as comprehensive sex education, and is often opposed to abstinence-only sex education, which only focuses on sexual abstinence. Sex education may be provided by parents or caregivers or as part at school programs and public health campaigns. In some countries it is known as Relationships and Sexual health education.