title: Kurdistan Region

text: In the disputed areas of Sinjar and the Nineveh Plains, the Kurdistan Regional Government has been accused by the native Assyrian and Yazidi inhabitants of forcefully disarming them with the guarantee of protection in order to justify the Peshmerga’s presence in those regions. In 2014, when the Islamic State invaded Northern Iraq, the Peshmerga abandoned their posts in these areas without notifying the locals.


title: Kurdistan Region

text: Due to the devastation of the campaigns of the Iraqi army under Saddam Hussein and other former Iraqi regimes, the Kurdistan Region's infrastructure was never able to modernize. After the 1991 safe haven was established, the Kurdistan Regional Government began projects to reconstruct the Kurdistan Region. Since then, of all the 4,500 villages that were destroyed by Saddam Husseins' regime, 65% have been reconstructed by the KRG.


title: Kurdistan Region

text: Iraqi Kurdistan can be reached by land and air. By land, Iraqi Kurdistan can be reached most easily by Turkey through the Habur Border Gate which is the only border gate between Iraqi Kurdistan and Turkey. This border gate can be reached by bus or taxi from airports in Turkey as close as the Mardin or Diyarbakir airports, as well as from Istanbul or Ankara. Iraqi Kurdistan has two border gates with Iran, the Haji Omaran border gate and the Bashmeg border gate near the city of Sulaymaniyah. Iraqi Kurdistan has also a border gate with Syria known as the Faysh Khabur border gate. From within Iraq, the Kurdistan Region can be reached by land from multiple roads.


title: Kurdistan Region

text: Iraqi Kurdistan has opened its doors to the world by opening two international airports. Erbil International Airport and Sulaimaniyah International Airport, which both operate flights to Middle Eastern and European destinations. The KRG spent millions of dollars on the airports to attract international carriers, and currently Turkish Airlines, Austrian Airlines, Lufthansa, Etihad, Royal Jordanian, Emirates, Gulf Air, Middle East Airlines, Atlas Jet, and Fly Dubai all service the region. There are at least 2 military airfields in Iraqi Kurdistan.


title: Kurdistan Region

text: Kurdistan Region is a multilingual region with several languages and dialects. The majority of the people speak Kurdish in its various dialects. The two main Kurdish dialects in the region are Central Kurdish (Sorani) and Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji), other Kurdish dialects and languages spoken in the region by small communities are Hawrami Kurdish, Southern Kurdish, Arabic, Assyrian, Armenian, and Turkmen.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru ( "iron brew", ) is a Scottish carbonated soft drink, often described as "Scotland's other national drink" (after whisky). Introduced in 1901, the drink is produced in Westfield, Cumbernauld, North Lanarkshire, by A.G. Barr of Glasgow.


title: Irn-Bru

text: As well as being sold throughout the United Kingdom, Irn-Bru is available throughout the world and can usually be bought where there is a significant community of people from Scotland. The brand also has its own tartan. It has been the top-selling soft drink in Scotland for over a century, competing directly with global brands such as Coca-Cola.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru is known for its bright orange colour and unique flavour. As of 1999 it contained 0.002% of ammonium ferric citrate, sugar, 32 flavouring agents including caffeine and quinine (but not in Australia), and two controversial colourings (Sunset Yellow FCF E110 and Ponceau 4R E124). On 27 January 2010, soft-drink manufacturer A.G. Barr agreed to a Food Standards Agency voluntary ban on these two colourings although no date was set for their replacement. After lobbying by First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond, a proposed restriction of Sunset Yellow to 10 mg/litre was eased to 20 mg/litre in 2011 – the same amount present in Irn-Bru. As of August 2021, Irn-Bru still contains these colourings.


title: Irn-Bru

text: The first Iron Brew drink was produced by the Maas & Waldstein chemicals company of New York in 1889 under the name IRONBREW. The drink was popular across North America and was widely copied. A similar beverage was launched in 1898 by London essence firm Stevenson & Howell that supplied soft drinks manufacturers in the UK and colonies. Many local bottlers around the UK began selling their own version of the beverage. Despite the official launch date for Barr's Iron Brew being given as 1901, the firms AG Barr & Co (Glasgow) and Robert Barr (Falkirk) jointly launched their own Iron Brew drink at least two years earlier, according to a document in the firm's archives which indicates that the drink was already enjoying strong sales by May 1899. The strongman image which Barr's adopted for their bottle labels and advertising had been trademarked by the firm Stevenson & Howell in 1898. Barr's ordered their labels directly from Stevenson & Howell, which also sold Barr's many of the individual flavours with which they mixed their own drinks. An advertisement for Barr's Iron Brew dated 1900 featuring the original strongman label can be found in Falkirk's Local History Archives.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Barr's trademark application for the brand name Irn-Bru dates from July 1946 when the drink was still off sale because of wartime regulations. The firm first commercialised their drink using this new name in 1948 once government SDI consolidation of the soft drinks industry had ended. The name change followed the introduction of new labelling restrictions which cracked down on spurious health claims and introduced minimum standards for drinks claiming to contain minerals such as iron. However, according to Robert Barr OBE (chairman 1947–1978), there was also a commercial rationale behind the unusual spelling. "Iron Brew" had come to be understood as a generic product category in the UK, whereas adopting the name "Irn-Bru" allowed the firm to have a legally protected brand identity that would enable the firm to benefit from the popularity of their wartime "Adventures of Ba-Bru" comic strip advertising. (The "Iron Brew" name has continued to be used for many versions of the drink sold by rival manufacturers.)


title: Irn-Bru

text: 1980 saw the introduction of Low Calorie Irn-Bru: this was re-launched in 1991 as Diet Irn-Bru and again in 2011 as Irn-Bru Sugar Free. The Irn-Bru 32 energy drink variant was launched in 2006.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru has long been the most popular soft drink in Scotland, with Coca-Cola second, but competition between the two brands brought their sales to roughly equal levels by 2003. It is also the third best selling soft drink in the UK, after Coca-Cola and Pepsi, outselling high-profile brands such as Fanta, Dr Pepper, Sprite and 7 Up. This success in defending its home market (a feat claimed only by Irn-Bru, Inca Kola and Thums Up; Thums Up sold out to Coca-Cola in 1993, and Inka Kola owners Corporación Lindley S.A. entered into a joint venture with Coca-Cola in 1999, giving up all rights to the name outside Peru) led to ongoing speculation that Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Inc. or its UK brand franchisee Britvic would attempt to buy A.G. Barr. In November 2012 AG Barr and Britvic announced a merger proposal, but in July 2013 the merger collapsed when terms could not be agreed.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru's advertising slogans used to be 'Scotland's other National Drink', referring to whisky, and 'Made in Scotland from girders', a reference to the rusty colour of the drink; though the closest one can come to substantiating this claim is the 0.002% ammonium ferric citrate listed in the ingredients.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Fiery Irn-Bru, a limited edition variant, was released in autumn 2011. It was packaged with a black and orange design, and with the signature man icon with an added image of a fire. It featured the traditional Irn-Bru flavour with an aftertaste similar to ginger.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru was also sold in reusable 750 ml glass bottles which, like other Barr's drinks, were able to be returned to the manufacturer in exchange for a 30 pence (previously 20p) deposit paid on purchase. This scheme was widely available in shops across Scotland and led to the colloquial term for an empty: a "glass cheque". As a result of a 40% drop in returned bottles since the 1990s Barr deemed the washing and re-filling process uneconomical, and on 1 January 2016 ceased the scheme.


title: Irn-Bru

text: 2016 saw the introduction of the current logo, conveying "strength" and an "industrial feel", and a new diet variant called Irn-Bru Xtra in different branding to the existing sugar free variety in a similar fashion to Coca-Cola Zero and Pepsi Max.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Barr changed the formula of Irn-Bru in January 2018 in response to a sugar tax implemented in the UK in April 2018, intended to combat obesity. By reducing the sugar content to less than 5g per 100ml, Barr has made Irn-Bru exempt from the tax. The manufacturer asserts that "most people will not be able to tell the difference in flavour between the old and new formulas", but fans of the drink have started the 'Save Real Irn-Bru' campaign to stop or reverse this change, and have been stocking up on the more sugary formula.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In May 2019, Barr announced a new energy drink variant of Irn-Bru called Irn-Bru Energy, which was released on 1 July 2019.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In October 2019, Barr announced the launch of the "Irn-Bru 1901". The drink would be available for a limited time and use the original recipe from 1901.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In March 2021, Barr announced the relaunch of "IRN-BRU 1901" as a permanent addition to the IRN-BRU lineup.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru was the only soft drink on sale at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow, Scotland, due to a sponsorship arrangement. Member of the US House of Representatives Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez tried Irn-Bru at COP26 and said she loved it, and that it tasted just like the Latino soda Kola Champagne. The response from others at the conference ranged from strong dislike to strong like. The volume of editorial and opinion publicity the drink gained on social and print media was described as "the summit's surprise", coverage worth millions. However, AG Barr's share price remained relatively flat at the time.


title: Irn-Bru

text: It is produced in Westfield, Cumbernauld, North Lanarkshire, since Barr's moved out of their Parkhead, Glasgow factory in the mid-2000s. In 2011, Irn-Bru closed their factory in Mansfield, making the Westfield plant in Cumbernauld the main location for production. Other manufacturing locations include the English city of Sheffield.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru and other Barr brands including Pineappleade, Cream Soda, Tizer, Red Kola, Barr Cola, and Limeade are still available in 750 ml reusable glass bottles.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Barr's actively promoted their Irn-Bru from the outset, with some of their earliest ads featuring world champion wrestlers and Highland Games athletes Donald Dinnie and Alex Munro who endorsed the drink by means of personal testimonials. In the 1930s, the firm began a long-running series of comic strip ads entitled "The Adventures of Ba-Bru" which ran in various local papers from April 1939 until October 1970. The last traces of this campaign, a large neon sign featuring Ba-Bru which stood in Union St above Glasgow Central railway station, was removed in 1983 and replaced with an illuminated display featuring the tagline "Your Other National Drink".


title: Irn-Bru

text: Barr has a long-established gimmick associating Irn-Bru with Scottishness, stemming from the claim of its being Scotland's most popular soft drink. A tagline, "Made in Scotland from girders", was used for several years from the 1980s, usually featuring Irn-Bru drinkers becoming unusually strong, durable or magnetic.


title: Irn-Bru

text: An advertising campaign launched in Spring 2000 aimed to "dramatise the extraordinary appeal of Irn-Bru in a likeably maverick style". David Amers, Planning Director, said: "Irn-Bru is the likeable maverick of the soft drinks market and these ads perfectly capture the brand's spirit." One involved a grandfather (played by actor Robert Wilson) who removed his false teeth to spoil his grandson's interest in his can of Irn-Bru. A further TV advertisement featured a senior citizen in a motorised wheelchair robbing a local shopping market of a supply of Irn-Bru.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In 2004 the company created a new concept "Phenomenal". In 2006 the company launched its first Christmas adverts. This campaign consisted of a parody commercial of a popular Christmas Cartoon, "The Snowman", and was effective in interesting American audiences in the Irn-Bru brand. Further advertising campaigns for Irn-Bru appeared in conjunction with the release of Irn-Bru 32 in 2006.


title: Irn-Bru

text: A 2009 advertisement for the product featured a group of high school pupils performing a musical number, with the refrain "It's fizzy, it's ginger, it's phenomenal!" It was a parody of "High School Musical", and starred Jack Lowden.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In 2012 the company changed its slogan to "gets you through", which see a number of people drinking Irn-Bru to get through tough situations.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In response to the Coca-Cola 'Share a Coke' campaign, Barr decided to produce thousands of limited edition 750 ml bottles of "Irn-Bru" with the names 'Fanny', 'Senga', 'Rab' and 'Tam' on the label, mimicking that by Coca-Cola. The use of the name 'Fanny' ties in with one of "Irn-Bru"'s controversial marketing advertisements.


title: Irn-Bru

text: One of the most controversial Irn-Bru television adverts evoked 1950s entertainment. A mother plays the piano, while the father and two children deliver a song which ends with the mother singing: "...even though I used to be a man". This advertisement was broadcast in 2000, but when it was repeated in 2003, it led to seventeen complaints about it being offensive to members of the transgender community. Issue A14 of the Ofcom Advertising Complaints bulletin reports that the children's response to their mother's claim was not offensive. According to the advertising agency Leith, the advertisement was meant to "create a sense of humour while confirming the maverick nature of the brand". However, the scene involving the mother shaving at the end of the advertisement was deemed by Ofcom to be "capable of causing offence by strongly reinforcing negative stereotypes", and so it was taken off the air.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In 2003, an Irn-Bru commercial which showed a midwife trying to entice a baby from its mother's womb during a difficult delivery sparked fifty complaints. Some saw it as upsetting to women who had suffered miscarriages.


title: Irn-Bru

text: One billboard that drew criticism featured a young woman in a bikini along with the slogan "Diet Irn-Bru. I never knew could give so much pleasure". Another featured a picture of a cow with the slogan "When I'm a burger, I want to be washed down with Irn-Bru". This billboard resulted in over 700 complaints but was cleared by advertisement watchdogs. According to a 2003 BBC report, a billboard which featured a depressed goth and the slogan "Cheer up Goth. Have an Irn-Bru." was also criticised for inciting bullying.


title: Irn-Bru

text: McCowan's also produced Irn-Bru Bars, chewy, fizzy, bright orange confectionery bars which taste strongly of Irn-Bru, though production ended in late 2005. Irn-Bru sorbet is available in some speciality ice cream shops in Scotland.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Barr launched an alcopop drink combining Irn-Bru and Bell's whisky, although this proved to be unpopular and was discontinued. A later attempt came in the form of an official Irn-Bru flavour in the Red Square line-up of vodka-based drinks; this too has been discontinued.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru is manufactured under licence in Russia by the Moscow Brewing Company. Bru and other Barr products are exported to Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, and Cyprus, as well as parts of Africa and Asia. It is available in the Republic of Ireland, increasingly being stocked in BWG and ADM Londis supplied stores, as well as in supermarkets owned by Dunnes Stores and Tesco Ireland. In Ireland generally, the drink mainly sells in County Donegal. It is also available in Malta, Belgium and, as of 2005, in Poland. It is now sold in Iceland, as of 2011. A similarly named product, using the "Iron Brew" spelling but bearing little resemblance to Irn-Bru in flavour, colour or packaging, is produced by Coca-Cola in South Africa.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In Australia, Irn-Bru was manufactured and distributed under licence by Occasio Australia until 2009. It was available in 500 ml and 1.25-litre in both standard and diet. The drink enjoyed growing success in the country, with its first advertising campaign launched in Queensland in September 2007. It was initially available in major chains such as Coles and Woolworths, Caltex service stations and in many independent grocers and convenience stores. It was then delisted at Coles supermarkets. Because of manufacturing and bottling issues, Occasio ceased local production in late 2009. It is now imported direct from the UK and distributed by British Provender, and can again be found in the international sections of major supermarket chains and some convenience stores.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru sold in Canada contained no caffeine until recently. In March 2010, Health Canada repealed the ban on caffeine on clear coloured soft drinks and now bottles of Irn-Bru have the label 'Now Contains caffeine' on the packaging. Irn-Bru in Canada is distributed by TFB & Associates Ltd from Markham, Ontario but is packaged by A.G. Barr in Glasgow, Scotland. Irn-Bru can be found at Sobeys, Co-Op and Walmart supermarkets.


title: Irn-Bru

text: The now-defunct McKinlay soft-drink company in Glace Bay, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada, for many years offered its own non-licensed beverage called "Irn-Bru" and later "Cape Breton's Irn-Bru". It was a brown carbonated soft-drink with a fruity cola taste.


title: Irn-Bru

text: The standard Irn-Bru distributed in Canada also contains the "Not a source of iron" disclaimer on the label.


title: Irn-Bru

text: The UK version of the drink (with caffeine) is commonly imported by speciality retailers, particularly in areas with large Scottish populations.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru started being sold at 7-Eleven. It has often appeared in the Danish supermarket Netto, Rema 1000 and Normal. Today only a few 7-Elevens in Denmark continue distributing Irn-Bru, while most Føtex, Bilka, and Normal stores now stock Irn-Bru.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Imported Irn-Bru cans are found throughout Finland in some K-Citymarket locations and some independent stores.


title: Irn-Bru

text: In Hong Kong, Irn-Bru can be found in selected Wellcome supermarkets, in and around areas where the expatriate population is significant such as the Sheung Wan and Central districts.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru has been available in some independent or specialty stores in both cans and 1.25-litre bottles since at least 2011.


title: Irn-Bru

text: A.G. Barr launched its Irn-Bru product throughout the Middle East. It is found mostly in LuLu supermarkets.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru is commonly available nationwide from supermarkets as cans and 1.25-litre plastic bottles. It is bottled by Oasis, the same company that bottles Coca-Cola. Imported Irn-Bru from Scotland is available from speciality stores.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru entered the Norwegian market in May 2008. They had to withdraw from the market again in 2009 as a result of problems with production agreements and lack of funding for marketing.


title: Irn-Bru

text: They were believed to be sponsoring the Norwegian First Division club Mjøndalen IF in 2009. This later turned out to be fraud carried out by a third-party company, and Mjøndalen IF never received any sponsorship from Irn-Bru, even though the team played the 2009 season with Irn-Bru logo on their shirts.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru began being sold in Russia in 1997, and by 2002, it had become their third best selling soft drink. After its original bottler went out of business, a new deal was signed for the drink to be manufactured and distributed in larger quantities by the Pepsi Bottling Group of Russia in 2002. Its popularity has been attributed to the drink's apparent similarity to discontinued Soviet-era soft drinks. As of 2011, Irn-Bru sales in Russia were still growing.


title: Irn-Bru

text: On 4 March 2022, due to the ongoing 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, AG Barr cut ties with the Russian market.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru has been distributed in Spain since the early 1980s servicing primarily the large British communities residing in Spain. It can be found in key tourist areas such as the Balearic Islands, the Spanish coastal region and Canary Islands with both the regular and sugar-free variant available. Outside of the United Kingdom, Spain is among the top 10 Irn-Bru markets.


title: Irn-Bru

text: Irn-Bru and Diet Irn-Bru have been formulated since 2002 by A.G. Barr to meet the regulations for food colouring of the Food & Drug Administration (FDA). Ponceau 4R, used in the UK formulation, is prohibited by the FDA. Barr uses alternative food and drink colourants manufactured by a US company approved by the FDA. The product labelling also meets US labelling standards on nutritional information and bar code. Compliant Irn-Bru is solely imported by Great Scot International in Charlotte, North Carolina, which supplies distributors and retailers throughout the USA.


title: Park So-dam

text: Park So-dam (born September 8, 1991) is a South Korean actress. She came into popular recognition in the 2015 film "The Priests" and the TV series' "Cinderella with Four Knights" (2016) and "Record of Youth" (2020). She achieved international fame for her role in the 2019 critically acclaimed Korean comedy thriller film "Parasite", which won the Palme d'Or at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival and the Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: Park So-dam

text: When Park was in high school, she watched the musical "Grease" and developed an interest in acting. While in university, Park started her career by turning to independent films after being rejected from around seventeen auditions. Known as a prolific performer in independent cinema, Park starred in the Korean Academy of Film Arts feature "Ingtoogi: Battle of the Internet Trolls" and the indie "Steel Cold Winter", the latter of which drew notice when it premiered at the Busan International Film Festival. Park also took small parts in mainstream titles "Scarlet Innocence" and "The Royal Tailor".


title: Park So-dam

text: She broke into the mainstream in 2015 after making a strong impression with her performance in "The Silenced", which nabbed her a win for Best Supporting Actress from the Busan Film Critics Awards. She then featured in box office hits "Veteran" and "The Throne", which led to her casting in the critically acclaimed mystery thriller "The Priests". Her role as an evil possessed high school student won her multiple Best New Actress nods.


title: Park So-dam

text: Park also extended her filmography to television. In 2016, she took the lead role in KBS2's medical drama "A Beautiful Mind" and tvN's romantic comedy series "Cinderella with Four Knights".


title: Park So-dam

text: In 2019, Park starred in Bong Joon-ho's black comedy, "Parasite". The film received international critical acclaim and was a box office success in South Korea. She gained recognition for her role as a crafty, whipsmart younger sister of the family, and became known for her "Jessica Jingle". In the same year, Park joined the variety show "Three Meals a Day: Mountain Village" along with Yum Jung-ah and Yoon Se-ah.


title: Park So-dam

text: In 2020, Park was cast in the youth drama "Record of Youth" as an aspiring makeup artist. In the same year, Park participated in the variety show "Gamsung Camping" which is a camping variety show with Park Na-rae, Ahn Young-mi, Son Na-eun, Solar. Later, Park made her comeback in the stage play "The Student and Mr. Henri", a stage play she performed in 2017.


title: Park So-dam

text: In 2021, Park was cast in Lee Hae-Young's next film "Ghost", which began filming in January 2021. In 2022, Park will appear in the film "Special Delivery", her return to the big screen in three years.


title: Park So-dam

text: On December 13, 2021, it was revealed that Park So-dam had been diagnosed with papillary thyroid cancer during a regular health checkup, and has undergone surgery according to the opinion of the medical staff. Park will focus on recovering her health. On February 7, 2022, Park's agency confirmed that Park has just recovered from COVID-19.


title: Emphysema

text: Emphysema, or pulmonary emphysema, is a lower respiratory tract disease, characterised by air-filled spaces (pneumatoses) in the lungs, that can vary in size and may be very large. The spaces are caused by the breakdown of the walls of the alveoli and they replace the spongy lung parenchyma. This reduces the total alveolar surface available for gas exchange leading to a reduction in oxygen supply for the blood. Emphysema usually affects the middle aged or older population because it takes time to develop with the effects of tobacco smoking, and other risk factors. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a genetic risk factor that may lead to the condition presenting earlier.


title: Emphysema

text: When associated with significant airflow limitation, emphysema is a major subtype of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a progressive lung disease characterized by long-term breathing problems and poor airflow. Without COPD, the finding of emphysema on a CT lung scan still confers a higher mortality risk in tobacco smokers. In 2016 in the United States there were 6,977 deaths from emphysema – 2.2 per 100,000 of the population. Globally it accounts for 5% of all deaths. A 2018 review of work on the effects of tobacco and cannabis smoking found that a possibly cumulative toxic effect could be a risk factor for developing emphysema, and spontaneous pneumothorax.


title: Emphysema

text: There are four types of emphysema, three of which are related to the anatomy of the lobules of the lung – centrilobular or centriacinar, panlobular or panacinar, and paraseptal or distal acinar emphysema, and are not associated with fibrosis (scarring). The fourth type is known as paracicatricial emphysema or irregular emphysema that involves the acinus irregularly and is associated with fibrosis. Though the different types can be seen on imaging they are not well-defined clinically. There are also a number of associated conditions including bullous emphysema, focal emphysema, and Ritalin lung. Only the first two types of emphysema – centrilobular and panlobular – are associated with significant airflow obstruction, with that of centrilobular emphysema around 20 times more common than panlobular. Centrilobular emphysema is the only type associated with smoking.


title: Emphysema

text: Osteoporosis is often a comorbidity of emphysema. The use of systemic corticosteroids for treating exacerbations is a significant risk factor for osteoporosis, and their repeated use is recommended against.


title: Emphysema

text: Emphysema is a respiratory disease of the lower respiratory tract. It is commonly caused by tobacco smoking but a significant number of people are affected who either do not smoke, or have never smoked. The presence of emphysema is a clear risk factor for the development of lung cancer, made stronger in those who smoke.


title: Emphysema

text: Early symptoms of emphysema may vary from person to person. Symptoms can include a cough (with or without sputum), wheezing, a fast breathing rate, breathlessness on exertion, and a feeling of tightness in the chest. There may be frequent cold or flu infections. Other symptoms may include anxiety, depression, fatigue, sleep problems and weight loss. Since these symptoms could also relate to other lung conditions or other health problems, emphysema is often under diagnosed. The shortness of breath caused by emphysema can increase over time and develop into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.


title: Emphysema

text: A sign of emphysema in smokers is the finding of a higher number of alveolar macrophages sampled from the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in the lungs. The number can be four to six times greater in those who smoke than in non-smokers.


title: Emphysema

text: There are four main types of emphysema, three of which are related to the anatomy of the lobules of the lung – centrilobular or centriacinar, panlobular or panacinar, and paraseptal or distal acinar and are not associated with fibrosis (scarring). Although fibrosis is not a normal feature of these subtypes, repair strategies in end-stage emphysema may lead to pulmonary fibrosis. The fourth subtype is known as paracicatricial emphysema or irregular emphysema, involves the acinus irregularly and is associated with fibrosis.


title: Emphysema

text: Only the first two types of emphysema – centrilobular, and panlobular are associated with significant airflow obstruction, with that of centrilobular emphysema around 20 times more common than panlobular. The subtypes can be seen on imaging but are not well-defined clinically.


title: Emphysema

text: There are also a number of associated conditions including bullous emphysema, focal emphysema, and Ritalin lung.


title: Emphysema

text: Centrilobular emphysema, also called centriacinar emphysema, affects the centre of a pulmonary lobule (centrilobular) in the lung, the area around the terminal bronchiole, and the first respiratory bronchiole, and can be seen on imaging as an area around the tip of the visible pulmonary artery. Centrilobular emphysema is the most common type usually associated with smoking, and with chronic bronchitis. The disease progresses from the centrilobular portion, leaving the lung parenchyma in the surrounding (perilobular) region preserved. Usually the upper lobes of the lungs are affected.


title: Emphysema

text: Panlobular emphysema, also called panacinar emphysema affects all of the alveoli in a lobule and can involve the whole lung or mainly the lower lobes. This type of emphysema is associated with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (A1AD or AATD), and Ritalin lung, and is not related to smoking.


title: Emphysema

text: Likely complications of centrilobular, and panlobular emphysema, some of which are life-threatening, include: respiratory failure, pneumonia, respiratory infections, pneumothorax, interstitial emphysema, pulmonary heart disease, and respiratory acidosis.


title: Emphysema

text: Paraseptal emphysema, also called distal acinar emphysema relates to emphysematous change next to a pleural surface, or to a fissure. The cystic spaces known as blebs or bullae that form in paraseptal emphysema typically occur in just one layer beneath the pleura. This distinguishes it from the honeycombing of small cystic spaces seen in fibrosis that typically occurs in layers. This type of emphysema is not associated with airflow obstruction.


title: Emphysema

text: When the subpleural bullae are significant, the emphysema is called bullous emphysema. Bullae can become extensive and combine to form giant bullae. These can be large enough to take up a third of a hemithorax, compress the lung parenchyma, and cause displacement. The emphysema is now termed giant bullous emphysema, more commonly called vanishing lung syndrome due to the compressed parenchyma. A bleb or bulla may sometimes rupture and cause a pneumothorax.


title: Emphysema

text: Paracicatricial emphysema, also known as irregular emphysema, is seen next to areas of fibrosis (scarring) as large spaces. The scarring is most often a result of silicosis, granulomatous infection, tuberculosis, or pulmonary infarction. It can be difficult to differentiate from the honeycombing of pulmonary fibrosis.


title: Emphysema

text: Classic lung diseases are a complication of HIV/AIDS with emphysema being a source of disease. HIV is cited as a risk factor for the development of emphysema, and COPD regardless of smoking status. Around 20 percent of those with HIV have increased emphysematous changes. This has suggested that an underlying mechanism related to HIV is a contributory factor in the development of emphysema. HIV associated emphysema occurs over a much shorter time than that associated with smoking; an earlier presentation is also seen in emphysema caused by alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. Both of these conditions predominantly show damage in the lower lungs which suggests a similarity between the two mechanisms.


title: Emphysema

text: Emphysema may develop in some people with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, the only genotype of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This usually occurs a lot earlier, as does HIV associated emphysema than other types.


title: Emphysema

text: The intravenous use of methylphenidate, commonly marketed as "Ritalin" and widely used as a stimulant drug in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, can lead to emphysematous changes known as Ritalin lung. The mechanism underlying this link is not clearly understood. Ritalin tablets contain talc as a filler, and these need to be crushed and dissolved for injecting. It has been suggested that the talc exposure causes granulomatosis leading to alveolar destruction. However, other intravenous drugs also contain talc and there is no associated emphysematous change. High resolution CT scanning shows the emphysema to be panlobular.


title: Emphysema

text: Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema (CPFE) is a rare syndrome that shows upper-lobe emphysema, together with lower-lobe interstitial fibrosis. This is diagnosed by CT scan. This syndrome presents a marked susceptibility for the development of pulmonary hypertension.


title: Emphysema

text: Congenital lobar emphysema (CLE), also known as congenital lobar overinflation and infantile lobar emphysema, is a neonatal condition associated with enlarged air spaces in the lungs of newborn infants. It is diagnosed around the time of birth or in the first 6 months of life, occurring more often in boys than girls. CLE affects the upper lung lobes more than the lower lobes, and the left lung more often than the right lung. CLE is defined as the hyperinflation of one or more lobes of the lung due to the partial obstruction of the bronchus. This causes symptoms of pressure on the nearby organs. It is associated with several cardiac abnormalities such as patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, ventricular septal defect, and tetralogy of Fallot. Although CLE may be caused by the abnormal development of bronchi, or compression of airways by nearby tissues, no cause is identified in half of cases. CT scan of the lungs is useful in assessing the anatomy of the lung lobes and status of the neighbouring lobes on whether they are hypoplastic or not. Contrast-enhanced CT is useful in assessing vascular abnormalities and mediastinal masses.


title: Emphysema

text: Focal emphysema, is a localized region of emphysema in the lung that is larger than alveoli, and often associated with coalworker's pneumoconiosis. This is also known as "localized pulmonary emphysema". Blebs and bullae may also be included as focal emphysema. These can be differentiated from the other type of enclosed air space known as a lung cyst by their size and wall thickness. A bleb or bulla has a wall thickness of less than 1 mm, and are smaller.


title: Emphysema

text: A number of occupations are associated with the development of emphysema due to the inhalation of varied gases and particles. In the US uranium mining that releases radon gas and particles has been shown to be a cause of emphysema deaths; the figures in the study included some miners who also smoked. Uranium mining and milling was found to create environmental pollution.


title: Emphysema

text: The inhalation of coal mine dust that can result in coalworker's pneumoconiosis is an independent risk factor for the development of emphysema. Focal emphysema is associated with the coal macule, and this extends into progressive centrilobular emphysema. Less commonly a variant of panlobular emphysema develops.


title: Emphysema

text: Silicosis results from the inhalation of silica particles, and the formation of large silica nodules is associated with paracicatricial emphysema, with or without bullae.


title: Emphysema

text: Ozone is another pollutant that can affect the respiratory system. Long-term exposure to ozone can result in emphysema.


title: Emphysema

text: Osteoporosis is a major comorbidity of emphysema. Both conditions are associated with a low body mass index. There is an association between treating emphysema, and osteoporosis; the use of systemic corticosteroids for treating exacerbations is a significant risk factor for osteoporosis, and their repeated use is not recommended.


title: Emphysema

text: Compensatory emphysema, is overinflation of part of a lung in response to either removal by surgery of another part of the lung or decreased size of another part of the lung.


title: Emphysema

text: Pulmonary interstitial emphysema (PIE) is a collection of air outside of the normal air space of the alveoli, found as pneumatoses inside the connective tissue of the peribronchovascular sheaths, interlobular septa, and visceral pleura.


title: Emphysema

text: Lung volume reduction may be offered to those with advanced emphysema. When other treatments fail, and the emphysema is located in the upper lobes, a surgical option may be possible. A number of minimally invasive bronchoscopic procedures are increasingly used to reduce lung volume.


title: Emphysema

text: Where there is severe emphysema with significant hyperinflation that has proved unresponsive to other therapies, lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) may be an option. LVRS involves the removal of tissue from the lobe most damaged by emphysema, which allows the other lobes to expand and give improved function. The procedure appears to be particularly effective if the emphysema primarily involves the upper lobes; however, the procedure increases the risk of adverse events and early death in people who have diffuse emphysema.


title: Emphysema

text: Minimally invasive bronchoscopic procedures may be carried out to reduce lung volume. These include the use of valves, coils, or thermal ablation. Endobronchial valves are one-way valves that may be used in those with severe hyperinflation resulting from advanced emphysema; a suitable target lobe and no collateral ventilation are required for this procedure. The placement of one or more valves in the lobe induces a partial collapse of the lobe that ensures a reduction in residual volume that improves lung function, the capacity for exercise, and quality of life.


title: Emphysema

text: The placement of nitinol coils instead of valves is recommended where there is collateral ventilation that would prevent the use of valves. Nitinol is a biocompatible shape-memory alloy.


title: Emphysema

text: Both of these techniques are associated with adverse effects, including persistent air leaks and cardiovascular complications. Bronchoscopic thermal vapor ablation has an improved profile. Heated water vapor is used to target affected lobe regions, which leads to permanent fibrosis and volume reduction. The procedure is able to target individual lobe segments, can be carried out regardless of collateral ventilation, and can be repeated with the natural advance of emphysema.


title: Emphysema

text: Lung transplantation – the replacement of either a single lung or both (bilateral) – may be considered in end-stage disease. A bilateral transplant is the preferred choice as complications can arise in a remaining single native lung; complications can include hyperinflation, pneumonia, and the development of lung cancer. Careful selection as recommended by the "National Emphysema Treatment Trial" (NETT) for transplant surgeries is needed as in some cases there will be an increased risk of mortality. Several factors including age, and poor exercise tolerance, using the BODE index need to be taken into account. A transplant is only considered where there are no serious comorbidites. A CT scan or a ventilation/perfusion scan may be useful in surgery considerations to evaluate cases for surgical interventions, and also to evaluate post-surgery responses. A bullectomy may be carried out when a giant bulla occupies more than a third of a hemithorax.


title: Emphysema

text: The terms "emphysema" and "chronic bronchitis" were formally defined in 1959 at the CIBA guest symposium, and in 1962 at the American Thoracic Society Committee meeting on Diagnostic Standards. The word "emphysema" is derived from Ancient Greek ἐμφύσημα 'inflation, swelling' (referring to a lung inflated by air-filled spaces), itself from "emphysao" 'to blow in, to inflate', composed of ἐν "en", meaning ""in"", and φυσᾶ "physa", meaning ""wind, blast".


title: Emphysema

text: René Laennec, the physician who invented the stethoscope, used the term "emphysema" in his book "A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation" (1837) to describe lungs that did not collapse when he opened the chest during an autopsy. He noted that they did not collapse as usual because they were full of air and the airways were filled with mucus. Early descriptions of probable emphysema include: in 1679 by T. Bonet of a condition of "voluminous lungs" and in 1769 by Giovanni Morgagni of lungs which were "turgid particularly from air". In 1721 the first drawings of emphysema were made by Ruysh. These were followed the illustrations of Matthew Baillie in 1789 and descriptions of the destructive nature of the condition.


title: Don Lemon

text: Don Lemon (born March 1, 1966) is an American television journalist most well known for being a host on CNN. Lemon anchored weekend news programs on local television stations in Alabama and Pennsylvania during his early days as a journalist. He is an anchor of CNN This Morning. Lemon worked as a news correspondent for NBC on its programming, such as "Today" and "NBC Nightly News", after which he joined CNN in 2006, also as a correspondent. He later achieved prominence as the presenter of "CNN Tonight" beginning in 2014. Lemon is also a recipient of an Edward R. Murrow Award and three regional Emmy Awards. He was the host of "Don Lemon Tonight".


title: Don Lemon

text: Lemon was born March 1, 1966, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the son of Katherine Marie (Bouligney) and Wilmon Lee Richardson. His father was a prominent attorney, who was part of a lawsuit successfully challenging segregation of public transportation in Baton Rouge. Lemon was born under the surname of his mother's then-husband, and discovered that Wilmon was his father when he was five. He is of mostly African-American ancestry, along with Creole; his maternal grandmother was the daughter of a black mother and a white father, who had French and Scots-Irish ancestry. He attended Baker High School, a public high school in the town of Baker in East Baton Rouge Parish. Lemon was voted class president during his senior year.


title: Don Lemon

text: Lemon attended Louisiana State University and graduated from Brooklyn College in 1996, majoring in broadcast journalism. While at Brooklyn College, he interned at WNYW. He worked for Fox affiliates in St. Louis and Chicago for several years, and was a correspondent for NBC affiliates in Philadelphia and Chicago.


title: Don Lemon

text: Early in his career, Lemon reported as a weekend news anchor for WBRC in Birmingham, Alabama and for WCAU in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Also, he was an anchor and investigative reporter for KTVI in St. Louis, Missouri. Lemon reported for NBC News's New York City operations, including working as a correspondent for both "Today," and "NBC Nightly News"; and as an anchor on "Weekend Today" and programs on MSNBC. In 2003, he began working at NBC owned-and-operated station WMAQ-TV in Chicago, and was a reporter and local news co-anchor. He won three Emmys for local reporting while at WMAQ.


title: Don Lemon

text: Lemon joined CNN in September 2006. He has been outspoken in his work at CNN, criticizing the state of cable news and questioning the network publicly. He has also voiced strong opinions on ways that the African American community can improve their lives, which has caused some controversy.


title: Don Lemon

text: In 2014, CNN began to pilot prime time shows hosted by Lemon, including "The Eleventh Hour" and "The Don Lemon Show". Following the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, Lemon began to host a special, nightly program featuring discussion and analysis of the event by aviation experts. After a realignment of CNN's schedule following the cancellation of "Piers Morgan Live", this hour was replaced by the news program "CNN Tonight"; Lemon would later become the permanent host of the hour as "CNN Tonight with Don Lemon". Lemon has also participated in CNN's "New Year's Eve Live" as a correspondent from a city in the Central Time Zone, most often alongside fellow CNN anchor Brooke Baldwin.


title: Don Lemon

text: Lemon's outspoken criticism of the administration of Donald Trump and accusations of racism made him a target of the president. In January 2018, after Trump controversially referred to countries such as El Salvador, Haiti, and Honduras as "shitholes" during a meeting on immigration, Lemon opened the program with a proclamation that "The president of the United States is racist. A lot of us already knew that."


title: Don Lemon

text: In October 2018, during a discussion with Chris Cuomo on "Cuomo Prime Time" amid the Jeffersontown shooting, Lemon argued that Americans shouldn't "demonize any one group or any one ethnicity", and that domestic terrorism by white Americans, "most of them radicalized to the right", were a bigger threat to the safety of the country than foreigners. He went on toask, "there is no travel ban on [white people], they have the Muslim ban, there is no white guy ban, so what do we do about that?” Lemon's remarks were criticized by conservative figures, who felt that it was "race baiting" and contradicted his suggestion that Americans should not "demonize any one group or any one ethnicity". In response to the criticism, Lemon cited data from a report by the Government Accountability Office stating that there had been 255 fatalities between September 12, 2001 and December 31, 2016, involving domestic extremists, and that killings by far-right extremists outranked those by Islamic extremists in 10 of the 15 years tracked. In the same period, no deaths were credited to attacks by far-left extremists.


title: Don Lemon

text: In May 2021, it was announced that Lemon, along with CNN fellow journalist Chris Cuomo, would launch a podcast named "The Handoff". The audio show will center around "politics and personal" and will be teleprompter-free. On May 17, "CNN Tonight with Don Lemon" was retitled to simply "Don Lemon Tonight"; Lemon apologized for how he teased the rebranding on his show, stating that he "didn't mean to set the internet on fire"—in reference to viewers who thought that Lemon would be departing CNN.


title: Don Lemon

text: During testimony of Jussie Smollett on December 6, 2021, he said that he was in contact with Lemon during the early part of a police investigation into an alleged hate crime attack. While testifying under oath, Smollett claimed Lemon sent a text that the Chicago Police Department had doubts about his account of what transpired. Lemon has received criticism for not mentioning his role in the case when he reported on the trial late in the evening on December 6.


title: Don Lemon

text: In February 2022, it was announced that he would be hosting a talk show for CNN's then-forthcoming streaming service CNN+ called "The Don Lemon Show". However, only two episodes managed to be released in the service's sole month of operation in April 2022, before shutting down.


title: Don Lemon

text: On September 15, 2022, it was announced that Lemon will co-anchor a new CNN morning show with Kaitlan Collins and Poppy Harlow later in the year. On October 12, 2022, it was announced that the morning show will be named CNN This Morning.


title: Don Lemon

text: In 2002, Lemon won an Edward R. Murrow Award for his coverage of the capture of the D.C. area sniper, and other awards for reports on Hurricane Katrina. In 2006, he earned three Chicago / Midwest Emmy Awards—one for a business feature about Craigslist real estate listings, "Life on Craigslist," and two for reporting on the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa, "Journey to Africa"—while reporting for WMAQ-TV in Chicago.


title: Don Lemon

text: Lemon was voted as one of the 150 most influential African Americans by "Ebony" magazine in 2009. In 2014, "The Advocate" listed Lemon as one of the publication's 50 Most Influential LGBTQ People in Media.


title: Don Lemon

text: In December 2016, Lemon was honored with a Native Son Award, named after James Baldwin's "Notes of a Native Son" (1955), recognizing and to "encourage the increased visibility and impact of black gay men in society". In 2017, "Out" named him on its Power 50 list of "the most influential LGBTQ people in the USA."


title: Don Lemon

text: In June 2019, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots in Greenwich Village, New York, an event widely considered a watershed moment in the modern LGBTQ rights movement, "Queerty" named him one of the "Pride50" "trailblazing individuals who actively ensure society remains moving towards equality, acceptance and dignity for all queer people".


title: Don Lemon

text: During an on-air interview with members of Bishop Eddie Long's congregation in September 2010, Lemon discussed being sexually molested when he was five or six by a neighbor teenage boy, and that it was not until he was thirty that he told his mother about it.


title: Don Lemon

text: In his 2011 memoir, "Transparent", Lemon publicly came out as gay—having been out in his personal life and with close colleagues—becoming "one of the few openly gay black men in broadcasting." He also discussed colorism in the black community and the sexual abuse he suffered as a child. He dedicated the book to Tyler Clementi, a college student who took his own life after his roommate outed him online. Lemon also stated that he has known about his sexuality since the age of five or six.


title: Don Lemon

text: In October 2017, he received death threats laced with racial slurs; he filed a police report detailing the incident.


title: Don Lemon

text: On January 31, 2018, Lemon's sister, L'Tanya "Leisa" Lemon Grimes, died at the age of 58; police concluded that her death was an accidental drowning in a pond while fishing. After being absent for approximately a week, he opened his show on February 6 by thanking everyone who wished him "prayers and words of encouragement".


title: Don Lemon

text: Lemon met real estate agent Tim Malone in 2017, after which the two began dating. The couple announced in April 2019 that they were engaged.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortar and pestle is a set of two simple tools used from the Stone Age to the present day to prepare ingredients or substances by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder in the kitchen, laboratory, and pharmacy. The "mortar" () is characteristically a bowl, typically made of hard wood, metal, ceramic, or hard stone such as granite. The "pestle" (, ) is a blunt, club-shaped object. The substance to be ground, which may be wet or dry, is placed in the mortar where the pestle is pounded, pressed, and rotated into the substance until the desired texture is achieved.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortars and pestles have been used in cooking since prehistory; today they are typically associated with the profession of pharmacy due to their historical use in preparing medicines. They are used in chemistry settings for pulverizing small amounts of chemicals; in arts and cosmetics for pulverizing pigments, binders, and other substances; in ceramics for making grog; in masonry and in other types of construction requiring pulverized materials. In cooking, they are typically used to crush spices, to make pesto and certain cocktails such as the mojito, which requires the gentle crushing of sugar, ice, and mint leaves in the glass with a pestle.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The invention of mortars and pestles seems related to that of quern-stones, which use a similar principle of naturally indented, durable, hard stone bases and mallets of stone or wood to process food and plant materials, clay, or minerals by stamping, crushing, pulverizing and grinding.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: A key advantage of the mortar is that it presents a deeper bowl for confining the material to be ground without the waste and spillage that occurs with flat grinding stones. Another advantage is that the mortar can be made large enough for a person to stand upright and adjacent to it and use the combined strength of their upper body and the force of gravity for better stamping. Large mortars allow for several people with several pestles to stamp the material faster and more efficiently. Working over a large mortar that a person can stand next to is physically easier and more ergonomical (by ensuring a better posture of the whole body) than for a small quern, where a person has to crouch and use the uncomfortable, repetitive motion of hand grinding by sliding.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortars and pestles anticipate modern blenders and grinders and can be described as having the function of small, mobile, hand-operated mills that don't require electricity or fuel to operate.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Large wooden mortars and wooden pestles would predate and lead to the invention of butterchurns, as domestication of livestock and use of dairy (during the Neolithic) came well after the mortar and pestle. Butter would be churned from cream or milk in a wooden container with a long wooden stick, very like the use of wooden mortars and pestles.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortars and pestles were invented in the Stone Age, when humans found that processing food and various other materials by grinding and crushing into smaller particles allowed for improved use and various advantages, such as hard grains could be cooked and digested easier if ground first, grog would vastly improve fired clay and larger objects such as blocks of salt would be much easier to handle and use when ground and pulverized into smaller pieces. Various stone mortars and pestles have been found, while wooden or clay ones would perish much easier during the course of time.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Scientists have found ancient mortars and pestles in Southwest Asia that date back to approximately 35000 BC.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Stone mortars and pestles have also been used by the Kebaran culture (Levant with Sinai) from 22000 to 18000 BC to crush grains and other plant material. The Kebaran mortars that have been found are sculpted, slightly conical bowls of porous stone, and the pestles are made of a smoother type of stone.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Another Stone Age example are the rock mortars in the Raqefet Cave in Israel, which are natural cavities in the cave floors, used by Late Natufians around 10000 BC to grind cereals for brewing beer in the cavities. These rock mortars are large enough for a person to stand upright by them and crush the cereals inside the cavity with a long wooden pestle.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Ancient Africans, Sumerians, Egyptians, Polynesians, Native Americans, Chinese, Indians, Greeks, Celts and countless other people used mortars and pestles for processing materials and substances for cooking, arts, cosmetics, simple chemicals, ceramics and medicine.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Since the 14th century, bronze mortars became more popular than stone ones, especially for use in alchemy and early chemistry. Bronze mortars would become more elaborate than stone ones, and had the advantage to be harder, and were easily cast with handles, knobs for handling and spouts for easier pouring. However, the big disadvantage was that bronze would react with acids and other chemicals and corrode easily. Since the late 17th century, glazed porcelain mortars became very useful, since they wouldn't be damaged by chemicals and would be easy to clean.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The English word "mortar" derives from middle English "morter", from old French "mortier", from classical Latin "mortarium", meaning, among several other usages, "receptacle for pounding" and "product of grinding or pounding"; perhaps related to Sanskrit "mrnati" - to crush, to bruise.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The classical Latin "pistillum", meaning "pounder", led to English "pestle". Stemming from the pistillum, the word pesto in Italian cuisine means created with the pestle.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The Roman poet Juvenal applied both "mortarium" and "pistillum" to articles used in the preparation of drugs, reflecting the early use of the mortar and pestle as a symbol of a pharmacist or apothecary.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortar as a synonym for cement in masonry came from the use of mortars and pestles to grind the materials for creating cement. The short bombard cannon was called "mortar" in French, because the first versions of these cannons looked like big metal mortars of the Medieval Ages and they required to be filled with gunpowder, like a mortar would be full of powdered material.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The antiquity of the mortar and pestle is well documented in early writing, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus of ~1550 BC (the oldest preserved piece of medical literature) and the Old Testament (Numbers 11:8 and Proverbs 27:22).


title: Mortar and pestle

text: In Indian mythology, Samudra Manthan from Bhagavata Purana creates amrita, the nectar of immortality, by churning the ocean with a pestle.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Since medieval times, mortars would be placed or carved on the gravestones of pharmaceuts and doctors.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: In Russian and Eastern European folklore, Baba Yaga is described and pictured as flying through the forest standing inside a large wooden mortar (stupa), holding the long wooden pestle in one hand to remove obstacles in front of her, and using the broom in her other hand to sweep and remove her traces behind her. This seems as a trace of some ancient rituals connecting the witch symbols of Baba Yaga with the use of mortars in alchemy, pharmacy and early chemistry, which were all seen as magic by uneducated people in Medieval Ages.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortars and pestles were traditionally used in pharmacies to crush various ingredients prior to preparing an extemporaneous prescription. The mortar and pestle, with the Rod of Asclepius, the Green Cross, and others, is one of the most pervasive symbols of pharmacology, along with the show globe.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: For pharmaceutical use, the mortar and the head of the pestle are usually made of porcelain, while the handle of the pestle is made of wood. This is known as a Wedgwood mortar and pestle and originated in 1759. Today the act of mixing ingredients or reducing the particle size is known as trituration.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortars and pestles are also used as drug paraphernalia to grind up pills to speed up absorption when they are ingested, or in preparation for insufflation. To finely ground drugs, not available in liquid dosage form is used also if patients need artificial nutrition such as parenteral nutrition or by nasogastric tube.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Mortars are also used in cooking to prepare wet or oily ingredients such as guacamole, hummus and pesto (which derives its name from the pestle pounding), as well as grinding spices into powder. The molcajete, a version used by pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican cultures including the Aztec and Maya, stretching back several thousand years, is made of basalt and is used widely in Mexican cooking. Other Native American nations use mortars carved into the bedrock to grind acorns and other nuts. Many such depressions can be found in their territories.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: In Japan, very large mortars are used with wooden mallets to prepare mochi. A regular sized Japanese mortar and pestle are called a "suribachi" and "surikogi", respectively. Granite mortars and pestles are used in Southeast Asia, as well as Pakistan and India. In India, it is used extensively to make spice mixtures for various delicacies as well as day to day dishes. With the advent of motorized grinders, use of the mortar and pestle has decreased. It is traditional in various Hindu ceremonies (such as weddings, and upanayanam) to crush turmeric in these mortars.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: In Malay, it is known as "batu lesung". Large stone mortars, with long (2–3 foot) wood pestles were used in West Asia to grind meat for a type of meatloaf, or kibbeh, as well as the hummus variety known as masabcha. In Indonesia and the Netherlands mortar is known as "Cobek" or "Tjobek" and pestle is known as "Ulekan" or "Oelekan". The chobek is shaped like a deep saucer or plate. The ulekan is either pistol-shaped or an ovoid. It is often used to make fresh sambal, a spicy chili condiment, hence the "sambal ulek/oelek" denote its process using pestle. It is also used to grind peanut and other ingredients to make peanut sauce for gado-gado.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Large mortars and pestles are still commonly used in developing countries to husk and dehull grain. These are usually made of wood, and operated by one or more persons.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: In the Philippines, mortar and pestles are specifically associated with de-husking rice. A notable traditional mortar and pestle is the boat-shaped "bangkang pinawa" or "bangkang pangpinawa", literally "boat ("bangka") for unpolished rice", usually carved from a block of molave or other hardwood. It is pounded by two or three people. The name for the mortar, "lusong", is the origin of the name of the largest island in the Philippines - Luzon.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Large wooden mortars and pestles have been used to hull grain in West Africa for centuries. When enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas, they brought this technology—and knowledge of how to use it—with them. During the Middle Passage, some slave ships carried un-hulled rice, and enslaved African women were tasked with using mortars and pestles to prepare it for consumption. In both colonial North and South America, rice continued to be primarily milled by hand in this way until around the mid 1700s when mechanical mills became more widespread.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Good mortar and pestle-making materials must be hard enough to crush the substance rather than be worn away by it. They cannot be too brittle either, or they will break during the pounding and grinding. The material should also be cohesive, so that small bits of the mortar or pestle do not mix in with the ingredients. Smooth and non-porous materials are chosen that will not absorb or trap the substances being ground.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: In food preparation, a rough or absorbent material may cause the strong flavour of a past ingredient to be tasted in food prepared later. Also, the food particles left in the mortar and on the pestle may support the growth of microorganisms. When dealing with medications, the previously prepared drugs may interact or mix, contaminating the currently used ingredients.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Rough ceramic mortar and pestle sets can be used to reduce substances to very fine powders, but stain easily and are brittle. Porcelain mortars are sometimes conditioned for use by grinding some sand to give them a rougher surface which helps to reduce the particle size. Glass mortars and pestles are fragile, but stain-resistant and suitable for use with liquids. However, they do not grind as finely as the ceramic type.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Other materials used include stone, often marble or agate, wood (highly absorbent), bamboo, iron, steel, brass, and basalt. Mortar and pestle sets made from the wood of old grape vines have proved reliable for grinding salt and pepper at the dinner table. Uncooked rice is sometimes ground in mortars to clean them. This process must be repeated until the rice comes out completely white. Some stones, such as molcajete, need to be seasoned first before use. Metal mortars are kept lightly oiled.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: Since the results obtained with hand grinding are not easily reproducible, most laboratories use automatic mortar grinders. Grinding time and pressure of the mortar can be adjusted and fixed, saving time and labor.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The first automatic Mortar Grinder was invented by F. Kurt Retsch in 1923 and named the "Retschmill" after him.


title: Mortar and pestle

text: The use of mortar and pestle, pestling, offers the advantage that the substance is crushed with low energy so that the substance will not warm up.


title: James Dyson

text: Sir James Dyson (born 2 May 1947) is a British inventor, industrial designer, farmer and billionaire entrepreneur who founded Dyson Ltd. He is best known as the inventor of the dual cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, which works on the principle of cyclonic separation. According to the "Sunday Times" Rich List 2022, he is the second richest person in the UK with an estimated net worth of £23 billion.


title: James Dyson

text: He served as the Provost of the Royal College of Art from August 2011 to July 2017, and opened a new university, the Dyson Institute of Engineering and Technology, on Dyson's Wiltshire campus in September 2017.


title: James Dyson

text: James Dyson was born 2 May 1947 in Cromer, Norfolk, one of three children, and named after his grandfather, James Dyson. He was educated at Gresham's School, an independent boarding school in Holt, Norfolk, from 1956 to 1965, when his father died of prostate cancer. He excelled at long-distance running: "I was quite good at it, not because I was physically good, but because I had more determination. I learnt determination from it."


title: James Dyson

text: He spent one year (1965–1966) at the Byam Shaw School of Art, and then studied furniture and interior design at the Royal College of Art (1966–1970) before moving into engineering. It was while attending the Royal College of Art to study fine art that Dyson made the switch to industrial design due in part to the tutorage of structural engineer Anthony Hunt.


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson helped design the Sea Truck in 1970 while studying at the Royal College of Art. His first original invention, the Ballbarrow, was a modified version of a wheelbarrow using a ball instead of a wheel. This was featured on the BBC's "Tomorrow's World" television programme. Dyson stuck with the idea of a ball, inventing the Trolleyball, a trolley that launched boats. He then designed the Wheelboat, which could travel at speeds of 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph) on both land and water.


title: James Dyson

text: In the late 1970s, Dyson had the idea of using cyclonic separation to create a vacuum cleaner that would not lose suction as it picked up dirt. He became frustrated with his Hoover Junior's diminishing performance: the dust bag pores kept becoming clogged with dust thus reducing suction. The cyclone idea came from a sawmill that used cyclone technology.


title: James Dyson

text: Partly supported by his wife's salary as an art teacher, and after five years and about 5,127 prototypes, Dyson launched the "G-Force" cleaner in 1983. However, no manufacturer or distributor would handle his product in the UK, as it would have disturbed the valuable market for replacement dust bags, so Dyson launched it in Japan through catalogue sales. Manufactured in bright pink, the G-Force sold for the equivalent of £2,000. It won the 1991 International Design Fair Prize in Japan. He filed a series of patents for his dual cyclone vacuum cleaner EP0037674 in 1980. After his invention was rejected by the major manufacturers, Dyson set up his own manufacturing company, Dyson Ltd. In June 1993, he opened a research centre and factory in Malmesbury, Wiltshire.


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson's slogan, "say goodbye to the bag", proved attractive to the buying public. The Dyson Dual Cyclone became the fastest-selling vacuum cleaner ever made in the UK, and outsold those of some of the companies that rejected his idea, becoming one of the most popular brands in the UK. In early 2005, it was reported that Dyson cleaners had become the market leaders in the United States by value (though not by number of units sold). Dyson licensed the technology in North America from 1986 to 2001 to Fantom Technologies, after which Dyson entered the market directly.


title: James Dyson

text: Following his success, other major manufacturers began to market their own cyclonic vacuum cleaners. In 1999, Dyson sued Hoover (UK) for patent infringement. The High Court ruled that Hoover had deliberately copied a fundamental part of his patented designs in making its Triple Vortex bagless vacuum cleaner range. Hoover agreed to pay damages of £4 million.


title: James Dyson

text: In mid-2014, Dyson personally appeared in Tokyo to introduce his "360 Eye" robotic vacuum cleaner. Dyson's initial entry into this market segment features 360° scanning and mapping for navigation, cyclonic dust separation, a custom-designed digital motor for high suction, tank treads for traction, a full-width brushroll bar, and user interface via a free iOS or Android app.


title: James Dyson

text: Interviewed by "Fast Company" (May 2007), Dyson asserted the importance of failure in one's life, "I made 5,127 prototypes of my vacuum before I got it right. There were 5,126 failures. But I learned from each one. That's how I came up with a solution. So I don't mind failure. I've always thought that schoolchildren should be marked by the number of failures they've had. The child who tries strange things and experiences lots of failures to get there is probably more creative."


title: James Dyson

text: In 2000, Dyson expanded his appliance range to include a washing machine called the ContraRotator, which had two rotating drums moving in opposite directions. The range was decorated in the usual bright Dyson colours, rather than the traditional white, grey or black of most other machines. It was not a commercial success and was discontinued in 2005.


title: James Dyson

text: In 2002, Dyson created a realisation of the optical illusions depicted in the lithographs of Dutch artist M. C. Escher. Engineer Derek Phillips was able to accomplish the task after a year of work, creating a water sculpture in which the water appears to flow up to the tops of four ramps arranged in a square, before cascading to the bottom of the next ramp. Called "Wrong Garden", it was displayed at the Chelsea Flower Show in 2003. The illusion is accomplished with water containing air bubbles pumped through a chamber underneath the transparent glass ramps to a slit at the top from which the bulk of the water cascades down. This makes it appear that the water is flowing up, when really, a small amount of water diverted from the slit at the top flows back down the ramps in a thin layer.


title: James Dyson

text: In October 2006 Dyson launched the Dyson Airblade, a fast hand dryer that uses a thin sheet of moving air as a squeegee to remove water, rather than attempting to evaporate it with heat. This allows for faster drying, while using much less energy than traditional electrical hand dryers.


title: James Dyson

text: Another product, launched on 18 October 2009, is a fan without external blades, which he calls the Air Multiplier.


title: James Dyson

text: In April 2016, Dyson launched the Dyson Supersonic, a hair dryer with a smaller motor located in the handle so as to provide better balance and smaller size, as well as quieter operation. Commenting on the launch, "Vogue" magazine said "as the first product to launch from Dyson's new UK state-of-the-art hair laboratory, we have high hopes for the future of our blow-dries."


title: James Dyson

text: In 2017 Dyson spent £7 million a week on research and development of new products. The company is the UK's biggest investor in robotics and artificial intelligence research, employing over 3,500 engineers and scientists, and engaging in more than 40 university research programmes. Speaking to the "Daily Telegraph", Dyson said, “We’re looking at more non-domestic products but we are not rushing to do lots of different things,” he said. “We are a private company so we can do it when we are ready.”


title: James Dyson

text: In November 2014, Dyson announced plans to invest a further £1.5 billion into the research and development of new technology, including funding for an expanded campus at the Dyson UK headquarters in Malmesbury which will create up to 3,000 jobs.


title: James Dyson

text: The then Prime Minister David Cameron, said: "Dyson is a great British success story and the expansion of the Malmesbury campus will create thousands of new jobs, providing a real boost to the local economy and financial security for more hardworking families. Investment on this scale shows confidence in our long-term economic plan to back business, create more jobs and secure a brighter future for Britain".


title: James Dyson

text: In March 2016, Dyson announced a second new multimillion-pound research and development centre on a former Ministry of Defence (MoD) site at Hullavington, Wiltshire. The company said it aimed to double its UK-based workforce in the next five or six years. Dyson said: "After 25 years of UK growth, and continuing expansion globally, we are fast outgrowing our Malmesbury Campus. To win in the world stage you have to develop new technology and develop great products and that's what we're doing here.".


title: James Dyson

text: In September 2017, Dyson announced plans to produce an electric vehicle, aiming to be launched in 2020, investing £2 billion of his own money. He assembled a team of more than 400 people for the project. According to reports, the vehicle was intended to be powered by a solid-state battery, Dyson having acquired the battery company Sakti3 in 2015. In October 2019, Dyson announced that the electric car project had been cancelled due to it not being commercially viable.


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson has several times accused Chinese spies and students of copying technological and scientific secrets from the UK through the planting of software bugs and by infiltrating British industries, institutions, and universities after they left. He also complained that China benefits from stealing foreign designs, flouting of product copyrights and a two-speed patent system that discriminates against foreign firms with unreasonably longer times.


title: James Dyson

text: Sir James Dyson's tax affairs have been subject to considerable scrutiny in the British press across the political spectrum.


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson publicly stated in 2008, "I think it's wrong to direct your business for tax reasons. Your business should be where you can do it best". However, in 2009, his company Dyson Ltd incorporated a new parent company in Malta to create £300 million and £550 million in intercompany loans via Luxembourg and Isle of Man companies that increased tax-deductible interest payments in the UK between 2009 and 2012. The creation of the additional UK tax-deductible interest payments relied on deals with the Luxembourg tax authorities revealed in the 2014 Lux Leaks. The Dyson group stated to "The Guardian" in 2014: "At no time did the [group's former] non-UK structure deliver any significant tax advantage and, of the entities in question all have been dissolved".


title: James Dyson

text: In the 2022 Tax List published by "The Sunday Times" in January 2022, Sir James Dyson and family were listed 11th of the UK's 50 biggest taxpayers. The newspaper estimated £101 million was contributed for the last full year on record. The IPPR think tank noted that only two of those listed in the 2021 "Sunday Times" Rich List – Dyson and the Weston family – were listed in that year's Tax List. In the previous three years, Dyson had featured at 6th, 4th and 3rd in the "Sunday Times" Tax List, with the newspaper estimating a total contribution of £345.8 million to the UK exchequer.


title: James Dyson

text: In 1998, Dyson was one of the chairmen and chief executives of 20 FTSE 100 companies who signed a statement published in "The Financial Times" calling on the government for early British membership of the Eurozone. He claimed that failure to join the euro would lead to the destruction of the British manufacturing base and said: "It does not mean that the jobs will go tomorrow but will drift abroad over a period and the longer-term future of Britain as a manufacturing nation will be blighted. Ministers had better understand that if we delay entry too long there may be nothing left to save."


title: James Dyson

text: Claiming that the strength of the pound was affecting his company's profits on exports to France and Germany, in February 2000 Dyson threatened to shift focus from his Malmesbury plant to a new plant set up in Malaysia because the government would not join the euro. He said: "We would expect to double in size in the next two years. We are talking about a £100 million investment and up to 2,000 jobs. I would like to make that investment in the UK. But it seems that is not going to be possible. The value of sterling means we are struggling to compete at home with cheap imports from Europe and the Far East. We do around £40 million worth of export business with France and Germany each year but we aren't making any money. If we joined the euro we would be on an even footing with our biggest trading partners." An editorial published in "The Times" responded: "Mr Dyson, a manufacturing version of Sir Richard Branson, likes complaining. Yesterday he was complaining that Britain's failure to join the euro and the resultant strong pound will force him to move abroad. Last week he blamed the price of land and planning delays in Wiltshire, but never mind. So where will he go? To Portugal, Italy or to an EU candidate such as Poland? No, Mr Dyson threatens to go to the Far East. Like so many entrepreneurs, he wants a cheap currency and low interest rates, but also low inflation, low wages, a flexible labour market and low regulation. He will not find them in the eurozone."


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson again threatened to shift production abroad in November 2000, saying: "It's suicidal for the UK not to join the euro. Why should we go on exporting at a loss? We're facing unfair competition." In February 2002, Dyson announced that production was being shifted to the Far East. In August 2003, the assembly of washing machines was also switched from Malmesbury to Malaysia.


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson was one of the most prominent UK business leaders to publicly support Brexit before the referendum in June 2016. Since the referendum, Dyson has stated that Britain should leave the EU Single Market and that this would "liberate" the economy and allow Britain to strike its own trade deals around the world. During 2016, 19% of Dyson Ltd exports went to EU countries, compared with 81% to non-EU countries. In 2017, Dyson suggested that the UK should leave the EU without an interim deal and that "uncertainty is an opportunity". Previously, in 2014, Dyson had said he would be voting to leave the European Union to avoid being "dominated and bullied by the Germans". In November 2017, Dyson was critical of the UK government Brexit negotiations and said "we should just walk away and they will come to us". After it became public in January 2019 that Dyson's company was to move its headquarters from Malmesbury to Singapore, he was accused of hypocrisy regarding his campaign for Brexit.


title: James Dyson

text: In November 2015, Dyson lost its case against EU energy labelling laws in the European General Court; however, a subsequent appeal in the European Court of Justice said that the previous ruling had "distorted the facts" and "erred in law".


title: James Dyson

text: In 2022 Dyson sued Channel 4 and ITN over allegations of exploitation of workers at one of his suppliers’ factories. In the High Court it was ruled that there was no personal defamation.


title: James Dyson

text: Dyson set up the James Dyson Foundation in 2002 to support design and engineering education. It is a registered charity under English law and operates in UK, US and Japan. The foundation's aim is to inspire young people to study engineering and become engineers by encouraging students to think differently and to make mistakes. The foundation supports engineering education in schools and universities, as well as medical and scientific research in partnership with charities. It achieves this by funding different resources such as the "Engineering Box", a box filled with activities for a school to use as a teaching aid. The foundation loans the boxes to schools for four weeks free of charge, they are suitable for Key Stage 4 and above. The Engineering Box enables students to take apart and examine a Dyson DC22 Telescope vacuum cleaner. In addition, a school is allowed to retain a James Dyson Foundation teacher pack, and a copy of "Genius of Britain", a Channel 4 TV series featuring Dyson, and design engineering posters.


title: James Dyson

text: In May 2014, the foundation announced an £8 million donation to create a technology hub at the University of Cambridge. The donation will also allow for a design and making lab to be developed for undergraduate engineering students.


title: James Dyson

text: In March 2015, the foundation pledged a £12 million donation to Imperial College London to allow the purchase of a Post Office building in Exhibition Road from the Science Museum. Imperial College will open the Dyson School of Design Engineering in this building, and teach a new four-year master's degree in design engineering.


title: James Dyson

text: The foundation supports the work of young designers through the James Dyson Award, an international design award that "celebrates, encourages and inspires the next generation of design engineers".


title: James Dyson

text: In June 2019, the foundation announced a donation of £18.75 million to Dyson's old school, Gresham's, for the building of a new science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (STEAM) building.


title: James Dyson

text: In 1999, he acquired Domaine des Rabelles, an estate and winery near Villecroze and Tourtour, Var, France. In 2003, Dyson paid £15 million for Dodington Park, a Georgian estate in South Gloucestershire close to Chipping Sodbury. He and his wife also own a house in Chelsea, London.


title: James Dyson

text: His vessel "Nahlin" is the largest British-flagged and -owned super yacht with an overall length of , and was ranked 36th in a 2013 survey of the world's 100 biggest yachts. He also owns two Gulfstream G650ER private jets registered G-VIOF and G-GSVI. He previously owned an older Gulfstream G650, registered G-ULFS and currently owns a AgustaWestland AW-139 helicopter.


title: James Dyson

text: In July 2019, Dyson spent £43 million on a triplex flat at the top of the Guoco Tower, the tallest building in Singapore. He sold the flat in October 2020 for £36 million, and in April 2021 it was reported that he had moved his place of residence back to the UK. Dyson has also invested heavily into buying agriculture lands across Lincolnshire, Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Ross Barkley (born 5 December 1993) is an English professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for Ligue 1 club Nice.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley began his professional career at Everton in 2010. After loan spells at Sheffield Wednesday and Leeds United he became a regular in their team, playing 179 total games and scoring 27 goals for Everton. He signed for Chelsea in 2018 and won the FA Cup in 2018, the UEFA Europa League in 2019 and the FIFA Club World Cup in 2021.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley made his debut for the England national team in 2013. He played for England at the 2014 FIFA World Cup and was selected in Roy Hodgson's 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2016 but did not appear in any of England's matches.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley was born in Liverpool, Merseyside. He is of Nigerian descent through his father and bears his mother's maiden name instead of his father's name, Effanga. He joined Everton as an 11-year-old and played for the club's youth teams. He was named as a substitute in a first team league match in early 2010–11, and was expected to make his Premier League debut before his leg was broken in one place after a collision with Liverpool's Andre Wisdom during an England under-19 match in October 2010.


title: Ross Barkley

text: He recovered from his injury in time to join the first team for pre-season training before the beginning of 2011–12. During pre-season, Tim Cahill heralded Barkley as the most talented footballer he had worked with. He made his debut in Everton's first home match of the season, a 1–0 defeat to Queens Park Rangers, and was named man of the match by Radio City Sport. His early performances were highly praised, with Martin Keown predicting that "[Barkley will] be one of the best players we'll ever see in this country." He signed a new four-and-a-half-year contract in December 2011.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 14 September 2012, Barkley joined Sheffield Wednesday on a one-month loan, making his debut the same day in an away defeat against Brighton & Hove Albion. He scored his first goal for the club, a penalty, against Bolton Wanderers the following week. His loan was extended before he was recalled by Everton after playing 13 matches for Wednesday. He again went out on loan, this time to Leeds United for an "initial one-month stint", in January 2013 and made his debut for Leeds in a derby match against Barnsley.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley re-joined the Everton first team for the 2013–14 season. He scored his first goal for the club on the opening day in a 2–2 draw against Norwich City, and was later named man of the match. During the first half of the season, Barkley put in several man-of-the-match performances, notably against Arsenal and Swansea City – the latter whom he scored the winner against. He received praise from many pundits including Alan Hansen who said Barkley has absolutely everything and Gary Lineker who claimed he is a star in the making and a prodigious talent.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley's first FA Cup goal came on 4 January 2014, opening a 4–0 win over Queens Park Rangers in the third round. In March, Barkley scored a superb solo goal against Newcastle United in which he ran from his own half to net the opener in a 3–0 victory. On 18 April 2014, he was named as one of the six players on the shortlist for the PFA Young Player of the Year award. He scored a total of 6 goals in 34 Premier League matches throughout the season, including a goal against Manchester City on 3 May which BBC Sport described as "spectacular" and was awarded goal of the season at Everton's end of year awards.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 29 July 2014, Barkley signed a new contract with Everton, keeping him at the club until 2018. Before the start of the 2014–15 season he suffered an injury to his medial collateral ligament, and did not play until 18 October 2014, setting up Romelu Lukaku's goal in a 3–0 home league win over Aston Villa. He scored his first goal of the season in a 3–1 win over Queens Park Rangers on 15 December.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley scored Everton's first goal of the 2016–17 season on the opening day of the season, netting in the fifth minute of a 1–1 home draw against Tottenham Hotspur. In May 2017, Everton manager Ronald Koeman issued an ultimatum to Barkley, stating that if he was not signing a new contract, despite being offered an extension by the club, he would be sold in the summer. Koeman said on 26 July that Barkley had told him that he was ready for a new challenge and that he would not be signing a new contract with the club.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley did not feature for Everton in his final season with the club, having been sidelined with a long-term hamstring injury.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 5 January 2018, Barkley joined Premier League club Chelsea for a fee of £15 million, signing a five-and-a-half-year contract with the defending champions. He was assigned shirt number 8 by the club, the same number he wore at Everton. Barkley had been close to joining Chelsea previously on the summer transfer deadline day, before a move failed to materialise due to him suffering a long-term injury and wanting to consider his options. Days after its completion, the transfer was referred to Merseyside Police by the Mayor of Liverpool, Joe Anderson, to investigate the possibility of fraud in the transaction. No fraud was found. Barkley made his debut in a 2–1 defeat at Arsenal in the semi-final second leg of the EFL Cup on 24 January. He came on as a first-half substitute, replacing the injured Willian. Barkley made his Premier League debut for Chelsea in a 3–0 home loss to AFC Bournemouth. At the end of the season he was an unused substitute as Chelsea beat Manchester United in the 2018 FA Cup Final.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 7 October, Barkley scored his first goal for Chelsea in a 3–0 win away to Southampton in the Premier League after a strong start to the season under new manager Maurizio Sarri. He followed that up with a last minute equaliser against Manchester United at Stamford Bridge on 20 October. On 28 October, he scored for the third game running against Burnley at Turf Moor, netting in a 4–0 win. On 15 February 2019, Barkley scored his first European goal as Chelsea beat Malmö 2–1 in their Europa League last 32 first leg tie. He scored again in his second successive Europa League game against Malmö six days later in the second-leg tie at Stamford Bridge. On 29 May 2019, Barkley appeared in Chelsea's 4–1 victory over Arsenal in the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final, coming on as a substitute for Mateo Kovačić.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 17 September 2019, Barkley missed a vital penalty in a home Champions League game against Valencia. The miss sparked controversy as moments prior had revealed Barkley stepped up to take the penalty without consulting teammates, particularly Jorginho and Willian, the club's two preferred penalty takers. Chelsea would eventually lose the match 0–1. After the game, manager Frank Lampard defended his actions, stating that Barkley was the club's designated penalty taker. Barkley scored his first goal of the season in a 7–1 win over Grimsby Town in the third round of the EFL Cup.


title: Ross Barkley

text: In November 2019, Barkley was pictured topless in a nightclub. As a result, he was left out of Chelsea's squad travelling to Valencia, and Lampard was critical of him.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 23 September 2020, Barkley scored his first goal of the season, the third in a 6–0 EFL Cup third round win over Barnsley at Stamford Bridge.


title: Ross Barkley

text: On 30 September 2020, Barkley joined Chelsea's Premier League rivals Aston Villa on a season-long loan. On 4 October 2020, Barkley made his Villa debut, scoring one goal in a 7–2 home victory over Liverpool.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley returned to Chelsea for the 2021–22 season. He made his first appearance in an EFL Cup third round match at Stamford Bridge against former club Aston Villa on 22 September 2021, coming on as a substitute for Hakim Ziyech in the second half. On 2 October, Barkley made his first Premier League appearance of the season and played a crucial part in the build up that saw Timo Werner score his side's second goal, as Chelsea won 3–1 at home against Southampton. On 22 May, in the last league game of the season, he marked his 100th appearance for Chelsea with the winning goal against Watford, which was also the final goal of the Roman Abramovich era.


title: Ross Barkley

text: He was selected to play in the 2009 Montaigu Tournament and captained the team to success, beating Germany 2–1 on penalties in the final. He also helped England win the 2010 UEFA European Under-17 Championship with two goals en route to the final where England beat Spain 2–1.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley was called up to the England U-21 squad in August 2011. On 28 May 2013, he was named in manager Peter Taylor's 21-man squad for the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He made his debut on 16 June, in a 3–0 win in a warm-up match against Uruguay. He scored his first goal for England under-21s on 13 August 2013, in a 6–0 win against Scotland.


title: Ross Barkley

text: Barkley was called up to the senior England squad in August 2013, and earned his first senior cap the following month, coming on as a substitute for Jack Wilshere in a 4–0 win in a World Cup qualifier against Moldova at Wembley. He was named in the England squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, and made his World Cup debut as a 61st-minute substitute for Danny Welbeck in England's 2–1 opening defeat to Italy in Manaus. He played the full match in England's final group match, a 0–0 draw with Costa Rica in Belo Horizonte. He scored his first goal for the senior team in a 6–0 win against San Marino in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier in September 2015.


title: Ross Barkley

text: In 2013, Everton manager Roberto Martínez described Barkley as a mix of Paul Gascoigne and Michael Ballack. England manager Roy Hodgson has said that Barkley's "pace and power" as well as his "excellent technique" are reminiscent of Paul Gascoigne, and Frank Lampard stated that Barkley reminds him of a young Wayne Rooney. Barcelona midfielder Xavi said in November 2014 that Barkley is good enough to play for the La Liga club, praising his physical and technical qualities in both penalty areas.


title: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012 TV series)

text: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (also known as Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles for its fifth and final season) is an American computer-animated television series developed by Ciro Nieli, Joshua Sternin, Jennifer Ventimilia, and based on the characters of the same name created by Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird. Headed by the series aired on Nickelodeon in the United States from September 28, 2012 to November 12, 2017. It was produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio and LowBar Productions. Bardel Entertainment handled layout and CG animation services. The series begins with the turtles emerging from their sewer home for the first time. They use their ninjutsu training to fight enemies in present-day New York City.


text: The series was first announced in October 2009, following the news that Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom had acquired the rights to the "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" franchise. The show was created to reach a core audience of boys aged 6 to 11; it was one half of Nickelodeon's strategy to reboot two established brands for new viewers, coinciding with Nickelodeon Animation Studio's development of new "Winx Club" episodes for girls.


text: During the months leading to its premiere, Nickelodeon and Playmates Toys released lines of merchandise featuring the new character designs. The two-part premiere took place on September 28 and September 29, 2012, reaching 3.9 million viewers. The debut ratings were the highest for a Nickelodeon animated series since 2009, leading to a second season pickup in October. Three more seasons followed; the fifth and final season was rebranded as "Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and did not fully air on Nickelodeon, as episodes 115–121 premiered on its sister channel Nicktoons.


text: Ninjutsu master Hamato Yoshi (Splinter) is carrying his four pet turtles through the streets of Manhattan when he encounters members of an alien race called the Kraang. During an altercation with these aliens, Yoshi and the turtles are exposed to the Kraang's chemical, called mutagen, which causes organic beings to undergo major physical transformations. Yoshi takes on characteristics of a brown rat and the turtles take on human characteristics. Yoshi retreats to the New York City sewers where he raises the four turtles as his sons and imparts to them his knowledge of ninjutsu.


text: Now teenagers, the turtles (Leonardo, Raphael, Donatello and Michelangelo) venture to the surface for the first time and learn that the Kraang are using the mutagen as part of their plan to take over New York City. They befriend the teenage April O'Neil after she and her psychologist father Kirby are abducted by the Kraang. Donatello, who has developed a crush on April, is able to rescue her. While Kirby remains a prisoner of the Kraang, April becomes an ally of the turtles, who try to help her locate her father. April is also trained by Splinter to be a kunoichi, a female ninja.


text: After learning of Splinter's and the turtles' presence in New York, Splinter's adoptive brother and long-time enemy the Shredder travels there from Japan and orders his birth clan, the Foot to track down Splinter and his sons, and put an end to their clan. Learning about the Kraang's presence through his adopted daughter Karai, Shredder enters an alliance with the aliens to destroy their mutual enemies in the Hamato Clan.


text: The turtles later discover that the Kraang came to Earth from Dimension X and built their headquarters with a company called TCRI and are plotting to use the mutagen and a set of Kraang-like powers that April was born with to convert Earth into a planet suitable for their race. After the turtles rescue Kirby, the Kraang invade New York, but the turtles and April emerge triumphant when they send the Technodrome, the Kraang leader Kraang Prime's ship, crashing into the sea. Meanwhile, Splinter battles Shredder and learns that Karai is his own daughter, Hamato Miwa, who was kidnapped by Shredder and who believes that Splinter killed her mother. The season ends with the turtles celebrating their victory over the Kraang as Splinter hides the secret of Miwa from them.