title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic particles at Earth's surface, followed by cementation. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause these particles to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock are called sediment, and may be composed of geological detritus (minerals) or biological detritus (organic matter). The geological detritus originated from weathering and erosion of existing rocks, or from the solidification of molten lava blobs erupted by volcanoes. The geological detritus is transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice or mass movement, which are called agents of denudation. Biological detritus was formed by bodies and parts (mainly shells) of dead aquatic organisms, as well as their fecal mass, suspended in water and slowly piling up on the floor of water bodies (marine snow). Sedimentation may also occur as dissolved minerals precipitate from water solution.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth's crust is extensive (73% of the Earth's current land surface), but sedimentary rock is estimated to be only 8% of the volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in large structures called sedimentary basins. Sedimentary rocks have also been found on Mars.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources including coal, fossil fuels, drinking water and ores.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the Earth's history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life. The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. Sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology, geochemistry and structural geology.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation: clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for "other" sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of rock fragments ("clasts") that have been cemented together. The clasts are commonly individual grains of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, or mica. However, any type of mineral may be present. Clasts may also be "lithic fragments" composed of more than one mineral.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. Most geologists use the Udden-Wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions: gravel (>2 mm diameter), sand (1/16 to 2 mm diameter), and mud (<1/16 mm diameter). Mud is further divided into silt (1/16 to 1/256 mm diameter) and clay (<1/256 mm diameter). The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of mud. This tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape (conglomerates and breccias), composition (sandstones), or grain size or texture (mudrocks).


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme, which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition (quartz-, feldspathic-, and lithic-) and the amount of matrix (wacke or arenite). For example, a quartz arenite would be composed of mostly (>90%) quartz grains and have little or no clayey matrix between the grains, a lithic wacke would have abundant lithic grains and abundant muddy matrix, etc.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Although the Dott classification scheme is widely used by sedimentologists, common names like greywacke, arkose, and quartz sandstone are still widely used by non-specialists and in popular literature.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles. These relatively fine-grained particles are commonly transported by turbulent flow in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Most authors presently use the term "mudrock" to refer to all rocks composed dominantly of mud. Mudrocks can be divided into siltstones, composed dominantly of silt-sized particles; mudstones with subequal mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles; and claystones, composed mostly of clay-sized particles. Most authors use "shale" as a term for a fissile mudrock (regardless of grain size) although some older literature uses the term "shale" as a synonym for mudrock.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue. Examples include:


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in solution become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals, such as halite (rock salt), sylvite, baryte and gypsum.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: This fourth miscellaneous category includes volcanic tuff and volcanic breccias formed by deposition and later cementation of lava fragments erupted by volcanoes, and impact breccias formed after impact events.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Alternatively, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into compositional groups based on their mineralogy:


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: As sediments accumulate in a depositional environment, older sediments are buried by younger sediments, and they undergo diagenesis. Diagenesis includes all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, exclusive of surface weathering, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition. This includes compaction and lithification of the sediments. Early stages of diagenesis, described as "eogenesis", take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and is characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in the sediments, with only slight compaction. The red hematite that gives red bed sandstones their color is likely formed during eogenesis. Some biochemical processes, like the activity of bacteria, can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Deeper burial is accompanied by "mesogenesis", during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. Compaction takes place as the sediments come under increasing overburden (lithostatic) pressure from overlying sediments. Sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, grains of ductile minerals (such as mica) are deformed, and pore space is reduced. Sediments are typically saturated with groundwater or seawater when originally deposited, and as pore space is reduced, much of these connate fluids are expelled. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution. Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. The increased pressure and temperature stimulate further chemical reactions, such as the reactions by which organic material becomes lignite or coal.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten the precipitation of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to this process of cementation, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. This further reduces porosity and makes the rock more compact and competent.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Unroofing of buried sedimentary rock is accompanied by "telogenesis", the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the sedimentary rock, such as leaching of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: At sufficiently high temperature and pressure, the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism, the process that forms metamorphic rock.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by iron, an element with two major oxides: iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide. Iron(II) oxide (FeO) only forms under low oxygen (anoxic) circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour. Iron(III) oxide (FeO) in a richer oxygen environment is often found in the form of the mineral hematite and gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour. In arid continental climates rocks are in direct contact with the atmosphere, and oxidation is an important process, giving the rock a red or orange colour. Thick sequences of red sedimentary rocks formed in arid climates are called red beds. However, a red colour does not necessarily mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The presence of organic material can colour a rock black or grey. Organic material is formed from dead organisms, mostly plants. Normally, such material eventually decays by oxidation or bacterial activity. Under anoxic circumstances, however, organic material cannot decay and leaves a dark sediment, rich in organic material. This can, for example, occur at the bottom of deep seas and lakes. There is little water mixing in such environments; as a result, oxygen from surface water is not brought down, and the deposited sediment is normally a fine dark clay. Dark rocks, rich in organic material, are therefore often shales.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The size, form and orientation of clasts (the original pieces of rock) in a sediment is called its texture. The texture is a small-scale property of a rock, but determines many of its large-scale properties, such as the density, porosity or permeability.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The 3D orientation of the clasts is called the fabric of the rock. The size and form of clasts can be used to determine the velocity and direction of current in the sedimentary environment that moved the clasts from their origin; fine, calcareous mud only settles in quiet water while gravel and larger clasts are moved only by rapidly moving water. The grain size of a rock is usually expressed with the Wentworth scale, though alternative scales are sometimes used. The grain size can be expressed as a diameter or a volume, and is always an average value, since a rock is composed of clasts with different sizes. The statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock. When all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called 'well-sorted', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called 'poorly sorted'.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock. For example, coquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters:


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Chemical sedimentary rocks have a non-clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. To describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz (siliciclastic rocks) or calcite (carbonate rocks). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. However, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. Minerals in a sedimentary rock may have been present in the original sediments or may formed by precipitation during diagenesis. In the second case, a mineral precipitate may have grown over an older generation of cement. A complex diagenetic history can be established by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Carbonate rocks predominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. Both the cement and the clasts (including fossils and ooids) of a carbonate sedimentary rock usually consist of carbonate minerals. The mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The resistance of rock-forming minerals to weathering is expressed by the Goldich dissolution series. In this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred. The amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. In most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been weathered to clay minerals like kaolinite, illite or smectite.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers, bacteria, rotting and erosion, but under exceptional circumstances, these natural processes are unable to take place, leading to fossilisation. The chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high (so that a carcass is quickly buried), in anoxic environments (where little bacterial activity occurs) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. Larger, well-preserved fossils are relatively rare.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: As a part of a sedimentary rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the host rock. For example, a shell consisting of calcite can dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. The most common minerals involved in permineralization are various forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert), carbonates (especially calcite), and pyrite.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: At high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form, graphite. This form of fossilisation is called carbonisation. It is particularly important for plant fossils. The same process is responsible for the formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Structures in sedimentary rocks can be divided into "primary" structures (formed during deposition) and "secondary" structures (formed after deposition). Unlike textures, structures are always large-scale features that can easily be studied in the field. Sedimentary structures can indicate something about the sedimentary environment or can serve to tell which side originally faced up where tectonics have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. A bed is defined as a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and texture. Beds form by the deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other. The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding. Single beds can be a couple of centimetres to several meters thick. Finer, less pronounced layers are called laminae, and the structure a lamina forms in a rock is called lamination. Laminae are usually less than a few centimetres thick. Though bedding and lamination are often originally horizontal in nature, this is not always the case. In some environments, beds are deposited at a (usually small) angle. Sometimes multiple sets of layers with different orientations exist in the same rock, a structure called cross-bedding. Cross-bedding is characteristic of deposition by a flowing medium (wind or water).


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The opposite of cross-bedding is parallel lamination, where all sedimentary layering is parallel. Differences in laminations are generally caused by cyclic changes in the sediment supply, caused, for example, by seasonal changes in rainfall, temperature or biochemical activity. Laminae that represent seasonal changes (similar to tree rings) are called varves. Any sedimentary rock composed of millimeter or finer scale layers can be named with the general term "laminite". When sedimentary rocks have no lamination at all, their structural character is called massive bedding.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Graded bedding is a structure where beds with a smaller grain size occur on top of beds with larger grains. This structure forms when fast flowing water stops flowing. Larger, heavier clasts in suspension settle first, then smaller clasts. Although graded bedding can form in many different environments, it is a characteristic of turbidity currents.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The surface of a particular bed, called the bedform, can also be indicative of a particular sedimentary environment. Examples of bed forms include dunes and ripple marks. Sole markings, such as tool marks and flute casts, are grooves eroded on a surface that are preserved by renewed sedimentation. These are often elongated structures and can be used to establish the direction of the flow during deposition.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Ripple marks also form in flowing water. There can be symmetric or asymmetric. Asymmetric ripples form in environments where the current is in one direction, such as rivers. The longer flank of such ripples is on the upstream side of the current. Symmetric wave ripples occur in environments where currents reverse directions, such as tidal flats.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Mudcracks are a bed form caused by the dehydration of sediment that occasionally comes above the water surface. Such structures are commonly found at tidal flats or point bars along rivers.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Secondary sedimentary structures are those which formed after deposition. Such structures form by chemical, physical and biological processes within the sediment. They can be indicators of circumstances after deposition. Some can be used as way up criteria.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Organic materials in a sediment can leave more traces than just fossils. Preserved tracks and burrows are examples of trace fossils (also called ichnofossils). Such traces are relatively rare. Most trace fossils are burrows of molluscs or arthropods. This burrowing is called bioturbation by sedimentologists. It can be a valuable indicator of the biological and ecological environment that existed after the sediment was deposited. On the other hand, the burrowing activity of organisms can destroy other (primary) structures in the sediment, making a reconstruction more difficult.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Secondary structures can also form by diagenesis or the formation of a soil (pedogenesis) when a sediment is exposed above the water level. An example of a diagenetic structure common in carbonate rocks is a stylolite. Stylolites are irregular planes where material was dissolved into the pore fluids in the rock. This can result in the precipitation of a certain chemical species producing colouring and staining of the rock, or the formation of concretions. Concretions are roughly concentric bodies with a different composition from the host rock. Their formation can be the result of localized precipitation due to small differences in composition or porosity of the host rock, such as around fossils, inside burrows or around plant roots. In carbonate rocks such as limestone or chalk, chert or flint concretions are common, while terrestrial sandstones sometimes contain iron concretions. Calcite concretions in clay containing angular cavities or cracks are called septarian concretions.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: After deposition, physical processes can deform the sediment, producing a third class of secondary structures. Density contrasts between different sedimentary layers, such as between sand and clay, can result in flame structures or load casts, formed by inverted diapirism. While the clastic bed is still fluid, diapirism can cause a denser upper layer to sink into a lower layer. Sometimes, density contrasts occur or are enhanced when one of the lithologies dehydrates. Clay can be easily compressed as a result of dehydration, while sand retains the same volume and becomes relatively less dense. On the other hand, when the pore fluid pressure in a sand layer surpasses a critical point, the sand can break through overlying clay layers and flow through, forming discordant bodies of sedimentary rock called sedimentary dykes. The same process can form mud volcanoes on the surface where they broke through upper layers.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary dykes can also be formed in a cold climate where the soil is permanently frozen during a large part of the year. Frost weathering can form cracks in the soil that fill with rubble from above. Such structures can be used as climate indicators as well as way up structures.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Density contrasts can also cause small-scale faulting, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous-sedimentary faulting). Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a delta or the continental slope. Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to slump, producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn-sedimentary folds and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by tectonic forces acting on lithified rocks.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The setting in which a sedimentary rock forms is called the depositional environment. Every environment has a characteristic combination of geologic processes, and circumstances. The type of sediment that is deposited is not only dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place (provenance), but also on the environment itself.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: A marine environment means that the rock was formed in a sea or ocean. Often, a distinction is made between deep and shallow marine environments. Deep marine usually refers to environments more than 200 m below the water surface (including the abyssal plain). Shallow marine environments exist adjacent to coastlines and can extend to the boundaries of the continental shelf. The water movements in such environments have a generally higher energy than that in deep environments, as wave activity diminishes with depth. This means that coarser sediment particles can be transported and the deposited sediment can be coarser than in deeper environments. When the sediment is transported from the continent, an alternation of sand, clay and silt is deposited. When the continent is far away, the amount of such sediment deposited may be small, and biochemical processes dominate the type of rock that forms. Especially in warm climates, shallow marine environments far offshore mainly see deposition of carbonate rocks. The shallow, warm water is an ideal habitat for many small organisms that build carbonate skeletons. When these organisms die, their skeletons sink to the bottom, forming a thick layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone. Warm shallow marine environments also are ideal environments for coral reefs, where the sediment consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: In deep marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. Only fine particles can be transported to such places. Typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro-organisms. At 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically (the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline). Calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves; as a result, no limestone can be formed below this depth. Skeletons of micro-organisms formed of silica (such as radiolarians) are not as soluble and are still deposited. An example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite. When the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example, at the continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing turbidity currents. Turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quiet deep marine environment and can cause the near-instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. The rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The coast is an environment dominated by wave action. At a beach, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. Tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide. They are often cross-cut by gullies, where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger. Where rivers enter the body of water, either on a sea or lake coast, deltas can form. These are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. Deltas are dominantly composed of clastic (rather than chemical) sediment.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: A continental sedimentary environment is an environment in the interior of a continent. Examples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, swamps, floodplains and alluvial fans. In the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. In rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. Besides transport by water, sediment can be transported by wind or glaciers. Sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is almost always very well sorted, while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Aeolian deposits can be quite striking. The depositional environment of the Touchet Formation, located in the Northwestern United States, had intervening periods of aridity which resulted in a series of rhythmite layers. Erosional cracks were later infilled with layers of soil material, especially from aeolian processes. The infilled sections formed vertical inclusions in the horizontally deposited layers, and thus provided evidence of the sequence of events during deposition of the forty-one layers of the formation.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The kind of rock formed in a particular depositional environment is called its sedimentary facies. Sedimentary environments usually exist alongside each other in certain natural successions. A beach, where sand and gravel is deposited, is usually bounded by a deeper marine environment a little offshore, where finer sediments are deposited at the same time. Behind the beach, there can be dunes (where the dominant deposition is well sorted sand) or a lagoon (where fine clay and organic material is deposited). Every sedimentary environment has its own characteristic deposits. When sedimentary strata accumulate through time, the environment can shift, forming a change in facies in the subsurface at one location. On the other hand, when a rock layer with a certain age is followed laterally, the lithology (the type of rock) and facies eventually change.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Facies can be distinguished in a number of ways: the most common are by the lithology (for example: limestone, siltstone or sandstone) or by fossil content. Coral, for example, only lives in warm and shallow marine environments and fossils of coral are thus typical for shallow marine facies. Facies determined by lithology are called lithofacies; facies determined by fossils are biofacies.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time. Coastlines can shift in the direction of the sea when the sea level drops (regression), when the surface rises (transgression) due to tectonic forces in the Earth's crust or when a river forms a large delta. In the subsurface, such geographic shifts of sedimentary environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies. This means that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an imaginary layer of rock with a fixed age, a phenomenon described by Walther's Law.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The situation in which coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called transgression. In the case of transgression, deeper marine facies are deposited over shallower facies, a succession called onlap. Regression is the situation in which a coastline moves in the direction of the sea. With regression, shallower facies are deposited on top of deeper facies, a situation called offlap.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The facies of all rocks of a certain age can be plotted on a map to give an overview of the palaeogeography. A sequence of maps for different ages can give an insight in the development of the regional geography.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Places where large-scale sedimentation takes place are called sedimentary basins. The amount of sediment that can be deposited in a basin depends on the depth of the basin, the so-called "accommodation space". The depth, shape and size of a basin depend on tectonics, movements within the Earth's lithosphere. Where the lithosphere moves upward (tectonic uplift), land eventually rises above sea level and the area becomes a source for new sediment as erosion removes material. Where the lithosphere moves downward (tectonic subsidence), a basin forms and sediments are deposited.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a rift basin. Rift basins are elongated, narrow and deep basins. Due to divergent movement, the lithosphere is stretched and thinned, so that the hot asthenosphere rises and heats the overlying rift basin. Apart from continental sediments, rift basins normally also have part of their infill consisting of volcanic deposits. When the basin grows due to continued stretching of the lithosphere, the rift grows and the sea can enter, forming marine deposits.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: When a piece of lithosphere that was heated and stretched cools again, its density rises, causing isostatic subsidence. If this subsidence continues long enough, the basin is called a sag basin. Examples of sag basins are the regions along passive continental margins, but sag basins can also be found in the interior of continents. In sag basins, the extra weight of the newly deposited sediments is enough to keep the subsidence going in a vicious circle. The total thickness of the sedimentary infill in a sag basin can thus exceed 10 km.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: A third type of basin exists along convergent plate boundaries – places where one tectonic plate moves under another into the asthenosphere. The subducting plate bends and forms a fore-arc basin in front of the overriding plate – an elongated, deep asymmetric basin. Fore-arc basins are filled with deep marine deposits and thick sequences of turbidites. Such infill is called flysch. When the convergent movement of the two plates results in continental collision, the basin becomes shallower and develops into a foreland basin. At the same time, tectonic uplift forms a mountain belt in the overriding plate, from which large amounts of material are eroded and transported to the basin. Such erosional material of a growing mountain chain is called molasse and has either a shallow marine or a continental facies.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: At the same time, the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt. The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a back-arc basin and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: In many cases facies changes and other lithological features in sequences of sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature. This cyclic nature was caused by cyclic changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment. Most of these cyclic changes are caused by astronomic cycles. Short astronomic cycles can be the difference between the tides or the spring tide every two weeks. On a larger time-scale, cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused by Milankovitch cycles: cyclic changes in the orientation and/or position of the Earth's rotational axis and orbit around the Sun. There are a number of Milankovitch cycles known, lasting between 10,000 and 200,000 years.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth's climate. An example are the ice ages of the past 2.6 million years (the Quaternary period), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles. Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: The rate at which sediment is deposited differs depending on the location. A channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a few metres of sediment in one day, while on the deep ocean floor each year only a few millimetres of sediment accumulate. A distinction can be made between normal sedimentation and sedimentation caused by catastrophic processes. The latter category includes all kinds of sudden exceptional processes like mass movements, rock slides or flooding. Catastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount of sediment at once. In some sedimentary environments, most of the total column of sedimentary rock was formed by catastrophic processes, even though the environment is usually a quiet place. Other sedimentary environments are dominated by normal, ongoing sedimentation.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a desert, for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a wadi may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition. There are usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.


title: Sedimentary rock

text: Provenance is the reconstruction of the origin of sediments. All rock exposed at Earth's surface is subjected to physical or chemical weathering and broken down into finer grained sediment. All three types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks) can be the source of sedimentary detritus. The purpose of sedimentary provenance studies is to reconstruct and interpret the history of sediment from the initial parent rocks at a source area to final detritus at a burial place.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Overlord is a 2018 American action horror film directed by Julius Avery and written by Billy Ray and Mark L. Smith. It stars Jovan Adepo, Wyatt Russell, Mathilde Ollivier, John Magaro, Gianny Taufer, Pilou Asbæk, Bokeem Woodbine and Iain De Caestecker. The film was produced by J. J. Abrams, through his Bad Robot Productions banner, and Lindsey Weber. The plot follows several American soldiers who are dropped behind enemy lines the day before D-Day and discover terrifying Nazi experiments.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: "Overlord" was released in the United States on November 9, 2018, by Paramount Pictures. The film grossed $41 million against a budget of $38 million.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: On the eve of D-Day, a paratrooper squad, most of them in an integrated unit, is sent to destroy a German radio-jamming tower in an old church. Their plane is shot down and crashes, and most of the squad, including squad leader Sgt. Rensin, are killed either in the crash or by Nazi soldiers and landmines. Four survivors remain: second-in-command Corporal Ford, Pfc. Boyce, Pfc. Tibbet, and Pvt. Chase.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: The team continues onward and meets Chloe, a young woman from the village where the church is located. She lets them take refuge in her house. Chloe lives with her 8-year-old brother Paul and her aunt, who has been disfigured by Nazi experiments taking place in the church. After Tibbet and Chase depart to check the scheduled rendezvous site, a Nazi patrol led by SS Hauptsturmführer Wafner visits Chloe. Wafner sends his men away, and proceeds to coerce Chloe for sex, threatening to send her brother to the church to be "fixed". Boyce cannot ignore this and interrupts the Nazi officer. Ford is forced to follow suit and restrains Wafner.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Attempting to reach the rendezvous point to look for Tibbet and Chase, Boyce witnesses the Nazis burning disfigured village residents. He is chased by a dog and forced to hide in a truck carrying dead bodies into the church. Sneaking out of the truck, Boyce discovers an underground base that houses not only a radio operating room, but also a laboratory where the Germans perform various experiments on the villagers involving a mysterious serum and a large pit filled with black tar. Boyce takes a syringe containing the serum and rescues Rosenfeld, another member of the paratrooper squad, who was captured alive. They escape through the base's sewers.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: When Boyce and Rosenfeld get back to Chloe's house, Tibbet and Chase have already returned. Wafner refuses to explain what the serum does, even as Ford tortures him. As the squad prepares to attack the church, Wafner attempts to escape, and fatally shoots Chase. Boyce, having seen a dead man supposedly resurrected by the serum in the lab, injects Chase with the syringe. Chase is resurrected, but soon mutates and turns violent. A scuffle ensues, ending with Boyce bludgeoning Chase to death. A patrol responding to the carnage arrives, and a shootout erupts in which the patrol is killed and Ford blows half of Wafner's face off. Wafner escapes with Paul as a hostage and back at the lab, injects himself with two doses of the serum.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Boyce proposes infiltrating the base and destroying the tower from the inside, which would also destroy the laboratory. The other privates support him, and Ford grudgingly agrees. Splitting up, Rosenfeld and Tibbet launch a frontal assault as a distraction, while Ford, Boyce, and Chloe enter the base using the sewers. Boyce and Ford plant the explosives, while Chloe looks for Paul. Chloe finds Paul, sends him back to the village, and successfully kills a mutated test subject who corners her. She returns to the village, where Tibbet and Rosenfeld are pursued by the base's defenders. Tibbet is wounded while shielding Paul from gunfire. Chloe kills the remaining Germans and treats Tibbet's wounds.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Wafner, now mutated and possessing superhuman strength and resilience, overpowers Ford and impales him on a meat hook. Wafner reveals that the serum was made by using the villagers' bodies to distill the ancient power of the black tar, which had been running under the village for centuries. The aim was to create immortal and invincible soldiers to serve the Reich. As Boyce distracts Wafner, Ford pulls the hook out and injects himself with the serum to heal his wounds. He holds off Wafner long enough for Boyce to set off an oxygen tank, which sends Wafner falling into the tar pit. As he begins to mutate, Ford orders Boyce to leave him behind and detonate the explosives, believing neither side should possess the serum. Boyce complies, and narrowly escapes as the church and jamming tower collapse behind him, killing Ford, Wafner, and the test subjects. He joins the others as a radio announces that the D-Day invasion concluded in a victory for the Allies.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: In his report, Boyce credits Ford for the decision to plant the bombs inside the church. The commanding officer questions Boyce regarding rumors of an underground lab under the church. Boyce, sharing Ford's view, denies seeing anything worth digging up. The officer seemingly accepts his story, and informs him that they will be reassigned to C Company as the war continues.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: The initial story for the film was conceived by J. J. Abrams and screenwriter Billy Ray, with Ray penning the script. Paramount acquired the film in 2017, and Mark L. Smith was brought in to polish the script. On February 1, 2017, Bad Robot Productions and Paramount Pictures announced that Julius Avery would direct the film. On January 18, 2018, the film was initially reported as being the fourth installment in the "Cloverfield" film series, though Abrams denied this at CinemaCon on April 25, 2018.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: In April 2017, Jovan Adepo and Wyatt Russell were the first actors to be cast in the film. In May 2017, Mathilde Ollivier, John Magaro, Gianny Taufer, Pilou Asbæk, and Bokeem Woodbine were cast in supporting roles. Principal photography began in September 2017 and wrapped January 2018. Visual effects for the film were provided by Industrial Light & Magic, Image Engine, Rodeo FX, Pixomondo, Mr X, Southbay and Nzviage. Mark Bakowski, Julian Foddy, Dan Seddon, Stefano Trivelli and Pauline Duvall served as visual effects supervisors.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: The official motion picture soundtrack was released on digital only on November 9, 2018 by Paramount Music Corporation. The soundtrack was composed by Australian singer-songwriter and film composer Jed Kurzel, known for his previous work on the sci-fi film "". This film is Kurzel's second collaboration with director Julius Avery, having previously worked together on "Son of a Gun". Playing over the film's credits is the song "Bridging the Gap" by the rapper Nas, though this does not appear on the soundtrack.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: "Overlord" was originally scheduled to be released on October 26, 2018. However, in July 2018, it was pushed back to November 9, 2018.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Footage premiered at CinemaCon in April 2018, and the first trailer was released on July 18, 2018. The film premiered at Fantastic Fest 2018 on September 22.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: The primary theatrical poster for the film was first shown on September 12, 2018, with blood spatters on white backdrop, which appear to represent the paratroopers in the film. The simplistic poster was designed by BLT Communications, which designed posters for films such as "Frozen 2 "and "Game of Thrones". The poster went on the win the IMP Award for best poster of 2018.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on February 19, 2019 and was available on Digital HD from Amazon Video and iTunes on February 18, 2019.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: "Overlord" grossed $21.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $20 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $41.7 million, against a production budget of $38 million.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Overlord" was released alongside "The Girl in the Spider's Web" and "The Grinch", and was projected to gross $8–13 million from 2,859 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $3 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $10.1 million, finishing third at the box office. The film fell 62% in its second weekend to $3.9 million, finishing eighth.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 81% based on 220 reviews and an average rating of 6.71/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Part revisionist war drama, part zombie thriller, and part all-out genre gorefest, "Overlord" offers A-level fun for B-movie fans of multiple persuasions." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported film-goers gave it three out of five stars.


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Amy Nicholson of "Variety" wrote "Even at its most suspenseful, when Jed Kurzel's cello score stabs at the eardrums, "Overlord" feels familiar, a collage of cinematic nightmares checking off its influences: a woman wielding a flamethrower like Ripley in "Aliens", a cruel SS officer (the terrifically hissable Pilou Asbæk) who grins like a Batman villain, and enough of a "Castle Wolfenstein" video-game vibe that its fans may find themselves reaching for the controls out of habit." While most reviews were positive, Michael Ordoña of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave a rather scathing review, writing that the "enjoyment" one expects from GIs fighting zombies is "stunted by the film's lack of energy and imagination," and goes on to explain, "Director Julius Avery goes to the startle-scare early and often. Every turn, every beat feels too familiar. The writers didn't bother researching period lingo. Characters do idiotic things to enable plot devices. The screaming and gunfire seem excessive for a stealth mission. And the whole undead thing simply doesn't pay off." Although he does admit, "At least the makeup effects are quite good." John DeFoe of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the film a positive review, writing: "As the team moves in on the laboratory and the radio tower above it, Avery balances the truly disgusting with more comic-book-like action...Still, the movie's tone holds together, with the lurid colors of opening scenes (the cinematic equivalent of a gory, pre-code war comic book) setting the stage for heightened action to come."


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: Corey Plante of Inverse addressed the films reluctance to “lean into stereotypes or depict racism for the sake of historical accuracy” with an interview with star Jovan Adepo. “We’re not trying to make a historical movie,” Adepo said, “casting was less about race and more about who has those characteristics that help put together the strongest cast possible.”


title: Overlord (2018 film)

text: David Brin's science fiction short story, "Thor Meets Captain America", contains a similar premise, though it in addition features deities of the Norse pantheon, which are not present in this film's story.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Lisa Jane Vanderpump (born 15 September 1960) is an English television personality, businesswoman and actress. Since 2013, she has been a main cast member on "Vanderpump Rules". From 2010 to 2019, she was an original main cast member on "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills". In 2021, she hosted "Overserved with Lisa Vanderpump". Later that year, she was featured in "Vanderpump Dogs".


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Vanderpump and her husband, Ken Todd, have owned 36 restaurants, bars and clubs across the United Kingdom and the United States, including The Shadow Lounge, Bar Soho, SUR Restaurant & Lounge, Villa Blanca, Pump Restaurant, Tom Tom Restaurant & Bar, Vanderpump Cocktail Garden and Vanderpump à Paris.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Lisa Jane Vanderpump was born in Dulwich, London, on 15 September 1960, the younger of the two children of ad agency art director John Vanderpump and his wife, Jean. Vanderpump's older brother was DJ and businessman, Mark Vanderpump.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Vanderpump started ballet lessons at three, and attended Riverston School in Lee Green, South London. Vanderpump was enrolled in the Corona Academy drama school, at the age of nine.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: By the age of 19, Vanderpump had bought herself a flat in Fulham, West London. Vanderpump was financially self-sufficient after leaving home, with "just a good education and a kick in the arse."


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: At the age of 13, Vanderpump made her film debut as an uncredited extra in the 1973 romantic comedy "A Touch of Class", playing Julia Allessio, the daughter of Glenda Jackson's character.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, Vanderpump had small roles in various episodic television programs including "Silk Stalkings" and "Baywatch Nights".


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Vanderpump was featured in the 1980s music videos "Poison Arrow" and "Mantrap" by the band ABC and "(What) In The Name of Love" by the duo Naked Eyes. She was featured in the 2014 music video for "G.U.Y." by Lady Gaga.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Vanderpump has done over 100 commercials for brands including Maltesers, Lilt, Britvic 55 and Hamlet cigars.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In October 2010, Vanderpump debuted in Bravo's "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills" and is an original cast member of the show. On 3 June 2019, she announced her departure from the show after nine seasons.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Since January 2013, Vanderpump has been a cast member in a spin-off of "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills", "Vanderpump Rules", which focuses on the staff at her restaurants and bars; SUR Restaurant & Lounge, Pump Restaurant and Tom Tom Restaurant & Bar, in West Hollywood, California.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In March 2013, Vanderpump competed in the 16th season of "Dancing with the Stars", partnered with professional dancer Gleb Savchenko. They were the second couple eliminated from the competition, leaving in tenth place, on April 9.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In June 2021, Vanderpump was featured in a second spin-off of "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills", "Vanderpump Dogs", which focuses on Vanderpump and her staff as they run her dog foundation/rescue center, Vanderpump Dogs.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Before moving to the US, Vanderpump designed 26 of the London-based restaurants, bars and clubs that she co-owned with her husband. The couple currently own 3 restaurants in California; SUR Restaurant & Lounge, the focus of "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills" spin-off "Vanderpump Rules", is based in West Hollywood along with Pump Restaurant and Tom Tom Restaurant & Bar.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In August 2009, Vanderpump opened her first restaurant in the United States, Villa Blanca. In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, she announced Villa Blanca would be closing.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In March 2019, Vanderpump opened her first Las Vegas venue, Vanderpump Cocktail Garden located in Caesars Palace.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In April 2022, Vanderpump opened her second Las Vegas venue, Vanderpump à Paris located in the Paris Las Vegas casino hotel.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In January 2014, Vanderpump launched her second alcoholic beverage called LVP Sangria, later rebranded to Vanderpump Sangria.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In April 2020, after much success of her rosé and spinning her venture into Vanderpump Wines, Vanderpump launched Vanderpump Chardonnay and Vanderpump Cabernet.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In November 2014, Vanderpump released a line of homewares called the Vanderpump Beverly Hills Collection by Pop Culture Promotions.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In March 2017, Vanderpump was named editor-in-chief of "Beverly Hills Lifestyle Magazine". In October 2018, Vanderpump departed her position as edition-in-chief of "Beverly Hills Lifestyle Magazine".


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In July 2019, Vanderpump partnered up with Nick Alain to launched a home collections line called Vanderpump Alain.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: After becoming aware of the Yulin Dog Meat Festival and witnessing the horrific images of slaughter and abuse that the dogs in Yulin face, Vanderpump and her husband Ken began the long journey towards trying to stop the barbaric torture practices in Yulin and end the dog meat trade in Asia.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In March 2017, Vanderpump opened the Vanderpump Dogs rescue center, based in Los Angeles, California. She also has a foundation in China.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In August 2015, Vanderpump was a recipient of the Ally Leadership Award from Equality California, an LGBT rights organisation.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In October 2015, Vanderpump organised a peaceful protest march against the Yulin Dog Meat Festival, the march went from MacArthur Park to the Chinese Consulate General in Los Angeles and started a movement to end the abuse, torture and slaughter of dogs worldwide. Together with her husband Ken and their partner, John Sessa, they launched the Stop Yulin Forever campaign. Vanderpump went on to address Congress about the same issues.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In March 2018, Vanderpump produced a documentary, "The Road To Yulin… And Beyond", to draw attention to the Yulin Dog Meat Festival's barbaric practice and bring it to an end.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Vanderpump met her husband, businessman Ken Todd, at his first bar, Cork's Wine Bar in Kensington, London in 1982. The couple wed on 28 August 1982, at United Reformed Church. Together they have two children: a daughter, Pandora, and an adopted son, Max. She is stepmother to Warren Todd. Vanderpump has one grandson.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: Vanderpump currently resides in Beverly Hills, California. She has lived in London, Cheltenham, Monaco, and the South of France. Vanderpump also owns a house in Montecito, California.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: In 2011, she sold her Beverly Park house for $18.8 million and bought a $12 million house in the neighbourhood of Benedict Canyon.


title: Lisa Vanderpump

text: n 2011, Vanderpump received the Key to the City of Beverly Hills by then-mayor Jimmy Delshad, who also declared March 1 'Lisa Vanderpump day', in recognition of her charitable and philanthropic work.


title: Diacritic

text: A diacritic (also diacritical mark, diacritical point, diacritical sign, or accent) is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek (, "distinguishing"), from (, "to distinguish"). The word "diacritic" is a noun, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas "diacritical" is only an adjective. Some diacritics, such as the acute ( ◌́ ) and grave ( ◌̀ ), are often called "accents". Diacritics may appear above or below a letter or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.


title: Diacritic

text: The main use of diacritics in Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. Historically, English has used the diaeresis diacritic to indicate the correct pronunciation of ambiguous words, such as "coöperate", without which the <oo> letter sequence could be misinterpreted to be pronounced . Other examples are the acute and grave accents, which can indicate that a vowel is to be pronounced differently than is normal in that position, for example not reduced to /ə/ or silent as in the case of the two uses of the letter e in the noun "résumé" (as opposed to the verb "resume") and the help sometimes provided in the pronunciation of some words such as "doggèd", "learnèd", "blessèd", and especially words pronounced differently than normal in poetry (for example "movèd", "breathèd").


title: Diacritic

text: Most other words with diacritics in English are borrowings from languages such as French to better preserve the spelling, such as the diaeresis on and , the acute from , the circumflex in the word , and the cedille in . All these diacritics, however, are frequently omitted in writing, and English is the only major modern European language that does not have diacritics in common usage.


title: Diacritic

text: In Latin-script alphabets in other languages, diacritics may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French ("there") versus ("the"), which are both pronounced . In Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question.


title: Diacritic

text: In other alphabetic systems, diacritics may perform other functions. Vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat (  etc.) and the Hebrew niqqud (  etc.) systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama ( ् etc.) and the Arabic sukūn (  ) mark the absence of vowels. Cantillation marks indicate prosody. Other uses include the Early Cyrillic titlo stroke ( ◌҃ ) and the Hebrew gershayim (  ), which, respectively, mark abbreviations or acronyms, and Greek diacritical marks, which showed that letters of the alphabet were being used as numerals. In Vietnamese and the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur.


title: Diacritic

text: In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new, distinct letter or as a letter–diacritic combination. This varies from language to language and may vary from case to case within a language.


title: Diacritic

text: In some cases, letters are used as "in-line diacritics", with the same function as ancillary glyphs, in that they modify the sound of the letter preceding them, as in the case of the "h" in the English pronunciation of "sh" and "th". Such letter combinations are sometimes even collated as a single distinct letter. For example, the spelling sch was traditionally often treated as a separate letter in German. Words with that spelling were listed after all other words spelled with s in card catalogs in the Vienna public libraries, for example (before digitization).


title: Diacritic

text: The tilde, dot, comma, titlo, apostrophe, bar, and colon are sometimes diacritical marks, but also have other uses.


title: Diacritic

text: Not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, but occurs at the beginning of the word, as in the dialects "’Bulengee" and "’Dolimi". Because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, and may occur above, below, before, after, or around the consonant letter they modify.


title: Diacritic

text: The tittle (dot) on the letter "i" or the letter "j", of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish "i" from the minims (downstrokes) of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence "ii" (as in ), then spread to "i" adjacent to "m, n, u", and finally to all lowercase "i"s. The "j", originally a variant of "i", inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling today's acute accent to a long flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today.


title: Diacritic

text: Several languages of eastern Europe use diacritics on both consonants and vowels, whereas in western Europe digraphs are more often used to change consonant sounds. Most languages in Europe use diacritics on vowels, aside from English where there are typically none (with some exceptions).


title: Diacritic

text: The diacritics 〮 and 〯 , known as Bangjeom (), were used to mark pitch accents in Hangul for Middle Korean. They were written to the left of a syllable in vertical writing and above a syllable in horizontal writing.


title: Diacritic

text: In addition to the above vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes "ə", "e̊" or superscript "" (or often nothing at all) to represent an original Aramaic schwa that became lost later on at some point in the development of Syriac. Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons.


title: Diacritic

text: Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in alphabetical order. French and Portuguese treat letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries.


title: Diacritic

text: The Scandinavian languages and the Finnish language, by contrast, treat the characters with diacritics "å", "ä", and "ö" as distinct letters of the alphabet, and sort them after "z". Usually "ä" (a-umlaut) and "ö" (o-umlaut) [used in Swedish and Finnish] are sorted as equivalent to "æ" (ash) and "ø" (o-slash) [used in Danish and Norwegian]. Also, "aa", when used as an alternative spelling to "å", is sorted as such. Other letters modified by diacritics are treated as variants of the underlying letter, with the exception that "ü" is frequently sorted as "y".


title: Diacritic

text: Languages that treat accented letters as variants of the underlying letter usually alphabetize words with such symbols immediately after similar unmarked words. For instance, in German where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (e.g. "schon" and then "schön", or "fallen" and then "fällen"). However, when names are concerned (e.g. in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed "e"; Austrian phone books now treat characters with umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying vowel).


title: Diacritic

text: In Spanish, the grapheme "ñ" is considered a new letter different from "n" and collated between "n" and "o", as it denotes a different sound from that of a plain "n". But the accented vowels "á", "é", "í", "ó", "ú" are not separated from the unaccented vowels "a", "e", "i", "o", "u", as the acute accent in Spanish only modifies stress within the word or denotes a distinction between homonyms, and does not modify the sound of a letter.


title: Diacritic

text: Modern computer technology was developed mostly in English-speaking countries, so data formats, keyboard layouts, etc. were developed with a bias favoring English, a language with an alphabet without diacritical marks. Efforts have been made to create internationalized domain names that further extend the English alphabet (e.g., "pokémon.com").


title: Diacritic

text: Depending on the keyboard layout, which differs amongst countries, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Some have their own keys; some are created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark followed by the letter to place it on. Such a key is sometimes referred to as a dead key, as it produces no output of its own but modifies the output of the key pressed after it.


title: Diacritic

text: In modern Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems, the keyboard layouts "US International" and "UK International" feature dead keys that allow one to type Latin letters with the acute, grave, circumflex, diaeresis/umlaut, tilde, and cedilla found in Western European languages (specifically, those combinations found in the ISO Latin-1 character set) directly: + gives "ë", + gives "õ", etc. On Apple Macintosh computers, there are keyboard shortcuts for the most common diacritics; followed by a vowel places an acute accent, followed by a vowel gives an umlaut, gives a cedilla, etc. Diacritics can be composed in most X Window System keyboard layouts, as well as other operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, using additional software.


title: Diacritic

text: On computers, the availability of code pages determines whether one can use certain diacritics. Unicode solves this problem by assigning every known character its own code; if this code is known, most modern computer systems provide a method to input it. With Unicode, it is also possible to combine diacritical marks with most characters. However, as of 2019, very few fonts include the necessary support to correctly render character-plus-diacritic(s) for the Latin, Cyrillic and some other alphabets (exceptions include Andika).


title: Diacritic

text: The following languages have letters that contain diacritics that are considered independent letters distinct from those without diacritics.


title: Diacritic

text: English is one of the few European languages that does not have many words that contain diacritical marks. Instead, digraphs are the main way the Modern English alphabet adapts the Latin to its phonemes. Exceptions are unassimilated foreign loanwords, including borrowings from French (and, increasingly, Spanish, like "jalapeño" and "piñata"); however, the diacritic is also sometimes omitted from such words. Loanwords that frequently appear with the diacritic in English include "café", "résumé" or "resumé" (a usage that helps distinguish it from the verb "resume"), "soufflé", and "naïveté" (see "English terms with diacritical marks"). In older practice (and even among some orthographically-conservative modern writers), one may see examples such as "élite", "mêlée" and "rôle."


title: Diacritic

text: English speakers and writers once used the diaeresis more often than now in words such as "coöperation" (from Fr. "coopération"), "zoölogy" (from Grk. "zoologia"), and "seeër" (now more commonly "see-er "or simply" seer") as a way of indicating that adjacent vowels belonged to separate syllables, but this practice has become far less common. "The New Yorker" magazine is a major publication that continues to use the diaeresis in place of a hyphen for clarity and economy of space.


title: Diacritic

text: A few English words, out of context, can only be distinguished from others by a diacritic or modified letter, including "exposé", "lamé", "maté", "öre", "øre", "pâté", and "rosé". The same is true of "résumé," alternatively "" but, nevertheless, it is regularly spelled "resume". In a few words, diacritics that did not exist in the original have been added for disambiguation, as in "maté" (from Sp. and Port. "mate"), "saké" (the standard Romanization of the Japanese has no accent mark), and "Malé" (from Dhivehi މާލެ), to clearly distinguish them from the English words "mate", "sake", and "male".


title: Diacritic

text: The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous ("rébel" vs. "rebél") or nonstandard for metrical reasons ("caléndar"), the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced ("warnèd," "parlìament").


title: Diacritic

text: In certain personal names such as "Renée" and "Zoë", often two spellings exist, and the preference will be known only to those close to the person themselves. Even when the name of a person is spelled with a diacritic, like "Charlotte Brontë", this may be dropped in English-language articles, and even in official documents such as passports, due either to carelessness, the typist not knowing how to enter letters with diacritical marks, or technical reasons (California, for example, does not allow names with diacritics, as the computer system cannot process such characters). They also appear in some worldwide company names and/or trademarks, such as "Nestlé" or "Citroën".


title: Diacritic

text: The following languages have letter-diacritic combinations that are not considered independent letters.


title: Diacritic

text: Several languages that are not written with the Roman alphabet are transliterated, or romanized, using diacritics. Examples:


title: Diacritic

text: Possibly the greatest number of combining diacritics "required" to compose a valid character in any Unicode language is 8, for the "well-known grapheme cluster in Tibetan and Ranjana scripts" or .


title: Diacritic

text: Some users have explored the limits of rendering in web browsers and other software by "decorating" words with multiple nonsensical diacritics per character. The result is called "Zalgo text". The composed bogus characters and words can be copied and pasted normally via the system clipboard.


title: Mike Epps

text: Michael Elliot Epps (born November 18, 1970) is an American stand-up comedian and actor. He played Day-Day Jones in "Next Friday" and its sequel, "Friday After Next", and also appeared in "The Hangover" and "The Hangover Part III" as "Black Doug". He was the voice of main character Boog in "Open Season 2", replacing Martin Lawrence, with whom he starred in the comedy "Welcome Home Roscoe Jenkins", playing "Reggie", cousin of Roscoe (played by Lawrence). He played Lloyd Jefferson "L.J." Wade in the films "" (2004) and "" (2007). He has had starring roles in the sitcoms "Uncle Buck" and "The Upshaws".


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps was born and raised in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of Mary Reed and (the late) Tommie Epps. In his adulthood, Epps moved to Brooklyn to star in "Def Comedy Jam" in 1994.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps began his professional career by joining the "Def Comedy Jam" tour in 1995 and starred in two of HBO's "Def Comedy Jam" broadcasts.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps' first on-screen appearance came in Vin Diesel's second directorial film, "Strays" in 1997. In 1999, Epps was then cast as Ice Cube's co-star in the sequel, "Next Friday". This followed weeks of auditions, after Ice Cube attended a stand-up set Epps did, and then asked Epps to try out for the role of Day-Day Jones.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps had a voice role in the 2001 movie "Dr. Dolittle 2" as Sonny the Bear and finished the year with a featured role as comical pimp Baby Powder in "How High", starring Method Man and Redman. Epps reunited with Ice Cube in 2002 as the bumbling thief to Ice Cube's bounty hunter in "All About the Benjamins", and again re-teamed with Cube in Friday's second sequel "Friday After Next". Epps also voiced another bear character (Boog) in the 2008 film "Open Season 2" after Martin Lawrence declined the role. In 2010, Epps also released a stand-up comedy special, "Under Rated & Never Faded", and hosted the "2010 BET Hip Hop Awards".


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps starred alongside Jordin Sparks and Whitney Houston in the 2012 remake of Sparkle, in his first non-comedic role as the main antagonist, Satin, a stand-up comic by day, an evil and abusive drug kingpin by night, who is engaged in an affair with the titular character's sister. Epps' performance was well received by critics and audiences. In 2014, Epps landed the coveted role of Richard Pryor in a planned Pryor biopic to be directed by Lee Daniels; however, the project has remained in development hell. Epps did portray Pryor in the 2016 Nina Simone biopic "Nina", and is set to play him again in a planned HBO drama series about the L.A. Lakers.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps had a starring role in the 2016 comedy horror film "Meet the Blacks" and its 2021 sequel "". He also starred as the title character in the single-season 2016 sitcom "Uncle Buck". Since 2021, he has been a main cast member on the Netflix sitcom "The Upshaws".


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps "hosted" the Jim Jones and Skull Gang album "Jim Jones & Skull Gang Present A Tribute To Bad Santa Starring Mike Epps". Epps has also made a song called "Trying to Be a Gangsta" with Pooh Bear.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps also hosted G Unit's 2008 mixtape Elephant In The Sand, appearing on the track "Hollow Thru Him". Epps also has a song called "Big Girls", which came out in 2008. It was originally recorded by Bow Wow featuring Yung Joc. The song is currently on iTunes and can be found on his album, "", which was released October 27, 2009. Epps also has featured in rapper French Montana's "Mac Wit Da Cheese" mixtape, which was released on April 19, 2009. Epps has also featured on the Dom Kennedy song "Intro/Hard Work" on his "FutureStreet/DrugSounds" mixtape.


title: Mike Epps

text: Part of his stand-up comedy in "Under Rated & Never Faded" was sampled for the song "I'm On Everything" by Bad Meets Evil on their first EP, "" and on the track "Runaway", from J. Cole's second album "Born Sinner". Mike Epps was also known in his hometown of Indianapolis as the CEO of Naptown Records. In 2006 he signed local artist Philthyphil. This artist had just been released from prison after serving three years for a drug indictment in which he was the suspected distributor of large amounts of narcotics. The record deal which was reportedly worth $175,000 was later terminated after Phillip "Philthyphil" White was charged with first-degree murder in Oakland, CA in 2007.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps has made cameo appearances in many music videos, mostly by hip hop artists, including "Gangsta Nation" (2003) by Westside Connection, "A Bay Bay" (2007) by Hurricane Chris, "No Effort" (2017) by Tee Grizzley, and "Bank Account" (2017) by 21 Savage.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps served as the "Super Bowl ambassador" in his native Indianapolis for the 2012 Super Bowl. He was featured in commercials promoting the Super Bowl Village and he made special appearances in the Village during the week of the Super Bowl.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps has been criticized by disability campaigners for mocking physically and mentally disabled children in his stand-up act.


title: Mike Epps

text: On June 1, 2014, Epps purportedly assaulted fellow stand-up comedian LaVar Walker outside of the Uptown Comedy Club. It was stated Epps and two of his bodyguards did this in response to Walker making a parody video about Epps and comedian Kevin Hart. Epps allegedly struck him in the face and kicked him in the stomach and back, while one of the other two men threw the victim's cellphone and crushed his prescription glasses. Atlanta Police issued a warrant for Epps' arrest two days later on June 3.


title: Mike Epps

text: Around mid-2017, Epps received criticism for bringing a kangaroo onto the stage during one of his shows. Many noted the animal looked distressed, with Epps grabbing and holding it against its will. Epps later apologized, saying it was completely unscripted and that he would never hurt an animal.


title: Mike Epps

text: Epps married OWN Network executive and "" producer Kyra Robinson, in Newport Beach, California, in June 2019. He was previously married to Mechelle McCain, whom he married in July 2006. The pair lived in Beverly Hills, California together until they divorced in September 2017.


title: Mike Epps

text: In a 2019 GQ interview, Epps denied the long-standing rumor that he is related to fellow actor Omar Epps, saying, "Are Mike Epps and Omar Epps related? No, I think we got the same master, though."


title: Troy Garity

text: Troy Garity (born July 7, 1973) is an American film actor. He is primarily known for his role as Isaac in the "Barbershop" film series and as Barry Winchell in the television movie "Soldier's Girl" (2003), where he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film.


title: Troy Garity

text: Garity was born in Los Angeles, California, to actress/activist Jane Fonda and activist/politician Tom Hayden. His parents gave him the last name Garity, the surname of his paternal grandmother. He grew up in Santa Monica. His half-sister is director and cinematographer Vanessa Vadim.


title: Troy Garity

text: Through his mother, Garity is the grandson of New York socialite Frances Ford Seymour and actor Henry Fonda, and a nephew of actor Peter Fonda. His cousins include actress Bridget Fonda. His father is of Irish descent and his mother's ancestry includes Dutch, English, French, German, and Irish.


title: Troy Garity

text: Garity made his first onscreen appearance as an infant, when his parents carried him through their Vietnam travelogue, "Introduction to the Enemy" (1974). He began acting as a child at Santa Barbara's Laurel Springs Camp for the Arts. He made an uncredited appearance in the film "On Golden Pond" (1981), trained at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in NYC, and became a member of the Academy Repertory Company, performing in a number of stage productions.


title: Troy Garity

text: Garity has appeared in numerous film productions. He played his father in the film "Steal This Movie" (2000) based on the life of Yippie founder Abbie Hoffman. His portrayal of Isaac Rosenberg in the film "Barbershop" (2002) proved to be his breakout role, and he reprised it in "" (2004) and "" (2016) – though in the latter, his role is significantly reduced to a cameo appearance. He also starred as Harvey in the Danny Boyle/Alex Garland film "Sunshine" (2007) and as the tormented survivor of a tragic family accident in "Lake City" (2008).


title: Troy Garity

text: For his portrayal of Barry Winchell in the film "Soldier's Girl" (2003), Garity earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Miniseries or a Motion Picture Made for Television and in 2002 he won the Young Hollywood Award for a Standout Performance.


title: Troy Garity

text: On August 27, 2007, Garity married actress Simone Bent at Columbia University's St. Paul's Chapel. Garity is the founder of the Peace Process Network, an international gang violence prevention coalition, and he is the chairman of Homies Unidos, a gang violence prevention group in Los Angeles.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: Rumble is a 2021 American computer-animated sports comedy film directed by Hamish Grieve with a screenplay by Grieve and Matt Lieberman. Loosely based on "Monster on the Hill", a graphic novel by Rob Harrell, the film stars the voices of Will Arnett, Geraldine Viswanathan, Terry Crews, Stephen A. Smith, Jimmy Tatro, Tony Danza, Susan Kelechi Watson, Tony Shalhoub, Bridget Everett, Greta Lee, Ben Schwartz, Roman Reigns and Becky Lynch.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: Produced by Paramount Animation, WWE Studios, Walden Media and Reel FX Animation Studios, the film was released in the United States on December 15, 2021 on Paramount+. The film received generally mixed reviews from critics with criticism for its writing, characters, and pacing, although the animation and voice acting received some praise.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: In a world where giant monsters and humans coexist, monsters compete in a popular professional wrestling global sport known as monster wrestling, with each city having its own monster wrestler. After the current wrestler for the small town of Stoker, the shark-like Tentacular becomes the new world champion, he announces he no longer wants to represent Stoker. The townspeople are later told if they do not find a new wrestler, they will lose the town's stadium and its revenue, which prompts wrestling enthusiast Winnie Coyle to search for a new monster representative for her town.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: Winnie heads to an underground fight and finds Rayburn Jr., the son of the famous late Stoker champion Rayburn Sr., fighting under the name of "Steve The Stupendous". Winnie interferes in the match and causes Steve to win instead of taking a dive, as the underground arena employer wanted. Steve is confronted by his employer and threatened unless he can get the owner back the money she just lost. Winnie tells Steve she can help him get the money by training him to fight Tentacular. Realizing he has no other way to make the money, Steve agrees to be trained.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: Steve initially is uninterested in learning how to fight properly and wins his first match by evading his opponent. Steve later tells Winnie he left Stoker because everyone saw him as an extension of his father and could not live up to his name. Winnie learns Steve loves dancing and decides to train him using dance moves. As they progress up the league's rankings, Tentacular announces he and his agent have bought Stoker's stadium and wants to demolish it as Tentacular sees it as a reminder that he will be always compared to Rayburn. Even though Steve manages to repay his underground arena employer, he decides to help Winnie, reveals his identity as Rayburn's son and challenges Tentacular to a match for the stadium.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: During the fight, Steve avoids most of the hits by Tentacular in the first round, but Tentacular counters his dance moves in the second round. After convincing Winnie not to give up, Steve, in the third round, manages to not only use dance but land several hits. Winnie tells Steve to use Tentacular's suckers to stick him to one of the corner posts. When Steve goes in for the final move, he and Tentacular collide and are both knocked out. Tentacular gets up first but is too rattled to end the match. The crowd gets Steve back up by clapping a salsa beat and he is able to defeat Tentacular, becoming the new monster wrestling champion and saving the stadium.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: On February 18, 2015, Reel FX Creative Studios announced an adaptation of the 2013 graphic novel "Monster on the Hill" by Rob Harrell, to be written by Matt Lieberman. On April 25, 2018, Paramount Animation announced that joined the film as a co-producer, with Walden Media, at CinemaCon in Las Vegas. DisneyToon Studios vet Bradley Raymond was originally going to direct the film, but due to unknown reasons, he was eventually replaced by DreamWorks Animation veteran Hamish Grieve, head of story for films such as "Rise of the Guardians" and "", thus making his directorial debut. On June 12, 2019, the title was changed to "Rumble".


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: The first casting announcement consisted of Geraldine Viswanathan, Will Arnett, and Terry Crews. Becky Lynch, Roman Reigns, Ben Schwartz, Jimmy Tatro, Tony Danza, Susan Kelechi Watson, Carlos Gómez, Charles Barkley, Chris Eubank, Bridget Everett, Michael Buffer, and Stephen A. Smith, revealing their involvement in the film.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: On September 19, 2019, the film was scheduled to be released on July 31, 2020. On November 12, 2019, the release date was pushed to January 29, 2021. On October 27, 2020, the release date was then moved to May 14, 2021, and moved again on January 27, 2021 to February 18, 2022 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. On November 26, 2021, the film made one final move to December 15, 2021, as a Paramount+ exclusive, cancelling its theatrical release altogether.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: "Rumble" was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and Digital HD on October 18, 2022 by Paramount Home Entertainment.


title: Rumble (2021 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 47% based on reviews from 15 critics, with an average rating of 5.20/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on reviews from 5 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Lakh

text: A lakh (; abbreviated L; sometimes written lac) is a unit in the Indian numbering system equal to one hundred thousand (100,000; scientific notation: 10). In the Indian 2,2,3 convention of digit grouping, it is written as 1,00,000. For example, in India, 150,000 rupees becomes 1.5 "lakh" rupees, written as 1,50,000 or INR 1,50,000.


title: Lakh

text: It is widely used both in official and other contexts in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. It is often used in Bangladeshi, Indian, Pakistani, and Sri Lankan English.


title: Lakh

text: In Indian English, the word is used both as an attributive and non-attributive noun with either an unmarked or marked ("-s") plural, respectively. For example: "1 "lakh" people"; ""lakhs" of people"; "20 "lakh" rupees"; ""lakhs" of rupees". In the abbreviated form, usage such as "5L" or "5 lac" (for "5 "lakh" rupees") is common. In this system of numeration, 100 "lakh" is called one "crore" and is equal to 10 million.


title: Lakh

text: The term is also used in the pricing of silver on the international precious metals market, where one "lakh" equals of silver.


title: Lakh

text: The modern word "lakh" derives from , originally denoting "mark, target, stake in gambling", but also used as the numeral for "100,000" in Gupta-era Classical Sanskrit ("Yājñavalkya Smṛti", "Harivaṃśa").


title: Lakh

text: Another possible etymology comes from the root word for the lac bug, used to produce shellac. The word lakh is a unit in the Indian numbering system for and presumably refers to the large number of insects that swarm on host trees, up to .


title: Big Love

text: Big Love is an American drama television series that aired on HBO from March 12, 2006 to March 20, 2011. It stars Bill Paxton as the patriarch of a fundamentalist Mormon family in contemporary Utah that practices polygamy, with Jeanne Tripplehorn, Chloë Sevigny, and Ginnifer Goodwin portraying his wives. The series charts the family's life in and out of the public sphere in their Salt Lake City suburb, as well as their associations with a fundamentalist compound in the area. It features key supporting performances from Amanda Seyfried, Grace Zabriskie, Daveigh Chase, Matt Ross, Mary Kay Place, Bruce Dern, Melora Walters, and Harry Dean Stanton.


title: Big Love

text: The series premiered in the United States on March 12, 2006, following the sixth-season premiere of the HBO series "The Sopranos". "Big Love" was a success for HBO, running for five seasons before concluding its run on March 20, 2011.


title: Big Love

text: "Big Love" received widespread critical acclaim, and earned several major awards and nominations throughout its run. The third season was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series, and the first three were nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series - Drama. For acting, Chloë Sevigny won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in the series' third season, and Bill Paxton was nominated three times for his leading role. At the Emmys, Ellen Burstyn, Bruce Dern, Mary Kay Place, and Sissy Spacek were all nominated for their recurring roles, while the series' creators Mark V. Olsen and Will Scheffer won the .


title: Big Love

text: The series has been the subject of articles in academic journals, including the "Columbia Law Review", "Law and Contemporary Problems", and "Michigan Journal of Gender & Law". Several publications listed the series's first three seasons as among the best television of the decade 2000–09, and its final season ranked among the best-reviewed scripted series of 2011.


title: Big Love

text: "Big Love" was created by Mark V. Olsen and Will Scheffer, who also served as executive producers. Olsen and Scheffer spent nearly three years researching the premise of the show, with the intent of creating a "fair, non-judgmental portrayal of polygamy in America." Olsen said that the family dynamics were key to the series' narrative, mixing family affection with tensions. "It's that combustion, negotiating that mix of feelings that I think keeps an audience coming back for more."


title: Big Love

text: The fictional fundamentalist group the United Effort Brotherhood (UEB) has characteristics similar to the historic United Effort Plan established by the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS) and taken over by the state of Utah in 2005. The FLDS is one of the most prolific and well-known polygamist groups and identifies itself as the legitimate successor of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which officially discontinued polygamy in 1890.


title: Big Love

text: Creators Olsen and Scheffer included a drive through the twin FLDS towns of Hildale, Utah, and Colorado City, Arizona, as part of their research for the show.


title: Big Love

text: The UEB has built its own temple on its Kansas compound. The raid on Juniper Creek is reminiscent of the Short Creek raid in 1953 when Arizona state police and National Guard troops took action against polygamists in Colorado City. Many of the businesses owned by the UEB are similar to businesses formerly run by FLDS members under the non-fictional UEP, which managed financial holdings of the FLDS. The creators read a single 2003 article published in Utah on the Darger family who are Independent Fundamentalist Mormons.


title: Big Love

text: Although set in Utah, the series was primarily filmed at the Santa Clarita Studios in Valencia, California. The location used for filming "Henrickson's Home Plus" scenes was The All American Home Center in Downey, California.


title: Big Love

text: The exterior scenes of the three homes that Bill owns were filmed on location on Shady Lane, in the small town of Fillmore, California.


title: Big Love

text: The mall scenes from season one were filmed in the Fox Hills Mall, in Culver City, California. Other exterior shots were filmed in Downtown Salt Lake City, Utah, and Sandy, Utah, as well as northeast Los Angeles, California.


title: Big Love

text: During the first three seasons, "God Only Knows", by The Beach Boys, played during the opening titles (and a cover version at the end of the final episode at the end of the final season, season 5). The musical score for the series was composed by Anton Sanko. Mark Mothersbaugh composed music for the first season, while David Byrne was in charge of music during the second season. The theme song for the final two seasons of the series was "Home", by the band Engineers.


title: Big Love

text: In Sandy, Utah, fundamentalist Mormon Bill Henrickson practices a polygamous marriage with his three wives: Barbara "Barb", Nicolette "Nicki", and Margene "Margie". Bill owns and operates Home Plus, a local hardware store chain which earns the family considerable income, and allows him to support his wives and their seven children. Tensions rise within the family amidst the wives with the newly-introduced Margie, a former babysitter of Bill's and employee at his store—as well as between Bill and Roman Grant, Nicolette's father, who is an influential patriarch and prophet of Juniper Creek, the fundamentalist compound where Nicolette and Bill were raised. Meanwhile, Bill and Barb's eldest children, Ben and Sarah, individually deal with maintaining a façade to conceal their parents' polygamous marriage from their peers and community.


title: Big Love

text: Barb seeks independence by taking a job as a schoolteacher, while Nicki, a compulsive shopper, incurs nearly $60,000 in credit card debt, and Margie struggles to find footing in the family. Bill and his associate Don Embry, also a polygamist, continue to dispute with Roman over business holdings in Home Plus. Roman is aided by his sociopathic teenage bride Rhonda Volmer, as well as his son (and Nicolette's elder brother) Alby, a closeted homosexual and ardent follower of the United Effort Brotherhood (UEB), the priesthood of Juniper Creek. Bill, who was shunned from Juniper Creek as a teenager, is devastated when he discovers that his shunning was not caused by his parents, Frank and Lois, but by Roman, who feared Bill would usurp the prophecy.


title: Big Love

text: After deciding to follow through with her baptism, Margie discovers she is pregnant. Shortly after, Barb is awarded the title of "Mother of the Year" by the local government after daughter Teeny nominates her. Flattered, Barb goes to attend the award ceremony at the governor's mansion, but is disqualified before the crowd when the judges are informed that she is a polygamist.


title: Big Love

text: After the family's exposure, Barb goes into seclusion, and Margie suspects their neighbors, Pam and Carl, were responsible. Home Plus billboards are vandalized, and the tumult within the house results in Bill and Barb forgetting Nicki's anniversary, exacerbating tensions. Barb decides to begin taking classes at the University of Utah to earn a Master's degree. At Juniper Creek, Bill's sister-in-law, Wanda, is tried by the community for attempting to poison Alby to death; Bill's brother Joey, a former NFL player, turns himself into police to prevent Wanda from facing prison.


title: Big Love

text: Sarah joins an ex-Mormon support group to voice her frustrations over her family life, and meets Scott, a twenty-something-year-old whom she begins dating. Rhonda escapes Juniper Creek and manipulates her way into staying with Sarah's friend and co-worker, Heather; she then begins manipulating and blackmailing Heather and her family in order to help forge a career as a singer. Wanda is released from a psychiatric institute after Alby's poisoning, and Lois attempts to persuade Joey to take a second wife, Kathy. Meanwhile, Nicki enrolls son Wayne in a Catholic school, and grows paranoid that he will be indoctrinated, while Bill develops an attraction to Ana, a Serbian immigrant who works at a local diner; Margie uncovers this and forges a friendship with Ana unbeknownst to Bill. At home, teenaged Ben confesses to Bill and Barb that he is having sex with his irreligious girlfriend, Bryn, and expresses interest in practicing polygamy himself.


title: Big Love

text: Meanwhile, Bill begins a business venture with Weber Gaming, a casino that operates on virtual currency, and is caught in the crossfires of a dispute between the Grant family and the Greenes, an underground polygamist family. Roman is ambushed by the Greenes and critically injured, leaving him hospitalized at the compound; Alby assumes the role of the compound leader and, with the help of wife Lura, extends Roman's convalescence by keeping him sedated. Joey begins to court Kathy, and Nicki holds a party for him, Kathy, and Wanda at their home. Meanwhile, Barb reunites with her estranged mother Nancy, and sister Cindy, on the occasion of Nancy's remarriage. Adaleen realizes Alby has been sedating Roman, and brings Roman to Bill's home seeking safety. Barb and Margie confess to neighbor Pam that they are polygamists.


title: Big Love

text: After Margie gives birth to Nell, Bill begins dating Ana formally. Roman is indicted on charges of rape and child sex abuse based on claims made by Alby, who is seeking to take his place. Posing as Margie, Nicki takes a job at the district attorney's office to help pay off her credit card debts, meanwhile seeking the state's evidence against her father. While cruising for sex at a rest stop, Alby is attacked by a stranger, and suspects Bill has put a hit on him, but it is revealed to be Adaleen, attempting to dissuade him of his same-sex attractions. Barb becomes concerned that her cervical cancer, treated with a hysterectomy years prior, may have recurred, but test results determine she is still in remission. Bill takes in his younger half-brother, Frankie, who has been kicked out of Juniper Creek, and it is revealed that Nicki has been on birth control for several years; meanwhile, Sarah discovers she is pregnant with Scott's child. Margie's alcoholic mother, Ginger, dies in an accident. Meanwhile, Bill pursues a business venture with Jerry Flute, a member of the Blackfoot tribe, on a casino.