title: The Pokémon Company

text: On June 1, 2022, it was announced that Pokémon creator and Game Freak founder Junichi Masuda left the company and would be part of The Pokémon Company at a position called "Chief Creative Fellow", being more involved with the franchise as a whole instead of just the video games.


title: Paige Howard

text: Paige Carlyle Howard (born February 5, 1985) is an American actress. She is a sister of actress Bryce Dallas Howard and daughter of director and actor Ron Howard.


title: Paige Howard

text: Howard made her professional stage debut at the Vineyard Theatre in New York City, playing the title character in J. M. Barrie's play "Mary Rose" which was directed by Tina Landau.


title: Paige Howard

text: After guest-starring roles on TV shows "Medium" and "90210", Howard made her feature film debut as Sue O’Malley in the 2009 comedy "Adventureland". She then followed with a lead role on the web series "stalkTALK", and starring roles in the indie comedies "Virgin Alexander" and "Cheesecake Casserole", as well as the psychological thriller "The Employer" opposite Malcolm McDowell. Howard won Best Supporting Actress at the Los Angeles Movie Awards in 2013 for her role in "The Employer".


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: The Avangard (; ; previously known as Objekt 4202, Yu-71 and Yu-74) is a Russian hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) that can be carried as a MIRV payload by the UR-100UTTKh, R-36M2 and RS-28 Sarmat heavy ICBMs. It can deliver both nuclear and conventional payloads.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: The Avangard is one of the six new Russian strategic weapons unveiled by Russian President Vladimir Putin on 1 March 2018.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: According to Vladimir Putin, the US withdrawal from the ABM Treaty in 2002 forced Russia to start developing hypersonic weapons: "We had to create these [hypersonic] weapons in response to the US deployment of a strategic missile defense system, which in the future would be capable of virtually neutralizing, zeroing out all our nuclear potential". In 2007, when asked about U.S. plans to deploy ballistic missile defenses in Europe, Putin mentioned that Russia was developing “strategic weapons systems of a completely different type that will fly at hypersonic speed and will be able to change trajectory both in terms of altitude and direction".


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: The "Avangard" (then called Yu-71 and Yu-74) was reportedly flight tested between February 2015 and June 2016 on board UR-100UTTKh ICBMs launched from Dombarovsky Air Base, Orenburg Oblast, when it reached a speed of and successfully hit targets at the Kura Missile Test Range, Kamchatka Krai.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: In October 2016, another flight test was carried out using a R-36M2 heavy ICBM launched from Dombarovsky Air Base, successfully hitting a target at the Kura Missile Test Range. This was reportedly the first fully successful test of the glide vehicle.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: On 1 March 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin in his presidential address to the Federal Assembly in Moscow announced that testing of the weapon is now complete and that it has entered serial production. This was further confirmed by the commander of the Strategic Rocket Forces, Colonel General .


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: The latest flight test occurred on 26 December 2018. "Avangard" carried by a UR-100UTTKh ICBM launched from Dombarovsky Air Base successfully hit a target at the Kura Missile Test Range. The Deputy Prime Minister of Russia Yury Borisov stated a day later that the glider flew at 27 times the speed of sound, "invulnerable to interception".


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: According to Russian Defense Ministry's press service/TASS, the "Avangard" missile system with the hypersonic glide-vehicle was demonstrated to the US inspection group in accordance with the New START treaty procedures on November 24–26, 2019.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: On 27 December 2019, the first missile regiment armed with the "Avangard" HGV officially entered combat duty.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: On 19 September 2020, Herbert Efremov, an Advisor for Science at the NPO Mashinostroyenia, was awarded Order of St. Andrew for his contributions to the "Avangard" development.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: HGVs differ from traditional ballistic missiles by their ability to maneuver and operate at lower altitudes. The combination of maneuverability and high speed poses significant challenges for conventional missile defense. With the advantage again swinging toward attack, the defense industry is excited that weapons of this type will reignite the kind of arms race that dominated the cold war era.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: According to open-source analysis by Jane's, "Avangard" is a pure glide vehicle without an independent propulsion system. When approaching a target, the glider supposedly is capable of sharp high speed horizontal and vertical evasive maneuvers in flight, which Russian officials claim makes it "invulnerable to any missile defence system". These claims may be in excess of the actual capabilities of the vehicle. Arms control expert Jeffrey Lewis of the Institute of International Studies, known as a popularizer of nonproliferation and strategic topics since 2004 via his blog site "Arms Control Wonk", expressed skepticism towards Avangard's ability to evade missile defenses, stating that "gliding results in slower speeds than traditional re-entry". The blast yield of a nuclear warhead carried by the Avangard is reportedly more than 2 megatons TNT.


title: Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)

text: The high speed of the Avangard likely gives it far better target-penetration characteristics than lighter subsonic cruise-missiles. The Avangard weighs about 2,000 kg and travels at Mach 20–27, giving it the equivalent of 17.5 tons of TNT in kinetic energy.


title: Udaariyaan

text: Udaariyaan () is an Indian Hindi-language television family drama series that premiered on 15 March 2021 on Colors TV. Produced by Sargun Mehta and Ravi Dubey, it formerly starred Priyanka Choudhary, Ankit Gupta and Isha Malviya. Since September 2022, it stars Twinkle Arora, Hitesh Bharadwaj and Sonakshi Batra.


title: Udaariyaan

text: The story revolves around a love triangle between Fateh Singh Virk and two sisters, Tejo Sandhu and Jasmine Sandhu. Fateh is a national boxing champion while Tejo is a college professor. Fateh and Tejo both want to make their future in Moga, while Jasmine has only one dream, to go to Canada. Fateh falls in love with Jasmine and wants to marry her. Jasmine falls for him too and agrees to marry him after he gets a job in Canada. But Jasmine breaks her marriage with Fateh on their wedding day when she found out he lost his job. However, she regrets it later as she realizes how Fateh loved her unconditionally. Tejo and Fateh marry to save the family's reputation. After marriage, Tejo falls for Fateh, but Fateh is still madly in love with Jasmin. Jasmin regretting her decision, confesses her love for Fateh and starts plotting against Tejo. Fateh accepts her back and has an extramarital affair with her. Tejo coming to know about the affair and divorces him. She gets engaged to Angad so Fateh and Jasmine can get married and receive the family's blessing. Jasmine and Fateh get married and are about to leave for Canada but Fateh burns her boarding ticket and passport and reveals that their wedding was fake and was planned by him after he found out about the evil deeds Jasmin did to get him. On the other hand, Angad falls in love with Tejo, but she declares him as her friend. Fateh and Jasmine go their separate ways, but Jasmine vows to seek vengeance against Fateh for breaking her dreams. After much trials and tribulations, Fateh and Tejo end up together. Angad and Jasmine join hands to separate them, but later, Angad realises his misdeeds and lets Tejo go. Jasmine ends up marrying Amrik, even though she was trying to marry Fateh to take revenge. Later on, Fateh, Tejo, Amrik and Jasmine get into a car accident and Jasmine turns over a new leaf after seeing Amrik and Tejo's love for her. Fateh and Tejo decide to get engaged but Fateh breaks his relationship with Tejo after he finds out that she hid Jasmine's lie. In anger, Tejo decides to marry Angad. However, on the wedding day, Tejo finds out that she is pregnant with Fateh's child. Angad tells her to go to Fateh, but in reality he set her up to get burned alive in a warehouse.


title: Udaariyaan

text: Jasmine and Amrik decide to run away to London and start their life there as everyone in their family is still refusing to accept their relationship especially after Tejo's death. In London, Jasmine and Amrik come across Tanya, Tejo's look-a-like. Angad is also in London and he is certain that Tanya is Tejo and wants to kill her. Tanya admits to being Tejo and accuses Fateh and Jasmine of trying to kill her, which is all a misunderstanding. In the end Angad's true evil face is revealed and he is arrested for Tejo's murder. Amrik ends up dying while saving Tanya from Angad. In a shocking event, it's revealed that Tanya isn't Tejo and she was assigned by cops to find out the truth behind Tejo's murder. Tanya, Jasmine and Fateh return to Moga and make Tanya pretend to be Tejo. Jasmine finds out she is pregnant with Amrik's child and is determined to give her child the perfect life. She once again becomes obsessed with getting Fateh as she wants him to raise her child with her. However, in a shocking turn of events, Tanya reunites Tejo, who is now mentally unstable after the fire, with everyone. Jasmine tries to get rid of Tejo but she isn't able to succeed. Fateh marries Tejo and eventually Tejo regains her memories. Fateh warns Jasmine to stay away from Tejo but Tejo, who doesn't know that Jasmine tried to kill her, brings back Jasmine. Later on, Jasmine ends up miscarrying and fakes her pregnancy. She pretends to give birth and leaves an orphan at the hospital, claiming it to be Amrik and her child. Tejo and Fateh know the truth but for the family's happiness, they keep it a secret and raise the child as their own daughter. They name her Nehmat. Jasmine, on the other hand, married Yash and moved to Canada, finally accomplishing her life-long dream. However, she is in for a rude awakening when she realizes Yash married her for revenge and mistreats her.


title: Udaariyaan

text: Jasmine returns to India with Naaz as she was suffering from domestic violence and torture by her mother-in-law and husband. Her father refuses to accept her. Tejo and Fateh have raised Nehmat up in a loving household while Jasmine and Naaz are barely getting by. Jasmine decides to leave her daughter with her family so Naaz can finally have the love of a family and happiness that Naaz deserves. She leaves behind a note saying that she doesn't wish to meet them again as she is not a great person to have in anyone's life. Naaz and Nehmat become friends and treat each other like sisters. However, Naaz starts to get jealous of the attention Nehmat is getting and misses Jasmine. Fateh and Tejo decide to adopt Naaz so Naaz will get the love and happiness that she deserves. Unfortunately, before Naaz could be officially adopted, Fateh, Tejo and the Virks all die in a car accident. Nehmat, Naaz and Tejo's family are left devastated.


title: Udaariyaan

text: Naaz and Nehmat are all grown up. Nehmat is dating Ekam, a police officer in trainee, who wants to help Nehmat find out the reason behind the Virk family's accident and demise. Naaz is still suffering from inferiority complex for the attention Nehmat always gets and wishes to snatch all of Nehmat's happiness away from her. Nehmat always wishes well for Naaz, but Naaz is always busy plotting against Nehmat so Naaz can get everything that Nehmat has. The only one who sees Naaz's true face is Malika and hence Naaz and Mallika don't get along. Naaz tries to break Nehmat's friendship with Malika by creating misunderstandings between them by showing that Advait and Nehmat are together. Advait, in reality, is only marrying Malika to have power over Ekam so Ekam doesn't investigate the Virk family's accident. It is revealed that Advait's father and Jasmine were behind the car accident.


title: Udaariyaan

text: Priyanka Chahar Choudhary, Ankit Gupta and Isha Malviya were cast to portray the leads Tejo, Fateh and Jasmine respectively. Malviya's character later turned negative. Post the six month leap, Choudhary also played Tanya. Karan Grover was roped in as the main antagonist and had dual roles of Angad and Arjun.


title: Udaariyaan

text: In September 2022, the series took a leap, where Twinkle Arora, Hitesh Bharadwaj and Sonakshi Batra were cast as Nehmat, Ekam and Naaz respectively.


title: Udaariyaan

text: The series is set in Moga, Punjab. It has been shot in Chandigarh, since its inception. During the six months leap track, the series was shot in London.


title: Udaariyaan

text: A special song promo was released with Sargun Mehta, Priyanka Choudhary, Ankit Gupta and Isha Malviya alongside rapper Badshah.


title: Udaariyaan

text: "Udaariyaan" has been dubbed in Bengali as "Swopno Dana". It premieres on Colors Bangla since 18 April 2022.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: The Dark Knight Returns (alternatively titled Batman: The Dark Knight Returns) is a 1986 four-issue comic book miniseries starring Batman, written by Frank Miller, illustrated by Miller, and Klaus Janson, with color by Lynn Varley, and published by DC Comics. It tells an alternative story of Bruce Wayne, who at 55 years old returns from retirement to fight crime and faces opposition from the Gotham City police force and the United States government. The story also features the return of classic foes such as Two-Face and the Joker, and culminates with a confrontation with Superman, who is now a pawn of the government.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: When originally published, the series was simply titled Batman: The Dark Knight, with a different subtitle for each issue (The Dark Knight Returns, The Dark Knight Triumphant, Hunt the Dark Knight, and The Dark Knight Falls), but when the series was collected into a single volume later that year, the title of the first issue was applied to the entire series, and has remained so ever since. Some of the earliest collected editions also bore the shorter series title. The story introduces Carrie Kelley as the new Robin and the hyper-violent street gang known as the Mutants. In the Pre-"Flashpoint" DC Multiverse, the events of "The Dark Knight Returns" and its associated titles were designated to occur on Earth-31.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: The miniseries, the first of a trilogy of limited series based on this version of Batman, was followed by "The Dark Knight Strikes Again" and "".


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: "The Dark Knight Returns" is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential Batman stories ever made, as well as one of the greatest works of comic art in general, and has been noted for helping reintroduce a darker and more mature-oriented version of the character (and superheroes in general) to pop culture during the 1980s. Various elements of the series have since been incorporated into depictions of Batman in other media, while a direct animated adaptation of the story, , was released as a two-part film across 2012 and 2013.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: "The Dark Knight Returns" is set in a dystopian version of Gotham City in 1986. Bruce Wayne, aged 55, has given up the mantle of Batman after the death of Jason Todd ten years prior. Crime is running rampant throughout the city and a gang calling themselves "The Mutants" has begun terrorizing the people of Gotham. After watching news reports about the Mutants' crimes, Wayne decides to return to his role as a vigilante. On his first night as Batman, he stops multiple assaults – including one on two young girls, Carrie Kelley and her friend Michelle – and targets the Mutants.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: While foiling an armed robbery, Batman learns that the criminals are working for Harvey Dent. Previously known as Two-Face, Dent underwent extensive therapy and plastic surgery to reenter society before disappearing. Batman informs nearly-retired Commissioner Gordon that Dent may be planning a larger scheme. Soon after, Dent announces his intention to hold Gotham ransom with a bomb. After Batman defeats Dent and his goons, he discovers that Dent's mind has completely warped into his Two-Face persona.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: Inspired by Batman, Kelley buys an imitation Robin costume and searches for him. Batman attacks the Mutants at the city dump with the Batmobile, but the Mutant Leader goads him into a hand-to-hand fight. Batman, due to his age and a decade of physical inactivity, is beaten and almost killed. Kelley creates a diversion which allows her and Batman to return to the Batcave, where Wayne's butler Alfred Pennyworth tends to his wounds. Impressed with her bravery, Wayne decides to make Kelley his new protegee. Batman strategically defeats the Mutant Leader in a fight surrounded by the Mutants. Seeing Batman defeat their leader, some of the Mutants disband into smaller gangs. One of these gangs renames themselves the "Sons of the Batman", using excessive violence against criminals.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: At the White House, Superman and the President discuss the events in Gotham, with the latter suggesting that Batman may have to be arrested. Clark Kent talks with Wayne, and is then deployed by Washington to the Latin American country of Corto Maltese, where he fights Soviet combat forces in a conflict that may escalate into World War III.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: Gordon's successor as commissioner, Captain Ellen Yindel, declares Batman a wanted criminal for his vigilante activities. Batman's return stimulates his archenemy, Joker, to awaken from catatonia at Arkham Asylum. Joker manipulates his caretakers to allow him onto a television talk show, where he murders everyone with Joker venom and escapes. Batman and Robin (Kelley) track him to a county fair while evading a police pursuit. Batman fights Joker, vowing to stop him permanently, feeling responsible for every murder the villain has committed. Batman paralyzes the Joker, but is unable to take his life. Disappointed with Batman's refusal to kill him, Joker breaks his own neck and dies. Batman and Robin escape from Gotham police.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: A citywide manhunt on Batman begins. Elsewhere, Superman diverts a Soviet nuclear warhead which detonates in a desert, nearly killing him in the process, and survives only by absorbing the sun's energy. The United States is hit by an electromagnetic pulse as a result and descends into chaos during the following blackout. In Gotham, Batman and Robin turn the remaining Mutants and Sons of the Batman into a non-lethal vigilante gang, making Gotham the safest city in the country. The U.S. government orders Superman to take Batman into custody. Superman demands to meet Batman, and Wayne chooses Crime Alley.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: Superman tries to reason with Batman, but Batman uses his technological inventions to fight him on equal ground. During the battle, Superman compromises Batman's exoframe. However, an aging Oliver Queen manages to shoot Superman with a kryptonite-tipped arrow to weaken him. Before he can fully defeat Superman, Batman has a sudden heart attack, apparently dying. Alfred destroys the Batcave and Wayne Manor before suffering a fatal stroke, exposing Batman as Bruce Wayne, whose fortune has disappeared. After Wayne's funeral, it is revealed that his death was staged using a chemical that suspended his vital life signs. Clark attends the funeral and winks at the disguised Carrie after hearing Wayne's heartbeat. Some time afterwards, Bruce Wayne leads Robin, Queen, and the rest of his followers into the caverns beyond the Batcave and prepares to continue his war on crime.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: Since the 1950s, when the Comics Code Authority was established, the character of Batman had drifted from his darker, more serious roots. It was not until the 1970s when the character began to feature in darker stories once again; however, Batman was still commonly associated with the campy theme of the 1960s "Batman" TV series, and was regarded more as a father figure to Robin rather than as his original identity as a vigilante.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: In the early 1980s, DC Comics promoted Batman group editor Dick Giordano to editorial director for the company. Writer-artist Frank Miller was recruited to create "The Dark Knight Returns". Giordano said he worked with Miller on the story's plot, and said, "[t]he version that was finally done was about his fourth or fifth draft. The basic storyline was the same but there were a lot of detours along the way."


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: "With Batman, you've got a character that you can describe in just a few seconds: His parents were murdered by criminals; he's warring on crime for the rest of his life," Miller explained in the documentary "Comic Book Confidential." "He was created in 1938, and the character was just ruthless in his methods, terrifying to criminals. Over the years, that got softened and softened, because people started thinking that comics had to be just for kids... and Batman had to be made much nicer. And eventually, no kid could relate to him anymore."


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: During the creation of the series, fellow comics writer/artist John Byrne told Miller, "Robin must be a girl", and Miller agreed. Miller said that the comic series' plot was inspired by Dirty Harry, specifically the 1983 film "Sudden Impact", in which Dirty Harry returns to crime-fighting after a lengthy convalescence. The series employed a 16-panel grid for its pages. Each page was composed of either a combination of 16 panels, or anywhere between sixteen and one panel per page. Giordano left the project halfway through because of disagreements over production deadlines. Comics historian Les Daniels wrote that Miller's idea of ignoring deadlines was "the culmination of the quest towards artistic independence".


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: While the comic's ending features Batman faking his death and leading up the Sons of Batman to continue with his crusade against crime, symbolizing that Bruce Wayne dies but Batman lives on, this wasn't the original intention. During the MCM London Comic Con 2018, Miller revealed that in his original plans for the ending of "The Dark Knight Returns", Batman was going to be gunned down by the police while fighting them, but the story got away from him and changed his mind.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: The issues of "The Dark Knight Returns" were presented in packaging that included extra pages, square binding and glossy paper to highlight the watercolor paintings by colorist Lynn Varley.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: The entire series has been collected in trade paperbacks, hardcovers, an absolute edition, a noir edition, and a deluxe edition.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: Despite the cost of the single-issue packaging, "The Dark Knight Returns" sold well. Pricing it at $2.95 an issue, DC Comics promoted "The Dark Knight Returns" as a "thought-provoking action story". "Time" said the series' depiction of a "semi-retired Batman [who] is unsure about his crime-fighting abilities" was an example of trying to appeal to "today's skeptical readers". More than 1 million comics in print were issued.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: Retrospectively, the series is today widely considered one of the greatest works in the comics medium. IGN Comics ranked "The Dark Knight Returns" first on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels and called "The Dark Knight Returns" "a true masterpiece of storytelling" with "[s]cene after unforgettable scene." In 2005, "Time" chose the collected edition as one of the 10 best English language graphic novels ever written. Forbidden Planet placed the collected issue at number one on its "50 Best of the Best Graphic Novels" list. Writer Matthew K. Manning in the "1980s" chapter of "DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle" (2010) called the series "arguably the best Batman story of all time." It was placed second in a poll among comic book academics conducted by the Sequart Organization.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: The series also garnered some negative reviews. In April 2010, Nicolas Slayton from Comics Bulletin ranked "The Dark Knight Returns" second in his Tuesday Top Ten feature's Top 10 Overrated Comic Books behind "Watchmen". Slayton wrote, "[t]here is no central plot to the comic, leaving only a forced fight scene between Superman and Batman as an out of place climax to the story." "Gone are the traits that define Batman," he said, also citing "misuse of the central character."


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: The immense popularity of "The Dark Knight Returns" served both to return the character of Batman to a central role in pop culture, but also (along with "Watchmen") started the era known as the Dark Age of Comic Books (also known as the Modern Age and the Iron Age). The grim, seedy versions of Gotham and Batman updated the character's identity from the campy Adam West version from the 1960s Batman TV series, and proved critically and commercially successful enough that a new wave of "dark" superheroes were either created or re-popularized, and preexisting heroes were redesigned or retooled to fit this new trend.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: "The Dark Knight Returns" was one of the two comic books, alongside "Watchmen", that inspired designer Vincent Connare when he created the Comic Sans font.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: A three-issue sequel written and illustrated by Miller, "The Dark Knight Strikes Again", was published in 2001. A nine-issue third installment, "", co-written by Miller and Brian Azzarello, was published approximately bi-monthly starting in late 2015. In addition, a 64-page Prestige Format one-shot co-written by Miller and Azzarello, "Dark Knight Returns: The Last Crusade", which serves as a prequel to the original series, was released on June 15, 2016. Additionally, "Spawn/Batman" was released in 1994 as a companion to "The Dark Knight Returns", and, according to Miller, the unfinished series "All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder" can be considered a prequel, as can the four-issue story "".


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: In 1994, this version of Batman appeared in the "" crossover event playing a small role. In March 2018, he appeared in a brief cameo in the sixth and final issue of the "" event. The three-issue miniseries "" was revealed by Frank Miller to be set in the same universe as the "Dark Knight Returns" series, serving as an origin story for that universe's version of Superman. Younger versions of Batman and Wonder Woman appeared in the third issue of the series, marking their first meeting with Superman.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: In 2019, Miller announced the name of the fourth chapter of the series, a Prestige Format one-shot entitled "Dark Knight Returns: The Golden Child", released under DC Black Label. The first issue by Miller and Rafael Grampa was released December 2019.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: In 2018, it was announced that this version of Robin, Carrie Kelley, would be getting a spin-off in the form of a young adult graphic novel. It will be written by Miller with art from Ben Caldwell. There was very little information until November 2021, when Miller said "[The Carrie Kelley book] is shaping up great; Ben is just a powder keg of talent. It'd probably be out now but it just keeps growing, due to his enthusiasm and output. I'm already kind of tugging at his sleeve about doing something else after this."


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: In 1996, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the graphic novel, DC released a new hardcover and a later softcover release. These included original rough script text for issue #4 with some sketches by Miller. There was also a limited edition slipcased hardcover that included mini poster prints, collected media reviews, and a sketchbook by Miller. DC Direct released a limited edition statue of Batman and Robin designed by Miller. It was released in full size and then later as a mini sized statue. DC Direct released a series of Batman action figures based on "The Dark Knight Returns" in 2004. It included figures of Batman, Robin, Superman, and The Joker. Later, a Batman and Joker Gift Set was released, including both characters with new color schemes to reflect earlier points in the story, and a 48-page prestige format reprint of "The Dark Knight Returns" #1 was also released. An action figure of Batman as he appears in "The Dark Knight Returns" was released by Mattel in 2013, as part of their "Batman Unlimited" line of action figures.


title: The Dark Knight Returns

text: In 2022, Cryptozoic Entertainment released a "Batman: The Dark Knight Returns" board game designed specifically for solitaire play. The game uses extensive amounts of art from the graphic novel and play follows the story of The Dark Knight Returns, including 4 games mirroring the books as a campaign.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The SIG Sauer P320 is a modular semi-automatic pistol made by SIG Sauer, Inc., SIG Sauer's American branch. It is a further development of the SIG Sauer P250, utilizing a striker-fired mechanism in lieu of a double action only hammer system. The P320 can be chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum, .357 SIG, .40 S&W, .45 ACP, and 10mm Auto and can be easily converted from one caliber to another; a change from .357 SIG to .40 S&W requires only a barrel change; a change between 9mm to .357 SIG or .40 S&W and vice versa are accomplished using a caliber exchange kit.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The P320 chambered in 9×19 mm Parabellum was introduced in the North American market on 15 January 2014, followed by the .45 ACP compact model at the SHOT Show in January 2015. On 19 January 2017, it was announced that a customized version of the SIG Sauer P320 had won the United States Army's XM17 Modular Handgun System competition. The full-sized model will be known as the M17 and the compact carry-sized model will be known as the M18.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The P320 was designed to be ambidextrous in handling, sporting a catch lever on both sides of the slide and user-reversible magazine release, and all other operating controls are designed so they can be operated from either side. The firearm can be field stripped with no tools. Additionally, the firearm can also be field stripped without depressing the trigger, an additional safety feature to prevent negligent discharge of the weapon. The fire control unit is removable, allowing to switch to a different frame size.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The requirements for the new US Army handgun included the idea that an existing handgun model would be preferred for the Modular Handgun System Request for Proposal, known as the XM17 Procurement. SIG Sauer submitted a P320 with a number of modifications and submitted them for the XM17 Modular Handgun System competition.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: On 19 January 2017, it was announced that the SIG Sauer P320 MHS variant had won the United States Military's Modular Handgun System trials. The P320 will be known as the M17 (full size) and M18 (compact) in U.S. Military service. Though the pistol will remain chambered in 9 × 19 mm Luger rather than a larger caliber, the contract allows the services to procure SIG Sauer's proposed XM1152 Full Metal Jacket and XM1153 Special Purpose ammunition. The ammunition chosen to go with the pistol is a "Winchester jacketed hollow point" round.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: In May 2017, the Army announced that the first unit that will receive the M17 would be the 101st Airborne Division by the end of the year. At the same time, the rest of the U.S. Armed Forces revealed they also intend to acquire the handgun, making it the standard sidearm for the entire U.S. military. The services plan to procure up to 421,000 weapons in total; 195,000 for the Army, 130,000 for the Air Force, 61,000 for the Navy (XM18 compact version only), and 35,000 for the Marines.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: On 17 November 2017, soldiers of the 101st Airborne received the first XM17 and XM18 pistols, with over 2,000 handguns delivered. The XM17 has better accuracy and ergonomics and tighter dispersion than the M9. It will also be fielded more widely, being issued down to squad and fireteam leaders; while special forces would dual-arm all of its members with a pistol and rifle, previously junior leaders in regular infantry units were excluded from carrying sidearms but policy was changed to give them more choices and options in close quarters battle situations. All Army units are planned to have the M9 replaced with the M17 within a decade.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: Initial production models of the P320 were found to have a "drop safety" issue if the firearm was dropped at a specific angle, potentially causing it to discharge. SIG Sauer has since refitted the P320 to make it drop-safe and offers a voluntary upgrade program for early P320s.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: Apart from its initial issues, the P320 has proven itself to be an extremely reliable pistol for civilian, law enforcement and military use. Many police departments in the US and around the world have started issuing their officers P320s.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: Around 400 P320s were procured for the Canadian Joint Task Force 2 special forces unit (JTF-2) in 2019, but these were withdrawn and the earlier P226 pistols (also manufactured by SIG Sauer) reinstated following a misfire that injured a soldier during a training exercise in November 2020; JTF-2 was the only Canadian military unit using the P320. In June 2021, a technical investigation found that the misfire was due to "a partial depression of the trigger by a foreign object combined with simultaneous movement of the slide [...] that then allowed a round to be fired whilst the pistol was still holstered" and that the usage of a holster designed for a different pistol was a contributory factor; the P320 itself was not at fault nor were there any issues with how it had been procured by Canadian defence officials (since questions had been raised as to whether these officials were aware of the drop safety issues). However, the pistols would remain in storage pending a third-party safety assessment. The safety assessment and other proceedings related to the misfire were concluded by June 2022, with a decision to reinstate the P320 being taken towards the end of that month.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: In January 2019, SIG Sauer announced the XCompact handgun as the newest entry in their X Series lineup.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The XCompact size grip module is the smallest grip module SIG currently carries, as they have not come out with a subcompact X Series grip module to date.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: Released in late July/early August 2019 the XFIVE Legion is considered the flagship of the P320 platform that brings added weight and features. The TXG grip module has tungsten infused directly into the polymer along with an attachable magazine well. It comes standard with Henning group aluminum base pads and a skeletonized flat trigger. The complete 9mm slide is has lightening cuts in the top to reduce weight and assist in recoil. It is also optics ready through the removal of the rear sight plate assembly. The optics cut is the Delta Point/Romeo 1 Pro profile, but will accommodate multiple optics via adapter plates. .


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The SIG P320-XTENMAX is a 10mm Auto chambered X Series variant of the P320, released in 2022. It features an X Series grip module, bull barrel, flat X Series trigger and a Nitron-finished stainless steel slide with a cut for mounting aiming optics. Magazine capacity is 15 rounds. It weighs , has a bull barrel, overall length of , overall height of , overall width of and a sight radius of .


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The SIG P320MAX is a sporterised variant of the P320, designed in 2021 for use by competition shooters. The pistol comes with ROMEO3 MAX sights and tungsten infused TXG heavy grip module, weighs , has a match grade barrel, and an overall length of .


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: In late July 2017, the Dallas Police Department in Texas instructed all personnel to stop carrying the P320 pending an investigation. There were concerns that the firearm may discharge when it is dropped and the back of the slide hits the ground at a 33-degree angle. The problem was thought to be related to the trigger weight; some triggers were heavy enough that they essentially continued to move due to inertia after the gun hit the ground. Internet publications, such as TheTruthAboutGuns.com, conducted independent tests that appeared to confirm potential drop firings (at a 40 percent rate).


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: On 8 August 2017, SIG Sauer issued a notice that they would upgrade all P320s to address the issue. The upgrade is described on the company's website as: "an alternate design that reduces the physical weight of the trigger, sear, and striker while additionally adding a mechanical disconnector."


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: The Fraternal Order of Police's Wisconsin state lodge recommended in mid-September 2022 for the state's police departments to stop using the weapon, claiming three Milwaukee Police officer injuries involving them or their partner's service weapons firing without any trigger pressure since 2020.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: In May 2017, Steyr Mannlicher filed a patent infringement lawsuit against SIG Sauer. Steyr refers to their patent US6260301 (filed in 1999 and approved in 2001), which is for a handgun with a removable chassis. Steyr Arms requested a preliminary and permanent injunction against SIG Sauer selling any such firearms. On 11 March 2020, the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire found that SIG Sauer did not infringe Steyr's patents, and dismissed all motions.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: A lawsuit related to the above-noted drop firing problem and filed in April 2018 in the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri led to a class action settlement in February 2020. Elements of the agreement include:


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: In September 2019, an Arizona gun owner who purchased a P320 in September 2016 initiated a class action lawsuit. It claims that SIG Sauer "continued to sell the flawed gun to the public", and that the upgrade offered "would still not fully compensate him for the significantly diminished resale value of his pistol." In March 2020, judge Joseph N. Laplante denied SIG Sauer's motion to dismiss the case. In May 2020, a trial notice was issued, with pretrial statements due on 5 October 2021; in January 2021, the due date for pretrial statements was revised to 1 February 2022.


title: SIG Sauer P320

text: On 30 November 2022, a lawsuit was filed in U.S. federal court alleging several P320 pistols unintentionally fired "without the trigger being pulled or deliberately actuated by the user." The lawsuit claims there have been "over 100 incidents" of such discharges, "many of which have caused severe injury." An attorney representing the lawsuit's plaintiffs, Robert Zimmerman, said it was the largest lawsuit against SIG Sauer involving the P320 on behalf of people who were injured. The twenty plaintiffs in the case (twenty individuals and about a dozen spouses) are from thirteen different states.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Fine Line is the second studio album by English singer and songwriter Harry Styles, released on 13 December 2019 by Columbia Records and Erskine. The album's themes revolve around breakups, happiness, sex and sadness. The record has been described as pop rock, with elements of progressive-pop, psychedelic pop, folk, soul, funk and indie pop. It was primarily written with and produced by frequent collaborator Tyler Johnson and Kid Harpoon.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Supported by seven singles—"Lights Up", "Adore You", "Falling", "Watermelon Sugar", "Golden", "Treat People with Kindness", and the title track—the album debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart and has since been certified platinum. It debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200, making it Styles' second consecutive number-one album in the US. The album had the third-largest sales week of 2019 in the US and broke the record as the biggest debut from a British male artist since Nielsen SoundScan began, earning 478,000 album-equivalent units. It has been certified triple platinum in the US for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over three million units in the country.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Fine Line" received generally positive reviews from music critics, particularly towards its production and stylistic influences. It was nominated for Album of the Year at the 2020 Brit Awards, and for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2021 Grammy Awards. The album received a Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance and a Brit Award for British Single of the Year for "Watermelon Sugar". In 2020, "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 491 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, making it the most recent album to be included.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: In an interview with "Rolling Stone" released on 26 August 2019, it was reported that the singer was putting the "final touches" on his album which Styles explained was "all about having sex and feeling sad." The album was also described to contain his "toughest, most soulful songs he's written yet." On the direction of his second album, Styles revealed he wanted to be more fun and adventurous compared to his self-titled debut album.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Much of the album was inspired by Styles' relationship with model Camille Rowe. Following the couple's split, producer and writer Kid Harpoon encouraged Styles to deal with his emotions by writing about them. During the recording Styles was inspired by David Bowie, Van Morrison, Paul McCartney and Joni Mitchell. The latter's album "Blue" (1971) and its use of the dulcimer, particularly influenced the album's musical style. Styles tracked down the woman who built the dulcimer used in Mitchell's album and requested lessons; she would go on to build Styles his own dulcimer which was used during the album's recording. Styles used "mushrooms" during the recording process.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: The album was released on 13 December 2019, by Columbia and Erskine, Styles' second to be released under the label. The standard edition was released on CD, vinyl, digital download and streaming. The deluxe edition of the album was released on CD on 13 December 2019.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Shortly before release of the album's lead single "Lights Up", the album was promoted by billboards and the caption: "Do You Know Who You Are?" in several cities around the world.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Marketing for a tourism agency in "Eroda", the fictitious isle Styles' team came up with, began appearing on social media; as well as a website for the isle. Styles collaborated with Spotify to organize a fan-exclusive event held at an undisclosed location in Los Angeles for a private listening party, where fans were taken to experience "Eroda", an elaborate theme created for his single "Adore You".


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Styles promoted the album on 16 November episode of NBC's "Saturday Night Live" as both a host and a musical guest.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Leading up to the album's release, on 10 December, Styles also served as the guest host on "The Late Late Show with James Corden". To celebrate the release and maximize sales of the album, Styles held a one-night-only show at The Forum in Los Angeles that coincided with the album's 13 December release. Styles allowed fans to pre-order his album and rewarded them with a code to have a chance to buy tickets to see him at his one-night-only show for only $25. The show in Los Angeles was followed by another show at the Electric Ballroom in London on 19 December with British rapper Stormzy as a special guest. The planned concert tour, Love On Tour, in support of the album, was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic; the dates of the US leg of the tour were later rescheduled for fall 2021.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Lights Up", the lead single from the album, was released on 11 October 2019, debuting at number 3 on the UK Singles Chart. The song features a "soft-touch re-entry into the pop slipstream", according to music writer Jon Caramanica. The song debuted at number 17 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: On 2 December, Styles revealed the trailer for the album's second single, "Adore You". The song and music video were released on 6 December, with the extended version of the music video being narrated by Rosalía. "Adore You" peaked at number six on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming his first top-ten single in the country since his solo debut single, "Sign of the Times". In the singer's native, the United Kingdom, the song peaked at number seven.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: A music video for "Falling" was released on 28 February. On 7 March 2020, "Falling" was officially released as the third single of the album in the UK. Peaking at number 15 on the UK Singles Chart, the song became Styles third consecutive top-fifteen single from the album. Moreover, it peaked at number 62 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Watermelon Sugar" was released as the album's fourth single on 15 May 2020. It was originally released as a promotional single on 16 November 2019; Styles performed "Watermelon Sugar" on "Saturday Night Live". Peaking at number four on the UK Singles Chart, the song became Styles third top-ten single from the album. Additionally, it peaked at number one in the US, making it his first number one single in the country.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Golden" impacted UK contemporary hit radio on 23 October 2020, and later to US adult pop radio formats on 26 October 2020 and Top 40 on the following day as the album's fifth single.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: On 1 January 2021, Styles released a music video for "Treat People with Kindness" co-starring actress Phoebe Waller-Bridge. The song later impacted UK radio on 9 January 2021 as the album's sixth single.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Fine Line" is primarily a pop rock record that incorporates elements of progressive pop, psychedelic pop, folk, soul, funk and indie pop.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Fine Line" received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional critics, the album has an average score of 76 out of 100, based on 20 reviews.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Gregory Robinson, writing for "The Guardian", regarded the album as "confident, convincing and catchy." Alexandra Pollard of "The Independent" stated that "it may not reach the pinnacle of sex or sadness, but "Fine Line" is a fine album nonetheless." Hannah Mylrea of "NME" found the album to be "a total joy", calling it "an elegant combination of the ex-boybander's influences, slick modern pop and his own roguish charm." Rea McNamara of "NOW Magazine" praised Styles' decision to lean towards "ebullient, soulful pop" while naming "Sunflower, Vol. 6" as the album's best track. Writing for "Rolling Stone", Nick Catucci deemed the album "excellent" and felt that "if there's a nontoxic masculinity, Harry Styles just might've found it." David Smyth of "The Evening Standard" remarked that while Styles' music can not "live up to the sparkling imagery of his press profiles", his second album makes "a strong argument for being the most interesting boy band escapee yet."


title: Fine Line (album)

text: Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" described the production as a "tour-de-force" and complimented how "Styles exults in sound, not image." Chris Willman of "Variety" commented that, contrary to Style's description of the record, the sensuality and melancholy are "a little on the muted side", while Styles is "still stuck" in the classic rock era that he "casually [claims] as his own." Bryan Rolli of "Consequence of Sound" called "Fine Line" an "airy, melancholy album that diplomatically addresses heartache while declining to wallow in it", complimenting his more honest songwriting but lamenting the lack of energy in his vocal performance. "The Daily Telegraph" Neil McCormick characterized the album as "charming but inconsequential", while Mark Richardson of "The Wall Street Journal" described it as "earnest, forthright and delivered with polish", but "more imitative than original" and offering "no fresh perspective". In a mixed review, Jeremy D. Larson of "Pitchfork" described the "actual sound" of "Fine Line" as "incredible" as Styles' influences permeate the record, but considered his songwriting shallow and lacking in imagination. Tom Hull wrote similarly that it "seems pointless even when he comes up with something catchy – actually, the catchier, the more annoying it gets."


title: Fine Line (album)

text: "Fine Line" debuted atop the US "Billboard" 200 with 478,000 album-equivalent units (of which 393,000 are pure sales) in the week ending 19 December. It marked the biggest week for a pop album by a male artist in over four years. "Fine Line" also achieved the largest sales week from a British male artist since Nielsen SoundScan began, and made him the first UK male artist to debut at number one with first two albums. The album's tracks earned a total of 108.7 million on-demand US streams in its first week. In its second week, the album remained at number one on the chart, selling an additional 89,000 album equivalent units consisting of 47,000 pure album sales, and becoming the first pop album to spend two weeks at number one since Ed Sheeran's "No.6 Collaborations Project" in August 2019. According to Nielsen year-end report, "Fine Line" was the fifth-best selling album of the year in pure sales, with 458,000 copies—of which 354,000 were physical copies. In its third week, the album dropped to number four on the chart, earning 54,000 more units that week. In its fourth week, the album climbed to number three on the chart, earning 49,000 more units. On 15 February 2022, the album was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album-equivalent units of three million units in the United States. Fine Line is one of only three albums released in 2019 to have sold a million copies in traditional album sales in the US.


title: Fine Line (album)

text: After debuting at number 3 on the UK Album Charts in December 2019, the album peaked at number 2 in its 56th week in the top 100 on 14 January 2021 (week ending) behind Taylor Swift's "Evermore". On 16 October 2020, it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling over 300,000 units in the UK. The album has shifted over 500.000 units to date in the UK.


title: Typewriter

text: A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of keys, and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a type element. At the end of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a "person" who used such a device.


title: Typewriter

text: The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874, but did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s. The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, business correspondence in private homes, and by students preparing written assignments.


title: Typewriter

text: Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. Thereafter, they began to be largely supplanted by personal computers running word processing software. Nevertheless, typewriters remain common in some parts of the world. In many Indian cities and towns, for example, typewriters are still used, especially in roadside and legal offices due to a lack of continuous, reliable electricity.


title: Typewriter

text: The QWERTY keyboard layout, developed for typewriters in the 1870s, remains the standard for computer keyboards. The origins of this layout remain in dispute.


title: Typewriter

text: Notable typewriter manufacturers included E. Remington and Sons, IBM, Godrej, Imperial Typewriter Company, Oliver Typewriter Company, Olivetti, Royal Typewriter Company, Smith Corona, Underwood Typewriter Company, Facit, Adler, and Olympia-Werke.


title: Typewriter

text: Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous inventors working independently or in competition with each other over a series of decades. As with the automobile, telephone, and telegraph, a number of people contributed insights and inventions that eventually resulted in ever more commercially successful instruments. Historians have estimated that some form of typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design.


title: Typewriter

text: By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need for mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (the 1853 speed record).


title: Typewriter

text: From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production.


title: Typewriter

text: In 1865, Rev. Rasmus Malling-Hansen of Denmark invented the Hansen Writing Ball, which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercially sold typewriter. It was a success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the European continent as late as 1909. Malling-Hansen used a solenoid escapement to return the carriage on some of his models which makes him a candidate for the title of inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.


title: Typewriter

text: The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case characters. The Writing Ball was used as a template for inventor Frank Haven Hall to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper and faster.


title: Typewriter

text: Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. Then, in 1875, the well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing balls that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibitions in Vienna in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-prize for his invention at both exhibitions.


title: Typewriter

text: The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by Americans Christopher Latham Sholes, Frank Haven Hall, Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, although Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to use or even recommend it. The working prototype was made by clock-maker and machinist Matthias Schwalbach. Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Densmore and Sholes, who made an agreement with E. Remington and Sons (then famous as a manufacturer of sewing machines) to commercialize the machine as the "Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer". This was the origin of the term "typewriter". Remington began production of its first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in Ilion, New York. It had a QWERTY keyboard layout, which, because of the machine's success, was slowly adopted by other typewriter manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the typebars strike upwards, the typist could not see the characters as they were typed.


title: Typewriter

text: The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s, the index typewriter uses a pointer or stylus to choose a letter from an index. The pointer is mechanically linked so that the letter chosen could then be printed, most often by the activation of a lever.


title: Typewriter

text: The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines they were mechanically simpler and lighter, they were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers, and because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence.


title: Typewriter

text: For example, the Simplex Typewriter Company made index typewriters that cost 1/40th the cost of a Remington typewriter.


title: Typewriter

text: The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared, as on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished second hand machines began to become available. The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by AEG which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and type, allowing the use of different fonts and character sets, something very few keyboard machines allowed and only at considerable added cost.


title: Typewriter

text: Although pushed out of the market in most of the world by keyboard machines, successful Japanese and Chinese typewriters are of the index type albeit with a very much larger index and number of type elements.


title: Typewriter

text: Embossing tape label makers are the most common index typewriters today, and perhaps the most common typewriters of any kind still being manufactured.


title: Typewriter

text: The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.


title: Typewriter

text: By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had reached a somewhat standardized design. There were minor variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into its striking head. When a key was struck briskly and firmly, the typebar hit a ribbon (usually made of inked fabric), making a printed mark on the paper wrapped around a cylindrical platen.


title: Typewriter

text: The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever. Typewriters for languages written right-to-left operate in the opposite direction.


title: Typewriter

text: In most of the early typewriters, the typebars struck upward against the paper, pressed against the bottom of the platen, so the typist could not see the text as it was typed. What was typed was not visible until a carriage return caused it to scroll into view. The difficulty with any other arrangement was ensuring the typebars fell back into place reliably when the key was released. This was eventually achieved with various ingenious mechanical designs and so-called "visible typewriters" which used frontstriking, in which the typebars struck forward against the front side of the platen, became standard.


title: Typewriter

text: One of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-bank keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out two years later was the first major typewriter with these features.


title: Typewriter

text: A significant innovation was the shift key, introduced with the Remington No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as "basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the typewriter is described as "carriage shift". Either mechanism caused a different portion of the typebar to come in contact with the ribbon/platen. The result is that each typebar could type two different characters, cutting the number of keys and typebars in half (and simplifying the internal mechanisms considerably). The obvious use for this was to allow letter keys to type both upper and lower case, but normally the number keys were also duplexed, allowing access to special symbols such as percent, , and ampersand, .


title: Typewriter

text: Before the shift key, typewriters had to have a separate key and typebar for upper-case letters; in essence, the typewriter had two keyboards, one above the other. With the shift key, manufacturing costs (and therefore purchase price) were greatly reduced, and typist operation was simplified; both factors contributed greatly to mass adoption of the technology. Certain models, such as the Barlet, had a double shift so that each key performed three functions. These little three-row machines were portable and could be used by journalists. Other models, such as one made by Corona, achieved the same result using two shift keys a "CAP" shift and a "NUM" shift.


title: Typewriter

text: To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of numbers, freeing the operator from the need to manually position the carriage. The first models had one tab stop and one tab key; later ones allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes had multiple tab keys, each of which moved the carriage a different number of spaces ahead of the decimal point (the tab stop), to facilitate the typing of columns with numbers of different length ($1.00, $10.00, $100.00, etc.)


title: Typewriter

text: Languages such as French, Spanish, and German required diacritics, special signs attached to or on top of the base letter: for example, a combination of the acute accent plus produced ; plus produced . In metal typesetting, , , and others were separate sorts. With mechanical typewriters, the number of whose characters (sorts) was constrained by the physical limits of the machine, the number of keys required was reduced by the use of dead keys. Diacritics such as (acute accent) would be assigned to a dead key, which did not move the platen forward, permitting another character to be imprinted at the same location; thus a single dead key such as the acute accent could be combined with ,, and to produce ,, and , reducing the number of sorts needed from 5 to 1. The typebars of "normal" characters struck a rod as they moved the metal character desired toward the ribbon and platen, and each rod depression moved the platen forward the width of one character. Dead keys had a typebar shaped so as not to strike the rod.


title: Typewriter

text: In English-speaking countries, ordinary typewriters printing fixed-width characters were standardized to print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and had either of two variants of character width, one called "pica" for ten characters per horizontal inch and the other "elite", for twelve. This differed from the use of these terms in printing, where pica is a linear unit (approximately of an inch) used for any measurement, the most common one being the height of a type face.


title: Typewriter

text: Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could still be fitted with a solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first stripe ran out of ink. Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the keys to hit the paper unobstructed, and was used for cutting stencils for stencil duplicators (aka mimeograph machines).


title: Typewriter

text: In the early part of the 20th century, a typewriter was marketed under the name Noiseless and advertised as "silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by the Noiseless Typewriter Company in 1917. Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s.


title: Typewriter

text: In a conventional typewriter the typebar reaches the end of its travel simply by striking the ribbon and paper. A "noiseless" typewriter has a complex lever mechanism that decelerates the typebar mechanically before pressing it against the ribbon and paper in an attempt to dampen the noise.


title: Typewriter

text: Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the Universal Stock Ticker, invented by Thomas Edison in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape from input generated by a specially designed typewriter at the other end of a telegraph line.


title: Typewriter

text: Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in series is the Cahill of 1900.


title: Typewriter

text: Another electric typewriter was produced by the Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company, of Stamford, Connecticut, in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather than individual typebars. The machine was produced in several variants but apparently it was not a commercial success, for reasons that are unclear.


title: Typewriter

text: The next step in the development of the electric typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first practical teletypewriter. The Krums' machine, named the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City in 1910.


title: Typewriter

text: James Fields Smathers of Kansas City invented what is considered the first practical power-operated typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923 turned it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast was interested in finding new markets for their electric motors and developed Smathers's design so that it could be marketed to typewriter manufacturers, and from 1925 Remington Electric typewriters were produced powered by Northeast's motors.


title: Typewriter

text: After some 2,500 electric typewriters had been produced, Northeast asked Remington for a firm contract for the next batch. However, Remington was engaged in merger talks, which would eventually result in the creation of Remington Rand and no executives were willing to commit to a firm order. Northeast instead decided to enter the typewriter business for itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic Typewriter.


title: Typewriter

text: In 1928, Delco, a division of General Motors, purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by IBM, which then spent $1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01.


title: Typewriter

text: In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It was called the "Varityper", because a narrow cylinder-like wheel could be replaced to change the font.


title: Typewriter

text: In 1941, IBM announced the Electromatic Model 04 electric typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was further enhanced by including the 1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.


title: Typewriter

text: IBM introduced the IBM Selectric typewriter in 1961, which replaced the typebars with a spherical element (or typeball) slightly smaller than a golf ball, with reverse-image letters molded into its surface. The Selectric used a system of latches, metal tapes, and pulleys are driven by an electric motor to rotate the ball into the correct position and then strike it against the ribbon and platen. The typeball moved laterally in front of the paper, instead of the previous designs using a platen-carrying carriage moving the paper across a stationary print position.


title: Typewriter

text: Due to the physical similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred to as a "golfball". The typeball design had many advantages, especially the elimination of "jams" (when more than one key was struck at once and the typebars became entangled) and in the ability to change the typeball, allowing multiple fonts to be used in a single document.


title: Typewriter

text: The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two decades. IBM also gained an advantage by marketing more heavily to schools than did Remington, with the idea that students who learned to type on a Selectric would later choose IBM typewriters over the competition in the workplace as businesses replaced their old manual models.


title: Typewriter

text: Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed on the machine could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising issues where the machines were used for preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be accounted for to ensure that typists did not carry them from the facility).


title: Typewriter

text: A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, where a sticky tape in front of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for hard erasers that could tear the paper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" so that the typewriter could be switched between pica type (10 characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within one document. Even so, all Selectrics were monospaced—each character and letterspace was allotted the same width on the page, from a capital "W" to a period. IBM did produce a successful typebar-based machine with five levels of proportional spacing, called the IBM Executive.


title: Typewriter

text: The only fully electromechanical Selectric Typewriter with fully proportional spacing and which used a Selectric type element was the expensive Selectric Composer, which was capable of right-margin justification (typing each line twice was required, once to calculate and again to print) and was considered a typesetting machine rather than a typewriter. Composer typeballs physically resembled those of the Selectric typewriter but were not interchangeable.In addition to its electronic successors, the Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer (MT/SC), the Mag Card Selectric Composer, and the Electronic Selectric Composer, IBM also made electronic typewriters with proportional spacing using the Selectric element that were considered typewriters or word processors instead of typesetting machines.


title: Typewriter

text: The first of these was the relatively obscure Mag Card Executive, which used 88-character elements. Later, some of the same typestyles used for it were used on the 96-character elements used on the IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and the later models 65 and 85.


title: Typewriter

text: By 1970, as offset printing began to replace letterpress printing, the Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a typesetting system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the tape and produce the formatted text for photo reproduction.


title: Typewriter

text: The IBM 2741 terminal was a popular example of a Selectric-based computer terminal, and similar mechanisms were employed as the console devices for many IBM System/360 computers. These mechanisms used "ruggedized" designs compared to those in standard office typewriters.


title: Typewriter

text: Some of IBM's advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For example, Smith-Corona electric typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-patented) ribbon cartridges. including fabric, film, erasing, and two-color versions. At about the same time, the advent of photocopying meant that carbon copies, correction fluid and erasers were less and less necessary; only the original need be typed, and photocopies made from it.


title: Typewriter

text: The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the typeball with a plastic or metal daisy wheel mechanism (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept first emerged in printers developed by Diablo Systems in the 1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the world (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501, and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly advanced and performing models in the following years.


title: Typewriter

text: Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called "display typewriters", "dedicated word processors" or "word-processing typewriters", though the latter term was also frequently applied to less sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just single-row display. Sophisticated models were also called "word processors", though today that term almost always denotes a type of software program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), Brother (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), Canon (Canon Cat), Smith-Corona (PWP, i.e. Personal Word Processor line) and Philips/Magnavox (VideoWriter).


title: Typewriter

text: The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems, one after the other, in just a few years. While such rapid change is commonplace today, and is taken for granted, this was not always so; in fact, typewriting technology changed very little in its first 80 or 90 years.


title: Typewriter

text: Due to falling sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to the newly formed Lexmark, completely exiting from a market it once dominated.


title: Typewriter

text: The increasing dominance of personal computers, desktop publishing, the introduction of low-cost, truly high-quality laser and inkjet printer technologies, and the pervasive use of web publishing, e-mail and other electronic communication techniques have largely replaced typewriters in the United States. Still, , typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. According to a Boston typewriter repairman quoted by "The Boston Globe", "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as funeral homes".


title: Typewriter

text: A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in Moonachie, New Jersey), which, as of 2011, still produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, Indonesia, and/or Malaysia), manufactures a variety of typewriters for use in prisons, made of clear plastic (to make it harder for prisoners to hide prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the company had contracts with prisons in 43 US states.


title: Typewriter

text: In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a Mumbai-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's last typewriter factory" had shut down. The reports were quickly contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's last producer of manual typewriters.


title: Typewriter

text: In November 2012, Brother's UK factory manufactured what it claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the London Science Museum.


title: Typewriter

text: Russian typewriters use Cyrillic, which has made the ongoing Azerbaijani reconversion from Cyrillic to Latin alphabet more difficult. In 1997, the government of Turkey offered to donate western typewriters to the Republic of Azerbaijan in exchange for more zealous and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; this offer, however, was declined.


title: Typewriter

text: In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are most often Brazilian models; Brazil continues to produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.


title: Typewriter

text: The early 21st century saw revival of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including makers, steampunks, hipsters, and street poets.


title: Typewriter

text: According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a business letter was supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.


title: Typewriter

text: The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special "typewriter eraser" made of hard rubber that contained an abrasive material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately in diameter by thick, with a brush attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with a sharpenable eraser at the "lead" end and a stiff nylon brush at the other end. Either way, these tools made possible erasure of individual typed letters. Business letters were typed on heavyweight, high-rag-content bond paper, not merely to provide a luxurious appearance, but also to stand up to erasure.


title: Typewriter

text: Typewriter eraser brushes were necessary for clearing eraser crumbs and paper dust, and using the brush properly was an important element of typewriting skill; if erasure detritus fell into the typewriter, a small buildup could cause the typebars to jam in their narrow supporting grooves.


title: Typewriter

text: Erasing a set of carbon copies was particularly difficult, and called for the use of a device called an "eraser shield" (a thin stainless-steel rectangle about with several tiny holes in it) to prevent the pressure of erasing on the upper copies from producing carbon smudges on the lower copies. To correct copies, typists had to go from carbon copy to carbon copy, trying not to get their fingers dirty as they leafed through the carbon papers, and moving and repositioning the eraser shield and eraser for each copy.


title: Typewriter

text: Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called "erasable bond" (for example, Eaton's Corrasable Bond). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.


title: Typewriter

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, correction fluid made its appearance, under brand names such as Liquid Paper, Wite-Out and Tipp-Ex; it was invented by Bette Nesmith Graham. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque, white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be retyped. However, when held to the light, the covered-up characters were visible, as was the patch of dry correction fluid (which was never perfectly flat, and frequently not a perfect match for the color, texture, and luster of the surrounding paper). The standard trick for solving this problem was photocopying the corrected page, but this was possible only with high quality photocopiers.


title: Typewriter

text: A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not attempt to color match.


title: Typewriter

text: The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the "QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention, other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are poorly documented. The QWERTY layout of keys has become the de facto standard for English-language typewriter and computer keyboards. Other languages written in the Latin alphabet sometimes use variants of the QWERTY layouts, such as the French AZERTY, the Italian QZERTY and the German QWERTZ layouts.


title: Typewriter

text: The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout possible for the English language. Touch-typists are required to move their fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard was the most commonly used layout in typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched for throughout the late 1900s.


title: Typewriter

text: One popular but incorrect explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of letters farther from each other inside the machine.


title: Typewriter

text: A number of radically different layouts such as Dvorak have been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The Blickensderfer typewriter with its DHIATENSOR layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for efficiency advantages.


title: Typewriter

text: On modern keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 key, because these were the last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Holding the spacebar down usually suspended the carriage advance mechanism (a so-called "dead key" feature), allowing one to superimpose multiple keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (meaning cents) was located above the number 6 on American electric typewriters, whereas ANSI-INCITS-standard computer keyboards have ^ instead.


title: Typewriter

text: Many non-Latin alphabets have keyboard layouts that have nothing to do with QWERTY. The Russian layout, for instance, puts the common trigrams ыва, про, and ить on adjacent keys so that they can be typed by rolling the fingers.


title: Typewriter

text: Typewriters were also made for East Asian languages with thousands of characters, such as Chinese or Japanese. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and laser printers in the 1980s.


title: Typewriter

text: A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the en dash and the em dash. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols. This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type.


title: Typewriter

text: Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a double space between sentences, and the use of the typewriter apostrophe, , and straight quotes, , as quotation marks and prime marks. The practice of underlining text in place of italics and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that still carry on today.


title: Typewriter

text: Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the numeral or the exclamation point , and some even older ones also lacked the numeral zero, . Typists who trained on these machines learned the habit of using the lowercase letter ("ell") for the digit , and the uppercase ("oh") for the zero. A cents symbol, was created by combining (over-striking) a lower case with a slash character (typing , then backspace, then ). Similarly, the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and a period ( ≈).


title: Typewriter

text: When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s Sholes and Glidden typewriter had floral ornamentation on the case.


title: Typewriter

text: During World Wars I and II, increasing numbers of women were entering the workforce. In the United States, women often started in the professional workplace as typists. Questions about morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a cliché of office life, appearing in vaudeville and movies. Being a typist was considered the right choice for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves as being chaste and having good conduct. According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of stenographers and typists were unmarried women.


title: Typewriter

text: The "Tijuana bibles" – adult comic books produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one panel, a businessman in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary's thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are you ready for—ahem!—er—dictation?"


title: Typewriter

text: The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the Russian Civil War (1917–1922). Samizdat was a form of self-publication used when the government was censoring what literature the public could access. The Soviet government signed a Decree on Press which prohibited the publishing of any written work that had not been previously reviewed and approved. This work was copied by hand, most often on typewriters. There was a new law in 1983 that required any owner of a typewriter needed to get police permission to buy or keep, they would have to register a type sample of letters and numbers to ensure that any illegal literature typed with it could be traced back to its source. The typewriter became increasingly popular as the interest in prohibited books grew.


title: Typewriter

text: Typewritten documents may be examined by forensic document examiners. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or 2) whether or not a particular suspect typewriter might have been used to produce a document.


title: Typewriter

text: The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose. These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version) and (Non-Pica version) and the TYPE system developed by Dr. Philip Bouffard, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police's Termatrex Typewriter classification system, and Interpol's typewriter classification system, among others.


title: Typewriter

text: The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes short story "A Case of Identity" in 1891. In non-fiction, the first document examiner to describe how a typewriter might be identified was William E. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, even when using the same kind of type, become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them". Other early discussions of the topic were provided by A. S. Osborn in his 1908 treatise, "Typewriting as Evidence", and again in his 1929 textbook, "Questioned Documents". A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).


title: Typewriter

text: Typewriter examination was used in the Leopold and Loeb and Alger Hiss cases. In the Eastern Bloc, typewriters (together with printing presses, copy machines, and later computer printers) were a controlled technology, with secret police in charge of maintaining files of the typewriters and their owners. In the Soviet Union, the First Department of each organization sent data on organization's typewriters to the KGB. This posed a significant risk for dissidents and samizdat authors. In Romania, according to State Council Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or by private persons, was subject to an approval given by the local police authorities. People previously convicted of any crime or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public order or to the security of the state" were refused approval. In addition, once a year, typewriter owners had to take the typewriter to the local police station, where they would be asked to type a sample of all the typewriter's characters. It was also forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places that had been authorized by the police.


title: Typewriter

text: Several online-only virtual museums collect and display information about typewriters and their history:


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: Planes, Trains and Automobiles is a 1987 American comedy film written, produced and directed by John Hughes and starring Steve Martin and John Candy with supporting roles by Laila Robins and Michael McKean. It tells the story of a high-strung marketing executive and a goodhearted but annoying shower curtain ring salesman who become travel companions when their flight is diverted and share a three-day odyssey of misadventures trying to get to Chicago in time for the executive's Thanksgiving Day dinner with his family.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: The film received critical acclaim, with many praising it for Hughes branching out from teen comedies, and for Candy's and Martin's performances. It has become a Thanksgiving Day tradition for many.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: Neal Page is an advertising executive on a business trip in New York City with eager to return to his family in Chicago two days before Thanksgiving. After a late-running business meeting with an indecisive client named Mr. Bryant, Neal struggles to hail a cab during rush hour. As he bribes a man to let him have a cab he has hailed, it is taken by someone else.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: Neal arrives at LaGuardia Airport just as his flight is delayed. While waiting, he meets the man who unwittingly stole his cab named Del Griffith, a loquacious man who sells shower curtain rings. To his chagrin, Neal is assigned a seat next to Del on the crowded flight to O'Hare.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: Due to a blizzard in Chicago, the plane is diverted to Wichita, where Neal and Del must stay overnight as Neal informs his wife Susan about what happened. Neal is unable to book a room, but Del has reserved one. Neal reluctantly accepts Del's promise of a room if Neal pays for their cab ride to the motel. During check-in, Del mistakenly takes Neal's credit card. Forced to share the last available room, Neal loses his temper over Del's irritating behavior. Del is hurt, but they calm down and awkwardly share the only bed. While they sleep, a burglar steals their cash.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: The next day with air travel still prohibitively delayed, Neal buys them both train tickets to Chicago, but with seats in separate cars. The locomotive breaks down near Jefferson City, stranding its passengers in a field. Neal takes pity on Del struggling with his trunk and they are reunited. They travel on a crowded bus to St. Louis, where Del raises cash by selling curtain ring samples to passersby as earrings. Neal offends Del over lunch and the two part ways again.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: At the St. Louis Airport, Neal attempts to rent a car, but it is not there when he gets to the lot. After a long and perilous walk back to the terminal, he vents his anger in a profane tirade at the rental agent to no avail. He attempts to book a taxi to Chicago, but impatiently insults the dispatcher who punches him. By chance, Del arrives at the scene in his own rental car, and takes the dazed Neal with him. As they drive, they argue again.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: After nightfall, Del nearly gets them killed by driving in the wrong direction on a freeway. As they compose themselves by the side of the road, Del's carelessly discarded cigarette sets fire to the car. Neal initially gloats, thinking that Del is liable for the damage, until Del reveals he had found Neal's credit card in his wallet and used it to rent the car.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: With his credit cards destroyed in the fire, Neal barters his expensive watch for a motel room. Del has nothing of value, so he attempts to sleep in the charred, roofless car. Seeing this, Neal pities Del and invites him inside. They share Del's collection of miniature liquors and laugh about the events of the past two days.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: The pair resume driving to Chicago the next morning, but their car is impounded by the Illinois State Patrol as unroadworthy. Del persuades a trucker to take them into Chicago and they ride in the semi's refrigerated trailer.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: At a Chicago "L" station, Neal sincerely thanks Del for getting him home, and they part ways with affection. As Neal rides a commuter train to his neighborhood, he thinks about the trip, recalling some of Del's odd comments and silences during the journey. It occurs to him that Del has not actually been trying to get home himself. Neal returns to the station where he finds Del still sitting. Del explains that he "does not have a home" and that his wife died eight years earlier. Neal brings Del home with him for Thanksgiving dinner and introduces his family to his new friend.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: In a post-credit scene, Mr. Bryant is still in the office, trying to decide on a poster, alongside a Thanksgiving dinner.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: "Planes, Trains and Automobiles" was filmed in 85 days, mostly in Batavia, New York, and South Dayton, New York. A scene that takes place in St. Louis was filmed at Lambert International Airport. There was also a scene in Braidwood, Illinois, at the Sun Motel. Rewrites Hughes did during filming made the amount of footage he shot much larger than the original screenplay needed, and the film's first cut was three hours and 45 minutes long. A subplot about Neal's wife not believing him and suspecting that he is with other women was cut.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: The soundtrack to "Planes, Trains & Automobiles" features a mix of rock and roll, country and pop. The frenetic musical score by Ira Newborn makes extensive use of the folk song "Red River Valley," including a cover of Johnny and the Hurricanes' rock and roll version, "Red River Rock", performed by the British group Silicon Teens. Among other tracks is a cover version of "Back in Baby's Arms". The song, popularized by Patsy Cline, is performed by Emmylou Harris. Another popular song used in the movie is "Mess Around" written by Ahmet Ertegun and performed by Ray Charles.


title: Planes, Trains and Automobiles

text: A cover version of Six Days on the Road was used in the film, performed by Steve Earle & The Dukes. The film also featured the contemporary pop song "Modigliani (Lost in Your Eyes)" by Book of Love, using both the original single and the Requiem Mass Remix. A special instrumental version of "Power to Believe" by The Dream Academy, which the band recorded at Hughes's request, is extensively used in the film as Del's unofficial theme.