title: Antihistamine

text: Not much published research exists which compares the efficacy and safety of the various antihistamines available. The research which does exist is mostly short-term studies or studies which look at too few people to make general assumptions. Another gap in the research is in information reporting the health effects for individuals with long-term allergies who take antihistamines for a long period of time. Newer antihistamines have been demonstrated to be effective in treating hives. However, there is no research comparing the relative efficacy of these drugs.


title: Antihistamine

text: In 2020, the UK National Health Service wrote that "[m]ost people can safely take antihistamines" but that "[s]ome antihistamines may not be suitable" for young children, the pregnant or breastfeeding, for those taking other medicines, or people with conditions "such as heart disease, liver disease, kidney disease or epilepsy".


title: Antihistamine

text: Most studies of antihistamines reported on people who are younger, so the effects on people over age 65 are not as well understood. Older people are more likely to experience drowsiness from antihistamine use than younger people. Continuous and/or cumulative use of anticholinergic medications, including first-generation antihistamines, is associated with higher risk for cognitive decline and dementia in older people.


title: Antihistamine

text: Also, most of the research has been on caucasians and other ethnic groups are not as represented in the research. The evidence does not report how antihistamines affect women differently than men. Different studies have reported on antihistamine use in children, with various studies finding evidence that certain antihistamines could be used by children 2 years of age, and other drugs being safer for younger or older children.


title: Antihistamine

text: Research regarding the effects of commonly used medications upon certain cancer therapies has suggested that when consumed in conjunction with immune checkpoint inhibitors some may influence the response of subjects to that particular treatment whose T-cell functions were failing in anti-tumor activity. Upon study of records in mouse studies associated with 40 common medications ranging from antibiotics, antihistamines, aspirin, and hydrocortisone, that for subjects with melanoma and lung cancers, fexofenadine, one of three medications, along with loratadine, and cetirizine, that target histamine receptor H1 (HRH1), demonstrated significantly higher survival rates and had experienced restored T-cell anti-tumor activity, ultimately inhibiting tumor growth in the subject animals. Such results encourage further study in order to see whether results in humans is similar in combating resistance to immunotherapy.


title: Kyle Gallner

text: Kyle Steven Gallner (born October 22, 1986) is an American actor. He is known for his portrayal of Cassidy "Beaver" Casablancas in the television series "Veronica Mars", superhero Bart Allen in the drama series "Smallville" and in the police series "", and a lead role as Hasil Farrell in the drama series "Outsiders". He is also known for his roles in "American Sniper" and the horror films "The Haunting in Connecticut", "Jennifer's Body", the remake of "A Nightmare on Elm Street", and "Smile".


title: Kyle Gallner

text: Gallner was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, to Larry and Mary Jane Gallner. He has three siblings: one older sister, one younger brother, and a younger sister. Gallner attended West Chester East High School. He started his career by following his sister along to one of her auditions. His father's family is Jewish.


title: Kyle Gallner

text: He proceeded to guest star on popular shows such as "Judging Amy" and "Close to Home". Gallner joined the cast of "Veronica Mars" as Cassidy Casablancas toward the end of the show's first season, in May 2005, before becoming a season regular during the show's second season. After playing Bart Allen in the "Smallville" episode "Run", Gallner reprised the role on the January 18, 2007, episode "Justice" and the season eight finale. He also guest starred on "Cold Case" as a teenaged gunman in the episode "Rampage", and appeared in the independent film "Sublime". In 2007, he guest starred in an episode of "" titled "Impulsive" as a high school student who accuses his teacher (played by Melissa Joan Hart) of statutory rape. He also guest starred in an episode of "Bones" as Jeremy Farrell, the suspected murderer of a child beauty-pageant contestant. He also played the lead role in the horror film "The Haunting in Connecticut", playing a cancer patient who is tormented by evil spirits.


title: Kyle Gallner

text: He appeared in the independent film "Cherry", filmed on the campuses of Kalamazoo College and Western Michigan University, along with several locations in downtown Kalamazoo, Michigan. He plays Aaron, an Ivy-League freshman who falls for an older woman while becoming the object of affection for the woman's young daughter. Gallner played Quentin in the 2010 reboot of "A Nightmare on Elm Street"; his character is the love interest of main character Nancy. Gallner played the brother of Aaron Paul's character in the 2012 film, "Smashed". Gallner played Zach in one episode in the fourth season of AMC's "The Walking Dead". It was initially reported that he would be a recurring character, but his character was killed off, instead. In 2014, Gallner played the role of Kurt, the antagonist to lead character Sam, in the independent film "Dear White People".


title: Kyle Gallner

text: In September 2020, Gallner was cast as Vince Schneider in the fifth "Scream" film, which was directed by Matt Bettinelli-Olpin and Tyler Gillett. The film was released on January 14, 2022.


title: Kyle Gallner

text: In 2013, Gallner co-founded the independent production company Minutehand Pictures along with Oliver Thompson and Bay Dariz. The trio produced the feature film "Welcome to Happiness", in which Gallner portrays Woody Ward, a children's book author with a secret door in his closet.


title: Clairo

text: Claire Elizabeth Cottrill (born August 18, 1998), known professionally as Clairo, is an American singer-songwriter. Born in Atlanta, Georgia, and raised in Carlisle, Massachusetts, she began posting music on the internet at age 13.


title: Clairo

text: Clairo rose to prominence following the viral success of the music video for her lo-fi single "Pretty Girl" in 2017. She subsequently signed a record deal, releasing her debut EP "Diary 001" (2018) with Fader Label. Her debut studio album "Immunity" (2019) received critical acclaim and spawned the singles "Bags" and "Sofia", the latter of which became her first single to chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Cottrill's second studio album, "Sling", was released in 2021. Upon its release, the album received critical acclaim and saw commercial success, debuting in the top 20 of the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Clairo

text: Claire Cottrill was born in Atlanta, Georgia, and raised in Carlisle, Massachusetts. She is the daughter of marketing executive Geoff Cottrill and Allie Cottrill, a photographer and designer.


title: Clairo

text: Cottrill began recording covers at the age of 13; she often performed covers at local businesses including Blue Dry Goods. During this time, MTV contacted her to record a song to be used as background music for one of their shows, but the song was never used. She began posting music to Bandcamp under the names Clairo and DJ Baby Benz while attending Concord-Carlisle High School. She went on to post covers and songs in addition to DJ mixes of rap music on SoundCloud. She also maintained a YouTube channel where she would post covers and short films.


title: Clairo

text: She launched her EP "Do U Wanna Fall in Love?" in 2013 after releasing several home recordings. A few additional EPs, including "Aquarius Boy", "Late Show, Moth Girl", "Metal Heart", and "Have a Nice Day", came after this in 2015.


title: Clairo

text: Clairo first drew wide attention in late 2017 when the video for her song "Pretty Girl" went viral on YouTube. The song was recorded for an indie rock compilation benefiting the Transgender Law Center. According to her, she recorded the track "using the resources around me which were pretty shitty. I used like a little keyboard that I had and I was really into ’80s pop music — my mom is obsessed with it — so it kind of inspired me to do something like that." She has attributed audience interest in the video to YouTube's algorithm system. The video also became popular on vaporwave-centric Facebook groups. "Pretty Girl" had amassed more than 81 million views on YouTube by 2022. A piece written by Joe Coscarelli of "The New York Times" said that the work: "bridges both worlds, building on the coy, understated bedroom pop of 'Pretty Girl' and 'Flaming Hot Cheetos' toward sturdier numbers like '4EVER' and 'B.O.M.D.'".


title: Clairo

text: Another video, "Flaming Hot Cheetos", was released a month before "Pretty Girl" on YouTube. It garnered 3 million views by July 2018. The success of "Pretty Girl" led to interest from major labels such as Capitol, RCA, and Columbia. Jon Cohen, the co-founder of "The Fader", signed Clairo to the magazine's associated record label with a 12-song record contract and introduced her to Pat Corcoran, manager of Chance the Rapper. She became a client of talent agency Haight Brand near the end of 2017. After the success of "Pretty Girl", a number of social media users (specifically on discussion website Reddit) began claiming that Clairo was an "industry plant" who gained success through her father's nepotism. She denied the claims, calling them sexist. Writers for "The Guardian" and "The Ringer" also stated that her father's connections facilitated her record contract signing. In 2021 she spoke openly about the accusations, telling "Rolling Stone", “I definitely am not blind to the fact that things have been easier for me than other people’s experiences. It would be stupid of me to not acknowledge the privilege I had from the start to be able to sign somewhere where there’s trust, to be able to sign a record deal that doesn’t revolve around keeping myself afloat financially.”


title: Clairo

text: On May 25, 2018, Fader Label released Clairo's debut record, titled "Diary 001". In her review for "Pitchfork", "Fader" contributor Sasha Geffen wrote that the EP ought to subside the "legions of naysayers who dismissed her as a one-hit fluke or an industry plant." That same month, she announced a headlining tour throughout North America, as well as select dates opening for Dua Lipa. Her July performance at the Bowery Ballroom in New York was a sold-out show. In October 2018, she performed at Lollapalooza. She performed at Coachella in 2019.


title: Clairo

text: On May 24, 2019, Clairo released a new single, "Bags", and announced her debut studio album "Immunity" which was released on August 2, 2019. She would further release two more singles from the album "Closer to You" and "Sofia". Following the album's commercial success, Apple Music named Clairo an "Up Next" artist in August 2019. Clairo made her television debut performing "I Wouldn’t Ask You" on Jimmy Kimmel Live! in September 2019, before performing "Bags" on The Ellen DeGeneres Show a few days later. In December 2019, Clairo won Pop Artist of the Year at the 2019 Boston Music Awards for the second consecutive year, as well as Album of the Year for "Immunity". "Bags" was included in over 15 critics' lists ranking the year's top songs including "Pitchfork's" and "Paste"'s lists of best songs of the decade. "Immunity" was included in over 10 critics' end of year lists, including "The Guardian", "Pitchfork", "Billboard" and "Los Angeles Times." As of 2019, Clairo was managed by Mike Ahern and Jimmy Bui.


title: Clairo

text: In April 2020, Clairo revealed that she had begun working on her second studio album via a tweet of a screenshot of a playlist titled ‘Album 2 (demos so far)’. On October of that same year, Clairo formed a new band called Shelly with indie-pop artist Claud and their two friends from Syracuse University, Josh Mehling and Noa Frances Getzug. The group released two songs, "Steeeam" and "Natural", on October 30, 2020. On June 11, 2021, Clairo released "Blouse", the first single from her second studio album, "Sling", which was announced that same day. "Sling" is an album for Cottrill, but it is also a record of her attempts to reevaluate her goals in life. "Sling", which replaces Immunity's sparse electronic flourishes with lush, acoustic folk frequently adorned with swooning vocal harmonies, delicate strings, and the warm swell of brass, bears the Laurel Canyon imprint. The album was released on July 16, 2021. In February 2022, Clairo embarked on the US leg of the Sling tour. She cancelled the last three dates of her North American tour, after a technical incident at her gig in Toronto left her with temporary hearing damage. Her opening show of the UK tour in Bristol, had to be cancelled after two songs due to a case of sinusitis that was affecting her voice, leading to her having a panic attack ontstage, and walking off it. The Glasgow show was cancelled but the show the day after it in Manchester went ahead, and her final UK show of that tour was in London.


title: Clairo

text: Clairo recalled that the Shins' "Wincing the Night Away" (2007) was the first album she "really completely geeked out over", crediting it as her inspiration to make music. Based on the fact that many around her told her that a career in music was unlikely, she did not consider it a likely prospect and musically "kind of did whatever" she wanted.


title: Clairo

text: In May 2022, a leaked draft opinion showed that the U.S. Supreme Court was planning to overturn abortion rights established in "Roe v. Wade". Cottrill, alongside other musical artists like Lorde, Olivia Rodrigo and Phoebe Bridgers, signed a full-page ad in "The New York Times" condemning the planned Supreme Court decision. While performing at Glastonbury in June 2022, Cottrill wore a t-shirt saying "Bans Off Our Bodies" in protest to the U.S. Supreme Court's "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization" final decision which overturned access to abortion granted in "Roe v. Wade".


title: Clairo

text: In the early days of her career, Cottrill was once in a relationship with Jake Passmore, who is a member of the London-based band SCORS.


title: Clairo

text: Cottrill was diagnosed with juvenile idiopathic arthritis at the age of 17. Cottrill came out as bisexual to her fans via Twitter in May 2018. In an interview, she explained that making friends in college is what helped her to come out as they were openly gay and she was inspired by "their confidence and their willingness to be exposed." In July 2020, she signed an open letter to then-UK Equalities minister Liz Truss calling for a ban on all forms of LGBT+ conversion therapy.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: Marina Nikolayevna Oswald Porter ( Prusakova; ; born July 17, 1941) is the Russian-American widow of Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of US President John F. Kennedy.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: Porter was born Marina Nikolayevna Prusakova in the city of Molotovsk (now Severodvinsk), in Arkhangelsk Oblast, in the northwest of the Soviet Union. She lived there with her mother and stepfather until 1957, when she moved to Minsk to live with her uncle Ilya Prusakov, a colonel in the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs, and to study pharmacy.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: Marina met Lee Harvey Oswald (a former U.S. Marine who had defected to the Soviet Union) at a dance on March 17, 1961. They married six weeks later and had a daughter, June Lee, born the following year. In June 1962, the family emigrated to the United States and settled in Dallas, Texas. At a party in February 1963, George de Mohrenschildt introduced the couple to Ruth Paine, a Quaker and Russian language student.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: In January 1963, Oswald mail-ordered a Smith & Wesson .38 revolver and then, in March, a Mannlicher–Carcano rifle. Later that month, as Marina told the Warren Commission, she took only one photograph of Oswald dressed in black and holding his weapons along with an issue of "The Militant" newspaper, which named ex-general Edwin Walker as a "fascist." Despite her sworn testimony that she took only one photo, the Warren Commission had two different poses of Lee Oswald, and they browbeat Marina into supposing that she might have "accidentally" taken the second pose. Since then, history has yielded four different poses, and a credible statement of one more.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: These photos became known as the "backyard photos" of Lee Oswald, which some conspiracy theorists dismissed as fake. The series of photographs was later found in the garage of the Paine household, with the exception of one, which had been given to George de Mohrenschildt. The photograph given to de Mohrenschildt was signed and dated by Lee Oswald on April 5, 1963. It also has a quote attributed to Marina in Russian, the translation of which reads "Hunter of Fascists, Ha-Ha-Ha!!!" Marina denied writing the inscription in her 1977 testimony to the HSCA.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: In April 1963, Marina and her daughter moved in with Ruth Paine (who had recently separated from her husband, Michael). Lee Oswald rented a separate room in Dallas and briefly moved to New Orleans during the summer of 1963. He returned to Dallas in early October, eventually renting a room in a boarding house in the Oak Cliff neighborhood of Dallas. Paine learned from a neighbor that employment was available at the Texas School Book Depository, and Oswald was hired and began working there on October 16, 1963, as an order filler. On October 18, Marina and Ruth Paine had planned a birthday party for Oswald. They put up some decorations and got a birthday cake and wine. Oswald was so moved by the gesture that he had tears in his eyes. He remained emotional throughout the evening, crying and apologising to Marina for all the things he had put her through. On October 20, Marina gave birth to a second daughter, Audrey Marina Rachel Oswald at Parkland Memorial Hospital. Her husband continued to live in Oak Cliff on weekdays, but stayed with her at the Paine household in Irving on weekends, an arrangement that continued until Oswald was arrested for the assassination of President Kennedy.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: Marina learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy from the media coverage of the event, and later, of the arrest of her husband. That afternoon, Dallas Police Department detectives arrived at the Paine household, and when asked if Lee owned a rifle, Marina gestured to the garage, where Oswald stored his rifle rolled up in a blanket; no rifle was found. She was subsequently questioned both at the Paine household and later at Dallas Police Department headquarters, in reference to her husband's involvement in the assassination of the President and the shooting of Dallas police officer J. D. Tippit. Marina testified that when she saw her husband, he was calm but “by his eyes I could tell that he was afraid. He said goodbye to me with his eyes. I knew that.”


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: She was widowed at age 22, two days after the assassination when Oswald was fatally shot by Jack Ruby as Oswald was being transferred from the City Jail to the County Jail. Marina asked to go to Parkland Hospital to see Oswald's body. She opened his eyelids and said, “He cry, he eye wet.“ After the assassination of Kennedy and the arrest of her husband, Marina was under Secret Service protection until she completed her testimony before the Warren Commission. She made a total of four appearances before the commission. Questions about her reliability as a witness were expressed within the commission, particularly in regard to her claims about an assassination attempt on General Edwin Walker, and her allegation that Lee Oswald had intended to assassinate Richard Nixon. In her testimony, she stated her belief that her husband was guilty, an opinion she reiterated in testimony before the House Select Committee on Assassinations in 1978.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: She remained at first in Dallas, Texas. Donations sent to her by anonymous donors totaled about $70,000. She sold Lee's Russian diary for $20,000 and a picture of him holding the gun used to shoot Kennedy for $5,000. She also attempted, but failed, to gain possession of the gun in order to sell it.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: In 1965 she enrolled at the University of Michigan, but she later returned to Dallas and bought a house.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: In 1965 she married electronics worker Kenneth Jess Porter, with whom she had a son, and whom she later accused of domestic violence. In 1989, she became a naturalized United States citizen.


title: Marina Oswald Porter

text: Though she has not formally recanted any of her Warren Commission testimony, Marina has said that she now believes that Oswald was completely innocent of the murders of Kennedy and Tippit and that the "Prayer Man" seen on the steps of the Book Depository at the time of the assassination was Lee (see John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories).


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce (also called simply soy in American English and soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermented paste of soybeans, roasted grain, brine, and "Aspergillus oryzae" or "Aspergillus sojae" molds. It is considered to contain a strong umami taste.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce in its current form was created about 2,200 years ago during the Western Han dynasty of ancient China, and it has spread throughout East and Southeast Asia where it is used in cooking and as a condiment.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce can be added directly to food, and is used as a dip or salt flavor in cooking. It is often eaten with rice, noodles, and sushi or sashimi, or can also be mixed with ground wasabi for dipping. Bottles of soy sauce for salty seasoning of various foods are common on restaurant tables in many countries. Soy sauce can be stored at room temperature.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce (, ) is considered almost as old as soy paste—a type of fermented paste (, ) obtained from soybeans—which had appeared during the Western Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) and was listed in the bamboo slips found in the archaeological site Mawangdui (). There are several precursors of soy sauce that are associated products with soy paste. Among them the earliest one is () that appeared in AD 40 and was listed in (). Others are (), () and () which were recorded in the () in AD 540. By the time of the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), the term "soy sauce" () had become the accepted name for the liquid condiment, documented in two books: () and "Pujiang Wushi Zhongkuilu" () during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD).


title: Soy sauce

text: Like many salty condiments, soy sauce was originally a way to stretch salt, historically an expensive commodity. During the Zhou dynasty of ancient China, fermented fish with salt was used as a condiment in which soybeans were included during the fermentation process. By the time of the Han dynasty, this had been replaced with the recipe for soy paste and its by-product soy sauce, by using soybeans as the principal ingredient, with fermented fish-based sauces developing separately into fish sauce.


title: Soy sauce

text: The 19th century Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams wrote that in China, the best soy sauce was "made by boiling beans soft, adding an equal quantity of wheat or barley, and leaving the mass to ferment; a portion of salt and three times as much water are afterwards put in, and the whole compound left for two or three months when the liquid is pressed and strained".


title: Soy sauce

text: Originally, a common Japanese condiment was , which was fish based. When Buddhism came to Japan from China in the 7th century, they introduced vegetarianism and brought many soy-based products with them, such as soy sauce, which is known as in Japan. exportation began in 1647 by the Dutch East India Company.


title: Soy sauce

text: The earliest soy sauce brewing in Korea seems to have begun prior to the era of the Three Kingdoms . The "Records of the Three Kingdoms", a Chinese historical text written and published in the 3rd century, mentions that "Goguryeo people are good at brewing fermented soy beans", in the section named (Eastern foreigners), in the "Book of Wei". Jangdoks used for soy sauce brewing are found in the mural paintings of Anak Tomb No. 3 from the 4th century Goguryeo.


title: Soy sauce

text: In , a historical record of the Three Kingdoms era, it is written that (soy sauce) and (soybean paste) along with (soybean block) and (salted seafood) were prepared for the wedding ceremony of the King Sinmun in February 683. , a section from (History of Goryeo), recorded that and were included in the relief supplies in 1018, after a Khitan invasion, and in 1052, when a famine occurred. Joseon texts such as and contain the detailed procedures on how to brew good quality and . explains how to pick a date for brewing, what to forbear, and how to keep and preserve and .


title: Soy sauce

text: Records of the Dutch East India Company list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, when seventy-five large barrels were shipped from Dejima, Japan, to Batavia (present-day Jakarta) on the island of Java. Thirty-five barrels from that shipment were then shipped to the Netherlands. In the 18th century, diplomat and scholar Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce. Although earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, his was among the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version. By the mid-19th century, Japanese soy sauce gradually disappeared from the European market, and the condiment became synonymous with the Chinese product. Europeans were unable to make soy sauce because they did not have access to "Aspergillus oryzae", the fungus used in its brewing. Soy sauce made from ingredients such as Portobello mushrooms were disseminated in European cookbooks during the late 18th century. A Swedish recipe for was published in the 1770 edition of Cajsa Warg's and was flavored with allspice and mace.


title: Soy sauce

text: The first soy sauce production in the United States began in the Territory of Hawaii in 1905 by Yamajo Soy Co. By 1909 it was renamed the Hawaiian Soy Company Ltd. La Choy started selling hydrolyzed vegetable protein based soy sauce in 1933.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce is made either by fermentation or by hydrolysis. Some commercial sauces have both fermented and chemical sauces.


title: Soy sauce

text: Flavor, color, and aroma developments during production are attributed to non-enzymatic Maillard browning.


title: Soy sauce

text: Variation is usually achieved as the result of different methods and durations of fermentation, different ratios of water, salt, and fermented soy, or through the addition of other ingredients.


title: Soy sauce

text: Traditional soy sauces are made by mixing soybeans and grain with mold cultures such as "Aspergillus oryzae" and other related microorganisms and yeasts (the resulting mixture is called in Japan; the term is used both for the mixture of soybeans, wheat, and mold as well as for the mold itself). Historically, the mixture was fermented naturally in large urns and under the sun, which was believed to contribute extra flavors. Today, the mixture is placed in a temperature and humidity controlled incubation chamber.


title: Soy sauce

text: Some brands of soy sauce are made from acid-hydrolyzed soy protein instead of brewed with a traditional culture. This takes about three days. Although they have a different flavor, aroma, and texture when compared to brewed soy sauces, they can be produced more quickly and cheaply, and also have a longer shelf life and are usually made for these reasons. The clear plastic packets of dark sauce common with Chinese-style take-out food typically use a hydrolyzed vegetable protein formula. Some higher-priced hydrolyzed vegetable protein products with no added sugar or colorings are sold as low-sodium soy sauce alternatives called "liquid aminos" in health food stores, similar to the way salt substitutes are used. These products are, however, not necessarily low in sodium.


title: Soy sauce

text: High-salt liquid-state fermentation (HLF) of soybeans depends heavily on microbial activity, metabolism and enzymatic hydrolysis of macro-nutrients. Most traditional approaches fall into the scope of HLF.


title: Soy sauce

text: LSF, also referred as rapid fermenting, is a modern fermentation method invented in response to high market demand.


title: Soy sauce

text: LSF evolved from "salt-free solid-state fermentation", an even faster method working at even higher temperatures () and taking 72 hours to complete, introduced to China from the Soviet Union in 1958. The aging time turned out to be too short develop a proper flavor profile, with burnt acidic notes left in the sauce. LSF is a compromise between this method and the more traditional HLF: the product tastes passable with more microbes allowed to survive, but still lacks depth. Reducing the salt content accelerates brewing by lifting salt-induced enzyme inhibition.


title: Soy sauce

text: The chemical composition of soy sauce is affected by the proportions of raw materials, fermentation methodologies, fermenting molds and strains, and post-fermentation treatments. Although the formation mechanism of chemical composition in soy sauce is complex, it has been widely accepted that free amino acids, water-soluble peptides and Maillard reaction products in soy sauce are considered as essential chemical composition and to provide core sensory effects.


title: Soy sauce

text: The primary fermentation of lactic-acid-fermenting halophiles lowers the pH of the moromi, and this directly results in the acidic pH range (4.4–5.4) of soy sauce products. The secondary fermentation conducted by heterofermentative microbes provides soy sauce with a wide range of flavor and odorant compounds by breaking down macro-nutrients. Soy proteins and grain proteins are hydrolyzed into short peptide chains and free amino acids, which adds umami to the product. Based on the result of free amino acid analysis, the most abundant amino acids in Chinese soy sauce product are glutamic acid, aspartic acid, alanine and leucine.


title: Soy sauce

text: Starch is hydrolyzed into simple sugars which contribute to the sweet flavor in soy sauce. Legume fats may also be decomposed into short chain fatty acids, and the interactions among lipids and other macronutrients also result in a richer flavor in the final product. Non-enzymatic browning also contributes significantly to the development of the properties of soy sauce. The hydrolysis of proteins and large carbohydrates also provides free amino acids and simple sugars as reagents for the Maillard reaction.


title: Soy sauce

text: The taste of soy sauce is predominated by saltiness, followed by moderate umami, sweet taste, and finally slight bitterness, which is hard to perceive due to the masking effect of other tastes. The overall flavor of soy sauce is a result of the balance and interaction among different taste components. The saltiness is largely attributed to the presence of NaCl (common salt) in brine. The sugars hydrolyzed from starch add sweetness into soy sauce. Umami is largely caused by the presence of free amino acids, mainly glutamine and aspartic acid. Sodium from the brine and disodium ribonucleotides from the soy also add to the umami. Other amino acids cause additional basic flavors, with sweet coming from Ala, Gly, Ser, and Thr; bitter coming from Arg, His, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe, Trp, Try, and Val; and no taste in Cys, Lys, and Pro. The amino-acid nitrogen content, an indication of the free amino acid concentration, is used in China for grading soy sauce. The highest "special grade" is defined at ≥ 0.8 g/100 mL.


title: Soy sauce

text: Despite a large variety of volatile and odorant compounds that have been identified in soy sauce, the food product "per se" does not present a strong aroma. Alcohols, acids, esters, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, heterocyclic compounds, alkynes and benzenes have been identified in Chinese soy sauces. An explanation for this observation is that the aroma of soy sauce does not depend largely on the aroma-active compounds. The subtle aroma is a result of a "critical balance" achieved among all volatile and odorant compounds, whose respective concentrations are relatively low.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce is widely used as an important flavoring and has been integrated into the traditional cuisines of many East Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. Despite their rather similar appearance, soy sauces made in different cultures and regions are different in taste, consistency, fragrance and saltiness. Soy sauce retains its quality longer when kept away from direct sunlight.


title: Soy sauce

text: Burmese soy sauce production is dated back to the Bagan Era in the 9th and 10th century. Scripts written in praise of "pe ngan byar yay" (, literally "bean fish sauce") were found. Thick soy sauce is called "kya nyo" (, from Chinese "jiàngyóu").


title: Soy sauce

text: Chinese soy sauces (; or alternatively, ; ) are primarily made from soybeans, with relatively low amounts of other grains. Chinese soy sauce produced by fermentation can be roughly split into two classes: brewed (direct fermented) or blended (with additives), occupying about 40% and 60% of market share respectively. Sauces can also be classed by fermentation technology (shown above) into Low-Salt Solid-State fermented soy sauce (LSF; ) and High-Salt Liquid-State fermented soy sauce (HLF; ), occupying about 90% and 10% of market share respectively.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce can be brewed directly from a fermentation process using wheat, soybeans, salt, and water without additional additives.


title: Soy sauce

text: Additives with sweet or umami tastes are sometimes added to a finished brewed soy sauce to modify its taste and texture.


title: Soy sauce

text: Besides the above traditional types, hydrolyzed vegetable protein and other flavor enhancers may also be added to produce cheaper substitutes of brewed soy sauces.


title: Soy sauce

text: In the Philippines, soy sauce is called toyò in the native languages, derived from "tau-yu" in Philippine Hokkien. Philippine soy sauce is usually a combination of soybeans, wheat, salt, and caramel color. It is thinner in texture and has a saltier taste than its Southeast Asian counterparts. It is most similar to the Japanese "koikuchi shōyu" in terms of consistency and the use of wheat, though toyò is a bit saltier and darker in color.


title: Soy sauce

text: Toyò is used as a marinade, an ingredient in cooked dishes, and most often as a table condiment, usually alongside other sauces such as fish sauce ("patís") and sugar cane vinegar ("sukà"). It is often mixed and served with the juice of the calamansi (× "Citrofortunella microcarpa"; also called calamondin, "limonsito"). The combination is known as "toyomansî", which can be comparable to the Japanese "ponzu" sauce (soy sauce with yuzu). "Toyò" is also a main ingredient in Philippine adobo, one of the more famous dishes of Filipino cuisine.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce is a very popular condiment and marinade for many dishes in the Hawaiian cuisine. "Aloha shoyu" is soy sauce made on the Islands. Soy sauce is known by its Japanese name (less commonly ), in Hawaii.


title: Soy sauce

text: In Indonesia, soy sauce is known as "kecap" (old spelling: "ketjap"), which is a catch-all term for fermented sauces, and cognate to the English word "ketchup". The most popular type of soy sauce in Indonesian cuisine is "kecap manis" or sweet soy sauce. The term "kecap" is also used to describe other condiments and sauces of a similar appearance, such as "kecap ikan" (fish sauce) and "kecap Inggris" (worcestershire sauce; lit. "English sauce" or "England sauce"). Three common varieties of soy-based "kecap" exist in Indonesian cuisine, used either as ingredients or condiments:


title: Soy sauce

text: is officially divided into five main types by the JAS (Japanese Agricultural Standard) depending on differences in their ingredients and method of production. These types are , , , , and .


title: Soy sauce

text: Most, but not all, Japanese soy sauces include wheat as a primary ingredient, which tends to give them a slightly sweeter taste than their Chinese counterparts. They also tend towards an alcoholic sherry-like flavor, sometimes enhanced by the addition of small amounts of alcohol as a natural preservative. The widely varying flavors of these soy sauces are not always interchangeable, some recipes only call for one type or the other, much as a white wine cannot replace a red's flavor or beef stock does not make the same results as fish stock.


title: Soy sauce

text: In South Korea, soy sauces or "ganjang" (, "seasoning sauce") can be roughly split into two categories: "hansik ganjang" ('Korean-style soy sauce') and ('modernized soy sauce'). The term can also refer to non-soy-based salty condiments, such as fish sauce".


title: Soy sauce

text: (, 'Korean-style soy sauce') is made entirely of fermented soybean (meju) and brine. It is a byproduct of "doenjang" (fermented soybean paste) production, and has a unique fermented soybean flavour. Both lighter in colour and saltier than other Korean ganjang varieties, "hansik ganjang" is used mainly in guk (soup) and namul (seasoned vegetable dish) in modern Korean cuisine. Common names for "hansik ganjang" include "jaeraesik ganjang" (, "traditional soy sauce"), "Joseon-ganjang" (, "Joseon soy sauce"), and "guk-ganjang" (, "soup soy sauce"). The homebrewed variety is also called "jip-ganjang" (, "home soy sauce").


title: Soy sauce

text: Depending on the length of aging, "hansik ganjang" can be divided into three main varieties: clear, middle, and dark.


title: Soy sauce

text: Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety's Food Code classifies "hansik-ganjang" into two categories by their ingredients.


title: Soy sauce

text: "Gaeryang-ganjang" (, "modernized soy sauce"), referring to varieties of soy sauces not made of meju, is now the most widely used type of soy sauce in modern Korean cuisine. The word "ganjang" without modifiers in bokkeum (stir-fry), jorim (braised or simmered dishes), and jjim (steamed dishes) recipes usually mean "gaeryang-ganjang". Another common name of "gaeryang-ganjang" is "jin-ganjang" (, "dark soy sauce"), because "gaeryang-ganjang" varieties are usually darker in appearance compared to traditional "hansik ganjang". Having been introduced to Korea during the era of Japanese forced occupation, "garyang ganjang" is also called "Wae-ganjang" (, "Wae soy sauce").


title: Soy sauce

text: Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety's Food Code classifies "gaeryang-ganjang" into four categories by their method of production.


title: Soy sauce

text: Malays from Malaysia, using the Malay dialect similar to Indonesian, use the word "kicap" for soy sauce. "Kicap" is traditionally of two types: "kicap lemak" (lit "fat/rich soy sauce") and "kicap cair". "Kicap lemak" is similar to Indonesian "kecap manis" but with very much less sugar while "kicap cair" is the Malaysian equivalent of "kecap asin".


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce, known in Peru as "sillao" from the Cantonese name of the item, is an important ingredient in Chifa.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce () is a popular food product used in Sri Lanka and is a major ingredient used in the nationally popular street food dish, Kottu. Soy sauce has largely been produced by the Sri Lankan Chinese community but its production has also spread to other communities in Sri Lanka. Soy sauce production in Sri Lanka is the same as the production of soy sauce in Indonesia. Fermentation occurs over a period of three months. The soy beans which are steeped in brine are then pressed to obtain a liquid sauce.


title: Soy sauce

text: The history of soy sauce making in Taiwan can be traced back to southeastern China, in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. Taiwanese soy sauce is known for its black bean variant, known as black bean soy sauce (黑豆蔭油), which takes longer to make (about 6 months). Most major soy sauce makers in Taiwan make soy sauce from soybeans and wheat, and are widely popular, and are available in many Oriental Foods and Grocery Stores. Some make black bean soy sauce, which is very widely used in Chinese and Oriental cooking as an excellent flavor enhancer.


title: Soy sauce

text: In Thailand, soy sauce is called "sii-íu" (). "Sii-íu kǎao" (, 'white soy sauce') is used as regular soy sauce in Thai cuisine, while "sii-íu dam" (, 'black soy sauce') is used primarily for colour. Another darker-coloured variety, "sii-íu wǎan" (, 'sweet soy sauce') is used for dipping sauces. "Sɔ́ɔt prung rót" (, 'seasoning sauce') is also commonly used in modern Thai cuisine.


title: Soy sauce

text: In Vietnam, Chinese-style soy sauce is called "xì dầu" (derived from the Cantonese name 豉油) or "nước tương". The term "soy sauce" could also imply other condiments and soy bean paste with thick consistency known as "tương". Both are used mostly as a seasoning or dipping sauce for a number of dishes. Vietnamese cuisine itself favors fish sauce in cooking but "nước tương" has a clear presence in vegetarian cuisine and Buddhist cuisine.


title: Soy sauce

text: A study by the National University of Singapore showed that Chinese dark soy sauce contains 10 times the antioxidants of red wine. Unpasteurized soy sauce is rich in lactic acid bacteria and of excellent anti-allergic potential.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce does not contain the level of isoflavones associated with other soy products such as tofu or edamame. It can also be very salty, having a salt content between 14 and 18%. Low-sodium soy sauces are made, but it is difficult to make soy sauce without using some quantity of salt as an antimicrobial agent.


title: Soy sauce

text: In 2001, the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency found in testing various soy sauces manufactured in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Thailand (made from hydrolyzed soy protein, rather than being naturally fermented) that 22% of tested samples contained a chemical carcinogen named 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) at levels considerably higher than those deemed safe by the EU. About two-thirds of these samples also contained a second carcinogenic chemical named 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloropropane-2-ol) which experts advise should not be present at any levels in food. Both chemicals have the potential to cause cancer, and the Agency recommended that the affected products be withdrawn from shelves and avoided. The same carcinogens were found in soy sauces manufactured in Vietnam, causing a food scare in 2007.


title: Soy sauce

text: Soy sauce allergy not caused by soy or wheat allergy is rare. Most varieties of soy sauce contain wheat, to which some people have a medical intolerance. However, protein hydrolysis (fermentation or industrial) breaks down gluten, so some soy sauces may end up tolerable to gluten-intolerant individuals with no detectable gluten left. Japanese tamari soy sauce is traditionally wheat-free, and some tamari available commercially today is wheat- and gluten-free.


title: Cousin

text: Most generally, in the lineal kinship system used in the English-speaking world, a cousin is a type of familial relationship in which two relatives are two or more familial generations away from their most recent common ancestor. Commonly, "cousin" refers to a first cousin – a relative of the same generation whose most recent common ancestor with the subject is a grandparent.


title: Cousin

text: Degrees and removals are separate measures used to more precisely describe the relationship between cousins. "Degree" measures the separation, in generations, from the most recent common ancestor(s) to a parent of one of the cousins (whichever is closest), while "removal" measures the difference in generations between the cousins themselves, relative to their most recent common ancestor(s). To illustrate usage, a second cousin is a cousin with a "degree" of two; there are three (not two) generations from the common ancestor(s). When the degree is not specified, first cousin is assumed. A cousin "once removed" is a cousin with one removal. When the removal is not specified, no removal is assumed.


title: Cousin

text: Various governmental entities have established systems for legal use that can precisely specify kinship with common ancestors any number of generations in the past; for example, in medicine and in law, a first cousin is a type of third-degree relative.


title: Cousin

text: People are related with a type of cousin relationship if they share a common ancestor, and are separated from their most recent common ancestor by two or more generations. This means neither person is an ancestor of the other, they do not share a parent (are not siblings), and neither is a sibling of the other's parent (are not the other's aunt/uncle nor niece/nephew). In the English system the cousin relationship is further detailed by the concepts of "degree" and "removal".


title: Cousin

text: The "degree" is the number of generations subsequent to the common ancestor before a parent of one of the cousins is found. This means the degree is the separation of the cousin from the common ancestor less one. Also, if the cousins are not separated from the common ancestor by the same number of generations, the cousin with the smallest separation is used to determine the degree. The "removal" is the difference between the number of generations from each cousin to the common ancestor. Two people can be removed but be around the same age due to differences in birth dates of parents, children, and other relevant ancestors.


title: Cousin

text: To illustrate these concepts the following table is provided. This table identifies the degree and removal of cousin relationship between two people using their most recent common ancestor as the reference point and demonstrates it in the basic family tree example.


title: Cousin

text: A maternal cousin is a cousin that is related to the mother's side of the family, while a paternal cousin is a cousin that is related to the father's side of the family. This relationship is not necessarily reciprocal, as the maternal cousin of one person could be the paternal cousin of the other. In the example Basic family tree, Emma is David's maternal cousin and David is Emma's paternal cousin.


title: Cousin

text: Parallel and cross cousins on the other hand are reciprocal relationships. Parallel cousins are descended from same-sex siblings. A parallel first cousin relationship exists when both the subject and relative are maternal cousins, or both are paternal cousins. Cross cousins are descendants from opposite-sex siblings. A cross first cousin relationship exists when the subject and the relative are maternal cousin and paternal cousin to each other. In the basic family tree example, David and Emma are cross cousins.


title: Cousin

text: Double cousins are relatives that are cousins from two different branches of the family tree. This occurs when siblings, respectively, reproduce with different siblings from another family. This may also be referred to as "cousins on both sides". The resulting children are related to each other through both their parents and are thus doubly related. Double first cousins share both sets of grandparents.


title: Cousin

text: Half cousins are descended from half siblings and would share one grandparent. The children of two half siblings are first half cousins. If half siblings have children with another pair of half siblings, the resulting children would be double half first cousins.


title: Cousin

text: While there is no agreed upon term, it is possible for cousins to share three grandparents if a pair of half siblings had children with a pair of full siblings.


title: Cousin

text: Step-cousins are either stepchildren of an individual's aunt or uncle, nieces and nephews of one's step-parent, or the children of one's parent's step-sibling. A cousin-in-law is the cousin of a person's spouse or the spouse of a person's cousin. In the Basic family tree example David and Edward are cousins-in-law. None of these relationships have consanguinity.


title: Cousin

text: Consanguinity is a measure of how closely individuals are related to each other. It is measured by the coefficient of relationship. Below, when discussing the coefficient of relationship, we assume the subject and the relative are related only through the kinship term. A coefficient of one represents the relationship one has with oneself. Consanguinity decreases by half for every generation of separation from the most recent common ancestor, as there are two parents for each child. When there is more than one common ancestor, the consanguinity between each ancestor is added together to get the final result.


title: Cousin

text: Between first cousins, there are two shared ancestors each with four generations of separation, up and down the family tree: formula_1; their consanguinity is one-eighth. For each additional removal of the cousin relationship, consanguinity is reduced by half, as the generations of separation increase by one. For each additional degree of the cousin relationship, consanguinity is reduced by a quarter as the generations of separation increase by one on both sides.


title: Cousin

text: Half cousins have half the consanguinity of ordinary cousins as they have half the common ancestors (i.e. one vs two). Double cousins have twice the consanguinity of ordinary cousins as they have twice the number of common ancestors (i.e. four vs two). Double first cousins share the same consanguinity as half-siblings. Likewise, double half cousins share the same consanguinity as first cousins as they both have two common ancestors. If there are half-siblings on one side and full siblings on the other, they would have three-halves the consanguinity of ordinary first cousins.


title: Cousin

text: In a scenario where two monozygotic (identical) twins mate with another pair of monozygotic twins, the resulting double cousins would test as genetically similar as siblings.


title: Cousin

text: Couples that are closely related have an increased chance of sharing genes, including mutations that occurred in their family tree. If the mutation is a recessive trait, it will not reveal itself unless both father and mother share it. Due to the risk that the trait is harmful, children of high-consanguinity parents have an increased risk of recessive genetic disorders. See inbreeding for more information.


title: Cousin

text: Closely related couples have more children. Couples related with consanguinity equivalent to that of third cousins have the greatest reproductive success. This seems counterintuitive as closely related parents have a higher probability of having offspring that are unfit, yet closer kinship can also decrease the likelihood of immunological incompatibility during pregnancy.


title: Cousin

text: Cousin marriage is important in several anthropological theories, which often differentiate between matriarchal and patriarchal parallel and cross cousins.


title: Cousin

text: Currently about 10% and historically as high as 80% of all marriages are between first or second cousins. Cousin marriages are often arranged. Anthropologists believe it is used as a tool to strengthen the family, conserve its wealth, protect its cultural heritage, and retain the power structure of the family and its place in the community. Some groups encourage cousin marriage while others attach a strong social stigma to it. In some regions in the Middle East, more than half of all marriages are between first or second cousins (some of the countries in this region this may exceed 70%). Just outside this region, it is often legal but infrequent. Many cultures have encouraged specifically cross-cousin marriages. In other places, it is legally prohibited and culturally equivalent to incest. Supporters of cousin marriage often view the prohibition as discrimination, while opponents claim potential immorality and cite the increased rate of birth defects in children of cousin marriages.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Malcolm X (sometimes stylized as X) is a 1992 American epic biographical drama film about the African-American activist Malcolm X. Directed and co-written by Spike Lee, the film stars Denzel Washington in the title role, as well as Angela Bassett, Albert Hall, Al Freeman Jr., and Delroy Lindo. Lee has a supporting role, while Black Panther Party co-founder Bobby Seale, the Rev. Al Sharpton, and future South African president Nelson Mandela make cameo appearances. It is the second of four film collaborations between Washington and Lee.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: "Malcolm X's" screenplay, co-credited to Lee and Arnold Perl, is based largely on Alex Haley's 1965 book, "The Autobiography of Malcolm X". Haley collaborated with Malcolm X on the book beginning in 1963 and completed it after Malcolm X's death. The film dramatizes key events in Malcolm X's life: his criminal career, his incarceration, his conversion to Islam, his ministry as a member of the Nation of Islam and his later falling out with the organization, his marriage to Betty X, his pilgrimage to Mecca and reevaluation of his views concerning whites, and his assassination on February 21, 1965. Defining childhood incidents, including his father's death, his mother's mental illness, and his experiences with racism are dramatized in flashbacks.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: "Malcolm X" was distributed by Warner Bros. and released in the United States on November 18, 1992. The same year, Denzel Washington won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor for his performance. At the 65th Academy Awards, the movie was nominated for two Oscars including the Academy Award for Best Actor for Washington and Best Costume Design for Ruth E. Carter. In 2010, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Malcolm Little is raised in a poor household in rural Michigan by his Caribbean mother and African-American father. When Malcolm is a young boy, their house is burnt down and his father, an activist for black rights, is killed by a chapter of the Black Legion. His death is registered as a suicide and the family receives no compensation. Malcolm's mother's mental state deteriorates and she is admitted to a mental institution. Malcolm and his siblings are put into protective care. Malcolm performs well in school and dreams of being a lawyer, but his teacher discourages it due to his skin color.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: In 1944, Malcolm, now a teenager, lives in Boston. One night, he catches the attention of the white Sophia, and the two begin dating. Malcolm travels to Harlem with Sophia, where he meets "West Indian" Archie, a gangster who runs a local numbers game, at a bar. The two become friends and start co-operating an illegal numbers racket. One night at a club, Malcolm claims to have bet on a winning number; Archie disputes this, denying him a large sum of money. A conflict ensues between the two and Malcolm returns to Boston after an attempt on his life. Malcolm, Sophia, Malcolm's friend Shorty, and a woman named Peg decide to perform robberies to earn money.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: By 1946, the group has accrued a large amount of money from thievery. However, they are later arrested. The two girls are sentenced to two years as first offenders in connection with the robberies, while Malcolm and Shorty are sentenced to 8–10 years in jail. While incarcerated, Malcolm meets Baines, a member of the Nation of Islam, who directs him to the teachings of the group's leader Elijah Muhammad. Malcolm grows interested in the Muslim religion and lifestyle promoted by the group, and begins to resent white people for mistreating his race. Malcolm is paroled from prison in 1952 after serving six years, and travels to the Nation of Islam's headquarters in Chicago. There, he meets Muhammad, who instructs Malcolm to replace his surname "Little" with "X", which symbolizes his lost African surname that was taken from his ancestors by white slavemasters; he is rechristened as "Malcolm X".


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Malcolm returns to Harlem and begins to preach the Nation's message; over time, his speeches gather large crowds of onlookers. Malcolm proposes ideas such as African-American separation from white Americans. In 1958, Malcolm meets nurse Betty Sanders. The two begin dating, quickly marry and become the parents of four daughters. Several years later, Malcolm is now in a high position as the spokesperson of the Nation of Islam. During this time, Malcolm learns that Muhammad had fathered numerous children out of wedlock, contradicting his teachings and Islam.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: After President John F. Kennedy is assassinated in November 1963, Malcolm comments that the assassination was the product of the white violence that has been prevalent in America since its founding, comparing the killing to "the chickens coming home to roost." This statement damages Malcolm's reputation and Muhammad suspends him from speaking to the press or at temples for 90 days. In early 1964, Malcolm goes on a pilgrimage to Mecca where he meets Muslims from all races, including white. Malcolm, having lost his faith in the Nation of Islam, publicly announces that is founding the Organization of Afro-American Unity, which teaches tolerance instead of racial separation. He is exiled from the Nation of Islam, and his house is firebombed in early 1965.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: On February 21, 1965, Malcolm prepares to speak before a crowd at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem, but tragically, disciples of the Nation of Islam shoot him several times. One of Malcolm's bodyguards shoots one of the shooters, Thomas Hagan, in the leg before a furious crowd beats Hagan. Malcolm is transported to a hospital, but is pronounced dead on arrival.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: The film concludes with a series of clips showing the aftermath of Malcolm's death. Martin Luther King Jr. delivers a eulogy to Malcolm, and Ossie Davis recites a speech at Malcolm's funeral. Nelson Mandela delivers a speech to a school, quoting an excerpt from one of Malcolm's speeches.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Political activists Bobby Seale and Al Sharpton make cameo appearances as a pair of street preachers. Civil rights attorney William Kunstler appears as the judge who sentences Malcolm and Shorty to prison. Future South African President Nelson Mandela appears as a Soweto school teacher delivering a lecture on X. Spike Lee regular Nicholas Turturro has a minor role as a Boston police officer. Michael Imperioli briefly appears as a news reporter. Vincent D'Onofrio appears as a witness to the Kennedy assassination. Film director John Sayles appears as an FBI agent surveilling Malcolm. Washington's then-eight-year-old son John David Washington appears as a Harlem elementary school student; John David would later go on to star as the lead of Lee's 2018 film "BlacKkKlansman".


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Ossie Davis provides voiceover narration over the film's closing sequence, reading the eulogy he had originally performed at the real Malcolm's funeral.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: "It's such a great story, a great American story, and it reflects our society in so many ways. Here's a guy who essentially led so many lives. He pulled himself out of the gutter. He went from country boy to hipster and semi-hoodlum. From there he went to prison, where he became a Muslim. Then he was a spiritual leader who evolved into a humanitarian."— Producer Marvin Worth on his 25-year effort to make a film about the life of Malcolm X.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Producer Marvin Worth acquired the rights to "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" in 1967. Worth had met Malcolm X, then called "Detroit Red," as a teenager selling drugs in New York City. Worth was fifteen at the time, and spending time around jazz clubs in the area. As Worth remembers: "He was selling grass. He was sixteen or seventeen but looked older. He was very witty, a funny guy, and he had this extraordinary charisma. A great dancer and a great dresser. He was very good-looking, very, very tall. Girls always noticed him. He was quite a special guy."


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Early on, the production had difficulties telling the entire story, in part due to unresolved questions surrounding Malcolm X's assassination. In 1971, Worth made a well-received documentary, "Malcolm X", which received an Academy Award nomination in that category. The project remained unrealized. However, several major entertainers were attached to it at various times, including Richard Pryor, Eddie Murphy, and director Sidney Lumet.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: In 1968, Worth commissioned a screenplay from novelist James Baldwin, who was later joined by Arnold Perl, a screenwriter who had been a victim of McCarthy-era blacklisting. However, the screenplay took longer to develop than anticipated. Perl died in 1971.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Baldwin developed his work on the screenplay into the 1972 book "One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's The Autobiography of Malcolm X". In 1976, Baldwin wrote of his experience, "I think that I would rather be horsewhipped, or incarcerated in the forthright bedlam of Bellevue, than repeat the adventure". Baldwin died in 1987. Several authors attempted drafts, including David Mamet, David Bradley, Charles Fuller and Calder Willingham. Once Spike Lee took over as director, he rewrote the Baldwin-Perl script. Due to the revisions, the Baldwin family asked the producer to take his name off the credits. Thus "Malcolm X" only credits Perl and Lee as the writers and Malcolm X and Alex Haley as the authors of "The Autobiography of Malcolm X".


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: The production was considered controversial long before filming began. The crux of the controversy was Malcolm X's denunciation of whites before he undertook his hajj. He was, arguably, not well regarded among white citizens by and large; however, he had risen to become a hero in the African-American community and a symbol of blacks' struggles, particularly during the presidencies of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. In the three years before the movie's release, sales of "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" had increased 300 percent, and four of his books had a nine-fold increase in sales between 1986 and 1991.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Once Warner Bros. agreed to the project, they initially wanted Oscar-nominated Canadian film director Norman Jewison to direct the film. Jewison, director of the seminal civil rights film "In the Heat of the Night", was able to bring Denzel Washington into the project to play Malcolm X. Jewison and Washington previously worked together in the 1984 film "A Soldier's Story". A protest erupted over the fact that a white director was slated to make the film. Spike Lee was one of the main voices of criticism; since college, he had considered a film adaptation of "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" to be a dream project. Lee and others felt that it was appropriate that only a black person should direct "Malcolm X."


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: After the public outcry against Jewison, Worth concluded that "it needed a black director at this point. It was insurmountable the other way...There's a grave responsibility here." Jewison left the project, though he noted he gave up the movie not because of the protest, but because he could not reconcile Malcolm's private and public lives and was unsatisfied with Charles Fuller's script. Lee confirmed Jewison's position, stating, "If Norman actually thought he could do it, he would have really fought me. But he bowed out gracefully." Jewison and Denzel Washington would reunite several years later for "The Hurricane", in which Washington played imprisoned boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter, who spent nearly twenty years in prison for a murder he claimed he did not commit before his conviction was overturned in 1985.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Spike Lee was soon named the director, and he substantially edited the script. "I'm directing this movie and I rewrote the script, and I'm an artist and there's just no two ways around it: this film about Malcolm X is going to be my vision of Malcolm X. But it's not like I'm sitting atop a mountain saying, 'Screw everyone, this is the Malcolm I see.' I've done the research, I've talked to the people who were there." Soon after Spike Lee was announced as the director and before its release, "Malcolm X" received criticism by black nationalists and members of the United Front to Preserve the Legacy of Malcolm X, headed by poet and playwright Amiri Baraka, who were worried about Lee's portrayal of Malcolm X. One protest in Harlem drew over 200 people. Some based their opinion on dislike of Lee's previous films; others were concerned that he would focus on Malcolm X's life before he converted to Islam. Baraka bluntly accused Spike Lee of being a "Buppie", stating "We will not let Malcolm X's life be trashed to make middle-class Negroes sleep easier", compelling others to write the director and warn him "not to mess up Malcolm's life." Some, including Lee himself, noted the irony that many of the arguments made against him mirrored those made against Norman Jewison.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Although Washington agreed to play Malcolm X while Norman Jewison was scheduled to direct the film, Lee stated he never envisioned any actor other than Washington in the role. The two had previously worked together on "Mo' Better Blues" (1990), and Lee noted that Washington had "really captured Malcolm" in his Off Broadway performance as him.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Spike Lee also encountered difficulty in securing a sufficient budget. Lee told Warners and the bond company that a budget of over US$30 million was necessary; the studio disagreed and offered a lower amount. Following advice from fellow director Francis Ford Coppola, Lee got "the movie company pregnant": taking the movie far enough along into actual production to attempt to force the studio to increase the budget. The film, initially budgeted at $28 million, climbed to nearly $33 million. Lee contributed $2 million of his own $3 million salary. Completion Bond Company, which assumed financial control in January 1992, refused to approve any more expenditures; in addition, the studio and bond company instructed Lee that the film could be no longer than two hours, fifteen minutes in length. The resulting conflict caused the project to be shut down in post-production.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: The film was saved by the financial intervention of prominent black Americans, some of whom appear in the film: Bill Cosby, Oprah Winfrey, Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, Janet Jackson, Prince, Tracy Chapman, and Peggy Cooper Cafritz, founder of the Duke Ellington School of the Arts. Their contributions were made as donations; as Lee noted: "This is not a loan. They are not investing in the film. These are black folks with some money who came to the rescue of the movie. As a result, this film will be my version. Not the bond company's version, not Warner Brothers'. I will do the film the way it ought to be, and it will be over three hours." The actions of such prominent members of the African American community giving their money helped finish the project as Lee envisioned it.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: The dissatisfaction Warners had for how Lee funded the film by completing it through the help of his African American friends later resulted in Warner Bros. blocking out Lee from participating in the development of "Space Jam", as Lee had approached Joe Pytka about polishing the film's script.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: A month before the film was released, Lee asked that media outlets send black journalists to interview him. The request proved controversial. While it was common practice for celebrities to pick interviewers who were known to be sympathetic to them, it was the first time in many years in which race had been used as a qualification. Lee clarified that he was not barring white interviewers from interviewing him, but that he felt, given the subject matter of the film, that black writers have "more insight about Malcolm than white writers."


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: The request was turned down by the "Los Angeles Times", but several others agreed including "Premiere" magazine, "Vogue", "Interview" and "Rolling Stone". The "Los Angeles Times" explained they did not give writer approval. The editor of "Premiere" noted that the request created internal discussions that resulted in changes at the magazine: "Had we had a history of putting a lot of black writers on stories about the movie industry we'd be in a stronger position. But we didn't. It was an interesting challenge he laid down. It caused some personnel changes. We've hired a black writer and a black editor."


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Malcolm X's widow, Dr. Betty Shabazz, served as a consultant to the film. The Fruit of Islam, the defense arm of the Nation of Islam, provided security for the movie.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: When Denzel Washington took the role of Malcolm X in the play, "When the Chickens Come Home to Roost", which dealt with the relationship between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad, he admitted he knew little about Malcolm X and had not yet read "The Autobiography of Malcolm X". Washington prepared by reading books and articles by and about Malcolm X and went over hours of tape and film footage of speeches. The play opened in 1981 and earned Washington a warm review by Frank Rich, who was at the time the chief theater critic of "The New York Times". Upon being cast in the film, he interviewed people who knew Malcolm X, among them Betty Shabazz and two of his brothers. Although they had different upbringings, Washington tried to focus on what he had in common with his character: during the making of the movie Washington was close to Malcolm X's age when he was assassinated, both men were from large families, both of their fathers were ministers, and both were raised primarily by their mothers.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: "Malcolm X" is the first non-documentary, and the first American film, to be given permission to film in Mecca (or within the Haram Sharif). A second unit film crew was hired to film in Mecca because non-Muslims, such as Lee, are not allowed inside the city. Lee fought very hard to get filming in Mecca but Warners initially refused to put up the money for location shooting. New Jersey was considered for filming the Mecca segments. In the end, Lee got money and permission together for filming in Mecca.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: In addition to Nelson Mandela, the film featured cameos by Christopher Plummer (as the prison's Catholic chaplain), Peter Boyle (as a police officer), William Kunstler (as a judge), as well as activists Al Sharpton and Black Panther Party co-founder Bobby Seale (as street preachers).


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: The film was made shortly after Mandela's 1990 release from prison and during the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa. Lee explained that he made "the connection between Soweto and Harlem, Nelson and Malcolm, and what Malcolm talked about: pan-Africanism, trying to build these bridges between people of color. He is alive in children in classrooms in Harlem, in classrooms in Soweto." Mandela ends the film with a quote from Malcolm X himself, with Malcolm in a film clip saying the last four words. The quote goes: "We declare our right on this earth, to be a human being, to be respected as a human being, to be given the rights of a human being, in this society, on this earth, in this day, which we intend to bring into existence "by any means necessary"."


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: "Malcolm X" was released in North America on November 18, 1992. The film released overseas in 1993, between February and March in Europe.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: "Malcolm X" was released by The Criterion Collection on Ultra HD Blu-ray and Blu-ray Disc on November 22, 2022.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, the film grossed in its opening weekend, finishing third after "" ($30 million) and "Bram Stoker's Dracula" ($15 million). According to "Box Office Mojo", the film ended its domestic run with a gross of $48,169,910. Due to the budget issues and costs of promotion, Warner Bros. claimed the film lost over $30 million in 1992.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Upon its United Kingdom release in 1993, it grossed (). Limited UK re-releases sold 136 tickets in 2016 and 172 tickets in 2017. The film also sold 594,984 tickets in France, 127,306 tickets in Germany, and 133,798 tickets in Spain. In South Korea, it sold 28,159 tickets in the capital city of Seoul. The film grossed $24,933,000 internationally in its original release, for a worldwide total of .


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Upon release, the film received widespread critical acclaim. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating 88% based on 69 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10. The critics' consensus states: "Anchored by a powerful performance from Denzel Washington, Spike Lee's biopic of the legendary civil rights leader brings his autobiography to life with an epic sweep and a nuanced message." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an "A+" to "F" scale.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Critic Roger Ebert of "The Chicago Sun-Times" ranked the film No. 1 on his Top 10 list for 1992 and described the film as "one of the great screen biographies, celebrating the sweep of an American life that bottomed out in prison before its hero reinvented himself." In 1999, Ebert and director Martin Scorsese, the latter sitting in for Ebert's late co-host Gene Siskel, both ranked "Malcolm X" among the ten best films of the 1990s.


title: Malcolm X (1992 film)

text: Denzel Washington's portrayal of Malcolm X was widely praised and he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. Washington lost to Al Pacino ("Scent of a Woman"), a decision which Lee criticized, saying "I'm not the only one who thinks Denzel was robbed on that one."


title: Cornish language

text: Cornish (Standard Written Form: or ) , is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language family. It is a revived language, having become extinct as a living community language in Cornwall at the end of the 18th century. However, knowledge of Cornish, including speaking ability to a certain extent, continued to be passed on within families and by individuals, and a revival began in the early 20th century. The language has a growing number of second language speakers, and a very small number of families now raise children to speak revived Cornish as a first language. Cornish is currently recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, and the language is often described as an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage.


title: Cornish language

text: Along with Welsh and Breton, Cornish is descended from the Common Brittonic language spoken throughout much of Great Britain before the English language came to dominate. For centuries, until it was pushed westwards by English, it was the main language of Cornwall, maintaining close links with its sister language Breton, with which it was mutually intelligible, perhaps even as long as Cornish continued to be spoken as a vernacular. Cornish continued to function as a common community language in parts of Cornwall until the mid 18th century. There is some evidence of knowledge of the language persisting into the 19th century, possibly almost overlapping the beginning of revival efforts.


title: Cornish language

text: A process to revive the language began in the early 20th century, and in 2010, UNESCO announced that its former classification of the language as "extinct" was "no longer accurate." Since the revival of the language, some Cornish textbooks and works of literature have been published, and an increasing number of people are studying the language. Recent developments include Cornish music, independent films and children's books. A small number of people in Cornwall have been brought up to be bilingual native speakers, and the language is taught in schools and appears on road signs. The first Cornish-language day care opened in 2010.


title: Cornish language

text: Cornish is a Southwestern Brittonic language, a branch of the Insular Celtic section of the Celtic language family, which is a sub-family of the Indo-European language family. Brittonic also includes Welsh, Breton, Cumbric and possibly Pictish, the last two of which are extinct. Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx are part of the separate Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic.


title: Cornish language

text: Joseph Loth viewed Cornish and Breton as being two dialects of the same language, claiming that "Middle Cornish is without doubt closer to Breton as a whole than the modern Breton dialect of Quiberon [] is to that of Saint-Pol-de-Léon []." Also, Kenneth Jackson argued that it is almost certain that Cornish and Breton would have been mutually intelligible as long as Cornish was a living language, and that Cornish and Breton are especially closely related to each other and less closely related to Welsh.


title: Cornish language

text: Cornish evolved from the Common Brittonic spoken throughout Britain south of the Firth of Forth during the British Iron Age and Roman period. As a result of westward Anglo-Saxon expansion, the Britons of the southwest were separated from those in modern-day Wales and Cumbria, which Jackson links to the defeat of the Britons at the Battle of Deorham in about 577. The western dialects eventually evolved into modern Welsh and the now extinct Cumbric, while Southwestern Brittonic developed into Cornish and Breton, the latter as a result of emigration to parts of the continent, known as Brittany over the following centuries.


title: Cornish language

text: The area controlled by the southwestern Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of Wessex over the next few centuries. During the Old Cornish () period (800–1200), the Cornish-speaking area was largely coterminous with modern-day Cornwall, after the Saxons had taken over Devon in their south-westward advance, which probably was facilitated by a second migration wave to Brittany that resulted in the partial depopulation of Devon.


title: Cornish language

text: The earliest written record of the Cornish language comes from this period: a 9th-century gloss in a Latin manuscript of by Boethius, which used the words . The phrase may mean "it [the mind] hated the gloomy places", or alternatively, as Andrew Breeze suggests, "she hated the land". Other sources from this period include the "Saints' List", a list of almost fifty Cornish saints, the Bodmin manumissions, which is a list of manumittors and slaves, the latter with mostly Cornish names, and, more substantially, a Latin-Cornish glossary (the or Cottonian Vocabulary), a Cornish translation of Ælfric of Eynsham's Latin-Old English Glossary, which is thematically arranged into several groups, such as the Genesis creation narrative, anatomy, church hierarchy, the family, names for various kinds of artisans and their tools, flora, fauna, and household items. The manuscript was widely thought to be in Old Welsh until the 18th century when it was identified as Cornish by Edward Lhuyd. Some Brittonic glosses in the 9th-century colloquy were once identified as Old Cornish, but they are more likely Old Welsh, possibly influenced by a Cornish scribe. No single phonological feature distinguishes Cornish from both Welsh and Breton until the beginning of the assibilation of dental stops in Cornish, which is not found before the second half of the eleventh century, and it is not always possible to distinguish Old Cornish, Old Breton, and Old Welsh orthographically.


title: Cornish language

text: The Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Cornish () period (1200–1600), reaching a peak of about 39,000 speakers in the 13th century, after which the number started to decline. This period provided the bulk of traditional Cornish literature, and was used to reconstruct the language during its revival. Most important is the , a cycle of three mystery plays, , and . Together these provide about 8,734 lines of text. The three plays exhibit a mixture of English and Brittonic influences, and, like other Cornish literature, may have been written at Glasney College near Penryn. From this period also are the hagiographical dramas ("The Life of Meriasek") and ("The Life of Ke"), both of which feature as an antagonist the villainous and tyrannical King Tewdar (or Teudar), a historical medieval king in Armorica and Cornwall, who, in these plays, has been interpreted as a lampoon of either of the Tudor kings Henry VII or Henry VIII.


title: Cornish language

text: Others are the "Charter Fragment", the earliest known continuous text in the Cornish language, apparently part of a play about a medieval marriage, and ("The Passion of Our Lord"), a poem probably intended for personal worship, were written during this period, probably in the second half of the 14th century. Another important text, the , was realized to be Cornish in 1949, having previously been incorrectly classified as Welsh. It is the longest text in the traditional Cornish language, consisting of around 30,000 words of continuous prose. This text is a late 16th century translation of twelve of Bishop Bonner's thirteen homilies by a certain John Tregear, tentatively identified as a vicar of St Allen from Crowan, and has an additional catena, Sacrament an Alter, added later by his fellow priest, Thomas Stephyn.


title: Cornish language

text: When Parliament passed the Act of Uniformity 1549, which established the 1549 edition of the English Book of Common Prayer as the sole legal form of worship in England, including Cornwall, people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English. The passing of this Act was one of the causes of the Prayer Book Rebellion, with "the commoners of Devonshyre and Cornwall" producing a manifesto demanding a return to the old religious services and included an article that concluded, "and so we the Cornyshe men (whereof certen of us understande no Englysh) utterly refuse thys newe Englysh." In response to their articles, the government spokesman (either Philip Nichols or Nicholas Udall) wondered why they did not just ask the king for a version of the liturgy in their own language. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer asked why the Cornishmen should be offended by holding the service in English, when they had before held it in Latin, which even fewer of them could understand. Anthony Fletcher points out that this rebellion was primarily motivated by religious and economic, rather than linguistic, concerns.


title: Cornish language

text: The Prayer Book Rebellion, which may also have been influenced by the retaliation of the English after the failed Cornish Rebellion of 1497, was ruthlessly suppressed: over 4,000 people who protested against the imposition of an English prayer book were massacred by Edward VI's army. Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals.


title: Cornish language

text: Through many factors, including loss of life and the spread of English, the Prayer Book Rebellion proved a turning-point for the Cornish language. Peter Berresford Ellis cites the years 1550–1650 as a century of immense damage for the language, and its decline can be traced to this period. In 1680 William Scawen wrote an essay describing 16 reasons for the decline of Cornish, among them the lack of a distinctive Cornish alphabet, the loss of contact between Cornwall and Brittany, the cessation of the miracle plays, loss of records in the Civil War, lack of a Cornish Bible and immigration to Cornwall. Mark Stoyle, however, has argued that the ‘glotticide’ of the Cornish language was mainly a result of the Cornish gentry adopting English to dissociate themselves from the reputation for disloyalty and rebellion associated with the Cornish language since the 1497 uprising.


title: Cornish language

text: By the middle of the 17th century, the language had retreated to Penwith and Kerrier, and transmission of the language to new generations had almost entirely ceased. In his "Survey of Cornwall", published in 1602, Richard Carew writes:[M]ost of the inhabitants can speak no word of Cornish, but very few are ignorant of the English; and yet some so affect their own, as to a stranger they will not speak it; for if meeting them by chance, you inquire the way, or any such matter, your answer shall be, "," "I [will] speak no Saxonage."


title: Cornish language

text: The Late Cornish () period from 1600 to about 1800 has a less substantial body of literature than the Middle Cornish period, but the sources are more varied in nature, including songs, poems about fishing and curing pilchards, and various translations of verses from the Bible, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer and the Creed. Edward Lhuyd's "Archaeologia Britannica", which was mainly recorded in the field from native speakers in the early 1700s, and his unpublished field notebook are seen as important sources of Cornish vocabulary, some of which are not found in any other source. "Archaeologia Britannica" also features a complete version of a traditional folk tale, "John of Chyanhor", a short story about a man from St Levan who goes far to the east seeking work, eventually returning home after three years to find that his wife has borne him a child during his absence.


title: Cornish language

text: In 1776, William Bodinar, who describes himself as having learned Cornish from old fishermen when he was a boy, wrote a letter to Daines Barrington in Cornish, with an English translation, which was probably the last prose written in the traditional language. In his letter, he describes the sociolinguistics of the Cornish language at the time, stating that there are no more than four or five old people in his village who can still speak Cornish, concluding with the remark that Cornish is no longer known by young people. However, the last recorded traditional Cornish literature may have been the "Cranken Rhyme", a corrupted version of a verse or song published in the late 19th century by John Hobson Matthews, recorded orally by John Davey (or Davy) of Boswednack, of uncertain date but probably originally composed during the last years of the traditional language. Davey had traditional knowledge of at least some Cornish. John Kelynack (1796–1885), a fisherman of Newlyn, was sought by philologists for old Cornish words and technical phrases in the 19th century.


title: Cornish language

text: It is difficult to state with certainty when Cornish ceased to be spoken, due to the fact that its last speakers were of relatively low social class and that the definition of what constitutes "a living language" is not clear cut. Peter Pool argues that by 1800 nobody was using Cornish as a daily language and no evidence exists of anyone capable of conversing in the language at that date.


title: Cornish language

text: The traditional view that Dolly Pentreath (1692–1777) was the last native speaker of Cornish has been challenged, and in the 18th and 19th centuries there was academic interest in the language and in attempting to find the last speaker of Cornish. It has been suggested that, whereas Pentreath was probably the last "monolingual" speaker, the last "native" speaker may have been John Davey of Zennor, who died in 1891. However, although it is clear Davey possessed some traditional knowledge in addition to having read books on Cornish, accounts differ of his competence in the language. Some contemporaries stated he was able to converse on certain topics in Cornish whereas others affirmed they had never heard him claim to be able to do so. Robert Morton Nance, who reworked and translated Davey's Cranken Rhyme, remarked, "There can be no doubt, after the evidence of this rhyme, of what there was to lose by neglecting John Davey."


title: Cornish language

text: The search for the last speaker is hampered by a lack of transcriptions or audio recordings, so that it is impossible to tell from this distance whether the language these people were reported to be speaking was Cornish, or English with a heavy Cornish substratum, nor what their level of fluency was. Nevertheless this academic interest, along with the beginning of the Celtic Revival in the late 19th century, provided the groundwork for a Cornish language revival movement.


title: Cornish language

text: Notwithstanding the uncertainty over who was the last speaker of Cornish, researchers have posited the following numbers for the prevalence of the language between 1050 and 1800.


title: Cornish language

text: In 1904, the Celtic language scholar and Cornish cultural activist Henry Jenner published "A Handbook of the Cornish Language". The publication of this book is often considered to be the point at which the revival movement started. Jenner wrote about the Cornish language in 1905, "one may fairly say that most of what there was of it has been preserved, and that it has been continuously preserved, for there has never been a time when there were not some Cornishmen who knew some Cornish."


title: Cornish language

text: The revival focused on reconstructing and standardising the language, including coining new words for modern concepts, and creating educational material in order to teach Cornish to others. In 1929 Robert Morton Nance published his Unified Cornish () system, based on the Middle Cornish literature while extending the attested vocabulary with neologisms and forms based on Celtic roots also found in Breton and Welsh, publishing a dictionary in 1938. Nance's work became the basis of revived Cornish () for most of the 20th century. During the 1970s, criticism of Nance's system, including the inconsistent orthography and unpredictable correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, as well as on other grounds such as the archaic basis of Unified and a lack of emphasis on the spoken language, resulted in the creation of several rival systems. In the 1980s, Ken George published a new system, ("Common Cornish"), based on a reconstruction of the phonological system of Middle Cornish, but with an approximately morphophonemic orthography. It was subsequently adopted by the Cornish Language Board and was the written form used by a reported 54.5% of all Cornish language users according to a survey in 2008, but was heavily criticised for a variety of reasons by Jon Mills and Nicholas Williams, including making phonological distinctions that they state were not made in the traditional language 1500, failing to make distinctions that they believe "were" made in the traditional language at this time, and the use of an orthography that deviated too far from the traditional texts and Unified Cornish. Also during this period, Richard Gendall created his Modern Cornish system (also known as "Revived Late Cornish"), which used Late Cornish as a basis, and Nicholas Williams published a revised version of Unified; however neither of these systems gained the popularity of Unified or Kemmyn.


title: Cornish language

text: The revival entered a period of factionalism and public disputes, with each orthography attempting to push the others aside. By the time that Cornish was recognised by the UK government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2002, it had become recognised that the existence of multiple orthographies was unsustainable with regards to using the language in education and public life, as none had achieved a wide consensus. A process of unification was set about which resulted in the creation of the public-body Cornish Language Partnership in 2005 and agreement on a Standard Written Form in 2008. In 2010 a new milestone was reached when UNESCO altered its classification of Cornish, stating that its previous label of "extinct" was no longer accurate.


title: Cornish language

text: Speakers of Cornish reside primarily in Cornwall, which has a population of 563,600 (2017 estimate). There are also some speakers living outside Cornwall, particularly in the countries of the Cornish diaspora, as well as in other Celtic nations. Estimates of the number of Cornish speakers vary according to the definition of a speaker, and is difficult to determine accurately due to the individualised nature of language take-up. Nevertheless, there is recognition that the number of Cornish speakers is growing. From before the 1980s to the end of the 20th century there was a sixfold increase in the number of speakers to around 300. One figure for the number of people who know a few basic words, such as knowing that "Kernow" means "Cornwall", was 300,000; the same survey gave the number of people able to have simple conversations as 3,000.


title: Cornish language

text: The Cornish Language Strategy project commissioned research to provide quantitative and qualitative evidence for the number of Cornish speakers: due to the success of the revival project it was estimated that 2,000 people were fluent (surveyed in spring 2008), an increase from the estimated 300 people who spoke Cornish fluently suggested in a study by Kenneth MacKinnon in 2000.<ref name="BBC BBC/British Council"></ref>


title: Cornish language

text: Jenefer Lowe of the Cornish Language Partnership said in an interview with the BBC in 2010 that there were around 300 fluent speakers. Bert Biscoe, a councillor and bard, in a statement to the "Western Morning News" in 2014 said there were "several hundred fluent speakers". Cornwall Council estimated in 2015 that there were 300–400 fluent speakers who used the language regularly, with 5,000 people having a basic conversational ability in the language.


title: Cornish language

text: A report on the 2011 Census published in 2013 by the Office for National Statistics placed the number of speakers at somewhere between 325 and 625. In 2017 the ONS released data based on the 2011 Census that placed the number of speakers at 557 people in England and Wales who declared Cornish to be their main language, 464 of whom lived in Cornwall.


title: Cornish language

text: A study that appeared in 2018 established the number of people in Cornwall with at least minimal skills in Cornish, such as the use of some words and phrases, to be more than 3,000, including around 500 estimated to be fluent.


title: Cornish language

text: The Institute of Cornish Studies at the University of Exeter is working with the Cornish Language Partnership to study the Cornish language revival of the 20th century, including the growth in number of speakers.


title: Cornish language

text: In 2002, Cornish was recognized by the UK government under Part II of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. UNESCO's "Atlas of World Languages" classifies Cornish as "critically endangered". UNESCO has said that a previous classification of 'extinct' "does not reflect the current situation for Cornish" and is "no longer accurate"


title: Cornish language

text: Cornwall Council's policy is to support the language, in line with the European Charter. A motion was passed in November 2009 in which the council promoted the inclusion of Cornish, as appropriate and where possible, in council publications and on signs. This plan has drawn some criticism. In October 2015, Cornwall Council announced that staff would be encouraged to use "basic words and phrases" in Cornish when dealing with the public. In 2021 Cornwall Council prohibited a marriage ceremony from being conducted in Cornish as the Marriage Act 1949 only allowed for marriage ceremonies in English or Welsh.


title: Cornish language

text: In 2014, the Cornish people were recognised by the UK Government as a national minority under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The FCNM provides certain rights and protections to a national minority with regard to their minority language.


title: Cornish language

text: In 2016, British government funding for the Cornish language ceased, and responsibility transferred to Cornwall Council.


title: Cornish language

text: Until around the middle of the 11th century, Old Cornish scribes used a traditional spelling system shared with Old Breton and Old Welsh, based on the pronunciation of British Latin. By the time of the Vocabularium Cornicum, usually dated to around 1100, Old English spelling conventions, such as the use of thorn (Þ, þ) and eth (Ð, ð) for dental fricatives, and wynn (Ƿ, ƿ) for /w/, had come into use, allowing documents written at this time to be distinguished from Old Welsh, which rarely uses these characters, and Old Breton, which does not use them at all. Old Cornish features include using initial ⟨ch⟩, ⟨c⟩, or ⟨k⟩ for /k/, and, in internal and final position, ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨c⟩, ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, and ⟨g⟩ are generally used for the phonemes /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /β/, /ð/, and /ɣ/ respectively, meaning that the results of Brittonic lenition are not usually apparent from the orthography at this time.