text: Hoover was the last Republican to win a presidential election until 1952. As of the 2020 election, this is the last time that the party of the incumbent president won without their nominee being the incumbent president or the incumbent vice president. With Hoover's victory, this cycle marked the last time until 1988 in which Republicans have won the presidency three consecutive times. This is also the most recent occasion in which three different presidential nominees from the same party have won the presidency in a row, something that only occurred twice before, in 1880 and 1908.


title: 1928 United States presidential election

text: With President Calvin Coolidge choosing not to enter the race, the race for the nomination was wide open. The leading candidates were Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, former Illinois Governor Frank Orren Lowden and Senate Majority Leader Charles Curtis. A movement to draft Coolidge failed to gain traction with party insiders or even persuade Coolidge himself.


text: In the few primaries that mattered, Hoover did not perform as well as expected, and it was thought that President Coolidge or Vice President Charles G. Dawes might accept a draft in case of a deadlock, but Lowden withdrew just as the convention was about to start, paving the way for a Hoover victory.


text: The Republican Convention was held in Kansas City, Missouri from June 12 to 15 and nominated Hoover on the first ballot. With Hoover disinclined to interfere in the selection of his running mate, the party leaders were at first partial to giving Dawes a shot at a second term, but when that information leaked, Coolidge sent an angry telegram that said that he would consider a second nomination for Dawes, whom he hated, a "personal affront." To attract votes from farmers who were concerned about Hoover's pro-business orientation, the nomination was instead offered to Curtis. He accepted and was nominated overwhelmingly on the first ballot. Curtis was the first candidate of Native American ancestry nominated by a major party for national office.


text: In his acceptance speech eight weeks after the convention ended, Hoover said: "We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of this land... We shall soon with the help of God be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this land." That sentence would haunt Hoover during the Great Depression.


text: Owing to the economic prosperity in the country and rapidly fading public memory of the Teapot Dome scandal, the Democratic Party's prospects looked dim. Most of the major Democratic leaders, such as William Gibbs McAdoo, were therefore content to sit out the election. One who did not do so was New York Governor Al Smith, who had previously made two attempts to secure the Democratic nomination.


text: The 1928 Democratic National Convention was held in Houston, Texas, on June 26 to 28, and Smith became the candidate on the first ballot.


text: The leadership asked the delegates to nominate Senator Joseph Taylor Robinson of Arkansas, in many ways Smith's political polar opposite, to be his running mate, and Robinson was nominated for vice-president.


text: Smith was the first Roman Catholic to gain a major party's nomination for president, and his religion became an issue during the campaign. Many Protestants feared that Smith would take orders from church leaders in the Vatican in making decisions affecting the country.


text: Held in the Finnish Socialist Hall in New York City, the eighth Socialist Party Convention met on the thirteenth of April. James Maurer, a former State Representative, President of the Pennsylvania Federation of Labor and then Councilman for the town of Reading, was widely considered the frontrunner in the months before the convention met. For his boomers however, Maurer stood that his duties as councilman precluded the possibility of any national tour that would be required of his nomination for the Presidency, and this was declination was made definitive on April tenth. Norman Thomas, a Presbyterian minister who had been one of Maurer's boomers and had himself made it known that he was not a candidate for the Socialist nomination rather swiftly became the new frontrunner, and plans were made for a draft effort. Thomas and Maurer were nominated unanimously for president and Vice President respectively, with both men accepting their nominations. The only trouble arose on the question of Prohibition, where there remained a split in the Party between those who supported the Eighteenth Amendment and those, like Convention Chair Victor Berger, who preferred that it be handled on a state-by-state basis. In the end it was agreed that the Party remain silent on the issue of Prohibition.


text: Held in the Mecca Temple in New York City, the second Workers' Party Convention met on the twenty-fifth of May. Jay Lovestone served as the convention's keynote speaker, denouncing the Democratic, Republican and Socialist Parties and claiming that the Communists would turn the next "imperialist war" into a civil war. Party Chair William Foster was named as the Party's candidate for the Presidency while Benjamin Gitlow, a former opponent of Foster's within the Party, was named as its candidate for vice president. Scott Nearing was also considered a possible contender for either position on ticket. A platform was adopted which, in addition to calling for American workers to overthrow the capitalistic system of government, also demanded the enactment of social insurance, the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, a five-hour workday, the withdrawal of troops from Nicaragua and China, and the recognition of the Soviet Union.


text: Held in New York City, the tenth Socialist Labor Party Convention met on the twelfth of May. Initially the ticket was a duplicate of the one nominated four years prior, Frank Johns of Oregon for the Presidency and Verne Reynolds of Michigan for Vice President; however Johns, while campaigning in Bend, Oregon, died while attempting to rescue a young boy who had fallen into the river shortly after one of his opening campaign events. With their standard-bearer having passed, the executive committee of the Party tendered the presidential nomination to Reynolds, with the place of vice presidential nominee being filled by Jeremiah Crowley of New York. Speaking of the "decay of the Capitalistic System", Reynolds campaigned on the idea of Industrial democracy.


text: Held at the La Salle Hotel in Chicago, the fifteenth Prohibition Party Convention met on the tenth of July. Dr. D. Leigh Colvin and other Prohibitionists had found both the Republican and Democratic planks regarding Prohibition as unsatisfactory, and there was open discussion of nominating a ticket despite the continued reversals the Party had suffered since 1920. The name of former Governor Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania was bandied about as a potential contender, though there were those like Colvin who wanted to take advantage of the Democrat's nomination of a Wet Catholic by nominating a Dry Southern Democrat to the head of the ticket in the hopes of carrying one of the Southern states; William Gibbs McAdoo, Senator Robert Owen of Oklahoma, and former IRS Commissioner Daniel Roper were other names considered for a draft. A merger with the Farmer-Labor Party was contemplated for a time, and a committee was appointed which named a potential ticket of Gifford Pinchot for President and former Governor William Ellery Sweet of Colorado for Vice President; however neither man responded to inquiries whether they would accept the nomination, and eventually both the Prohibition and Farmer-Labor Parties tabled motions calling for fusion.


text: There remained immense pressure within the Party to name Herbert Hoover as their choice for president despite his dithering on the issue of Prohibition enforcement in the eyes of the stricter Drys, and indeed when the balloting for the presidential nomination commenced Hoover was found to be the second most popular choice of the delegates. Those opposed to Hoover rallied on the second ballot however behind frontrunner William Varnery, an insurance salesman and party regular from New York. James Edgerton, a Virginian native who had headed the Jefferson-Lincoln League in the failed effort to fuse the Prohibition and Farmer-Labor Parties, was nominated for the Vice Presidency. An olive branch was still offered to Hoover however, with the Prohibition Party promising to withdraw their ticket and endorse his candidacy were he make a public declaration in favor of Prohibition, that they would uphold the Volstead Act, and that they would present legislation to better enforce both during their term as president. Indeed, there remained a concerted effort to withdraw the ticket from the race, resulting in a meeting by the Party National Executive Committee on whether Varney should drop out. Varney himself was opposed to this plan, and in a narrow vote, four to three, the effort to effectively endorse Hoover for the Presidency failed. Still, there remained a concern that the ticket might potentially spoil the race and accidentally result in Smith's election to the Presidency, and so care was taken to avoid any repeat of 1884; Prohibition Party electors were not filed in New York, and Varney and Edgerton were to confine their campaigning to the Solid South and the Border States, reasoning that many Dry Democrats there might still vote for Smith unless they were given a third option.


text: Held in Chicago, the third Farmer-Labor Party Convention met on the tenth of July. A merger with the Prohibition Party was contemplated for a time, and a committee was appointed which named a potential ticket of Gifford Pinchot for president and former Governor William Ellery Sweet of Colorado for Vice President; however neither man responded to inquiries whether they would accept the nomination, and eventually both the Farmer-Labor and Prohibition Parties tabled motions calling for fusion. Initially the Party had nominated Senator George Norris of Nebraska for President, but Norris adhered to an earlier declaration that he had made where he felt that the political machinery necessary to wage a successful campaign for the Presidency was not possible to establish so late in the campaigning season. To run alongside Norris the Party had named William J. Vereen of Georgia, a cotton textile manufacturer, but refused to consider his nomination under any circumstances once the press had brought it to his attention. Some months later the Presidential nomination was tendered to Colonel Frank Elbridge Webb of California, with the Vice Presidential nomination being offered to Senator James Reed of Missouri after Webb rejected the idea of potentially running with Senator James Heflin of Alabama; as with Vereen, Reed had no prior knowledge of his impending nomination and wholly rejected it. A third man, Dr. Henry Alexaner of North Carolina was then nominated in Reed's stead, but on September 25 Alexander requested that his name be withdrawn from the ticket and that he would be endorsing Al Smith for the Presidency. At some point after LeRoy Tillman, a nephew of the late Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina, was nominated in Alexander's stead.


text: Anti-Catholicism was a significant problem for Smith's campaign. Protestant ministers warned that he would take orders from the Pope, who many Americans sincerely believed would move to the United States to rule the country from a fortress in Washington, DC. A popular joke of the time was that Smith sent a one-word telegram after the election to Pope Pius XI saying, "Unpack." Beyond the conspiracy theories, a survey of 8,500 Southern Methodist Church ministers found only four who supported Smith, and the northern Methodists, Southern Baptists, and Disciples of Christ were similar in their opposition. Many voters who sincerely rejected bigotry and the anti-Catholic Ku Klux Klan, which had declined during the 1920s until the 1928 campaign revived it, justified their opposition to Smith on their belief that the Catholic Church was an "un-American" and "alien culture" that opposed freedom and democracy.


text: An example was a statement issued in September 1928 by the National Lutheran Editors' and Managers' Association that opposed Smith's election. The manifesto, written by Dr. Clarence Reinhold Tappert, warned about "the peculiar relation in which a faithful Catholic stands and the absolute allegiance he owes to a 'foreign sovereign' who does not only 'claim' supremacy also in secular affairs as a matter of principle and theory but who, time and again, has endeavored to put this claim into practical operation." The Catholic Church, the manifesto asserted, was hostile to American principles of separation of church and state and of religious toleration. Groups circulated a million copies of a counterfeit oath, claiming that fourth-degree Knights of Columbus members swore to exterminate Freemasons and Protestants and to commit violence against anyone if the church ordered. Smith's opposition to Prohibition, a key reform promoted by Protestants, also lost him votes, as did his association with Tammany Hall. Because many anti-Catholics used the issues to cover for their religious prejudices, Smith's campaign had difficulty denouncing anti-Catholicism as bigotry without offending others who favored Prohibition or disliked Tammany corruption.


text: Scott Farris notes that the anti-Catholicism of the American society was the sole reason behind Smith's defeat, as even contemporary Prohibition activists would admit that their main problem with the Democratic candidate was his faith and not any political view - Bob Jones Sr., a prominent Protestant pastor in South Carolina, said: “I’ll tell you, brother, that the big issue we’ve got to face ain’t the liquor question. I’d rather see a saloon on every corner of the South than see the foreigners elect Al Smith president.” A Methodist newspaper in Georgia called Catholicism “a degenerate type of Christianity,” while Southern Baptist churches ordered their followers to vote against Smith, claiming that he would close down Protestant churches, end freedom of worship and prohibit reading the Bible. Charles Hillman Fountain, a Protestant writer, insisted that Catholics should be barred from holding any office. Farris states that "More disturbing than the ridiculous and the dangerous was the respectable anti-Catholicism", as contemporary newspapers and Protestant churches tried to mask tried to mask their anti-Catholicism as genuine concern. Protestant activists insisted that Catholicism represents alien culture and medieval mentality, claiming that there is Catholicism is incompatible with American democracy and institutions. Catholics were portrayed as reactionary despite being more left-wing than mainstream American Protestant congregations at the time. William Allen White, a renowned newspaper editor, warned that Catholicism would erode the moral standards of America, saying that “the whole Puritan civilization which has built a sturdy, orderly nation is threatened by Smith.” While Herbert Hoover avoided raising the issue of Catholicism on the campaign trail, he defended the Protestant actions in a private letter:


text: Those issues made Smith lose several states of the Solid South that had been carried by Democrats since Reconstruction. However, in many southern states with sizable African American populations, the vast majority of whom could not vote due to poll taxes, restricted primaries, and hostile local election officials, it was widely believed that Hoover supported integration or at least was not committed to maintaining segregation. This overcame opposition to Smith's campaign in areas with large nonvoting black populations. Mississippi Governor Theodore G. Bilbo claimed that Hoover had met with a black member of the Republican National Committee and danced with her. Hoover's campaign quickly denied the "untruthful and ignoble assertion."


text: Smith's religion helped him with Roman Catholic New England immigrants, especially Irish-Americans and Italian-Americans, which may have explained his narrow victories in traditionally-Republican Massachusetts and Rhode Island and his narrow loss in his home state of New York, where previous Democratic presidential candidates had lost by double digits, but Smith lost by only 2%.


text: The total vote exceeded that of 1924 by nearly eight million, which was nearly twice the vote cast in 1916 and nearly three times that of 1896. Every section in the Union increased its vote although the Mountain, East South Central and West South Central States did so least of all. The greatest increases were in the heavily populated (Northeastern) Mid-Atlantic and East North Central States, where more than 4,250,000 more votes were cast, more than half of the nationwide increase. There was an increase of over a million each in New York and Pennsylvania.


text: Much of the increase could be attributed to women voting in ever increasing numbers since gaining the national vote in 1920.


text: Hoover won 200 counties in the Southern United States while Smith won 122 traditionally Republican counties in the Northern United States, with 77 of those counties being majority Catholic. Warren G. Harding had won in all twelve cities with populations above 500,000 in the 1920 election, but Smith won in Cleveland, Milwaukee, New York City, San Francisco, and St. Louis, and lost in Baltimore and Pittsburgh by less than 10,000 votes. Hoover won in the traditionally Democratic Birmingham, Dallas, and Houston. Smith was the first Democratic nominee in the 20th century to win a majority of the twelve largest cities in the country. The net vote totals in the twelve largest cities shifted from Republican to Democratic with Harding having won by 1,540,000 in 1920, Coolidge by 1,308,000 in 1924, while Smith won by 210,000. Samuel Lubell wrote in "The Future of American Politics" that Franklin D. Roosevelt's victory in the 1932 election was preceded by Smith's increased vote totals in urban areas.


text: Smith's results in the cities in the election improved upon John W. Davis' results in the 1924 election. The Democratic vote in Boston rose from 35.5% to 66.8%, in Milwaukee from 9.7% to 53.7%, in Saint Paul, Minnesota from 10.1% to 51.2%, San Francisco from 6.4% to 49.4%, in Cleveland from 9.1% to 45.6%, in Chicago from 20.3% to 46.5%, in Pittsburgh from 8.7% to 42.4%, in Philadelphia from 12.1% to 39.5%, in Minneapolis from 6.3% to 38.8%, in Detroit from 7.1% to 36.8%, and in Seattle from 6.6% to 31.9%. In the boroughs of New York City the vote percentages rose from 33.6% to 67.7% in The Bronx, 39.6% to 60.8% in Manhattan, 31.9% to 59.5% in Brooklyn, 31% to 53.4% in Queens, and 42% to 53.4% in Staten Island. He improved in all of those cities from James M. Cox's results in 1920.


text: Hoover won the election by a wide margin on pledges to continue the economic boom of the Coolidge years. He received more votes than any previous candidate of the Republican Party in every state except five: Rhode Island, Iowa, North Dakota, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The Hoover vote was greater than the Coolidge vote in 2,932 counties; it was less in 143 of the comparable counties. The 21,400,000 votes cast for Hoover also touched the high-water mark for all votes for a presidential candidate until then and were an increase of more than 5,500,000 over the Coolidge vote four years earlier. The Republican ticket made substantial inroads in the South: the heaviest Democratic losses were in the three Southern sections (South Atlantic, East South Central, West South Central). The losses included 215 counties that had never before supported a Republican presidential candidate, distributed as follows: Alabama (14), Arkansas (5), Florida (22), Georgia (4), Kentucky (28), Maryland (3), Mississippi (1), Missouri (10), North Carolina (16), Tennessee (3), Texas (64), Virginia (26), West Virginia (4). In Georgia, eight counties recorded more votes cast for "anti-Smith" electors than either major-party candidate.


text: The electoral votes of North Carolina and Virginia had not been awarded to a Republican since 1872, and Florida had not been carried by a Republican since the heavily disputed election of 1876. Texas was carried by a Republican for the first time in its history, which left Georgia as the only remaining state never carried by a Republican presidential candidate. Georgia would not be won by a Republican until 1964 when Barry Goldwater carried the Peach State. Smith carried traditionally Democratic Alabama by barely 7,000 votes. In all, Smith carried only six of the eleven states of the former Confederacy, the fewest carried by a Democratic candidate since the end of Reconstruction.


text: Smith polled more votes than had any previous Democratic candidate in 30 of the 48 states, all but Alabama, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. In only four of them (Tennessee, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico) did Smith receive fewer votes than Davis had in 1924. Historian Allan Lichtman notes that since the sole defining issue of the election was anti-Catholicism, it radically realigned states' voting patterns. States that have never voted Republican after Reconstruction such as Texas, Florida, North Carolina, and Virginia voted for Hoover, while Smith carried Massachusetts and Rhode Island - states that have never voted Democrat before save for 1912. Lichtman further proves this by pointing out that Smith and Hoover had very similar political views save for religion and Prohibition, and yet the 1928 election had a turnout of 57%, despite previous 1920s American elections having their turnouts below 50%.


text: Smith received nearly as many votes as Coolidge had in 1924, and his vote exceeded Davis's by more than 6,500,000. The Democratic vote was greater than in 1924 in 2080 counties and fell in 997 counties. In only one section did the Democratic vote drop below 38%, the Pacific, which was the only one in which the Republican vote exceeded 60%. However, the Democrats made gains in five sections; of those counties, fourteen had never been Democratic and seven had been Democratic only once. The size and the nature of the distribution of the Democratic vote illustrated Smith's strengths and weaknesses as a candidate. Despite evidence of an increased Democratic vote, Smith's overwhelming defeat in the electoral college and the retention of so few Democratic counties reflected Hoover's greater appeal. Smith won the electoral votes of only the Deep South of the Democratic Solid South, Robinson's home state of Arkansas, and the New England states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, both of which had a large proportion of Catholic voters. His 87 electoral votes were the fewest that a Democratic candidate had won since the 80 votes earned by Horatio Seymour in 1868. Hoover even carried Smith's home state of New York by a narrow margin. Smith carried 914 counties, the fewest in the Fourth Party System. The Republican total leaped to 2,174 counties, a larger number than even the 1920 landslide.


text: Third-party support sank almost to the vanishing point, as the election of 1928 proved to be a two-party contest to a greater extent than any other in the Fourth Party System. Until the major split before the 1948 election in the Democratic Party between Southern Democrats and the more liberal Northern faction, no further significant third-party candidacies as seen in 1912 and 1924 were to occur. All "other" votes totaled only 1.08 percent of the national popular vote. The Socialist vote sank to 267,478, and in seven states, there were no Socialist votes.


text: It was the last election in which the Republicans won North Carolina until 1968, the last in which they won Kentucky and West Virginia until 1956, the last in which they won Arizona, California, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington until 1952, the last in which they won Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Oregon until 1948, and the last in which they won Ohio, Wisconsin, and Wyoming until 1944.


title: Mainframe computer

text: A mainframe computer, informally called a mainframe or big iron, is a computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications like bulk data processing for tasks such as censuses, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing. A mainframe computer is large but not as large as a supercomputer and has more processing power than some other classes of computers, such as minicomputers, servers, workstations, and personal computers. Most large-scale computer-system architectures were established in the 1960s, but they continue to evolve. Mainframe computers are often used as servers.


title: Mainframe computer

text: The term "mainframe" was derived from the large cabinet, called a "main frame", that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later, the term "mainframe" was used to distinguish high-end commercial computers from less powerful machines.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Their high stability and reliability enable these machines to run uninterrupted for very long periods of time, with mean time between failures (MTBF) measured in decades.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Mainframes have high availability, one of the primary reasons for their longevity, since they are typically used in applications where downtime would be costly or catastrophic. The term reliability, availability and serviceability (RAS) is a defining characteristic of mainframe computers. Proper planning and implementation are required to realize these features. In addition, mainframes are more secure than other computer types: the NIST vulnerabilities database, US-CERT, rates traditional mainframes such as IBM Z (previously called z Systems, System z and zSeries), Unisys Dorado and Unisys Libra as among the most secure with vulnerabilities in the low single digits as compared with thousands for Windows, UNIX, and Linux. Software upgrades usually require setting up the operating system or portions thereof, and are non-disruptive only when using virtualizing facilities such as IBM z/OS and Parallel Sysplex, or Unisys XPCL, which support workload sharing so that one system can take over another's application while it is being refreshed.


title: Mainframe computer

text: In the late 1950s, mainframes had only a rudimentary interactive interface (the console) and used sets of punched cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape to transfer data and programs. They operated in batch mode to support back office functions such as payroll and customer billing, most of which were based on repeated tape-based sorting and merging operations followed by line printing to preprinted continuous stationery. When interactive user terminals were introduced, they were used almost exclusively for applications (e.g. airline booking) rather than program development. However, in 1961 the first academic, general-purpose timesharing system that supported software development, CTSS, was released at MIT on an IBM 709, later 7090 and 7094. Typewriter and Teletype devices were common control consoles for system operators through the early 1970s, although ultimately supplanted by keyboard/display devices.


title: Mainframe computer

text: By the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive user terminals operating as timesharing computers, supporting hundreds of users simultaneously along with batch processing. Users gained access through keyboard/typewriter terminals and specialized text terminal CRT displays with integral keyboards, or later from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software. By the 1980s, many mainframes supported graphic display terminals, and terminal emulation, but not graphical user interfaces. This form of end-user computing became obsolete in the 1990s due to the advent of personal computers provided with GUIs. After 2000, modern mainframes partially or entirely phased out classic "green screen" and color display terminal access for end-users in favour of Web-style user interfaces.


title: Mainframe computer

text: The infrastructure requirements were drastically reduced during the mid-1990s, when CMOS mainframe designs replaced the older bipolar technology. IBM claimed that its newer mainframes reduced data center energy costs for power and cooling, and reduced physical space requirements compared to server farms.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Modern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same time. This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on physically distinct computers. In this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware services available to conventional servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, though not always to the same degree or level of sophistication.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity without disrupting system function, with specificity and granularity to a level of sophistication not usually available with most server solutions. Modern mainframes, notably the IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, offer two levels of virtualization: logical partitions (LPARs, via the PR/SM facility) and virtual machines (via the z/VM operating system). Many mainframe customers run two machines: one in their primary data center and one in their backup data center—fully active, partially active, or on standby—in case there is a catastrophe affecting the first building. Test, development, training, and production workload for applications and databases can run on a single machine, except for extremely large demands where the capacity of one machine might be limiting. Such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages. In practice, many customers use multiple mainframes linked either by Parallel Sysplex and shared DASD (in IBM's case), or with shared, geographically dispersed storage provided by EMC or Hitachi.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output (I/O) and emphasize throughput computing. Since the late 1950s, mainframe designs have included subsidiary hardware (called "channels" or "peripheral processors") which manage the I/O devices, leaving the CPU free to deal only with high-speed memory. It is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files. Gigabyte to terabyte-size record files are not unusual. Compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as much data storage online, and can access it reasonably quickly. Other server families also offload I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Mainframe return on investment (ROI), like any other computing platform, is dependent on its ability to scale, support mixed workloads, reduce labor costs, deliver uninterrupted service for critical business applications, and several other risk-adjusted cost factors.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant computing. For example, z900, z990, System z9, and System z10 servers effectively execute result-oriented instructions twice, compare results, arbitrate between any differences (through instruction retry and failure isolation), then shift workloads "in flight" to functioning processors, including spares, without any impact to operating systems, applications, or users. This hardware-level feature, also found in HP's NonStop systems, is known as lock-stepping, because both processors take their "steps" (i.e. instructions) together. Not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these systems provide, but many do, such as financial transaction processing.


title: Mainframe computer

text: IBM, with z Systems, continues to be a major manufacturer in the mainframe market. In 2000, Hitachi co-developed the zSeries z900 with IBM to share expenses, and the latest Hitachi AP10000 models are made by IBM. Unisys manufactures ClearPath Libra mainframes, based on earlier Burroughs MCP products and ClearPath Dorado mainframes based on Sperry Univac OS 1100 product lines. Hewlett-Packard sells its unique NonStop systems, which it acquired with Tandem Computers and which some analysts classify as mainframes. Groupe Bull's GCOS, Stratus OpenVOS, Fujitsu (formerly Siemens) BS2000, and Fujitsu-ICL VME mainframes are still available in Europe, and Fujitsu (formerly Amdahl) GS21 mainframes globally. NEC with ACOS and Hitachi with AP10000-VOS3 still maintain mainframe businesses in the Japanese market.


title: Mainframe computer

text: The amount of vendor investment in mainframe development varies with market share. Fujitsu and Hitachi both continue to use custom S/390-compatible processors, as well as other CPUs (including POWER and Xeon) for lower-end systems. Bull uses a mixture of Itanium and Xeon processors. NEC uses Xeon processors for its low-end ACOS-2 line, but develops the custom NOAH-6 processor for its high-end ACOS-4 series. IBM also develops custom processors in-house, such as the zEC12. Unisys produces code compatible mainframe systems that range from laptops to cabinet-sized mainframes that use homegrown CPUs as well as Xeon processors. Furthermore, there exists a market for software applications to manage the performance of mainframe implementations. In addition to IBM, significant market competitors include BMC, Maintec Technologies, Compuware, and CA Technologies. Starting in the 2010s, cloud computing is now a less expensive, more scalable alternative commonly called Big Data.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Several manufacturers and their successors produced mainframe computers from the 1950s until the early 21st century, with gradually decreasing numbers and a gradual transition to simulation on Intel chips rather than proprietary hardware. The US group of manufacturers was first known as "IBM and the Seven Dwarfs": usually Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, Control Data, Honeywell, General Electric and RCA, although some lists varied. Later, with the departure of General Electric and RCA, it was referred to as IBM and the BUNCH. IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000 series and, later, the development of the 360 series mainframes. The latter architecture has continued to evolve into their current zSeries mainframes which, along with the then Burroughs and Sperry (now Unisys) MCP-based and OS1100 mainframes, are among the few mainframe architectures still extant that can trace their roots to this early period. While IBM's zSeries can still run 24-bit System/360 code, the 64-bit zSeries and System z9 CMOS servers have nothing physically in common with the older systems. Notable manufacturers outside the US were Siemens and Telefunken in Germany, ICL in the United Kingdom, Olivetti in Italy, and Fujitsu, Hitachi, Oki, and NEC in Japan. The Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries manufactured close copies of IBM mainframes during the Cold War; the BESM series and Strela are examples of an independently designed Soviet computer.


title: Mainframe computer

text: Shrinking demand and tough competition started a shakeout in the market in the early 1970s—RCA sold out to UNIVAC and GE sold its business to Honeywell; between 1986 and 1990 Honeywell was bought out by Bull; UNIVAC became a division of Sperry, which later merged with Burroughs to form Unisys Corporation in 1986.


title: Mainframe computer

text: In 1984 estimated sales of desktop computers ($11.6 billion) exceeded mainframe computers ($11.4 billion) for the first time. IBM received the vast majority of mainframe revenue. During the 1980s, minicomputer-based systems grew more sophisticated and were able to displace the lower end of the mainframes. These computers, sometimes called "departmental computers", were typified by the Digital Equipment Corporation VAX series.


title: Mainframe computer

text: In 1991, AT&T Corporation briefly owned NCR. During the same period, companies found that servers based on microcomputer designs could be deployed at a fraction of the acquisition price and offer local users much greater control over their own systems given the IT policies and practices at that time. Terminals used for interacting with mainframe systems were gradually replaced by personal computers. Consequently, demand plummeted and new mainframe installations were restricted mainly to financial services and government. In the early 1990s, there was a rough consensus among industry analysts that the mainframe was a dying market as mainframe platforms were increasingly replaced by personal computer networks. InfoWorld's Stewart Alsop infamously predicted that the last mainframe would be unplugged in 1996; in 1993, he cited Cheryl Currid, a computer industry analyst as saying that the last mainframe "will stop working on December 31, 1999", a reference to the anticipated Year 2000 problem (Y2K).


title: Mainframe computer

text: That trend started to turn around in the late 1990s as corporations found new uses for their existing mainframes and as the price of data networking collapsed in most parts of the world, encouraging trends toward more centralized computing. The growth of e-business also dramatically increased the number of back-end transactions processed by mainframe software as well as the size and throughput of databases. Batch processing, such as billing, became even more important (and larger) with the growth of e-business, and mainframes are particularly adept at large-scale batch computing. Another factor currently increasing mainframe use is the development of the Linux operating system, which arrived on IBM mainframe systems in 1999 and is typically run in scores or up to c. 8,000 virtual machines on a single mainframe. Linux allows users to take advantage of open source software combined with mainframe hardware RAS. Rapid expansion and development in emerging markets, particularly People's Republic of China, is also spurring major mainframe investments to solve exceptionally difficult computing problems, e.g. providing unified, extremely high volume online transaction processing databases for 1 billion consumers across multiple industries (banking, insurance, credit reporting, government services, etc.) In late 2000, IBM introduced 64-bit z/Architecture, acquired numerous software companies such as Cognos and introduced those software products to the mainframe. IBM's quarterly and annual reports in the 2000s usually reported increasing mainframe revenues and capacity shipments. However, IBM's mainframe hardware business has not been immune to the recent overall downturn in the server hardware market or to model cycle effects. For example, in the 4th quarter of 2009, IBM's System z hardware revenues decreased by 27% year over year. But MIPS (millions of instructions per second) shipments increased 4% per year over the past two years. Alsop had himself photographed in 2000, symbolically eating his own words ("death of the mainframe").


title: Mainframe computer

text: In 2012, NASA powered down its last mainframe, an IBM System z9. However, IBM's successor to the z9, the z10, led a New York Times reporter to state four years earlier that "mainframe technology—hardware, software and services—remains a large and lucrative business for I.B.M., and mainframes are still the back-office engines behind the world's financial markets and much of global commerce". , while mainframe technology represented less than 3% of IBM's revenues, it "continue[d] to play an outsized role in Big Blue's results".


title: Mainframe computer

text: In 2015, IBM launched the IBM z13, in June 2017 the IBM z14, in September 2019 the IBM z15 and on April 5th 2022 they announced IBM's latest mainframe system, the IBM z16, featuring among other things an "integrated on-chip AI accelerator" and the new Telum microprocessor.


title: Mainframe computer

text: A supercomputer is a computer at the leading edge of data processing capability, with respect to calculation speed. Supercomputers are used for scientific and engineering problems (high-performance computing) which crunch numbers and data, while mainframes focus on transaction processing. The differences are:


title: Mainframe computer

text: Mainframes and supercomputers cannot always be clearly distinguished; up until the early 1990s, many supercomputers were based on a mainframe architecture with supercomputing extensions. An example of such a system is the HITAC S-3800, which was instruction-set compatible with IBM System/370 mainframes, and could run the Hitachi VOS3 operating system (a fork of IBM MVS). The S-3800 therefore can be seen as being both simultaneously a supercomputer and also an IBM-compatible mainframe.


title: Mainframe computer

text: In 2007, an amalgamation of the different technologies and architectures for supercomputers and mainframes has led to a so-called gameframe.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Ronald Harold Johnson (born April 8, 1955) is an American accountant, businessman, and politician serving as the senior United States senator from Wisconsin, a seat he has held since 2011. A Republican, Johnson was first elected to the U.S. Senate in 2010, defeating Democratic incumbent Russ Feingold. He was reelected in 2016, defeating Feingold in a rematch, and in 2022, narrowly defeating Lieutenant Governor Mandela Barnes.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Born in Mankato, Minnesota, Johnson attended high school in Edina, Minnesota, a suburb of the Twin Cities, and received a degree from the University of Minnesota. Before entering politics, he was chief executive officer of a polyester and plastics manufacturer in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, founded by his brother-in-law.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: A staunch ally of President Donald Trump, Johnson voted for Trump's Tax Cuts and Jobs Act in 2017, supported Trump's decision to end Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), launched investigations into his political opponents and promoted false claims of fraud in relation to Trump's defeat in the 2020 presidential election. He has rejected the scientific consensus on climate change. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Johnson voted for the CARES Act, resisted stay at home orders, used his chairmanship of the Senate Homeland Security Committee to invite witnesses who promoted fringe theories about COVID-19 and spread misinformation about COVID-19 vaccinations.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson was born in Mankato, Minnesota, the son of Jeanette Elizabeth (née Thisius) and Dale Robert Johnson. His father was of Norwegian descent and his mother of German ancestry. Growing up, Johnson delivered newspapers, worked as a caddy at a golf course, baled hay on his uncle's dairy farm, and worked as a dishwasher in a restaurant. He attended Edina High School but skipped his senior year and graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1977 with a bachelor's degree in business and accounting. He continued his studies but did not receive a graduate degree.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 1979, Johnson moved to Oshkosh, Wisconsin, with his wife, Jane. He worked for his wife's family's plastics company, PACUR, an abbreviation of "Pat Curler", Jane's brother. Curler created the company with funding from his and Jane's father, Howard Curler. Howard Curler had been named CEO of the plastics giant Bemis Company in 1978, and for the first several years of PACUR's existence, Bemis was the company's only customer.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: According to his campaign biography, Johnson worked as PACUR's accountant and a machine operator. The company later expanded into specialty plastics used in medical device packaging, which involved hiring salespeople and exporting products to other countries. In the mid-1980s, Pat Curler left PACUR and Johnson became its CEO. In 1987, the Curler family sold PACUR to Bowater Industries for $18 million; Johnson remained the company's CEO. In 1997, he purchased PACUR from Bowater; he remained CEO until he was elected to the Senate in 2010.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: The 2010 U.S. Senate campaign was Johnson's first run for elected office. According to "The New York Times", Johnson said he "did kind of spring out of the Tea Party" and is glad to be associated with it, although he did not join the Senate Tea Party Caucus following his election. In the September 14, 2010, Republican primary, Johnson, running a largely self-financed campaign, defeated Watertown businessman Dave Westlake with 85% of the vote to Westlake's 10% and 5% for Stephen Finn.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: As a candidate, Johnson opposed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. He launched his campaign by telling the "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel" that the United States "would have been far better off not spending any of the money and [letting] the recovery happen as it was going to happen." The newspaper later reported that the education council Johnson led considered applying for stimulus money in 2009, but ultimately elected not to. The Johnson campaign stated that nonprofits consider "many possibilities," but that the council "made no application" for stimulus funds.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson's 2010 Senate campaign raised $15.2 million, $9 million of which was his own money. In June 2011, his financial disclosures showed that PACUR had paid him $10 million in deferred compensation in early 2011. The compensation covered the period from 1997 to 2011, during which he took no salary from PACUR. Johnson said that, as CEO, he had personally determined the dollar amount and that it was unrelated to the contributions he had made to his campaign.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In the November 2 election, Johnson defeated Democratic incumbent Russ Feingold with 52% of the vote.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: After being elected to the Senate, Johnson claimed that he sold his liquid assets to avoid a conflict of interest and also promised to place his assets in a blind trust.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In March 2013, Johnson announced that he would seek reelection in 2016. In November 2014, he was again endorsed by the fiscally conservative Club for Growth; that month, he said he would not self-finance his reelection bid. In December 2014, the "Washington Post" rated Johnson the most vulnerable incumbent U.S. senator in the 2016 election cycle. In May 2015, Feingold announced that he would run to win the Senate seat back.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Despite a pledge in 2016 to retire after two terms in the Senate, Johnson announced in January 2022 that he would run for a third term. He faced the Democratic nominee, Wisconsin Lieutenant Governor Mandela Barnes, in the general election. Johnson debated Barnes in October 2022; when each was asked to say something favorable about his opponent, Barnes praised Johnson as a "family man", while Johnson said Barnes had a "good upbringing" and used that to question why Barnes had "turned against America".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2021, Johnson expressed support for "increasing the minimum wage to some extent" (the federal minimum wage had been $7.25/hour since 2009). In 2022, he said it was better for the "marketplace" to decide wages rather than having a government-mandated minimum wage.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson rejects the scientific consensus on climate change, describing it in 2021 as "bullshit." In a 2010 interview, he called attributing global warming to manmade causes "crazy," saying the theory is "lunacy," and attributed climate change to causes other than human activity. Johnson also suggested carbon dioxide was good for the environment, as it "helps the trees grow." In dismissing the effects of climate change, Johnson falsely claimed that Greenland was green when it was discovered and had become white and snow-clad over time as a result of cooling temperatures. In August 2015, Johnson baselessly claimed that "the climate hasn't warmed in quite a few years. That is proven scientifically," although record world temperatures were reached that year and in 2014. Johnson co-sponsored the Energy Tax Prevention Act, which would block the EPA from imposing new rules on carbon emissions. In an October 7, 2022, Senate campaign debate, Johnson said, "The climate has always changed and always will change, so I don’t deny climate change", repeating a similar statement he made in February 2016.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: When asked about allowing additional drilling for oil in the continental US, including the Great Lakes if oil were found there, Johnson responded, "We have to get the oil where it is, but we need to do it responsibly. We need to utilize American ingenuity and American technology to make sure we do it environmentally sensitively and safely." After criticism from the Feingold campaign, Johnson said in July 2010 that his answer did not mean he supported drilling in the Great Lakes.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: During Obama's presidency, Johnson was a fiscal hawk who called for federal spending cuts. He was involved in the deals to raise the debt ceiling in July 2011 and January 2013. Johnson said that the 2011 debate over whether to increase the US debt ceiling presented an opportunity to establish hard caps on federal spending. He argued that Congress could not keep raising the debt limit, and needed to prioritize spending. Johnson called for open negotiations over the debt ceiling, saying that the closed-door talks were "outrageous" and "disgusting." He said that default should not have been a concern, because the government had plenty of funding to pay interest on debt, Social Security benefits, and salary for soldiers. In January 2013, Johnson voted for the fiscal cliff agreement that reduced pending tax increases and delayed spending cuts precipitated by the 2011 debt ceiling deal. When asked whether he would get rid of home mortgage interest deductions (claiming mortgage interest as a tax-deductible expense), he said he "wouldn't rule it out" as part of an effort to lower taxes and simplify the tax code.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: During the Trump administration, Johnson defended tax cuts, falsely claiming that they reduced the deficit. He voted for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: During the economic recession that coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic, Johnson voted for the CARES Act in March 2020, but staunchly opposed further stimulus. In December 2020, he sought to block a bipartisan proposal to provide $1,200 in COVID-19-related stimulus checks, citing the national debt.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In March 2021, Johnson sought to obstruct and delay passage of the American Rescue Plan Act. Breaking from Senate norms, he forced a 10-hour reading of the bill on the grounds that the Senate did not have enough time to read the bill.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In August 2022, Johnson criticized the federal Social Security and Medicare programs for contributing to debt by being "on automatic pilot": "If you qualify for the entitlement, you just get it no matter what the cost"; he proposed instead to "turn everything into discretionary spending", which would result in programs needing to be approved by Congress every year.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2013, Johnson was a cosponsor of Senate 570, a bill that would prohibit the Department of Justice from tracking and cataloging the purchases of multiple rifles and shotguns. In April 2013, Johnson was one of 12 Republican senators to sign a letter threatening to filibuster any newly introduced gun control legislation. That month, Johnson joined 45 other senators in defeating the Manchin-Toomey Amendment, which would have required background checks on all sales of guns, including between individuals. Johnson had received about $1.2 million in contributions from firearms interests since his 2010 Senate campaign. His 2022 campaign had a radio spot produced that began, "The latest mass murder in America didn't involve guns." It equated the recent accidental deaths of 53 immigrants in Texas during President Joe Biden's tenure with mass homicide. Before it aired, the campaign hastened to pull it, as the broadcasts would have followed the July 4, 2022, Highland Park parade shooting too closely. Seven people died and 46 were wounded in the shooting. The alleged shooter then drove directly to Madison, Wisconsin, allegedly intending to continue his rampage at that city's Independence Day parade. Days after a Texas 18-year-old killed 19 elementary school students and two teachers on May 24, 2022, Johnson said he opposed passing new firearms laws. Johnson told Fox News correspondent Neil Cavuto that the failure to teach "values" in schools had led to the school massacre, a remark Governor Tony Evers called "breathtaking." Cavuto countered Johnson's claim during the interview, saying that such shootings had "been going on long before CRT and wokeness."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson opposes the Affordable Care Act (ACA or "Obamacare") and has voted to repeal it. In 2013, Johnson declined to support efforts to tie funding the federal government to defunding ACA, noting that such efforts were highly unlikely to succeed given Obama's opposition. In 2014, he criticized Congress's ability to continue using pretax employer contributions to help pay for their medical care and filed a federal lawsuit seeking to block ACA exemptions to members of Congress and their staff. The suit was dismissed for lack of standing, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit upheld the dismissal on appeal.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In an August 2017 interview, Johnson said of Senator John McCain's "thumbs-down" vote that killed the Republican bill to repeal the ACA, "He has a brain tumor right now. The vote occurred at 1:30 in the morning. So some of that might have factored in." A McCain spokesman called the statements "bizarre and deeply unfortunate." Johnson later said he was "disappointed I didn't more eloquently express my sympathy for what Sen. McCain is going through."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2022, Johnson said that Republicans should repeal the ACA if they take control after the 2022 elections.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2011, Johnson co-sponsored a federal bill that would grant all fetuses the same rights and protections as people, with no exceptions for fetuses arising from rape or incest. From 2013 to 2021, he supported bills that banned abortion after 20 weeks of conception except in cases of incest, rape, or when the mother's life is in danger. In 2021, Johnson also supported a request for the Supreme Court to uphold a Mississippi law banning abortion after 15 weeks, with exceptions for "severe fetal abnormality" or medical emergency, but none for rape and incest.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson opposes funding research that uses embryonic stem cells. He has said he disagrees with it morally and that eliminating funding for the research would help balance the federal budget. He supported "Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization", the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that overturned "Roe v. Wade", calling it a "victory for life." Johnson said did not see that decision "as a huge threat to women's health" and suggested that those who did not like it "can move" from Wisconsin to another state.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Johnson voted against the Families First Coronavirus Response Act, which passed the Senate on March 18, 2020, by a vote of 90–8. In an interview with the "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel", Johnson said he was aware "what a nasty disease COVID-19 can be, and how it's obviously devastating to somewhere between 1 and 3.4 percent of the population... [b]ut we don't shut down our economy because tens of thousands of people die on the highways. It's a risk we accept so we can move about. We don't shut down our economies because tens of thousands of people die from the common flu". His comments were met with criticism that he was "playing down" the threat of COVID-19. Johnson responded that he was "just trying to look at this very realistically".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson used his position as chair of the Senate Homeland Security Committee to invite witnesses to hearings to promote fringe theories about COVID-19. The witnesses promoted unproven drugs, made dubious claims about COVID-19 spread and pushed skepticism about vaccines. Johnson called pulmonologist Pierre Kory to testify about his experiences with Ivermectin, as well as a medical doctor who "has cast doubts on coronavirus vaccines and has pushed for the use of hydroxychloroquine", and a cardiologist who disagrees with "settled science". After the FDA revoked the emergency use authorization from hydroxychloroquine in June 2020, Johnson and two other senators wrote the agency in August for an explanation of why the FDA was unresponsive to Trump administration officials' calls to reauthorize the drug as a COVID-19 treatment.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson peddled misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines during the pandemic. Asked about COVID-19 vaccines in March 2021, he refused to say whether they were safe (as medical experts had determined) or to encourage people to get vaccinated. In April 2021, he downplayed the need for widespread COVID-19 vaccinations. Johnson has falsely suggested that people who have contracted COVID do not need to be vaccinated, and that there is no need for young people to be vaccinated. These claims contradict known science and the recommendations of health officials, who note that herd immunity is the most effective to halt COVID-19's spread and severity. In December 2021 he recommended mouthwash as a treatment for the coronavirus during a town hall meeting, immediately drawing criticism. A dental-professional-focused website run by Listerine, one of the world’s most widely used mouthwash products, specifically says the evidence is not strong enough to conclude that it is helpful against COVID-19.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In May 2021, Johnson falsely claimed that thousands of deaths were connected to COVID vaccinations. He also falsely stated that there was a risk of death for people previously infected with COVID who received the vaccine. YouTube suspended Johnson from posting videos on the platform for seven days over his remarks touting unproven treatments for COVID-19.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: After Twitter suspended Alex Berenson for making false claims about the pandemic and vaccines, Johnson praised him as "a courageous voice of reason" and encouraged people to continue reading Berenson's writing on another site.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In an October 2021 interview on "Tucker Carlson Tonight", Johnson falsely claimed that ivermectin was being suppressed as a COVID-19 treatment in favor of expensive COVID-19 drugs developed by the pharmaceutical industry, and that "the Pfizer vaccine available in the U.S. is not FDA-approved" because it was not the "Comirnaty version". "Comirnaty" is the United States Adopted Name that was assigned to the Pfizer vaccine after it the FDA approved it. Doses produced before the approval contain no formulaic differences from those produced afterward, and are interchangeable.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson supported Trump's decision to end Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), which he said was unconstitutional and "created incentives for children from Central America to take great risks to enter America illegally." Trump's decision made eligible for deportation, after a six-month waiting period, the approximately 800,000 unauthorized immigrants who entered the country as minors and had temporary permission to stay in the country.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2021, Johnson lent credence to the "Great Replacement" conspiracy theory promoted by white supremacists that holds that white people are being purposely replaced by nonwhite people in the West. On conservative media broadcasts, Johnson repeatedly referred to the supposed "Democrat grand plan," endorsing the theory, saying, "I've got to believe they want to change the makeup of the electorate."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson is one of the Senate Republicans who favored the "nuclear option" of ending the filibuster "to speed up consideration of President Trump's nominees" because changing the Senate's rules to a simple majority vote would "ensure a quicker pace on Trump's court picks".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2022, Johnson blocked a Biden administration nominee, William Pocan, from serving as a federal district court judge in Wisconsin. The previous year, Johnson and Wisconsin Senator Tammy Baldwin jointly recommended Pocan. In justifying blocking Pocan, Johnson referenced the Mayfair Mall shooting in Wauwatosa. Pocan had no involvement in the Wauwatosa shooting.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In March 2015, Johnson voted for an amendment to establish a deficit-neutral reserve fund to allow all employees in the country to earn paid sick time.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In 2015, Johnson was one of 11 Senate Republicans to vote to allow same-sex spouses to have access to federal Social Security and veterans' benefits.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In July 2022, Johnson initially expressed support for the Respect for Marriage Act, which would codify same-sex marriage into federal law. Johnson reversed his stance in September 2022, saying he "would not support it in its current state".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In January 2010, before holding elective office, Johnson opposed a Wisconsin bill that would have eliminated the time limit for future child sexual abuse victims to bring lawsuits while allowing an additional three years for past victims to sue. He testified before the Wisconsin Senate that "punishment for the actual perpetrators should be severe", but questioned whether it would be just for employers of perpetrators to be financially affected by lawsuits. He added that the bill, if enacted, might reduce the reporting of child sexual abuse. At the time of his testimony, Johnson was on the Finance Council of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Green Bay. In June 2010 he told the "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel": "I can't think of a penalty that would be too harsh for these guys", and in late September 2010 said that the legislation would have financially crippled organizations such as the Boys & Girls Clubs and that the punishment for child sexual abuse should be "severe and swift." He also addressed reports about his testimony, saying, "I sought to warn legislators of those consequences in order to correct legislative language so that any bills that passed would punish the perpetrators and those that protect them, not honorable organizations that do so much good for our communities. We must rid our society of people who prey on children."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In November 2018, Johnson was one of 12 Republican senators to sign a letter to Trump requesting the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement be submitted to Congress by the end of the month to allow a vote on it before the end of the year, as they were concerned that "passage of the USMCA as negotiated will become significantly more difficult" if it had to be approved by the incoming 116th Congress.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson has been an unwavering supporter of former President Donald Trump, and attacked Senator Mitt Romney for his vote to allow witnesses in a Trump impeachment trial. Asked subsequently about the confrontation with Romney, Johnson told reporters, "those are private conversations," continuing, "That's grotesque you guys are recording," with a reporter noting the press is permitted to witness the proceedings. Johnson dismissively remarked that an impeachment vote would simply "inflame the situation".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: As chair of the Senate Homeland Security Committee, Johnson launched multiple investigations into Trump's political opponents, including Joe Biden. In September 2020, after saying for months that he was undertaking an investigation that would demonstrate Biden's "unfitness for office", Johnson released a report that found no evidence of wrongdoing by Biden in relation to Ukraine. Johnson's report reiterated unproven allegations, many of which had been elements of Russian disinformation campaigns meant to smear Biden.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In January 2018, Johnson said he had an informant with information that the FBI and Department of Justice had conspired against Trump in the 2016 presidential election; Johnson called it a "secret society" and said there was "corruption at the highest levels of the FBI". Later that day, Johnson said he had based these claims on FBI agents Peter Strzok and Lisa Page's text messages, but conceded that he could not fully ascertain the messages' meaning. In February 2018, Johnson further suggested that a text message between Strzok and Page raised questions about "the type and extent of President Obama's personal involvement" in the investigation into Hillary Clinton's email server. But the message in question, which said, "Potus wants to know everything we're doing", referred to the FBI investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 election, not the Clinton email investigation, which had concluded months earlier.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In April 2019, Johnson defended Trump's statement that some high-level FBI agents were "scum", and said "I think there's a proven fact there was definitely corruption at the highest levels of the FBI." In 2021, Johnson confirmed reporting that the FBI warned him (in August 2020) that he was a target of Russian disinformation. In 2022, Johnson described the August 2020 warning as that the "FBI set me up with a corrupt briefing and then leaked that to smear me".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson became an important figure in the 2019 controversy surrounding U.S. aid to Ukraine. He joined the U.S. delegation at the inauguration of the new president of Ukraine in May with National Security Council official Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Vindman and the "Three Amigos" (U.S. Ambassador to the European Union Gordon Sondland, Energy Secretary Rick Perry, and then-special envoy to Ukraine Kurt Volker).


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In August 2019, Sondland told Johnson that military aid for Ukraine was linked to Trump's push for Ukraine to investigate the origins of special counsel Robert Mueller's probe. In October 2019, amid the impeachment inquiry into Trump, Johnson asserted that Trump had told him in August that he might withhold aid to Ukraine "because of alleged corruption involving the 2016 U.S. election. Johnson stood by the president, saying he was sympathetic to his concerns and didn't see any bad motives on his part". Johnson has said that he asked Trump whether the aid to Ukraine was linked to the launch of the Biden investigation, and that Trump replied that it was not and asked him who had said that. Johnson replied that it was Sondland, and Trump asserted that "he barely knew him."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In November 2019, at the request of House Intelligence Committee ranking member Devin Nunes and temporary member Jim Jordan, Johnson provided a detailed timeline of his involvement in the Ukraine situation. In February 2016, he was one of eight senators who signed a letter to then-Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko urging reforms in the office of the Ukrainian prosecutor Viktor Shokin. On October 3, 2019, Johnson told reporters he did not recall signing the letter, which contradicts Trump's allegations that Biden had improperly pushed for Shokin's removal.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: The same day, Johnson also said that there was nothing wrong with Trump asking China, in October 2019, to start an investigation into Joe and Hunter Biden, although there is no evidence of any wrongdoing by the Bidens in China. Johnson has been one of the few Republican senators to defend Trump's efforts to get Ukraine and China to investigate Biden (then a potential 2020 Democratic presidential candidate) and his son. Sondland told the House Intelligence Committee, "I shared concerns of the potential "quid pro quo" regarding the security aid with Senator Ron Johnson."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson went to Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky's inauguration. Meeting later with Trump, he discussed Zelensky and the aid to Ukraine Trump had withheld, urging him to release it. He approached Trump after a U.S. diplomat informed him that its release was contingent on Ukraine's willingness to conduct investigations Trump sought regarding the 2016 election. He said he was disturbed by any linkage of the actions or the existence of a "quid pro quo" but became satisfied after Trump personally denied to him that the release was tied to political investigations. On November 26, however, the "New York Times" reported that Trump had been briefed about a whistleblower complaint involving a "quid pro quo" before releasing the withheld military aid to Ukraine.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson also met in 2019 with Ukraine diplomat Andrii Telizhenko about Ukraine's alleged interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. The State Department revoked Telizhenko's visa in October 2020, and CNN reported the U.S. government was considering sanctioning him as a Russian agent. Johnson has promoted conspiracy theories that the FBI and CIA have sabotaged Trump.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In November 2019, he suggested that Vindman, who testified about Trump's phone call to Zelensky, might have participated in efforts to oppose Trump's policies and remove him from office, saying it was "entirely possible." Michael Volkov, Vindman's lawyer, called Johnson's attack "such a baseless accusation, so ridiculous on its face, that it doesn’t even warrant a response."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Vindman's widowed father brought him and his twin brother to the U.S. when they were three years old. He is a decorated veteran from the Iraq war, having received a Purple Heart after being wounded in an IED blast. He is fluent in Russian and Ukrainian. He was previously posted to the U.S. Embassy in Moscow. "The Washington Post" wrote, "Johnson's letter intensified a campaign of attacks on Vindman from Trump and his allies, which has included speculation about the decorated war veteran's patriotism from conservative commentators and a White House statement on Friday criticizing his job performance."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson criticized Trump for firing Sondland, calling Sondland "a patriot". After Trump fired State Department Inspector General Steve Linick and replaced him with an ally, Johnson said, "I'm not crying big crocodile tears over this termination."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: After Biden's victory in the 2020 presidential election and Trump's subsequent refusal to concede, Johnson agreed with several of Trump's false claims of widespread electoral fraud. While ballots were counted during the 2020 election, he said that half the country would not accept a Biden win, and made unsubstantiated claims of "voter fraud that the mainstream media and, unfortunately, many officials just simply ignore." He made further baseless claims that Democrats had "gamed the system" in Wisconsin. A former Wisconsin Republican Party official claimed that Johnson had confided in a November phone call that he knew the election was legitimate but did not say so publicly for fear of political backlash from the party's pro-Trump faction. Johnson denied the allegations, calling the article a "a political hit piece".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson refused to acknowledge Biden's victory until December 16, when he acknowledged that the election was legitimate and said he would not raise an objection to the counting of the electoral votes. After doing so, Johnson, as chairman of the Homeland Security committee, argued "that there was some unknown incidence of fraud, but it hadn't been shown to have occurred on a scale that would have changed the outcome". Nevertheless, in January 2021, he announced his intention to object to the certification of the Electoral College results. Ultimately, however, Johnson reversed this stance and voted against both of the objections raised during the 2021 Electoral College vote count. Regardless, the day after the count was interrupted by the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, the "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel" called for Johnson, as well as other members of the so-called "Sedition Caucus", such as Representatives Scott Fitzgerald and Tom Tiffany, to resign or be expelled from Congress.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: The House Select Committee on the January 6, 2021, Capitol Attack revealed that Johnson's aide Sean Riley texted Chris Hodgson, an aide to Vice President Mike Pence, to request that Johnson personally give Pence an envelope containing alternate electors for Michigan and Wisconsin, which were later determined to be fraudulent. Hodgson refused to do so. In March 2022, Johnson's campaign hired Pam Travis as a full-time aide, although she had signed a statement as one of Wisconsin's ten "fake electors," who challenged the legitimacy of the state's delegation to the Electoral College. While walking outside the Capitol and pretending to be on a phone call, Johnson claimed he was not aware of the contents of the envelope.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: In February 2021, Johnson pushed conspiracy theories about the U.S. Capitol attack, at one point blaming Nancy Pelosi. He argued that she sought a second impeachment of Trump to "deflect" from "what [she] knew and when [she] knew it". Johnson voted for a measure declaring that Trump's impeachment over his role in inciting the storming of the Capitol was unconstitutional. He later voted to acquit Trump. After Trump's acquittal, Johnson downplayed the storming of the Capitol on a conservative talk show, saying of the attack, "To call that an armed insurrection, it was the most pitiful armed insurrection anybody could ever possibly imagine." Politifact rated Johnson's statement a "Pants on Fire" falsehood.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Although 140 police officers were injured in the attack, Johnson added in a March 2021 radio interview that he hadn't been concerned for his safety when rioters stormed the Capitol because they "loved their country", but that he might have been concerned if the rioters had been from Black Lives Matter or Antifa. Responding to bipartisan criticism of his comment as racist, Johnson said, "I completely did not anticipate that anybody could interpret what I said as racist. It’s not."


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Repeating a conspiracy theory, in August 2021, Johnson suggested that the FBI must have had more foreknowledge than has been disclosed about the Capitol attack. A spokesperson for Johnson said, "the revelation of the depth of the FBI's involvement in the Governor Whitmer plot raises questions as to whether it had infiltrated January 6 agitator groups as well".


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: Johnson and his wife Jane reside in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. They have three children and four grandchildren. He is a member of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod.


title: Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)

text: On October 3, 2020, Johnson announced that he had tested positive for COVID-19. After exposure on September 14, he quarantined until September 28. He tested negative twice during the quarantine, and was asymptomatic, but tested positive again later and returned to isolation. While awaiting a COVID-19 test result, Johnson attended a fundraising event.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine, sold under the brand name Strattera, among others, is a medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It may be used alone or along with psychostimulants. It is also used as a cognitive enhancer to improve alertness, attention, and memory. Use of atomoxetine is only recommended for those who are at least six years old. It is taken by mouth. Atomoxetine is a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and is believed to work by increasing norepinephrine and dopamine levels in the brain.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Common side effects of atomoxetine include abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, feeling tired, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include angioedema, liver problems, stroke, psychosis, heart problems, suicide, and aggression. There is a lack of data regarding its safety during pregnancy; as of 2019, its safety during pregnancy and for use during breastfeeding is not certain.


title: Atomoxetine

text: It was approved for medical use in the United States in 2002. In 2020, it was the 287th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine is approved for use in children, adolescents, and adults. However, its efficacy has not been studied in children under six years old. Its primary advantage over the standard stimulant treatments for ADHD is that it has little known abuse potential. While it has been shown to significantly reduce inattentive and hyperactive symptoms, the responses were lower than the response to stimulants. Additionally, 40% of participants who were treated with atomoxetine experienced residual ADHD symptoms.


title: Atomoxetine

text: While its efficacy may be less than that of stimulant medications, there is some evidence that it may be used in combination with stimulants. Doctors may prescribe non-stimulants including atomoxetine when a person has bothersome side effects from stimulants; when a stimulant was not effective; in combination with a stimulant to increase effectiveness; or when there is concern about the abuse potential of psychostimulants in a patient with a history of drug use disorder.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Unlike α adrenoceptor agonists such as guanfacine and clonidine, atomoxetine's use can be abruptly stopped without significant discontinuation effects being seen.


title: Atomoxetine

text: The initial therapeutic effects of atomoxetine usually take 1 to 4 weeks to become apparent. A further 2 to 4 weeks may be required for the full therapeutic effects to be seen. Incrementally increasing response may occur up to 1 year or longer. The maximum recommended total daily dose in children and adolescents over 70 kg and adults is 100 mg.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Common side effects include abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, feeling tired, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include angioedema, liver problems, stroke, psychosis, heart problems, suicide, and aggression. A 2020 meta-analysis found that atomoxetine was associated with anorexia, weight loss, and hypertension, rating it as a "potentially least preferred agent based on safety" for treating ADHD. As of 2019, safety in pregnancy and breastfeeding is not clear; a 2018 review stated that, "[b]ecause of lack of data, the treating


title: Atomoxetine

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued a black box warning for suicidal behavior/ideation. Similar warnings have been issued in Australia. Unlike stimulant medications, atomoxetine does not have abuse liability or the potential to cause withdrawal effects on abrupt discontinuation.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine is relatively non-toxic in overdose. Single-drug overdoses involving over 1500 mg of atomoxetine have not resulted in death. The most common symptoms of overdose include:


title: Atomoxetine

text: The recommended treatment for atomoxetine overdose includes use of activated charcoal to prevent further absorption of the drug.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine is a substrate for CYP2D6. Concurrent treatment with a CYP2D6 inhibitor such as bupropion, fluoxetine, or paroxetine has been shown to increase plasma atomoxetine by 100% or more, as well as increase "N"-desmethylatomoxetine levels and decrease plasma 4-hydroxyatomoxetine levels by a similar degree.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine has been found to directly inhibit hERG potassium currents with an IC of 6.3 μM, which has the potential to cause arrhythmia. QT prolongation has been reported with atomoxetine at therapeutic doses and in overdose; it is suggested that atomoxetine not be used with other medications that may prolong the QT interval, concomitantly with CYP2D6 inhibitors, and caution to be used in poor metabolizers.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine inhibits the presynaptic norepinephrine transporter (NET), preventing the reuptake of norepinephrine throughout the brain along with inhibiting the reuptake of dopamine in specific brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, where dopamine transporter (DAT) expression is minimal. In rats, atomoxetine increased prefrontal cortex catecholamine concentrations without altering dopamine levels in the striatum or nucleus accumbens; in contrast, methylphenidate, a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, was found to increase prefrontal, striatal, and accumbal dopamine levels to the same degree. In addition to rats, atomoxetine has also been found to induce similar region-specific catecholamine level alteration in mice.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine's status as a serotonin transporter (SERT) inhibitor at clinical doses in humans is uncertain. A PET imaging study on rhesus monkeys found that atomoxetine occupied >90% and >85% of neural NET and SERT, respectively. However, both mouse and rat microdialysis studies have failed to find an increase in extracellular serotonin in the prefrontal cortex following acute or chronic atomoxetine treatment. Supporting atomoxetine's selectivity, a human study found no effects on platelet serotonin uptake (a marker of SERT inhibition) and inhibition of the pressor effects of tyramine (a marker of NET inhibition).


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine has been found to act as an NMDA receptor antagonist in rat cortical neurons at therapeutic concentrations. It causes a use-dependent open-channel block and its binding site overlaps with the Mg binding site. Atomoxetine's ability to increase prefrontal cortex firing rate in anesthetized rats could not be blocked by D or α-adrenergic receptor antagonists, but could be potentiated by NMDA or an α-adrenergic receptor antagonist, suggesting a glutaminergic mechanism. In Sprague Dawley rats, atomoxetine reduces NR2B protein content without altering transcript levels. Aberrant glutamate and NMDA receptor function have been implicated in the etiology of ADHD.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine also reversibly inhibits GIRK currents in "Xenopus" oocytes in a concentration-dependent, voltage-independent, and time-independent manner. K3.1/3.2 ion channels are opened downstream of M, α, D, and A stimulation, as well as other G-coupled receptors. Therapeutic concentrations of atomoxetine are within range of interacting with GIRKs, especially in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers. It is not known whether this contributes to the therapeutic effects of atomoxetine in ADHD.


title: Atomoxetine

text: 4-Hydroxyatomoxetine, the major active metabolite of atomoxetine in CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers, has been found to have sub-micromolar affinity for opioid receptors, acting as an antagonist at μ-opioid receptors and a partial agonist at κ-opioid receptors. It is not known whether this action at the kappa-opioid receptor leads to CNS-related adverse effects.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Orally administered atomoxetine is rapidly and completely absorbed. First-pass metabolism by the liver is dependent on CYP2D6 activity, resulting in an absolute bioavailability of 63% for extensive metabolizers and 94% for poor metabolizers. Maximum plasma concentration is reached in 1–2 hours. If taken with food, the maximum plasma concentration decreases by 10-40% and delays the t by 3 hours. Drugs affecting gastric pH have no effect on oral bioavailability.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine has a volume of distribution of 0.85 L/kg, with limited partitioning into red blood cells. It is highly bound to plasma proteins (98.7%), mainly albumin, along with α-acid glycoprotein (77%) and IgG (15%). Its metabolite "N"-desmethylatomoxetine is 99.1% bound to plasma proteins, while 4-hydroxyatomoxetine is only 66.6% bound.


title: Atomoxetine

text: The half-life of atomoxetine varies widely between individuals, with an average range of 4.5 to 19 hours. As atomoxetine is metabolized by CYP2D6, exposure may be increased 10-fold in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers. Among CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers, the half-life of atomoxetine averaged 5.34 hours and the half-life of the active metabolite N-desmethylatomoxetine was 8.9 hours. By contrast, among CYP2D6 poor metabolizers the half-life of atomoxetine averaged 20.0 hours and the half-life of N-desmethylatomoxetine averaged 33.3 hours.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine, "N"-desmethylatomoxetine, and 4-hydroxyatomoxetine produce minimal to no inhibition of CYP1A2 and CYP2C9, but inhibit CYP2D6 in human liver microsomes at concentrations between 3.6 and 17 μmol/L. Plasma concentrations of 4-hydroxyatomoxetine and "N"-desmethylatomoxetine at steady state are 1.0% and 5% that of atomoxetine in CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers, and are 5% and 45% that of atomoxetine in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine is excreted unchanged in urine at <3% in both extensive and poor CYP2D6 metabolizers, with >96% and 80% of a total dose being excreted in urine, respectively. The fractions excreted in urine as 4-hydroxyatomoxetine and its glucuronide account for 86% of a given dose in extensive metabolizers, but only 40% in poor metabolizers. CYP2D6 poor metabolizers excrete greater amounts of minor metabolites, namely "N"-desmethylatomoxetine and 2-hydroxymethylatomoxetine and their conjugates.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Chinese adults homozygous for the hypoactive CYP2D6*10 allele have been found to exhibit two-fold higher area-under-the-curve (AUCs) and 1.5-fold higher maximum plasma concentrations compared to extensive metabolizers.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Japanese men homozygous for CYP2D6*10 have similarly been found to experience two-fold higher AUCs compared to extensive metabolizers.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine, or (−)-methyl[(3"R")-3-(2-methylphenoxy)-3-phenylpropylamine, is a white, granular powder that is highly soluble in water.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine may be quantitated in plasma, serum or whole blood in order to distinguish extensive versus poor metabolizers in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine is manufactured, marketed, and sold in the United States as the hydrochloride salt (atomoxetine HCl) under the brand name Strattera by Eli Lilly and Company, the original patent-filing company and current U.S. patent owner. Atomoxetine was initially intended to be developed as an antidepressant, but it was found to be insufficiently efficacious for treating depression. It was, however, found to be effective for ADHD and was approved by the FDA in 2002, for the treatment of ADHD. Its patent expired in May 2017. On 12 August 2010, Lilly lost a lawsuit that challenged its patent on Strattera, increasing the likelihood of an earlier entry of a generic into the US market. On 1 September 2010, Sun Pharmaceuticals announced it would begin manufacturing a generic in the United States. In a 29 July 2011 conference call, however, Sun Pharmaceutical's Chairman stated "Lilly won that litigation on appeal so I think [generic Strattera]'s deferred."


title: Atomoxetine

text: In India, atomoxetine is sold under brand names including Axetra, Axepta, Attera, Tomoxetin, and Attentin. In Australia, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Switzerland and the US, atomoxetine is sold under the brand name Strattera. In Iran, atomoxetine is sold under brand names including Stramox. In 2017, a generic version was approved in the United States.


title: Atomoxetine

text: There has been some suggestion that atomoxetine might be a helpful adjunct in people with major depression, particularly in cases with concomitant ADHD.


title: Atomoxetine

text: Atomoxetine may be used in those with ADHD and bipolar disorder although such use has not been well studied. Some benefit has also been seen in people with ADHD and autism. As with other norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors it appears to reduce anxiety and depression symptoms, although attention has focused mainly on specific patient groups such as those with concurrent ADHD or methamphetamine dependence.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Thomas Paul Aspinall (born 11 April 1993) is an English professional mixed martial artist. He currently competes in the Heavyweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). As of March 21, 2022, he is #6 in the UFC heavyweight rankings.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall followed his father's footsteps by beginning to train martial arts at the age of seven. After also training wrestling and boxing, Aspinall transitioned to Brazilian jiu-jitsu. He has won the British Open in Brazilian jiu-jitsu in all belt classes except black belt. After his father became the jiu-jitsu instructor of Team Kaobon, Aspinall grew interested in mixed martial arts and eventually transitioned into the sport. In the year after completing school at age 16, Aspinall grew from to , causing intense growing pains.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall signed a five-fight contract with Cage Warriors after 2.5-year hiatus from professional mixed martial arts. Aspinall was offered a contract by the Ultimate Fighting Championship also, but did not feel ready for the organization and subsequently turned it down. After two fast finishes in Cage Warriors he eventually signed to the UFC.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall was originally scheduled to make his promotional debut against Raphael Pessoa at on March 21, 2020. However, Pessoa withdrew from the bout citing an injury and was replaced by Jake Collier, but this event was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Subsequently, the pairing was left intact and took place on July 25, 2020 at UFC on ESPN 14. He won the fight via technical knockout in round one. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall's second UFC appearance was expected to be against Sergey Spivak at on October 11, 2020. However, Spivak withdrew from the bout for undisclosed reasons and he was replaced by promotional newcomer Alan Baudot. Aspinall won the fight via first-round technical knockout.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall next faced Andrei Arlovski at on February 20, 2021. He won the fight via a submission in round two. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall was expected to face Sergei Pavlovich on September 4, 2021 at UFC Fight Night 191. However, Pavlovich was removed from the card in late-August due to alleged visa issues which restricted his ability to travel and was replaced by Sergey Spivak. Aspinall won the fight via technical knockout in round one. The win earned Aspinall his third "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall was scheduled to face Shamil Abdurakhimov on March 19, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 204. However, on January 21, 2022, it was announced that Aspinall would instead face Alexander Volkov. Aspinall won the fight via straight armbar submission in round one. With this win, he received the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Tom Aspinall

text: Aspinall faced Curtis Blaydes on July 23, 2022, at UFC Fight Night 208. He lost the fight by technical knockout 15 seconds into the first round due to a knee injury.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua ( ; from meaning "moon") is a lightweight, high-level, multi-paradigm programming language designed primarily for embedded use in applications. Lua is cross-platform, since the interpreter of compiled bytecode is written in ANSI C, and Lua has a relatively simple C API to embed it into applications.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua originated in 1993 as a language for extending software applications to meet the increasing demand for customization at the time. It provided the basic facilities of most procedural programming languages, but more complicated or domain-specific features were not included; rather, it included mechanisms for extending the language, allowing programmers to implement such features. As Lua was intended to be a general embeddable extension language, the designers of Lua focused on improving its speed, portability, extensibility, and ease-of-use in development.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua was created in 1993 by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, and Waldemar Celes, members of the Computer Graphics Technology Group (Tecgraf) at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: From 1977 until 1992, Brazil had a policy of strong trade barriers (called a market reserve) for computer hardware and software. In that atmosphere, Tecgraf's clients could not afford, either politically or financially, to buy customized software from abroad. Those reasons led Tecgraf to implement the basic tools it needed from scratch.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua's predecessors were the data-description/configuration languages "SOL" (Simple Object Language) and "DEL" (data-entry language). They had been independently developed at Tecgraf in 1992–1993 to add some flexibility into two different projects (both were interactive graphical programs for engineering applications at Petrobras company). There was a lack of any flow-control structures in SOL and DEL, and Petrobras felt a growing need to add full programming power to them.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua 1.0 was designed in such a way that its object constructors, being then slightly different from the current light and flexible style, incorporated the data-description syntax of SOL (hence the name Lua: "Sol" meaning "Sun" in Portuguese, and "Lua" meaning "Moon"). Lua syntax for control structures was mostly borrowed from Modula (codice_1, codice_2, codice_3/codice_4), but also had taken influence from CLU (multiple assignments and multiple returns from function calls, as a simpler alternative to reference parameters or explicit pointers), C++ ("neat idea of allowing a local variable to be declared only where we need it"), SNOBOL and AWK (associative arrays). In an article published in "Dr. Dobb's Journal", Lua's creators also state that LISP and Scheme with their single, ubiquitous data-structure mechanism (the list) were a major influence on their decision to develop the table as the primary data structure of Lua.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua semantics have been increasingly influenced by Scheme over time, especially with the introduction of anonymous functions and full lexical scoping. Several features were added in new Lua versions.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Versions of Lua prior to version 5.0 were released under a license similar to the BSD license. From version 5.0 onwards, Lua has been licensed under the MIT License. Both are permissive free software licences and are almost identical.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua is commonly described as a "multi-paradigm" language, providing a small set of general features that can be extended to fit different problem types. Lua does not contain explicit support for inheritance, but allows it to be implemented with metatables. Similarly, Lua allows programmers to implement namespaces, classes, and other related features using its single table implementation; first-class functions allow the employment of many techniques from functional programming; and full lexical scoping allows fine-grained information hiding to enforce the principle of least privilege.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: In general, Lua strives to provide simple, flexible meta-features that can be extended as needed, rather than supply a feature-set specific to one programming paradigm. As a result, the base language is light—the full reference interpreter is only about 247 kB compiled—and easily adaptable to a broad range of applications.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: A dynamically typed language intended for use as an extension language or scripting language, Lua is compact enough to fit on a variety of host platforms. It supports only a small number of atomic data structures such as boolean values, numbers (double-precision floating point and 64-bit integers by default), and strings. Typical data structures such as arrays, sets, lists, and records can be represented using Lua's single native data structure, the table, which is essentially a heterogeneous associative array.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: Lua implements a small set of advanced features such as first-class functions, garbage collection, closures, proper tail calls, coercion (automatic conversion between string and number values at run time), coroutines (cooperative multitasking) and dynamic module loading.


title: Lua (programming language)

text: A comment in Lua starts with a double-hyphen and runs to the end of the line, similar to Ada, Eiffel, Haskell, SQL and VHDL. Multi-line strings and comments are adorned with double square brackets.