title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Following the 1989 coup attempt, President Aquino established a Fact-Finding Commission headed by COMELEC Chairman Hilario Davide Jr. to investigate and provide a full report on the series of coup attempts. When it came out, The Davide Commission Report recommended several short-term and long-term counter-measures, including the establishment of a civilian national police force, a crackdown on corruption in the military, a performance review of appointive government officials, reforms in the process of military promotions, a review of election laws in time for the 1992 presidential elections, and a definitive statement on the part of Aquino on whether she intended to run for re-election in 1992. The publication of the recommendations of the report is considered one of the key starting points of security sector reform in the Philippines.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The AFP, during her term also launched a massive campaign against the CPP-NPA after a brief hiatus and also against the MNLF in the south.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In 1991, the major services of the AFP were reduced from four to three, when the Philippine Constabulary or PC, an AFP major service tasked to enforce the law and to curb criminality, was formally merged with the country's Integrated National Police, a national police force on the cities and municipalities in the country attached to the PC to become the Philippine National Police, thus removing it from AFP control and it was civilianized by a law passed by Congress, therefore becoming under the Department of the Interior and Local Government as a result.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In 2000, then President Joseph Estrada ordered the AFP to launch an "All-Out war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, a breakaway group of the MNLF that wants to proclaim Mindanao an independent state.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In 2001, Estrada was removed from power in the two-day Edsa Dos People Power revolt, in which the AFP played a key role. The revolution installed then vice-president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo as president.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Since 2001, the Armed Forces of the Philippines has been active in supporting the War on terror and has been attacking terrorist groups in Mindanao ever since. In 2012, the AFP Chief of Staff said that there had been no increase in the number of soldiers over a long period, and that the military aimed to hire 30,000 troops in three years.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In 2013, the AFP managed to stall the attacks of the Moro National Liberation Front in the Zamboanga City crisis as they launch an attack to proclaim the independence of the Bangsamoro Republik. In 2016, the AFP clashed with the Maute group on Butig on February and on November of 2016. In 2017, The AFP also clashed with ISIS militants in Marawi, calling President Duterte to declare Martial Law under Proclamation No. 216.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: After the signing of the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro in 2014, the AFP has played a key part in the normalization process with the MILF, which includes "the decommissioning of MILF combatants and their weapons and the transformation of several camps into productive and resilient communities," developing a close working relationship with the Philippine National Police and the MILF-Bangsamoro Islamic Armed Forces (BIAF) in the pursuit of peace in the Bangsamoro.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The 1987 Philippine Constitution placed the AFP under the control of a civilian, the President of the Philippines, who acts as its Commander-in-Chief. All of its branches are part of the Department of National Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of National Defense.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: These three major services are unified under the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (CSAFP) who normally holds the rank of General/Admiral. The AFP Chief of Staff is primarily assisted by:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The three highest posts of the AFP are also assisted by the Secretary Joint Staff (SJSAFP), who serves as the primary executive officer for the AFP Chief of Staff, the Vice Chief of Staff, and The Deputy Chief of Staff.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Meanwhile, the Chief of Staff of the AFP is also assisted by the 10 following office holders carry the rank of Major General/Rear Admiral, who serves as the members of the Joint Staff Divisions, at the General Headquarters in Camp Aguinaldo. These Joint Staff Divisions are also part of the Joint Staff, which is composed of the AFP Chief of Staff, the Vice Chief of Staff and The Deputy Chief of Staff.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The AFP also comprises the Special Staff, which is divided into two separate groups. These groups also assist the AFP Chief on their designated fields:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The AFP Chief is also assisted by the following office commanding division-sized troops holders carry the rank of Major General/Rear Admiral:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: On June 19, 2020, under the DND Order no. 174, the AFP had major changes in renaming its positions in high-ranking officials, such as the following:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: However, the AFP has deferred these title changes a few months later as President Rodrigo Duterte revoked the usage of the position titles, and decided to maintain the traditional position titles.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Units from these three services may be assigned to one of six "Unified Commands" led by each Commander of the Unified Command; consisting of different branches from the three branches of the AFP, which are multi-service, regional entities. The Unified Commands are responsible in monitoring, securing and defending their specific geographical area of operations within the Philippines. There are currently six Unified Commands in the AFP, with each Commander of the Unified Commands hold the rank of Lieutenant General/Vice Admiral, and reports directly to the office of the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Several organization-wide support services and separate units report directly to the Armed Forces of the Philippines General Headquarters (AFP GHQ). The units are the:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Philippine Constabulary (PC) was a gendarmerie type para-military police force of the Philippines established in 1901 by the United States-appointed administrative authority, replacing the Guardia Civil of the Spanish colonial regime. On December 13, 1990, Republic Act No. 6975 was approved, organizing the Philippine National Police (PNP) consisting of the members of the Integrated National Police (INP) and the officers and enlisted personnel of the PC. Upon the effectivity of that Act, the PC ceased to be a major service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the INP ceased to be the national police and civil defense force. On January 29, 1991, the PC and the INP were formally retired and the PNP was activated in their place.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The AFP is one of the "core security actors" that are the focus of security sector governance and reform in the Philippines, which involves civilianizing, professionalizing, modernizing, and capacitating the Philippine government's security institutions to align them good governance and to principles such as human rights, freedom of information, and the rule of civilian law. This has been a continuing process since the establishment of the Fifth Philippine Republic after the 1986 People Power Revolution, before the concept had even been fully defined internationally in the 1990s.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The need to assert civilian control of the military was a reform agenda which began being addressed almost as soon as Ferdinand Marcos was deposed by the 1986 People Power Revolution; within a year of Marcos' ouster, the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines enshrined the principle of civilian supremacy over the military. After the various coup attempts of the 1980s, the recommendations of the Davide Commission included the dissolution of the Philippine Constabulary as a service under the AFP, resulting in the eventual creation of the civilian Philippine National Police. In 1998, Executive Orders 475 and 477 asserting the civilian nature of the Philippine Coast Guard and transferring it from the Philippine Navy to the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) were signed by President Fidel Ramos.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In a December 2013 paper for the National Defense College of the Philippines’ National Security Review, former Department of National Defense Undersecretary Rodel Cruz identified some aspects of civilianization which need attention under security sector reform as:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: For the most part, oversight of the Philippine state's security actors has fallen on government agencies through the constitutional system of checks and balances - most prominently, congress and the Commission on Human Rights. But civil society organizations have also become involved in civilianizing, professionalizing, modernizing, and capacitating the Philippine state's security institutions, depending on how much emphasis each President, as Commander in Chief, places on civil society engagement.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Given a greater emphasis on Philippine Defense Reform (PDR) beginning in 2010, a shift towards engagement with Civil Society Organizations was put in place under the Internal Peace and Security Plan (IPSP) of 2010, and similar principles were enshrined in the 2016 AFP-Development Support and Security Plan (DSSP) of the next administration. However, civil society is no longer identified as a major strategic priority under the 15 year AFP Transformation Roadmap initiated during the Duterte administration, as it had been under the 2003-2016 PDR Program.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The AFP went through a number of changes during the 21 years under Ferdinand Marcos, notably in terms of the promotion of officers based on loyalty and connections to the president, and in terms of being given the task of implementing Martial Law, which led to officers being involved in human rights violations and in corruption. The years from 1965 to 1986 are thus considered to have marked a decline for AFP in terms of its traditional values of civilian supremacy and professionalism, leading to a need to actively professionalize the AFP. The 1990 Davide Commission and 2003 Feliciano Commission made recommendations towards the professionalization of the AFP as early as 1990 and 2003, respectively.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Under the Philippine Defense Reform (PDR) Program from 2003 to 2016, steps the AFP sought to take towards professionalization included the development of "Integrity Development Programs", programmatic efforts to improve the quality of service performance, continuing development programs for commanders and staff, and reforms in the recruitment of enlisted personnel. Alongside capability development, "professionalization of all ranks" is one of two strategic priorities identified by the 15 year AFP Transformation Roadmap which replaced the PDR Program during the Duterte administration.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Republic Act No. 7898, approved on February 23, 1995, declared it the policy of the State to modernize the AFP to a level where it can effectively and fully perform its constitutional mandate to uphold the sovereignty and preserve the patrimony of the Republic of the Philippines, and mandated specific actions to be taken to achieve this end over a 15-year period ending in 2010. Republic Act No. 10349, approved on December 11, 2012, amended RA7898 to establish a revised AFP modernization program lasting another 15 years ending in 2027. The act included new provisions for the acquisition of equipment for all the branches of AFP.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In October 1999, the Joint Defense Assessment (JDA) began as a policy level discussion between the Philippine Secretary of National Defense and the US Secretary of Defense. An initial JDA report in 2001 provided an objective evaluation of Philippine defense capability. During a May 2003 state visit to Washington DC, President Arroyo requested U.S. assistance in conducting a strategic assessment of the Philippine defense system. This led to a follow-up JDA and formulation of recommendations addressing deficiencies found in the Philippine defense structure.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The results of the 2003 JDA were devastating. The JDA findings revealed that the AFP was only partially capable of performing its most critical missions. Moreover, the results pointed overwhelmingly toward institutional and strategic deficiencies as being the root cause of most of the shortcomings. A common thread in all: the lack of strategy-based planning that would focus DND/AFP on addressing priority threats and link capability requirements with the acquisition process.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: During a reciprocal visit to the Philippines in October 2003 by U.S. President Bush, he and President Arroyo issued a joint statement expressing their commitment to embark upon a multi-year plan to implement the JDA recommendations. The Philippine Defense Reform (PDR) Program is the result of that agreement.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The JDA specifically identified 65 key areas and 207 ancillary areas of concern. These were reduced to ten broad-based and inter-related recommendations that later became the basis for what became known as the PDR Priority Programs. The ten are:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: From the perspective of the Philippine Department of National Defense (DND), the framework for reforms is based on an environment of increasing economic prowess and a gradually decreasing threat level over time, and seeks to make the following improvements:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: 2. Implement capability for seamless interoperability by developing proficiency in the conduct of joint operations, eliminating crisis handling by individual major services as done previously.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: 8. Increase professionalism in the AFP through reforms in areas such as promotions, assignments, and training.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: According to the goals stated in the Philippines Defense Reform Handbook: "The PDR serves as the overall framework to re-engineer our systems and re-tool our personnel." The Philippine Defense Reform follows a three-step implementation plan:


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: On September 23, 2003, President Arroyo issued Executive Order 240, streamlining procedures for defense contracts for the expeditious implementation of defense projects and the speedy response to security threats while promoting transparency, impartiality, and accountability in government transactions. Executive Order 240, creating the Office of the Undersecretary of Internal Control in the DND, mandated in part to institutionalize reforms in the procurement and fund disbursement systems in the AFP and the DND. On November 30, 2005, the Secretary of National Defense issued Department Order No. 82 (DO 82), creating the PDR Board and formalizing the reform organizational set-up between the DND and the AFP and defining workflow and decision-making processes.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The PDR is jointly funded by the U.S. and R.P. governments. From 2004 to 2008, funding amounted to $51.8 million from the U.S. and $514.0 million from the RP. Initial planning assumptioned that the 18-year span of reform would encompass a period of steady rise in economic growth coupled with equally steady decline in the military threat from terrorists and separatists. Neither of these projections have proven accurate. , at the six-year mark of PDR, the Philippine economy was internally strong, but suffering during a period of recession that crippled Philippine purchasing power. Worse, the threat situation in the Philippines had not improved significantly, or as in the case of the Sulu Archipelago, was deteriorating.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: During the Arroyo presidency, deliberate 'Rolodexing' of senior leadership within the DND and AFP constantly put U.S. PDR advocates in a position of re-winning previously won points and positions, and gave U.S. observers a 'two steps forward, one step back' impression of the program. , U.S. observers were uncertain whether Arroyo's successor, Benigno Aquino III, chosen in Philippine Presidential elections on May 10, 2010, will continue the tradition of rapid turnover of senior leadership.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: U.S. observers have reported that overall progress of the PDR is unmistakable and has clearly struck a wider swath of the Philippine defense establishment than originally hoped. However, they see some troubling signs that the depth of the PDR's impact may not be as significant as originally desired. For example, the Philippine legislature continues to significantly underfund the DND and AFP, currently at.9 percent of GDP, compared to an average of 2 percent worldwide, and a 4 percent outlay by the U.S. Even with full implementation of all the PDR's programs and recommendations, the defense establishment would not be able to sustain itself at current funding levels. While this can be made up by future outlays, observers see no outward sign the legislature is planning to do so. One U.S. observer likened PDR process to the progress of a Jeepney on a busy Manila avenue—explaining, "a Jeepney moves at its own pace, stops unexpectedly, frequently changes passengers, moves inexplicably and abruptly right and left in traffic, but eventually arrives safely." President Aquino has promised to implement the PDR program. , a major Philippine news organization tracking performance on his promises evaluated that one as "To Be Determined."


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Mutual Defense Treaty between the Philippines and the United States has not been updated since its signing in 1951. , discussions were underway for a formal U.S.-Philippine Framework Agreement detail how U.S. forces would be able to "operate on Philippine military bases and in Philippine territorial waters to help build Philippine military capacity in maritime security and maritime domain awareness." In particular, this Framework Agreement would which would increase rotational presence of American forces in the Philippines.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Longstanding treaties, such as the aforementioned 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982, are of great importance to the Philippines in supporting maritime security in particular; respectively, their legally binding nature provides long-term effectiveness for mutual defense cooperation and for the development of the Philippine maritime and archipelagic domain.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Philippine defense operations are supported in part through U.S. Section 1206 ($102.3 million) and 1207 ($16.02 million) funds. These funds are aimed at carrying out security, counterterrorism training and rule of law programs. Overall, the United States is increasing U.S. funding for military education and training programs in Southeast Asia. The most recent U.S. Department of Defense budget for the region includes $90 million for programs, which is a 50 percent increased from four years ago.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Defense Secretary Voltaire T. Gazmin formally ended the PDR Program on June 23, 2016, because the upcoming administration of Rodrigo Duterte, which would begin its term later that month, had indicated that it wanted to set its own direction for the running of Philippine defense matters.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: On May 16, 2022, the Malacañang Palace announced that the President Rodrigo Duterte has signed a law, known as Republic Act no. 11709, that enables a three-year fixed term for key officials of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, such as Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the Vice Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the Commanding General of the Philippine Army, the Commanding General of the Philippine Air Force, the Flag Officer-in-Command of the Philippine Navy, The Inspector General, and for the respective commanders of the Unified Commands. Meanwhile, junior officers ranging from the ranks of second lieutenant/ensign to colonel/captain, as well as enlisted personnel, will be compulsorily retired upon reaching the age of 56 or served a maximum of 30 years of active service, while flag officers who reached the rank of brigadier general/commodore to lieutenant general/vice admiral will have a retirement age of 59, unless named as a commander of the service branch or unified command, as defined in the law. Under the new law, members who will be appointed in the Corps of Professors will be retired upon reaching the age of 60 or the completion of 20 years of active duty, while the Superintendent of the Philippine Military Academy will have a four-year term, and will not be eligible to be placed in a higher position, such as the Chief of Staff, and shall be retired upon reaching the end of their term. The law also enables the President of the Philippines to terminate their respective roles before the expiration of their fixed term, and has the powers to extend the term of the Chief of Staff in times of war, or national emergency matters, with the consent of the Congress of the Philippines. The new law aims to increase the AFP's organizational professionalism and stability in within the institution, and will further enhance the AFP's efficiency, preparedness and effectiveness to the AFP's mandate. The law also aims to lessen the effects of the "revolving door" policy and eliminating short-term duties for the commanders within the ranks.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Recent national policies have shifted the strategic direction of the AFP towards external, territorial defense as opposed to previous, internal foci. Some of the challenges with this change in strategic direction include the uneven distribution of maritime security resources among territorial, transnational, environmental, and humanitarian assistance and disaster response (HADR) conflicts. For example, Philippine Executive Order 57, signed in 2011 by President Benigno Aquino III, established a central inter-agency mechanism for enhancing governance in the country's maritime domain. Between 1995 and 2019, the AFP Reserve Manpower in the Philippines totaled 741,937 and 4,384,936 ROTC Cadets. Out of the 700,00+ reservists; 93,062 are (ready reserve) and 610,586 are (standby reserve). There are a total of 20,451 with the affiliated reserve units.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Conflicts over responsibility for maritime surveillance between armed forces continue to underscore the numerous challenges that the TBA faces. For example, following the expulsion of Ferdinand Marcos from the Philippines in 1986, the Philippine Coast Guard separated from the Philippine Navy, resulting in an uneven distribution of resources and jurisdictional confusion.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Throughout the years, the AFP received numerous recognitions and commendation within the local sectors, the national government and in the international community. One example is the Philippine Army shooting team, wherein the unit was the overall champion in a two-week competition held in Australia, in 2013. The Philippine Army shooting team won 14 gold medals, 50 silver medals and two bronze medals in Australian Army Skills at the Arms Meeting (AASAM) in 2014.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The 7th Philippine Contingent peacekeepers to the Golan Heights were awarded the prestigious United Nations Service Medal for the performance of their mission.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: These ranks, heavily inspired by those of the United States Armed Forces, are officially used in the Philippine Army, Air Force and Marine Corps. The ranks are more frequently referred and addressed in English rather than in Spanish or Tagalog/Filipino, since English is the working language within the Armed Forces.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The ranks in the Philippine Navy are similar to the US Navy ranks, the only difference is the rank of Commodore in the Philippine Navy is equivalent to the Lower Half Rear Admiral of the US Navy.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The alternative style of address for the ranks of lieutenant junior grade, lieutenant senior grade, second lieutenant, and first lieutenant are simply "lieutenant" in English, or "tenyente" or "teniente" in Tagalog and Spanish, respectively.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The ranks of enlisted personnel in Filipino are the same as their U.S. counterparts, with some differences. Except in the Marine Corps, never used are the ranks of specialist, sergeant first class, and first sergeant. Lance corporal, gunnery sergeant, and master gunnery sergeant are also never used by the Philippine Marine Corps, whose ranks are the same as the Army's. Additionally, sergeant majors in the AFP are only appointments for senior ranked non-commissioned officers (NCOs) rather than ranks, examples of such appointments being the Command Sergeant Major, AFP (held by a first chief master sergeant or a first master chief petty officer) and the Command Master Chief Petty Officer, Philippine Navy (held by an either MCPO or CMS or a SCPO or SMS).


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In the Philippine Navy, they also use enlisted ranks which come from the U.S. Navy with their specialization, e.g. "Master Chief and Boatswain's mate Juan Dela Cruz, PN" (Philippine Navy).


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In effect, the AFP uses the pre-1955 US military enlisted ranks, with several changes, especially in the Navy and in the senior NCO ranks.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The uniqueness of Philippine military ranks can be seen in the current highest ranks of first chief master sergeant (for the Army, Marine Corps and Air Force) and first master chief petty officer (for the Navy), both created in 2004, and since then have become the highest enlisted rank of precedence. Prior, first chief sergeant and master chief petty officer were the highest enlisted ranks and rates, the former being the highest rank of precedence for Army, Air Force and Marine NCOs. Today only the rank of first master chief petty officer is unused, but the rank of first chief master sergeant is now being applied.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: President Ferdinand Marcos, who acted also as national defense secretary (from 1965 to 1967 and 1971 to 1972), issued an order conferring the five-star officer rank to the President of the Philippines, making himself as its first rank holder. Since then, the rank of five-star general/admiral became an honorary rank of the commander-in-chief of the armed forces whenever a new president assumes office for a six-year term, thus making the President the most senior military official.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The only career military officer who reached the rank of five-star general/admiral "de jure" was President Fidel V. Ramos (USMA 1950) (president from 1992 to 1998) who rose from second lieutenant up to commander-in-chief of the armed forces.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was also made Field Marshal of the Philippine Army with five-star rank in 1938, the only person to hold that rank. Emilio Aguinaldo, the first President of the Philippines, holds an equivalent of five-star general under the title "Generalissimo" and Minister/Field Marshal as the first commander-in-chief of the AFP.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The position is honorary and may be granted to any military officer, especially generals or admirals who had significant contributions and showed heroism, only in times of war and national defense concerns and emergencies. The highest peacetime rank is that of four-star general which is being held only by the AFP Chief of Staff. However, no law specifically establishes the rank of five-star general in the Armed Forces of the Philippines unlike in the United States and other countries.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The AFP, like the military forces of Singapore and Indonesia, uses unitary rank insignia for enlisted personnel, in the form of raised chevrons increasing by seniority, save for the Philippine Air Force which uses inverted chevrons from Airman 2nd Class onward only since recently. In the Philippine Navy these are supplemented by rating insignia by specialty, similar to the United States Navy. Like the British and Spanish armed services, however, senior ranked NCOs (especially in the Philippine Navy) also wear shoulder rank insignia only on the mess, semi-dress and dress uniforms, and in some cases even collar insignia. Like the US military all NCOs wear sleeve stripes to denote years of service in the enlisted ranks. Sleeve insignia for enlisted personnel in the Army and the Navy are similar but are different from those used in the US while those in the Marine Corps mirror its US counterpart but with special symbols from Master Sergeants onward (adopted in the early 2000s).


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Officer ranks in the AFP are inspired by revolutionary insignia used by the Philippine Army after the 1898 declaration of independence. These are unitary rank insignia used in the every day, combat, duty and technical uniforms both on shoulders and collars (the latter in the khaki uniforms of the Navy), but in the semi-dress, dress and mess uniforms are different: The Army, Air Force and Marine Corps use unitary rank insignia on the shoulder board but the Navy uses the very same rank insignia format as in the US Navy except for the star (for Ensigns to Captains) in almost all officer uniforms and all general officer and flag officer shoulder boards in the full dress uniform are in gold colored backgrounds with the rank insignia and the AFP seal (the star arrangement is the same in the Army, Air Force and Marines but is different in the Navy). The Navy uses sleeve insignia only on its dress blue uniforms. Lieutenants and Captains wear 1 to 3 triangles (and Navy Ensigns and Lieutenants (junior and senior grades) in their working, duty and combat uniforms) while Majors, Lieutenant Colonels and Colonels wear 1, 2, and 3 suns (both triangles and suns have the ancient baybayin letter "ka" (K) in the center) as well as Navy superior officers (Lieutenant Commanders, Commanders and Captains) in their working, duty and combat uniforms respectively.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Jack Klugman (April 27, 1922 – December 24, 2012) was an American actor of stage, film, and television.


title: Jack Klugman

text: He began his career in 1950 and started television and film work with roles in "12 Angry Men" (1957) and "Cry Terror!" (1958). During the 1960s, he guest-starred on numerous television series. Klugman won his first Primetime Emmy Award for his guest-starring role on "The Defenders" in 1964. He also made a total of four appearances on "The Twilight Zone" from 1960 to 1963. In 1965, Klugman replaced Walter Matthau as Oscar Madison in the Broadway play "The Odd Couple". Five years later, he reprised that role in the television adaptation of "The Odd Couple" opposite Tony Randall. The series aired from 1970 to 1975. Klugman won his second and third Primetime Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award for his work on the series. From 1976 to 1983, he starred in the title role in "Quincy, M.E.", for which he earned four Primetime Emmy Award nominations.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman was born in Philadelphia, the youngest of six children born to Rose, a hat maker, and Max Klugman, a house painter. His parents were Russian-Jewish immigrants. Klugman served in the United States Army during World War II. He attended Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University, in Pittsburgh. While there, his drama teacher told him, "Young man, you are not suited to be an actor. You are suited to be a truck driver." After the war, he pursued acting roles in New York City while sharing an apartment with friend, and fellow ex-GI turned actor Charles Bronson.


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 1950, he had a small role in the "Mr. Roberts" road company production at the Colonial Theatre in Boston. Later that same year, he made his television debut in an episode of "Actors Studio." In March 1952, Klugman made his Broadway debut in "Golden Boy" as Frank Bonaparte.


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 1954, he played Jim Hanson on the soap opera "The Greatest Gift." The following year, he appeared in the live television broadcast of "Producers' Showcase" in the episode "The Petrified Forest" with Humphrey Bogart and Henry Fonda. Klugman later said the experience was the greatest thrill of his career. He went on to appear in several classic films, including as juror number five in "12 Angry Men" (1957), of which he was the last surviving cast member. In 1959, he returned to Broadway in the original production of "." In 1960, Klugman was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor (Musical) for his role in the show but lost to Tom Bosley in "Fiorello!." He remained with "Gypsy" until it closed in March 1961.


title: Jack Klugman

text: From 1960 to 1963, Klugman appeared in four episodes of "The Twilight Zone" series: "A Passage for Trumpet" (1960), "A Game of Pool" (1961), "Death Ship" (1963), and "In Praise of Pip" (1963), tying Burgess Meredith for the most appearances in a starring role on the series. In 1964, he won his first Primetime Emmy Award for his guest-starring role on "The Defenders." The same year, Klugman was cast in the starring role in the situation comedy "Harris Against the World." The series was a part of an experimental block of sitcoms that aired on NBC entitled "90 Bristol Court." "Harris Against the World," along with the other sitcoms that aired in the block, were cancelled the following year due to low ratings.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman continued the decade with multiple guest roles on television, including appearances on "The F.B.I.," "Ben Casey," "The Name of the Game," "The Fugitive," and "Insight." He also appeared on Broadway in "Tchin-Tchin" from October 1962 to May 1963. From 1960 to 1963, Klugman appeared in two episodes of the series "The Untouchables": "Loophole" (1961) and "An Eye for an Eye" (1963).


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 1965, Klugman replaced Walter Matthau in the lead role of Oscar Madison in the original Broadway production of "The Odd Couple." He reprised the role when the play was adapted as a television series, which was broadcast on ABC from 1970 to 1975. Over the course of the show's five-year, 114-episode run, Klugman won two Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on the series. In 1973, during the run of the series, Klugman and "Odd Couple" co-star Randall recorded an album titled "The Odd Couple Sings" for London Records. Roland Shaw and The London Festival Orchestra and Chorus provided the music and additional vocals.


title: Jack Klugman

text: After the cancellation of "The Odd Couple" in 1975, Klugman returned to television in 1976 in "Quincy, M.E.", initially broadcast as part of the "NBC Mystery Movie" umbrella series, before becoming a weekly program. Klugman portrayed Dr. Quincy, a forensic pathologist who worked for the Los Angeles County Coroner's Office and solved crimes. He was nominated for four Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on the series and also wrote four episodes. A total of 148 episodes of "Quincy" aired over eight seasons, ending in 1983. In 1984, Klugman starred in "Lyndon", a one-man show based on Prideaux's script, inspired in part by Merle Miller's taped conversations and directed by George Schaefer. In 1986, Klugman starred in the sitcom "You Again?" co-starring John Stamos as Klugman's character's son. The series was broadcast on NBC for two seasons before being cancelled. During the show's run, Klugman also appeared on Broadway in "I'm Not Rappaport". The show closed in 1988. The following year, he co-starred in the television miniseries "Around the World in 80 Days".


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 1989, Klugman's throat cancer (with which he was first diagnosed in 1974) returned. His illness sidelined his career for the next four years. He returned to acting in a 1993 Broadway revival of "Three Men on a Horse", with Tony Randall. That same year, he again reunited with Tony Randall in the television film "The Odd Couple: Together Again." The next year, Klugman co-starred in the television film "Parallel Lives."


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 1993, he appeared on a special "celebrity versus regulars" version of the British quiz show "Going for Gold", emerging as the series winner.


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 1996, he co-starred in "The Twilight of the Golds" and the comedy film "Dear God." He resumed his television career with guest appearances on "." He also starred in "The Outer Limits" episode "Glitch" and appeared in an episode of the TV series "Crossing Jordan." Klugman starred in both the 1997 Broadway revival and the 2007 off-Broadway revival of "The Sunshine Boys".


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 2005, Klugman co-starred in the comedy film "When Do We Eat?." That same year, he published "Tony and Me: A Story of Friendship," a book about his long friendship with his "The Odd Couple" co-star Tony Randall. Klugman gave the eulogy at Randall's memorial service in 2004. A fan of the New York Mets (whose cap he wore as Oscar Madison), Klugman started an MLB.com PRO Blog called Klugman's Korner to talk about baseball and Randall.


title: Jack Klugman

text: In 2008, he sued NBC Television over missing profits from his show "Quincy M.E." The lawsuit was filed in California state court, with Klugman requesting NBC to show him the original contract. Klugman argued that his production company, Sweater Productions, should have received 25% of the show's net profits. NBC Universal and Klugman settled the lawsuit on undisclosed terms in August 2010.


title: Jack Klugman

text: His last on-screen role was in the 2010 horror film "Camera Obscura." Klugman was originally supposed to play Juror #9 in a stage production of "Twelve Angry Men" at the George Street Playhouse that was set to open on March 13, 2012. However, he had to withdraw from the production because of illness.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman married actress Brett Somers in 1953. The couple had two children, Adam (who had a cameo as Oscar Madison as a child in a flashback on "The Odd Couple") and David. He had a stepdaughter, Leslie Klein, from Somers's first marriage. (Klein was married to Jim Fyfe, an actor and theater director.) The couple separated in 1974 and divorced in August 1977; they did not make their divorce public. In 2007, Somers died from cancer at age 83. Because Klugman did not remarry until after Somers died (nor did Somers ever remarry), it was erroneously reported that the two had remained married but separated for the rest of Somers's life.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman's 18-year relationship with actress Barbara Neugass ended in 1992 and led to a palimony suit that Neugass ultimately lost.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman began living with Peggy Crosby in 1988. They married in February 2008, shortly after Somers's death.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman was an avid Thoroughbred racing fan. He owned Jaklin Klugman, who finished third in the 1980 Kentucky Derby behind the great filly Genuine Risk and Grade 1 stakes winner Akinemod. Klugman said Jaklin Klugman's success was the biggest thrill of his life. His farm where he kept up to 100 horses was called El Rancho De Jaklin named after his horse.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1974. In 1988, he lost a vocal cord to throat cancer surgery but continued to act on stage and television, though he was left with a quiet, raspy voice. In later years subsequent to his operation, he regained limited strength in his voice.


title: Jack Klugman

text: Klugman died from prostate cancer at his home in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles on December 24, 2012, aged 90. A "New York Times" profile described him as an "extraordinary actor ennobling the ordinary." His obituary in the "Huffington Post" referred to him as a "character actor titan." Klugman's ashes were interred in a columbarium at Westwood Memorial Park cemetery in Los Angeles.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: Britannia is a historical fantasy drama television show. It was created by Jez Butterworth and Tom Butterworth. The show was the first co-production between Sky and Amazon Prime Video and stars Kelly Reilly, David Morrissey, Zoë Wanamaker, Mackenzie Crook, Nikolaj Lie Kaas, and Eleanor Worthington Cox. It first aired on Sky Atlantic in the UK beginning 18 January 2018 and on Amazon Prime Video in the US beginning 26 January 2018. The first series aired on Epix beginning 2 August 2020. Pop songs were used as theme music for the three series to date: Donovan's "Hurdy Gurdy Man" (series 1), his "Season of the Witch" (series 2), and "Children of the Revolution" by T. Rex (series 3).


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: DailyHistory.org said: "[T]he series has a feel of a mixed fictional, fantasy epic that incorporates a historical set of events."


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: "Britannia" is set in 43 AD, when the Romans invaded Britain. Julius Caesar had failed to conquer Britain 90 years earlier.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: General Aulus Plautius and his second-in-command, Lucius are determined to succeed where Julius Caesar failed, by any means necessary. An experienced warrior, Aulus establishes a fortified camp, gathers information from captives, even children, and learns that the Druids are the driving force behind the many tribes he faces. He determines that "you don't conquer the people, you must conquer their gods." He meets the Druids and undertakes a vision quest. Soon, he is talking aloud to Lokka, a demon king.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: Young Cait of the Cantii tribe is about to take part in a ceremony to mark her becoming an adult woman when the Romans attack and largely destroy her tribe. She is forced to flee and wanders the forest, where she encounters and attaches herself to an unlikely protector, Divis "The Outcast".


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: Divis is a Druid with some mystical powers—divination, hypnosis, visions—but seems mad and has been driven into exile by Veran, leader of the Druids in Britannia. Divis roams the countryside seeking clues to the meaning of his apocalyptic visions, and believes he is on some kind of mysterious "mission".


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: Kerra, a princess as the daughter of the Cantii King Pellenor, frets for her people's safety. The Cantii are in a perpetual feud with the Regni, a powerful and large tribe. The Cantii's only protection is an impregnable natural fortress formed from granite. Yet, King Pellenor makes no preparations to resist the Romans, other than relying on vague hints from the Druids to set policy. Kerra's brother, Phelan, appears weak. Kerra ambitiously takes her own steps to address the Roman threat, calling for a parley and venturing into Regni territory. Her actions enrage her father, who sends her to be judged by the Druids, and possibly flayed alive, as happened to her mother.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: In the maelstrom of confusion and fear caused by the invasion, Romans and Britons ally with, and betray, each other as the Romans consolidate their position and disaster looms.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: Note: Every episode was available in the United Kingdom by download from Sky "catch up" following the first episode satellite broadcast.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: Note: Every episode was available in the United Kingdom by download from Sky "catch up" following the first episode satellite broadcast. Episodes 2 through 8 premiered on Sky Atlantic in Germany.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: The first series was produced by Rick McCallum, Vertigo Films and Neal Street Productions and shot on location in Czech Republic and Wales. Most dialogue in the series is spoken in English, which is used mostly to represent Vulgar Latin spoken by the Romans and Brythonic spoken by the Celts. Latin and Welsh (with English subtitles) are also used to represent both ancient languages, respectively, particularly in rituals and other scenes with formulaic language.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: In March 2018, it was announced that Sky Atlantic had renewed the show for a second series. Amazon was not involved in production and did not stream the second season.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: The show was renewed for a third series in January 2020. In June 2020, U.S. premium network Epix announced it would partner with Sky to produce the third series. It would also air the first series beginning August 2, 2020, and the second series beginning October 4, 2020. Filming of the third series was shut down in March 2020 due to the Coronavirus pandemic, and resumed in September 2020.


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: The first season received positive reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 76% approval rating, with an average rating of 6.54/10 based on 37 reviews, with site's critics consensus saying:


title: Britannia (TV series)

text: On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the first season scored 70 out of 100, based on eight reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB engine is an oversquare 2.0–3.0 L straight-6 four-stroke gasoline engine from Nissan, originally produced from 1985 to 2004. The RB followed the 1983 VG-series V6 engines to offer a full, modern range in both straight or V layouts.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB engine family includes single overhead camshaft (SOHC) and double overhead camshaft (DOHC) engines. Both SOHC and DOHC versions have an aluminium head. The SOHC versions have 2 valves per cylinder and the DOHC versions have 4 valves per cylinder; each cam lobe moves only one valve. All RB engines have belt driven cams and a cast iron block. Most turbo models have an intercooled turbo (the exceptions being the single cam RB20ET & RB30ET engines), and most have a recirculating factory blow off valve (the exceptions being when fitted to Laurels and Cefiros) to reduce compressor surge when the throttle quickly closes.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB engines are derived from the six cylinder L20A engine, which has the same bore and stroke as the RB20. All RB engines were made in Yokohama, Japan where the VR38DETT engine was made. Some RB engines were rebuilt by Nissan's NISMO division at the Omori Factory in Tokyo as well. All Z-Tune Skylines were rebuilt at the Omori Factory.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: All Nissan engines follow a naming convention, identifying the engine family (in this case, RB), displacement, features present—see the list of Nissan engines for details.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The first RB20ET/DE/DET engines were fitted to the HR31 Skyline and the Nissan Fairlady 200ZR (Z31 chassis), produced from August 1985. The early twin cam engines featured the NICS (Nissan Induction Control System) injection system, while the later twin cam engines used ECCS (Electronic Concentrated Control System). Later versions which used ECCS engine management, discarded the twelve tiny runners for six much larger ones (though they retained twelve ports on the head, so there was a splitter plate). It was also fitted to the A31 Cefiro, C32 and C33 Laurel. The Fairlady 200ZR was fitted with an intercooled NICS type RB20DET.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Laurels, R32 Skyline and Cefiros used the second (1989–1993) series RB20E/DE/DET. This had an improved head design, and used the ECCS injection system. These later motors are known as "Silver Top" engines.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: This is a comparatively rare engine, as it was not produced for the Japanese domestic market. These were fitted to some left hand drive Nissan Cefiros exported from Japan new. Mechanically, the RB24S combines an RB30E head, RB25DE/DET block and RB20DE/DET crank with 34 mm height pistons. The resulting bore and stroke combined to form a inline-six engine.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: This engine used carburetors instead of the Nissan ECCS fuel injection system. It is able to rev higher than the RB25DE/DET (as it has the same stroke as the RB20DE/DET) as well as being almost the same displacement as the RB25DE/DET. A common modification is to fit a twin cam head from other RB series motors while retaining the carburetor set-up. The standard single cam form produced at 5,000 rpm and of torque at 3,000 rpm.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB25 series of engines was first introduced in the R32 Nissan Skyline GTS25 sedan and coupe models. RB25DE (Naturally Aspirated) and DET (Turbocharged) engines produced from August 1993 also featured NVCS (Nissan Variable Cam System) for the intake cam. This gave the new RB25DE more power and torque at lower rpm than the previous model. From 1995,(Series 2 Engines) both the RB25DE and RB25DET had a revised electrical system and the turbocharger on the RB25DET(S2) had a ceramic turbine


title: Nissan RB engine

text: wheel rather than aluminium. The most obvious change to the system was the introduction of ignition coils with built in ignitors, therefore the coil ignitor that was on previous models was not used. Other changes were, different air flow meter, engine ECU, cam angle sensor and throttle position sensor. Mechanically Series 1 and Series 2 are very similar, the only mechanical difference would be the camshafts as the Series 2 Cam Angle Sensor's shaft that goes into the exhaust cam is slightly different. Early Series 2 featured the traditional Mitsubishi CAS which was later swapped for the Black CAS because of a positioning tooth which occasionally broke off.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: In May 1998 a NEO head was fitted, which enabled the engine to be classified as a low emission vehicle (LEV) engine due to their lower fuel consumption and emission output. The NEO head featured solid lifters rather than hydraulic, revised camshafts, with on/off solenoid Variable VCT, used a hotter thermostat, model-specific coil packs and a revised inlet manifold (the runner diameter is reduced from to increase air velocity and low end torque) in particular the RB25DE NEO which had two inlets going into the inlet manifold. The combustion chamber of the head is smaller so model-specific pistons are used to compensate. The turbo received the larger OP6 turbine which some came with steel compressor and turbine wheels, where others had the nylon plastic compressor wheel and ceramic turbine wheel. Turbo engines were upgraded to use GT-R spec connecting rods. Some also used an N1 type oil pump and had the oil pump drive collar on the crank revised to help cope with the breakage problems associated with fast, high revs.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: All in all they are quite a different engine in their own right - a culmination of 20 years of Nissan RB engine building rolled into one.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The non-VCT, non-turbo RB25DE was fitted to the R32 Skyline, the VCT turbo and non-turbo was fitted to R33 Skylines and the WNC34 Stagea. Early R34 Skylines use the non-NEO RB, later Skyline and Stagea (WGNC34) models use the NEO version.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB26DE engine is a Inline-six engine manufactured by Nissan, for use in the 1992 model Nissan Skyline Autech Version R32 sedan. The RB26DE engine is made from cast iron, while the cylinder head is made from aluminium alloy, which contains DOHC 4 valves per cylinder (24 valves in total) setup. The intake of the RB26DE also utilizes the same six individual (3 sets of 2) throttle assemblies found in the RB26DETT instead of a single throttle body. The RB26DE Engine & ECU were tuned by Autech / S&S Engineering to make 220PS at 6800rpm / 25.0kgm at 5200rpm. The RB26DE has a higher compression ratio (10.5:1) than the RB26DETT (8.5:1).


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB26DETT engine is a Inline-six engine manufactured by Nissan, for use in the 1989-2002 Nissan Skyline GT-R. The RB26DETT engine block is made from cast iron, while the cylinder head is made from aluminium alloy, which contains DOHC 4 valves per cylinder (24 valves in total) setup. The intake of the RB26DETT varies from other RB-series motors in that it has six individual (3 sets of 2 throttle assemblies that are siamesed together) instead of a single throttle body. The engine also uses a parallel twin-turbo system, using a pair of T25-type ceramic turbochargers set by the wastegates to limit boost pressure to , although the Skyline GT-R has a built in boost restrictor to keep boost under .


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The first 2.6 L RB26DETT was rated by Nissan at around at 6,800 rpm and at 4,400 rpm. By the end of production, power levels had gone up to around at 6,800 rpm and at 4,400 rpm, not only because of developments and modifications to the engine, but also because of the "Gentlemen's Agreement" made between automakers to limit the "advertised" horsepower of any vehicle to . While the published figures from Nissan were as quoted above, it has been known among enthusiasts that the car actually had a factory power output closer to the figure. The RB26 is widely known and became quite popular for its strength and power potential thanks to its iron block and forged internals, making it a modification friendly platform for tuners and aftermarket modifications in general.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: There is a common oiling problem with the pre-1992 R32 RB26 motors, as the surface where the crankshaft meets the oil pump was machined too small, eventually leading to oil pump failure at high rpm. This issue was resolved in later versions of the RB26 with a wider oil pump drive. Aftermarket performance parts makers also make oil pump extension drive collars to rectify this problem. More recently a spline drive solution has been developed by an aftermarket tuner Supertec Racing who moves away from the OEM flat drive system and uses splines to drive the oil pump gears in the same way as Toyota's 1JZ-GTE engine as found in the Supra MKIII. This kit is available for most uprated RB26 oil pumps including Nissans own OEM, N1 and Nismo although most high hp RB engines all over the world have been proven to be reliable without spline driven oil pumps when built and tuned correctly.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Besides minor cosmetic updates and ECU fine tunings, changes were made in the R34 generation to ball bearing T28 turbochargers as opposed to journal bearing turbos. The R34 GT-R turbos retained the ceramic exhaust turbine wheel. Models that had steel exhaust turbine wheels included the R32 Nismo, R32-R33-R34 N1 models and R34 Nür spec skyline GT-R's.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Originally the R32 GT-R was planned to have a 2.4L RB24DETT, and compete in the 4000 cc class (in Group A rules, the displacement is multiplied by 1.7 if the engine is turbocharged). This was when Nismo was going through the process of designing the R32 GT-R to be a Group A race car. But when the engineers added the AWD system, they found it made the car heavier than expected and as a result, much less competitive. Nismo made the decision to make the engine a 2.6L twin turbo, and compete in the higher 4500 cc class, resulting in the RB26DETT known today.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB26DETT N1 is a modified version of the RB26DETT engine, developed by Nismo (Nissan Motorsports) for Group A and Group N motorsport. Nismo found that the standard RB26DETT engine required too much maintenance for use in a Group-A or Group-N race car and subsequently designed the N1 block. This was first used in Bathurst Australia. Nismo balanced the crankshaft to a higher specification than stock, as the standard RB26DETT engine experiences vibrations between 7000 and 8000 rpm. The engine also received improved water and oil channels within the engine block. The pistons and top piston rings were also upgraded to . The N1 engine also has upgraded camshafts and upgraded turbochargers.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Although all versions of the RB26DETT N1 engine use Garrett T25 turbochargers, the specification of the turbochargers changed through the 3 generations of the RB26DETT N1 engine (R32, R33, and R34). The R32, and R33 versions used Journal Bearing T25 Turbochargers. The R34 RB26DETT N1 engine used Garrett GT25 turbo chargers (which use a set of ball bearings).


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The biggest difference between the turbochargers used in the N1 engine, and the standard RB26DETT engine, is that the turbine wheels in the turbocharger are made from steel, rather than the ceramic used for the standard RB26DETT turbochargers. The ceramic turbine wheels are found to be very unreliable when used at high rotational speeds inducing higher centrifugal forces (such as when the turbochargers are used at a higher boost pressure than stock). With the advances in manufacturing technology such as sealing and material processes.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The Nismo RB26DETT N1 engine block uses an bore which can be bored up to either . The N1 block is cast with an identification mark of 24U, whereas the standard RB26DETT block is marked with 05U. The RB26DETT N1 block is compatible with all GT-R engine bays.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: This is the engine used in the Nissan Skyline GT-R Z-Tune built by Nismo. It uses the stronger RB26 GT500 block (stamped with RRR), modified with Nich produces and of torque.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: This motor was produced for use in the Skylines, Patrols and rights bought by Holden because the Holden 202 (3.3 L) powering the Holden Commodore could no longer satisfy tightening emissions requirements, and with all new cars required to run on unleaded petrol by 1986 a quick replacement was needed. Nissan Motor Co. sold the RB30E to Holden for the VL Commodore. Because the radiator is fitted lower in relation to the engine in the VL, there is an increased likelihood of air locks forming in the (alloy) cylinder head if the correct bleeding procedure isn't followed, causing this to overheat and warp. This was less likely in the R31 Skyline as the radiator is mounted higher. The engine proved to be very reliable apart from this issue. The RB30S was found in some Middle Eastern R31 Skylines and in some Nissan Patrols. The RB30E was found in R31 Skylines and VL Commodores in Australia as well as in South African R31 Skylines (with at 5,000 rpm and at 3,500 rpm)


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The turbocharged RB30ET (producing ) was found only in the VL Commodore due to the conditions set out by Holden to Nissan in the contract to supply engines. It consists of a lower compression RB30E bottom end, more powerful oil pump, knock sensor, Garrett T3 turbocharger, injectors, different intake manifold and supporting ECU. The motor itself is still popular today in Australian and New Zealand motorsport and drag racing in VL Commodores, R31 Skylines and swaps in other vehicles.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Nissan Special Vehicles Division Australia produced two limited models of R31 Skylines, the GTS1 and GTS2. These contained slightly more powerful RB30E engines, containing longer opening duration cams and better flowing exhausts.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: These rare engines were used in the Tommykaira M30 based on the R31 Skyline GTS and R32 Skyline GTSt. For the R31 M30, a modified RB20DE head was bolted onto the RB30E block. It delivered at 7000 rpm and at 4800 rpm.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: For the R32 M30, the bore was enlarged to 87 mm and increased the displacement to 3030 cc. The head was also replaced with RB26DE head. This new version delivered at 7200 rpm and at 6100 rpm.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Nissan did not produce this engine. It refers to a turbocharged engine using an RB30E short block with the twin-cam head installed from another RB series engine. A common hybrid in Australia and New Zealand (referred to as the RB25/30 or RB26/30) uses an RB30E bottom end mated to a RB25DE, RB25DET or RB26DETT cylinder head and turbo (RB20DE and DET heads are not used as the bores are different in size; RB30 RB20 but were originally modified and used on the Tommykaira RB30DE as the RB25 engine did not exist). The RB25DE cylinder head from the A31 Cefiro C33 Laurel or R32 Skyline (aka: Non VCT) can be used. The RB25DET (from the R33 Skyline or C34 Laurel or Stagea) head is also used, however an external oil feed must be fabricated for the variable cam timing (VCT) on the RB25DET, and the oil galleries at the front of the engine are misaligned. The variable cam timing may be disconnected altogether. It may be necessary to reduce the size of the oil restrictors in the block and machine a full face oil pump drive collar onto the crank, (to prevent it shattering at high RPM), with the use of a twin cam oil pump.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The fitment of a twin cam head from any of these engines onto a standard compression RB30E bottom end gives a forced induction friendly compression ratio (around 8.2:1), for a mild to moderately modified street turbo engine, making the conversion popular amongst those who would otherwise convert their RB30E to a high compression RB30ET using original ET bolt on externals.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: Although it has a larger displacement than the RB26DETT, maximum possible horsepower is less, as the RB30 block lacks the RB26 block's internal bracing, and consequently cannot rev as high due to harmonic issues at ~7500 rpm. To compensate, the RB30DET produces more torque at lower revs due to its longer stroke. However they have been known to reach engine speeds up to 11,000 rpm with extensive balancing and blueprinting.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: There is also an 'RB30DETT' kit manufactured by OS Giken of Japan, which bolts an extension on top of the RB26 engine block, and fits liners, to give a bore and stroke of . It is available as an assembled short block, containing billet chrome-molybdenum crank, billet chrome-molybdenum H-beam connecting rods, forged pistons, and costs ¥1,500,000.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: The RB-X GT2 (designed and built by REINIK) is an engine specially made for the NISMO 400R. The difference between this engine and a RB26DETT is that the engine is bored and stroked which results in . The engine produces at 6800 rpm and at 4400 rpm.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: This engine was manufactured with a reinforced cylinder block and cylinder head, metal head gasket, pistons with cooling channels, forged crank shaft, forged connecting rods, N1 turbine with reinforced actuator, high flow intake, stainless down pipe, and low exhaust resistant sport cats, most of which were not offered for the RB26DETT. RB-X GT2 engines competed in LeMans 24hr race, Pikes Peak, and other forms of motorsports. GT500 and Z-tune engines are also based on REINIK's design although later built by NISMO's Omori Factory.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: REINIK also made over 20 RB28DET based on the R33 RB25DET. These engines were ordered by Prince Nissan Dealership network for a special edition R33 GT25t called 280 Type-MR. The engine was built for high torque and limited to and of torque.


title: Nissan RB engine

text: There are many stroker kits available for RB Engines (some only available as proper kits while others being achievable by using cranks from other engines, for example a GT-R crank, pistons and rods in an RB25DET will make its displacement 2.6L as the Bore is the same as an RB26DETT).


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral sex. STIs often do not initially cause symptoms, which results in a risk of passing the infection on to others. Symptoms and signs of STIs may include vaginal discharge, penile discharge, ulcers on or around the genitals, and pelvic pain. Some STIs can cause infertility.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Bacterial STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Viral STIs include genital herpes, HIV/AIDS, and genital warts. Parasitic STIs include trichomoniasis. STI diagnostic tests are usually easily available in the developed world, but they are often unavailable in the developing world.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Some vaccinations may also decrease the risk of certain infections including hepatitis B and some types of HPV. Safe sex practices, such as use of condoms, having a smaller number of sexual partners, and being in a relationship in which each person only has sex with the other also decreases the risk of STIs. Comprehensive sex education may also be useful. Most STIs are treatable and curable; of the most common infections, syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and trichomoniasis are curable, while HIV/AIDS and genital herpes are not curable.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In 2015, about 1.1 billion people had STIs other than HIV/AIDS. About 500 million were infected with either syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia or trichomoniasis. At least an additional 530 million people have genital herpes, and 290 million women have human papillomavirus. STIs other than HIV resulted in 108,000 deaths in 2015. In the United States, there were 19 million new cases of STIs in 2010. Historical documentation of STIs in antiquity dates back to at least the Ebers Papyrus () and the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament (8th/7th centuries BCE).


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: There is often shame and stigma associated with STIs. The term "sexually transmitted infection" is generally preferred over "sexually transmitted disease" or "venereal disease", as it includes those who do not have symptomatic disease.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Not all STIs are symptomatic, and symptoms may not appear immediately after infection. In some instances a disease can be carried with no symptoms, which leaves a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Depending on the disease, some untreated STIs can lead to infertility, chronic pain or death.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: A sexually transmitted infection present in a pregnant woman may be passed on to the infant before or after birth.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Twenty-seven different viruses have been identified in semen. Information on whether or not transmission occurs or whether the viruses cause disease is uncertain. Some of these microbes are known to be sexually transmitted.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Many STIs are (more easily) transmitted through the mucous membranes of the penis, vulva, rectum, urinary tract and (less often—depending on type of infection) the mouth, throat, respiratory tract and eyes. The visible membrane covering the head of the penis is a mucous membrane, though it produces no mucus (similar to the lips of the mouth). Mucous membranes differ from skin in that they allow certain pathogens into the body. The amount of contact with infective sources which causes infection varies with each pathogen but in all cases, a disease may result from even light contact from fluid carriers like venereal fluids onto a mucous membrane.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Some STIs such as HIV can be transmitted from mother to child either during pregnancy or breastfeeding.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Healthcare professionals suggest safer sex, such as the use of condoms, as a reliable way of decreasing the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases during sexual activity, but safer sex cannot be considered to provide complete protection from an STI. The transfer of and exposure to bodily fluids, such as blood transfusions and other blood products, sharing injection needles, needle-stick injuries (when medical staff are inadvertently jabbed or pricked with needles during medical procedures), sharing tattoo needles, and childbirth are other avenues of transmission. These different means put certain groups, such as medical workers, and haemophiliacs and drug users, particularly at risk.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: It is possible to be an asymptomatic carrier of sexually transmitted diseases. In particular, sexually transmitted diseases in women often cause the serious condition of pelvic inflammatory disease.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Testing may be for a single infection, or consist of a number of tests for a range of STIs, including tests for syphilis, trichomonas, gonorrhea, chlamydia, herpes, hepatitis, and HIV. No procedure tests for all infectious agents.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Early identification and treatment results in less chance to spread disease, and for some conditions may improve the outcomes of treatment. There is often a window period after initial infection during which an STI test will be negative. During this period, the infection may be transmissible. The duration of this period varies depending on the infection and the test. Diagnosis may also be delayed by reluctance of the infected person to seek a medical professional. One report indicated that people turn to the Internet rather than to a medical professional for information on STIs to a higher degree than for other sexual problems.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Until the 1990s, STIs were commonly known as "venereal diseases", an antiquated euphemism derived from the Latin , being the adjectival form of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. However, in the post-classical education era the euphemistic effect was entirely lost, and the common abbreviation "VD" held only negative connotations. Other former euphemisms for STIs include "blood diseases" and "social diseases". The present euphemism is in the use of the initials "STI" rather than in the words they represent. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the more inclusive term "sexually transmitted infection" since 1999. Public health officials originally introduced the term "sexually transmitted infection", which clinicians are increasingly using alongside the term "sexually transmitted disease" in order to distinguish it from the former.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Strategies for reducing STI risk include: vaccination, mutual monogamy, reducing the number of sexual partners, and abstinence. Behavioral counseling for all sexually active adolescents and for adults who are at increased risk. Such interactive counseling, which can be resource-intensive, is directed at a person's risk, the situations in which risk occurs, and the use of personalized goal-setting strategies.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: The most effective way to prevent sexual transmission of STIs is to avoid contact of body parts or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner. Not all sexual activities involve contact: cybersex, phone sex or masturbation from a distance are methods of avoiding contact. Proper use of condoms reduces contact and risk. Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom.Both partners can get tested for STIs before initiating sexual contact, or before resuming contact if a partner engaged in contact with someone else. Many infections are not detectable immediately after exposure, so enough time must be allowed between possible exposures and testing for the tests to be accurate. Certain STIs, particularly certain persistent viruses like HPV, may be impossible to detect.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Some treatment facilities use in-home test kits and have the person return the test for follow-up. Other facilities strongly encourage that those previously infected return to ensure that the infection has been eliminated. Novel strategies to foster re-testing have been the use of text messaging and email as reminders. These types of reminders are now used in addition to phone calls and letters. After obtaining a sexual history, a healthcare provider can encourage risk reduction by providing prevention counseling. Prevention counseling is most effective if provided in a nonjudgmental and empathetic manner appropriate to the person's culture, language, gender, sexual orientation, age, and developmental level. Prevention counseling for STIs is usually offered to all sexually active adolescents and to all adults who have received a diagnosis, have had an STI in the past year, or have multiple sex partners.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Vaccines are available that protect against some viral STIs, such as hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and some types of HPV. Vaccination before initiation of sexual contact is advised to assure maximal protection. The development of vaccines to protect against gonorrhea is ongoing.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Condoms and female condoms only provide protection when used properly as a barrier, and only to and from the area that they cover. Uncovered areas are still susceptible to many STIs.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In the case of HIV, sexual transmission routes almost always involve the penis, as HIV cannot spread through unbroken skin; therefore, properly shielding the penis with a properly worn condom from the vagina or anus effectively stops HIV transmission. An infected fluid to broken skin borne direct transmission of HIV would not be considered "sexually transmitted", but can still theoretically occur during sexual contact. This can be avoided simply by not engaging in sexual contact when presenting open, bleeding wounds.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Other STIs, even viral infections, can be prevented with the use of latex, polyurethane or polyisoprene condoms as a barrier. Some microorganisms and viruses are small enough to pass through the pores in natural skin condoms but are still too large to pass through latex or synthetic condoms.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In order to best protect oneself and the partner from STIs, the old condom and its contents are to be treated as infectious and properly disposed of. A new condom is used for each act of intercourse, as multiple usages increase the chance of breakage, defeating the effectiveness as a barrier.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In the case of female condoms, the device consists of two rings, one in each terminal portion. The larger ring should fit snugly over the cervix and the smaller ring remains outside the vagina, covering the vulva. This system provides some protection of the external genitalia.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: The cap was developed after the cervical diaphragm. Both cover the cervix and the main difference between the diaphragm and the cap is that the latter must be used only once, using a new one in each sexual act. The diaphragm, however, can be used more than once. These two devices partially protect against STIs (they do not protect against HIV).


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Researchers had hoped that nonoxynol-9, a vaginal microbicide would help decrease STI risk. Trials, however, have found it ineffective and it may put women at a higher risk of HIV infection. There is evidence that vaginal dapivirine probably reduces HIV in women who have sex with men, other types of vaginal microbicides have not demonstrated effectiveness for HIV or STI's.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: There is little evidence that school-based interventions such as sexual and reproductive health education programmes on contraceptive choices and condoms are effective on improving the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents. Incentive-based programmes may reduce adolescent pregnancy but more data is needed to confirm this.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Specific age groups, persons who participate in risky sexual behavior, or those have certain health conditions may require screening. The CDC recommends that sexually active women under the age of 25 and those over 25 at risk should be screened for chlamydia and gonorrhea yearly. Appropriate times for screening are during regular pelvic examinations and preconception evaluations. Nucleic acid amplification tests are the recommended method of diagnosis for gonorrhea and chlamydia. This can be done on either urine in both men and women, vaginal or cervical swabs in women, or urethral swabs in men. Screening can be performed:


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: An option for treating partners of patients (index cases) diagnosed with chlamydia or gonorrhea is patient-delivered partner therapy, which is the clinical practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In 2008, it was estimated that 500 million people were infected with either syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia or trichomoniasis. At least an additional 530 million people have genital herpes and 290 million women have human papillomavirus. STIs other than HIV resulted in 142,000 deaths in 2013. In the United States there were 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections in 2010.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In 2010, 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections occurred in women in the United States. A 2008 CDC study found that 25–40% of U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease. Out of a population of almost 295,270,000 people there were 110 million new and existing cases of eight sexually transmitted infections.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Over 400,000 sexually transmitted infections were reported in England in 2017, about the same as in 2016, but there were more than 20% increases in confirmed cases of gonorrhoea and syphilis. Since 2008 syphilis cases have risen by 148%, from 2,874 to 7,137, mostly among men who have sex with men. The number of first cases of genital warts in 2017 among girls aged 15–17 years was just 441, 90% less than in 2009 – attributed to the national human papilloma virus immunisation programme.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: AIDS is among the leading causes of death in present-day Sub-Saharan Africa. HIV/AIDS is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse. More than 1.1 million persons are living with HIV/AIDS in the United States, and it disproportionately impacts African Americans. Hepatitis B is also considered a sexually transmitted disease because it can be spread through sexual contact. The highest rates are found in Asia and Africa and lower rates are in the Americas and Europe. Approximately two billion people worldwide have been infected with the hepatitis B virus.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: The first well-recorded European outbreak of what is now known as syphilis occurred in 1494 when it broke out among French troops besieging Naples in the Italian War of 1494–98. The disease may have originated from the Columbian Exchange. From Naples, the disease swept across Europe, killing more than five million people. As Jared Diamond describes it, "[W]hen syphilis was first definitely recorded in Europe in 1495, its pustules often covered the body from the head to the knees, caused flesh to fall from people's faces, and led to death within a few months," rendering it far more fatal than it is today. Diamond concludes,"[B]y 1546, the disease had evolved into the disease with the symptoms so well known to us today." Gonorrhea is recorded at least up to 700 years ago and associated with a district in Paris formerly known as "Le Clapiers". This is where the prostitutes were to be found at that time.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: Prior to the invention of modern medicines, sexually transmitted diseases were generally incurable, and treatment was limited to treating the symptoms of the disease. The first voluntary hospital for venereal diseases was founded in 1746 at London Lock Hospital. Treatment was not always voluntary: in the second half of the 19th century, the Contagious Diseases Acts were used to arrest suspected prostitutes. In 1924, a number of states concluded the Brussels Agreement, whereby states agreed to provide free or low-cost medical treatment at ports for merchant seamen with venereal diseases. A proponent of these approaches was Dr. Nora Wattie, OBE, Venereal Diseases Officer in Glasgow from 1929, encouraged contact tracing and volunteering for treatment, rather than the prevailing more judgemental view and published her own research on improving sex education and maternity care.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: The first effective treatment for a sexually transmitted disease was salvarsan, a treatment for syphilis. With the discovery of antibiotics, a large number of sexually transmitted diseases became easily curable, and this, combined with effective public health campaigns against STIs, led to a public perception during the 1960s and 1970s that they have ceased to be a serious medical threat.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: During this period, the importance of contact tracing in treating STIs was recognized. By tracing the sexual partners of infected individuals, testing them for infection, treating the infected and tracing their contacts, in turn, STI clinics could effectively suppress infections in the general population.


title: Sexually transmitted infection

text: In the 1980s, first genital herpes and then AIDS emerged into the public consciousness as sexually transmitted diseases that could not be cured by modern medicine. AIDS, in particular, has a long asymptomatic period—during which time HIV (the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS) can replicate and the disease can be transmitted to others—followed by a symptomatic period, which leads rapidly to death unless treated. HIV/AIDS entered the United States from Haiti in about 1969. Recognition that AIDS threatened a global pandemic led to public information campaigns and the development of treatments that allow AIDS to be managed by suppressing the replication of HIV for as long as possible. Contact tracing continues to be an important measure, even when diseases are incurable, as it helps to contain infection.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Batman: The Killing Joke is a 1988 DC Comics one-shot graphic novel featuring the characters Batman and the Joker written by Alan Moore and illustrated by Brian Bolland. "The Killing Joke" provides an origin story for the supervillain the Joker, loosely adapted from the 1951 story arc "The Man Behind the Red Hood!," which was written by Batman co-creator Bill Finger. The Joker's origin is presented via flashback, while simultaneously depicting his attempt to drive Jim Gordon insane and Batman's desperate attempt to stop him.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Created by Moore, Bolland, and Higgins as their own take on the Joker's source and psychology, the story became famous for its origin of the Joker as a tragic character; a family man and failed comedian who suffered "one bad day" that finally drove him insane. Moore stated that he attempted to show the similarities and contrasts between Batman and the Joker. The story's effects on the mainstream Batman continuity also included the shooting and paralysis of Barbara Gordon (a.k.a. Batgirl), an event that eventually leads her to develop the identity of Oracle, secret data broker for the DC Universe's superhero community and leader of the superhero team Birds of Prey.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Many critics consider the graphic novel to be the definitive Joker story and one of the best Batman stories ever published, though the story's exploitative treatment of Barbara Gordon has garnered criticism. The comic won the Eisner Award for "Best Graphic Album" in 1989 and appeared on "The New York Times" Best Seller List in May 2009. In 2006, "The Killing Joke" was reprinted as part of the trade paperback "". In 2008, DC Comics reprinted the story in a deluxe hardcover edition, which features new coloring by Bolland, with a more sombre, realistic, and subdued palette than the original. Elements of "The Killing Joke" have inspired or been incorporated into other aspects of Batman media.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Artist Brian Bolland conceived the idea for the story after watching the 1928 film "The Man Who Laughs", which features a character named Gwynplaine (played by Conrad Veidt) whose rictus grin inspired the visual design of the Joker. Bolland's rendition of the Joker was partially influenced by that film. DC editor Dick Giordano's invitation led directly to Bolland working with writer Alan Moore to create a plausible background story for the Joker. He recounted, "I thought about it in terms of who's my favorite writer at the moment, what hero I would really love to do, and which villain? I basically came up with Alan, Batman and the Joker".


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Although the story takes pains to stress that it is merely one possible "origin story" for the Joker, it has been widely accepted and adopted into DC continuity, and editor Len Wein had to ask the publisher for approval of a central mutilation of a long-running character. Bolland said that he saw "Judge Death [as] almost a dry run for drawing the Joker". He also recounted that "by the time Alan had finished "Watchmen" he had fallen out with DC to a certain extent... in the end, he only continued to do "Killing Joke" as a favor to me".


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: The 48-page prestige format one-shot comic took a considerable amount of time to produce. Both Moore and Bolland are well known for their meticulous and time-consuming work; both creators' then-recently finished 12-issue maxiseries titles – Moore's "Watchmen" and Bolland's "Camelot 3000" – had seen delays. Bolland was aided by the laid-back attitude taken by DC, who he says "seemed prepared to let me do it at my own pace". The original editor, Len Wein, left the company, and was replaced by Dennis O'Neil, a "very hands-off sort of guy", with whom Bolland only recalls having one conversation about the book.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Bolland envisaged the flashback sequences in black and white, and instructed "Watchmen" colorist John Higgins to use "muted November colors". He was upset when he saw the finished comic had "garish... hideous glowing purples and pinks... and my precious "Eraserhead"-esque flashback sequences swamped in orange". The 2008-published 20th anniversary edition of the book featured new colouring by Bolland, restoring his artistic intentions to the palette. The first problem was that all the original artwork had long disappeared in the hands of collectors but thankfully, someone in DC figured out a way to reverse engineer the already colored prints to isolate the black & white from the colors. In addition to recoloring, Bolland also did a touchup on several of the character's faces using Photoshop.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: An unnamed engineer quits his job at a chemical company to become a stand-up comedian, only to fail miserably. Desperate to support his pregnant wife, he agrees to guide two criminals through the chemical plant where he previously worked so that they can rob the playing card company next to it. The police inform him that his wife and unborn child have died in a household accident. Grief-stricken, the engineer tries to withdraw from the plan, but the criminals strong-arm him into keeping his commitment.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: At the plant, the criminals encounter security personnel, a shootout ensues, and the two criminals are killed. The engineer is confronted by Batman. Terrified, he jumps into the chemical plant's waste pound lock to escape and is swept through a pipe leading outside. He discovers to his horror that the chemicals have permanently bleached his skin chalk-white, stained his lips red and dyed his hair green. His disfigurement, compounded with the loss of his family, drives him completely insane and marks the birth of the Joker. The Joker later admits that he is not sure whether this actually happened, as the memories of his previous life are ambiguous.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: In present day, Batman goes to Arkham Asylum to talk with the Joker about ending their years-long feud, only to find that the Joker has escaped. The Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon and kidnaps her father, Commissioner James Gordon. He takes Gordon to a run-down amusement park, where he cages him in the park's freak show. He forces Gordon to view blown-up photos of a wounded Barbara, lying nude on the floor after the shooting. He then puts Gordon on display before the park's freaks, ridiculing him as "the average man", a weakling doomed to insanity.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Batman's attempts to locate Commissioner Gordon are unsuccessful until the Joker sends him an invitation to the amusement park. Though traumatized by his ordeal, Gordon retains his sanity and moral code, and insists that Batman capture the Joker "by the book" to "show him that our way works". Batman dodges a series of booby traps while the Joker tries to persuade his nemesis that the world is a "black, awful joke" that is not worth fighting for, and it only takes "one bad day" to drive an ordinary man insane.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Batman subdues the Joker and tells him that Gordon is as sane as ever, and the Joker is alone in his madness. He offers to help the Joker rehabilitate in order to end their everlasting war, which Batman fears may one day result in a fight to the death. The Joker apologetically declines, saying it is too late for that. He says that the situation reminds him of a joke about two inmates in an asylum who try to escape. Batman chuckles at the joke's punchline, and as the two old foes share a laugh, he grabs the Joker as police arrive.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: The book explores Moore's assertion that, psychologically, "Batman and the Joker are mirror images of each other" by delving into the relationship between the two. The story itself shows how the Joker and Batman came to terms with their respective life-altering tragedies, which both eventually lead to their present lives and confrontation. Critic Geoff Klock further explained that "both Batman and the Joker are creations of a random and tragic 'one bad day'. Batman spends his life forging meaning from the random tragedy, whereas the Joker reflects the absurdity of life, and all its random injustice".


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: The torments that the Joker puts Commissioner Gordon through are meant to serve as "proof that there is something buried deep within each lunatic, a nugget of insanity, that is simply waiting for the right moment to spring forth". Unlike the Joker, however, Gordon emerges from his ordeal with his sanity and moral code intact. The story is also famous for changing how the Modern Age of Comics perceived Batman comics by bringing it back to its darker roots. The comic book, however, delves deeper in order to present Batman's own psychology—that he is, in his own way, just as insane as the Joker, and that he and the Joker perceive the world according to differing points of view, with the Joker's interpreted through a joke.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: The final panels of the book have been the subject of interpretation and debate. According to one view, Batman and the Joker, who have been fighting for years, end all of their disputes by having a good laugh about it all. Another interpretation, popularized by comic writer Grant Morrison, is that Batman kills the Joker at the end of the story, hence the title ""The Killing Joke"". Grant Morrison acknowledges the ambiguous nature of the story's ending, which he believes part of its enduring appeal, with the original script providing no further information.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: The Joker serves as an unreliable narrator. He admits to his own uncertainty, as he has disparate memories of the single event ("Sometimes I remember it one way, sometimes another...If I'm going to have a past, I prefer it to be multiple choice!"), accentuating the comic's depiction of "a world unraveling toward relentless urban violence and moral nihilism."


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: In 1996, John Ostrander and Kim Yale wrote a story entitled "Oracle: Year One: Born of Hope" which appeared in "The Batman Chronicles" #5. The story consists of Barbara recounting the events of "The Killing Joke" from her perspective, and the immediate aftermath of those events, including her recovery from her injuries and her adoption of the Oracle mantle.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: In 2007, Geoff Johns wrote a companion story to "The Killing Joke" entitled "No Joke" that appeared in the series "Booster Gold".


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: In the story, Booster Gold is charged by Rip Hunter to go back in time and save Barbara from being shot by the Joker. Booster arrives at the carnival and is attacked by Joker's freaks. He manages to escape, but arrives too late to save Barbara. Catching the Joker in the middle of taking photos of his victim, Booster attacks in a rage. The Joker nevertheless gains the upper hand, snapping several photos of Booster in the process. Rip returns Booster to the future before the Joker can murder him, but Booster demands to be sent back again. He fails several times until learning that the Joker is destined to paralyze her, as this prompts her to become the Oracle. Rip did this to demonstrate that some points in time, like Barbara's paralysis, are fixed and cannot be altered, so that Booster would not continue insisting on rescuing his friend Ted Kord from death, another fixed point. The story also reveals that Batman kept the photos of Barbara and Booster, and had been waiting until Booster came of age before confronting him. Batman thanks Booster for trying to stop the Joker and offers him his friendship. Eventually, Dick Grayson, who becomes the new Batman for a short time, would also learn about this and offer his thanks to Booster.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: In 2010, writer J. Michael Straczynski and artist Cliff Chiang collaborated on a one-shot story called "Ladies' Night", which was published in the anthology series "The Brave and the Bold". The story is set shortly before "The Killing Joke" and deals with Zatanna and Wonder Woman struggling to come to terms with the impending attack on Barbara after Zatanna has a precognitive dream about it. Like "No Joke", the story heavily implies that the heroines cannot alter Barbara's fate, despite their desire to do so, instead giving her a final night on the town before she loses the use of her legs. The story also implies that Wonder Woman served as the inspiration for Barbara Gordon's eventual codename of the Oracle.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: When DC Comics relaunched its continuity in 2011, many of Batman's stories were erased from history or altered, but the events of "The Killing Joke" remained intact. In the new continuity, Barbara Gordon recovered from the paralysis after three years. Although she resumes her work as Batgirl one year after recovering her mobility, she continues to have posttraumatic stress disorder when exposed to gunfire that could result in receiving new spinal damage.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: On March 13, 2015, DC Comics released 25 Joker-themed variant covers for its various monthly series in celebration of the character's 75th anniversary. Among them was a cover to "Batgirl" #41 by artist Rafael Albuquerque that took its inspiration from "The Killing Joke". The cover depicts the Joker standing next to a tearful Batgirl, who has a red smile painted across her mouth. The Joker has one hand holding a revolver draped over Batgirl's shoulder and is pointing to her cheek with the other hand, as if gesturing to shoot her. The cover quickly drew criticism for highlighting a dark period in the character's history, especially when juxtaposed with the youthful, more optimistic direction of the series at the time. The hashtag #changethecover drew dozens of posts on Twitter and Tumblr asking DC not to release the variant. DC ultimately withdrew the cover from publication at the request of Albuquerque, who stated, "My intention was never to hurt or upset anyone through my art...For that reason, I have recommended to DC that the variant cover be pulled".


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: Novelists Christa Faust and Gary Phillips wrote a novel adaptation of Alan Moore's story, published on September 25, 2018, by Titan Books.


title: Batman: The Killing Joke

text: One of the two covers of the comic book "Darkwing Duck Annual", published in March 2011, was a homage to Brian Bolland's cover of "The Killing Joke".