title: European Commission

text: Louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse. It achieved agreement on a contentious cereal price accord, as well as making a positive impression upon third countries when it made its international debut at the Kennedy Round of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations. Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. Little heed was taken of his administration at first but, with help from the European Court of Justice, his Commission stamped its authority solidly enough to allow future Commissions to be taken more seriously. In 1965, however, accumulating differences between the French government of Charles de Gaulle and the other member states on various subjects (British entry, direct elections to Parliament, the Fouchet Plan and the budget) triggered the "empty chair" crisis, ostensibly over proposals for the Common Agricultural Policy. Although the institutional crisis was solved the following year, it cost Étienne Hirsch his presidency of Euratom and later Walter Hallstein the EEC presidency, despite his otherwise being viewed as the most 'dynamic' leader until Jacques Delors.


title: European Commission

text: The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, they were combined into a single administration under President Jean Rey. Owing to the merger, the Rey Commission saw a temporary increase to 14 members—although subsequent Commissions were reduced back to nine, following the formula of one member for small states and two for larger states. The Rey Commission completed the Community's customs union in 1968, and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the combined communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission.


title: European Commission

text: The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation and the first enlargement to the north in 1973. With that enlargement, the College of Commissioners membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission (the United Kingdom as a large member was granted two Commissioners), which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. The external representation of the Community took a step forward when President Roy Jenkins, recruited to the presidency in January 1977 from his role as Home Secretary of the United Kingdom's Labour government, became the first President to attend a G8 summit on behalf of the Community. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorn's Commission oversaw the Community's enlargement to the south, in addition to beginning work on the Single European Act.


title: European Commission

text: The Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his College are also considered as the "founding fathers of the euro". The "International Herald Tribune" noted the work of Delors at the end of his second term in 1992: "Mr. Delors rescued the European Community from the doldrums. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst. Although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. In his first term, from 1985 to 1988, he rallied Europe to the call of the single market, and when appointed to a second term he began urging Europeans toward the far more ambitious goals of economic, monetary and political union".


title: European Commission

text: The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer. As a result of a fraud and corruption scandal, the entire Santer Commission was forced by the Parliament to resign in 1999; a central role was played by Édith Cresson. These frauds were revealed by an internal auditor, Paul van Buitenen.


title: European Commission

text: That was the first time a College of Commissioners had been forced to resign "en masse", and represented a shift of power towards the Parliament. However, the Santer Commission did carry out work on the Treaty of Amsterdam and the euro. In response to the scandal, the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) was created.


title: European Commission

text: Following Santer, Romano Prodi took office. The Amsterdam Treaty had increased the commission's powers and Prodi was dubbed by the press as something akin to a Prime Minister. Powers were strengthened again; the Treaty of Nice, signed in 2001, gave the Presidents more power over the composition of the College of Commissioners.


title: European Commission

text: José Manuel Barroso became president in 2004: the Parliament once again asserted itself in objecting to the proposed membership of the Barroso Commission. Owing to this opposition, Barroso was forced to reshuffle his College before taking office. The Barroso Commission was also the first full Commission since the enlargement in 2004 to 25 members; hence, the number of Commissioners at the end of the Prodi Commission had reached 30. As a result of the increase in the number of states, the Amsterdam Treaty triggered a reduction in the number of Commissioners to one per state, rather than two for the larger states.


title: European Commission

text: Allegations of fraud and corruption were again raised in 2004 by former chief auditor Jules Muis. A Commission officer, Guido Strack, reported alleged fraud and abuses in his department in the years 2002–2004 to OLAF, and was fired as a result. In 2008, Paul van Buitenen (the former auditor known from the Santer Commission scandal) accused the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) of a lack of independence and effectiveness.


title: European Commission

text: Barroso's first Commission term expired on 31 October 2009. Under the Treaty of Nice, the first Commission to be appointed after the number of member states reached 27 would have to be reduced to "less than the number of Member States". The exact number of Commissioners was to be decided by a unanimous vote of the European Council, and membership would rotate equally between member states. Following the accession of Romania and Bulgaria in January 2007, this clause took effect for the next Commission. The Treaty of Lisbon, which came into force on 1 December 2009, mandated a reduction of the number of commissioners to two-thirds of member-states from 2014 unless the Council decided otherwise. Membership would rotate equally and no member state would have more than one Commissioner. However, the treaty was rejected by voters in Ireland in 2008 with one main concern being the loss of their Commissioner. Hence a guarantee given for a rerun of the vote was that the council would use its power to amend the number of Commissioners upwards. However, according to the treaties it still has to be fewer than the total number of members, thus it was proposed that the member state that does not get a Commissioner would get the post of High Representative – the so-called 26+1 formula. This guarantee (which may find its way into the next treaty amendment, probably in an accession treaty) contributed to the Irish approving the treaty in a second referendum in 2009.


title: European Commission

text: Lisbon also combined the posts of European Commissioner for External Relations with the council's High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy. This post, also a Vice-President of the Commission, would chair the Council of the European Union's foreign affairs meetings as well as the commission's external relations duties. The treaty further provides that the most recent European elections should be ""taken into account"" when appointing the President of the European Commission, and although they are still proposed by the European Council; the European Parliament ""elects"" candidates to the office, rather than ""approves"" them as under the Treaty of Nice.


title: European Commission

text: The Barroso Commission is, in reaction to Euroscepticism, said to have toned down enforcement to increase integration.


title: European Commission

text: Juncker appointed his previous campaign director and head of the transition team, Martin Selmayr, as his chief of cabinet. During the Juncker presidency Selmayr has been described as "the most powerful EU chief of staff ever."


title: European Commission

text: In 2019, Ursula von der Leyen was appointed as the next President of the European Commission. She submitted the guidelines of her policy for 2019–2024 to the European Parliament on 16 July 2019, following her confirmation. She had not been considered a likely candidate (in general, the elected candidate is determined, according to the results of the European election, as winner of internal election into the dominant European party known as "spitzenkandidat"). While the European People's Party had won the European parliament election, they had performed worse than expected and therefore nominated von der Leyen instead of Manfred Weber, their original candidate. On 9 September, the Council of the European Union declared a list of candidate-commissioners, which are sent to Brussels by the governments of each member state and which had to be officially approved by the parliament.


title: European Commission

text: The commission was set up from the start to act as an independent supranational authority separate from governments; it has been described as "the only body paid to think European". The members are proposed by their member state governments, one from each. However, they are bound to act independently – free from other influences such as those governments which appointed them. This is in contrast to the Council of the European Union, which represents governments, the European Parliament, which represents citizens, the Economic and Social Committee, which represents organised civil society, and the Committee of the Regions, which represents local and regional authorities.


title: European Commission

text: Through the commission has several responsibilities: to develop medium-term strategies; to draft legislation and arbitrate in the legislative process; to represent the EU in trade negotiations; to make rules and regulations, for example in competition policy; to draw up the budget of the European Union; and to scrutinise the implementation of the treaties and legislation. The rules of procedure of the European Commission set out the commission's operation and organisation.


title: European Commission

text: Before the Treaty of Lisbon came into force, the executive power of the EU was held by the council: it conferred on the Commission such powers for it to exercise. However, the council was allowed to withdraw these powers, exercise them directly, or impose conditions on their use. This aspect has been changed by the Treaty of Lisbon, after which the Commission exercises its powers just by virtue of the treaties. Powers are more restricted than most national executives, in part due to the commission's lack of power over areas like foreign policy – that power is held by the Council of the European Union and the European Council, which some analysts have described as another executive.


title: European Commission

text: Considering that under the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Council has become a formal institution with the power of appointing the commission, it could be said that the two bodies hold the executive power of the EU (the European Council also holds individual national executive powers). However, it is the Commission that currently holds executive powers over the European Union.


title: European Commission

text: The Commission differs from the other institutions in that it alone has legislative initiative in the EU. Only the commission can make formal proposals for legislation: they cannot originate in the legislative branches. Under the Treaty of Lisbon, no legislative act is allowed in the field of the Common Foreign and Security Policy. In the other fields, the Council and Parliament are able to request legislation; in most cases the Commission initiates on the basis of these proposals. This monopoly is designed to ensure coordinated and coherent drafting of EU law. This monopoly has been challenged by some who claim the Parliament should also have the right, with most national parliaments holding the right in some respects. However, the Council and Parliament may request the commission to draft legislation, though the Commission does have the power to refuse to do so as it did in 2008 over transnational collective conventions. Under the Lisbon Treaty, EU citizens are also able to request the commission to legislate in an area via a petition carrying one million signatures, but this is not binding.


title: European Commission

text: The commission's powers in proposing law have usually centred on economic regulation. It has put forward a large number of regulations based on a "precautionary principle". This means that pre-emptive regulation takes place if there is a credible hazard to the environment or human health: for example on tackling climate change and restricting genetically modified organisms. The European Commission has committed EU member states to carbon neutrality by 2050. This is opposed to weighting regulations for their effect on the economy. Thus, the Commission often proposes stricter legislation than other countries. Owing to the size of the European market, this has made EU legislation an important influence in the global market.


title: European Commission

text: Recently the commission has moved into creating European criminal law. In 2006, a toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the commission to look into legislation against toxic waste. Some EU states at that time did not even have a crime against shipping toxic waste; this led the Commissioners Franco Frattini and Stavros Dimas to put forward the idea of "ecological crimes". Their right to propose criminal law was challenged in the European Court of Justice but upheld. As of 2007, the only other criminal law proposals which have been brought forward are on the intellectual property rights directive, and on an amendment to the 2002 counter-terrorism framework decision, outlawing terrorism‑related incitement, recruitment (especially via the internet) and training.


title: European Commission

text: Once legislation is passed by the Council and Parliament, it is the Commission's responsibility to ensure it is implemented. It does this through the member states or through its agencies. In adopting the necessary technical measures, the Commission is assisted by committees made up of representatives of member states and of the public and private lobbies (a process known in jargon as "comitology"). Furthermore, the commission is responsible for the implementation of the EU budget, ensuring, along with the Court of Auditors, that EU funds are correctly spent.


title: European Commission

text: In particular the Commission has a duty to ensure the treaties and law are upheld, potentially by taking member states or other institutions to the Court of Justice in a dispute. In this role it is known informally as the "Guardian of the Treaties". Finally, the Commission provides some external representation for the Union, alongside the member states and the Common Foreign and Security Policy, representing the Union in bodies such as the World Trade Organization. It is also usual for the President to attend meetings of the G8.


title: European Commission

text: The commission is composed of a College of "Commissioners" of members, including the President and vice-presidents. Even though each member is nominated on the basis of the suggestions made by the national governments, one per state, they do not represent their state in the commission. In practice, however, they do occasionally press for their national interest. Once proposed, the President delegates portfolios among each of the members. The power of a Commissioner largely depends upon their portfolio, and can vary over time. For example, the Education Commissioner has been growing in importance, in line with the rise in the importance of education and culture in European policy-making. Another example is the Competition Commissioner, who holds a highly visible position with global reach. Before the commission can assume office, the College as a whole must be approved by the Parliament. Commissioners are supported by their personal cabinet who give them political guidance, while the Civil Service (the DGs, see below) deal with technical preparation.


title: European Commission

text: The President of the Commission is first proposed by the European Council, following a Qualified Majority Vote (QMV), taking into account the latest parliamentary elections (any person from the largest party can be picked); that candidate then faces a formal election in the European Parliament. If the European Parliament fails to elect the candidate, the European Council shall propose another within one month.


title: European Commission

text: Following the selection of the President, and the appointment of the High Representative by the European Council, each Commissioner is nominated by their member state (except for those states who provided the President and High Representative) in consultation with the Commission President, who is responsible for the allocation of portfolios. The President's proposed College of Commissioners is then subject to hearings at the European Parliament which will question them and then vote on their suitability as a whole. If the European Parliament submits a negative opinion of a candidate, the President must either reshuffle them or request a new candidate from the member state to avoid the College's outright rejection by the European Parliament. Once the College is approved by parliament, it is formally appointed following a QMV vote by the European Council.


title: European Commission

text: Following the College's appointment, the President appoints a number of Vice-Presidents (the High Representative is mandated to be one of them) from among the commissioners. For the most part, the position grants little extra power to Vice-Presidents, except the first Vice-President who stands in for the President when they are away.


title: European Commission

text: The European Parliament can dissolve the College of Commissioners as a whole following a vote of no-confidence, which requires a two-thirds vote.


title: European Commission

text: Only the President can request the resignation of an individual Commissioner. However, individual Commissioners, by request of the council or Commission, can be compelled to retire on account of a breach of obligation(s) and if so ruled by the European Court of Justice (Art. 245 and 247, Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union).


title: European Commission

text: The Barroso Commission took office in late 2004 after being delayed by objections from the Parliament, which forced a reshuffle. In 2007 the Commission increased from 25 to 27 members with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria who each appointed their own Commissioners. With the increasing size of the commission, Barroso adopted a more presidential style of control over the college, which earned him some criticism.


title: European Commission

text: However, under Barroso, the commission began to lose ground to the larger member states as countries such as France, the UK and Germany sought to sideline its role. This has increased with the creation of the President of the European Council under the Treaty of Lisbon. There has also been a greater degree of politicisation within the Commission.


title: European Commission

text: The commission is divided into departments known as Directorates-General (DGs) that can be likened to departments or ministries. Each covers a specific policy area such as agriculture or justice and citizens' rights or internal services such as human resources and translation and is headed by a director-general who is responsible to a commissioner. A commissioner's portfolio can be supported by numerous DGs; they prepare proposals for them and if approved by a majority of commissioners proposals go forward to the Parliament and Council for consideration. The Commission's civil service is headed by a Secretary General. The position is currently held by Ilze Juhansone. The rules of procedure of the European Commission set out the Commission's operation and organisation.


title: European Commission

text: There has been criticism from a number of people that the highly fragmented DG structure wastes a considerable amount of time in turf wars as the different departments and Commissioners compete with each other. Furthermore, the DGs can exercise considerable control over a Commissioner with the Commissioner having little time to learn to assert control over their staff.


title: European Commission

text: According to figures published by the Commission, 23,803 persons were employed by the Commission as officials and temporary agents in September 2012. In addition to these, 9230 "external staff" (e.g. Contractual agents, detached national experts, young experts, trainees etc.) were employed. The single largest DG is the Directorate-General for Translation, with a 2309-strong staff, while the largest group by nationality is Belgian (18.7%), probably due to a majority (17,664) of staff being based in the country.


title: European Commission

text: Communication with the press is handled by the Directorate-General Communication. The Commission's chief spokesperson is Eric Mamer who holds the midday press briefings, commonly known as the "Midday Presser". It takes place every weekday in the Commission's press room at the Berlaymont where journalists may ask questions to the Commission officials on any topic and legitimately expect to get an "on the record" answer for live TV. Such a situation is unique in the world.


title: European Commission

text: As an integral part of the Directorate-General for Communication, the Spokesperson's Service, in coordination with the Executive Communication Adviser in the President’s Cabinet, supports the President and Commissioners so that they can communicate effectively. On political communication matters, the chief spokesperson reports directly to the President of the European Commission.


title: European Commission

text: It has been noted by one researcher that the press releases issued by the Commission are uniquely political. A release often goes through several stages of drafting which emphasises the role of the Commission and is used "for justifying the EU and the Commission" increasing their length and complexity. Where there are multiple departments involved a press release can also be a source of competition between areas of the Commission and Commissioners themselves. This also leads to an unusually high number of press releases, and is seen as a unique product of the EU's political set-up.


title: European Commission

text: There is a larger press corps in Brussels than Washington, D.C.; in 2020, media outlets in every Union member-state had a Brussels correspondent. Although there has been a worldwide cut in journalists, the considerable press releases and operations such as Europe by Satellite and EuroparlTV leads many news organisations to believe they can cover the EU from these source and news agencies. In the face of high-level criticism, the Commission shut down Presseurop on 20 December 2013.


title: European Commission

text: As the Commission is the executive branch, candidates are chosen individually by the national governments. Within the EU, the legitimacy of the Commission is mainly drawn from the vote of approval that is required from the European Parliament, along with its power to dismiss the body. Eurosceptics have therefore raised the concern of the relatively low turnout (often less than 50%) in elections for the European Parliament since 1999. While that figure may be higher than that of some national elections, including the off-year elections of the United States Congress, the fact that there are no direct elections for the position of Commission President calls the position's legitimacy into question in the eyes of some Eurosceptics. The fact that the Commission can directly decide (albeit with oversight from specially formed 'comitology committees') on the shape and character of implementing legislation further raises concerns about democratic legitimacy.


title: European Commission

text: Even though democratic structures and methods are changing there is not such a mirror in creating a European civil society. The Treaty of Lisbon may go some way to resolving the perceived deficit in creating greater democratic controls on the Commission, including enshrining the procedure of linking elections to the selection of the Commission president. Historically, the Commission had indeed been seen as a technocratic expert body which, akin with institutions such as independent central banks, deals with technical areas of policy and therefore ought to be removed from party politics. From this viewpoint, electoral pressures would undermine the Commission's role as an independent regulator. Defenders of the Commission point out that legislation must be approved by the Council in all areas (the ministers of member states) and the European Parliament in most areas before it can be adopted, thus the amount of legislation which is adopted in any one country without the approval of its government is limited.


title: European Commission

text: In 2009 the European ombudsman published statistics of citizens' complaints against EU institutions, with most of them filed against the Commission (66%) and concerning lack of transparency (36%). In 2010 the Commission was sued for blocking access to documents on EU biofuel policy. This happened after media accused the Commission of blocking scientific evidence against biofuel subsidies. Lack of transparency, unclear lobbyist relations, conflicts of interests and excessive spending of the Commission was highlighted in a number of reports by internal and independent auditing organisations. It has also been criticised on IT-related issues, particularly with regard to Microsoft.


title: European Commission

text: In September 2020, the European Commission put forward an Anti-Racism Action Plan to tackle the structural racism in the European Union, including measures to address the lack of racial diversity among the European decision makers in Brussels, as denounced by the #BrusselsSoWhite movement.


title: European Commission

text: The European Commission has an Action Plan to enhance preparedness against chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) security risks as part of its anti-terrorism package released in October 2017. In recent times Europe has seen an increased threat level of CBRN attacks. As such, the European Commission's preparedness plan is important, said Steven Neville Chatfield, a director for the Centre for Emergency Preparedness and Response in the United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency. For the first time, the European Commission proposed that medical preparedness for CBRN attack threats is a high priority. "The European Commission's (EC) Action Plan to enhance preparedness against CBRN security risks is part of its anti-terrorism package released in October 2017, a strategy aimed at better protecting the more than 511 million citizens across the 27 member states of the European Union (EU)."


title: European Commission

text: The European Commission organized a video conference of world leaders on 4 May 2020 to raise funds for COVID-19 vaccine development. US$8 billion was raised. The United States declined to join this video conference or to contribute funds.


title: European Commission

text: The European Commission issued a new multi-year data plan in February 2020 pushing the digitalization of all aspects of EU society for the benefit of civic and economic growth.


title: European Commission

text: The goal of this data strategy is to create a single market for data in which data flows across the EU and across sectors while maintaining full respect for privacy and data protection, where access rules are fair, and where the European economy benefits enormously as a global player as a result of the new data economy.


title: European Commission

text: The commission is primarily based in Brussels, with the President's office and the commission's meeting room on the 13th floor of the Berlaymont building. The commission also operates out of numerous other buildings in Brussels and Luxembourg City. When the Parliament is meeting in Strasbourg, the Commissioners also meet there in the Winston Churchill building to attend the Parliament's debates. The Members of the Commission and their "cabinets" (immediate teams) are also based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. Additionally, the European Commission has in-house scientific facilities that support it in: Ispra, Italy; Petten, the Netherlands; Karlsruhe, Germany; Geel, Belgium and Seville, Spain. In Grange, Ireland there is a Commission site hosting part of DG Santè.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit originated the lead role of Christian the composer in the stage adaptation of "Moulin Rouge!" on Broadway, a performance for which he won the 2020 Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical and received a 2020 Grammy Award nomination. His other work on the Broadway stage includes originating the roles of Gabe in "Next to Normal" and Frank Abagnale Jr. in "Catch Me If You Can", as well as performing the roles of Fiyero in "Wicked" and Link Larkin in "Hairspray".


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit has also portrayed several musical theatre roles on screen, such as Enjolras in the film adaptation of "Les Misérables" (2012), as well as Danny Zuko in Fox's "" (2016). Tveit is also known for his work in television, including the roles of Gareth Ritter on "BrainDead," Tripp van der Bilt on "Gossip Girl", Mike Warren on "Graceland", and Danny Bailey in "Schmigadoon!".


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit was born in Middletown, Orange County, New York, to Posie and Stanley Tveit. His brother, Jon, is five years younger and a Catholic priest in the Archdiocese of New York. His surname is Norwegian.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit graduated from Middletown High School in 2001, where he was active both in chorus and sports, playing golf, soccer and basketball; he also starred in all four of his school's musical theater productions: Seymour in "Little Shop of Horrors" in 9th grade, Joe Hardy in "Damn Yankees" in 10th grade, Tony in "West Side Story" in 11th grade, and Huck in "Big River" in 12th grade. As a child, he played the violin and French horn. He turned down business school scholarships to major in vocal performance at Ithaca College, a decision his parents supported, before switching to musical theater after his first year because he missed acting and theater.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit began his professional career in 2003 when he joined the national tour of "Rent" as Steve and the understudy for Roger/Mark. He was in his second year of studying at Ithaca College at the time; nine years later, in 2012, Tveit completed his college degree, when he was given college credit for his theatre roles.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Following "Rent", he returned to school briefly but left to play Link Larkin in the first national tour of "Hairspray". He made his Broadway debut in this role in 2006. In the following two years, he performed in regional productions including as Matt in Barrington Stage Company's "Calvin Berger" in July 2007 and as D'Artagnan in a musical adaptation of "The Three Musketeers" which played at the North Shore Music Theatre from August to September 2007, before returning to the Broadway production of "Hairspray". Other credits include an early workshop of "The Black Suits". Tveit made his film debut in "Ghost Town" (2008), as a young anesthesiologist.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: In 2007, Tveit originated the role of Gabe in the Off-Broadway production of the musical "Next to Normal". The production ran from January 16 through March 16, 2008, at the Second Stage Theater. Tveit received a nomination for the Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Featured Actor for this role.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: In the interim time before the out-of-town production of "Next to Normal," Tveit played Dean in the musical theatre adaptation of the film "Saved!", which ran for a limited engagement at Playwrights Horizons in June 2008. Also in June 2008, Tveit took over the role of Fiyero in "Wicked" on Broadway. He left the show in November to reprise his role in the Arena Stage production of "Next to Normal", for which he won the 2009 Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Supporting Performer in a Non-Resident Production.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit returned to "Wicked" as Fiyero in January 2009. However, he left once again on March 8, 2009, after only a couple of months, to join the Broadway production of "Next to Normal", which began previews in March 2009 and officially opened on April 15. His performance as Gabe earned him the Clarence Derwent Award from the Actors' Equity Association. Tveit was included on AfterElton.com's 2009 list of the "37 Hottest Guys in Theater".


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit left "Next to Normal" on June 6, 2009, to prepare for "Catch Me If You Can", where he played Frank Abagnale Jr. The musical was performed at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle from July 28 through August 16, 2009. Tveit returned to "Next to Normal" from September 7 through January 3, 2010. In August, he also starred in the Hollywood Bowl's production of "Rent" directed by Neil Patrick Harris, as Roger Davis. He took part in the MCC Theater Miscast Gala in 2009 and 2010.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit played Frank Abagnale Jr in the Broadway production of "Catch Me If You Can", opening on April 10, 2011, and closing on September 4, 2011. For this role he was nominated for the Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Actor in a Musical, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance, and the Fred Astaire Award for Best Male Dancer on Broadway.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: During the Broadway production of "Next to Normal", Tveit also had a recurring role in the CW series "Gossip Girl" as Tripp van der Bilt, the cousin of Nate Archibald. During this period, Tveit appeared in an episode of the television series "Ugly Betty" titled "All the World's a Stage" as Zachary Boule, Betty Suarez's boyfriend. He appeared in Rob Epstein's "Howl", a biopic about the Allen Ginsberg poem and the controversy and trial that ensued after its publication. Tveit played Peter Orlovsky, Ginsberg's longtime partner, opposite James Franco. He was also a guest star on "" on April 21, 2010, as Jan, an animal-loving yoga instructor who is questioned about the death of his girlfriend, and then again on September 28, 2011, as Stevie Harris, a man with substance abuse issues who accuses his well-respected former basketball coach of sexual abuse.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: In 2012, Tveit played Enjolras, leader of the student revolutionary group in the film adaptation of "Les Misérables". As the 'designated Broadway actor' in a celebrity ensemble cast, this was one of Tveit's most high-profile roles up to that point. On February 24, 2013, he performed with the cast of "Les Misérables" at the 85th Academy Awards ceremony. In July 2012, Tveit took part in a private reading for a new musical based on the animated film, "Anastasia". He read for the character Dimitri, a con man who brings Anastasia to a wealthy Empress searching for her missing granddaughter, in return for a reward.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: The following year, Tveit parlayed his stardom into a starring role in the USA Network series "Graceland" where he played undercover FBI Special Agent Mike Warren. The show premiered on June 6, 2013, and ran for thirty-eight episodes before being canceled after the completion of its third season in October 2015.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Between filming seasons of "Graceland", Tveit starred in the Menier Chocolate Factory's production of Sondheim's "Assassins" as John Wilkes Booth. The production ran from November 21, 2014, to March 7, 2015. However, he had to leave the production on February 8, due to his working schedule. During this time he also began performing solo concerts and recorded his own album "The Radio in My Head" as well as the concept album for a new Broadway show "An American Victory: A New Musical" in January 2014 with Ashley Brown, Hugh Panaro, Ruthie Henshall, Alexander Gemignani, and many other Broadway stars. The cast recording was released more than two years later in April 2016. Additionally, he appeared in the film "Big Sky" which was released on August 14, 2015 and performed at the first Elsie Fest in New York that September.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Following the end of Graceland, Tveit was cast in a variety of other television and film productions. In 2016, Tveit appeared as Danny Zuko in a live version of "Grease" that aired on Fox on January 31. He is featured on the soundtrack for "". He returned to the MCC Theater Miscast Gala in April 2016. Tveit then starred in "Undrafted" which was released on July 15. His next film "Better Off Single" was released in theaters and on demand on October 7.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: In October 2015, it was announced that Tveit would star in CBS's summer series "BrainDead", which premiered on June 13, 2016. Following the cancellation of "BrainDead" after one season on October 17, 2016, Tveit had time to perform more concerts in 2017 and more screen roles including a reprisal of his role from "The Good Wife" on an episode of "The Good Fight" and a starring role in the independent film "Created Equal" which held screenings in early 2018.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit returned to Barrington Stage Company for their production of "Company" in the role of Bobby, running from August 10 to September 10, 2017. He next had a role in the Patricia Clarkson-starring thriller "Out of Blue", which premiered at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: In November 2017, Tveit participated in a developmental lab for the stage adaptation of the 2001 movie "Moulin Rouge!," cast in the role as Christian, the character originally created by Ewan McGregor. In April 2018, it was announced that Tveit would be reprising his role in the premiere engagement of "Moulin Rouge!" at Boston's Emerson Colonial Theatre. The musical's premiere was scheduled for June 27; however, delays pushed the start of performances to July 10, 2018. Between the Boston and Broadway productions of "Moulin Rouge!," Tveit had a recurring role as the aspiring politician Matt Dobbins on the 2019 CBS show "The Code".


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit starred as Christian The Composer in the Broadway production of "Moulin Rouge!" at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre; previews began on June 28, 2019, and the production had its opening night on July 25. Tveit has been universally praised for his portrayal; "New York Times" theater critic Ben Brantley said that Christian was "a role [Tveit] was born to play" during the Boston run of the show and later said that his 'passionate and uncompromising' performance was his "best Broadway work to date". The production was put on hold, beginning on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and on March 23, Tveit became the first Broadway star to announce a positive COVID-19 test result. He was one of at least four cast members who contracted the virus. In October 2020, he was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical, one of the musical's fourteen nominations. Although not the only eligible actor in the category, he made history as the sole nominee for his category. He won the award, having received an affirmative vote by 60% or more of Tony voters. Tveit resumed his role as Christian when "Moulin Rouge!" reopened on September 24, 2021. With other original cast members, he departed the production on May 8, 2022.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: During Broadway's closure in 2020, Tveit filmed the movie "One Royal Holiday", part of Hallmark Channel's "Countdown to Christmas" movie slate. Tveit starred opposite theater actresses Laura Osnes and Krystal Joy Brown. Released in April 2021, Tveit was a cast member of "Hit Job", a scripted comedy podcast produced by Lorne Michaels' Broadway Video for Audible. That year he also appeared in two episodes of the horror anthology series "American Horror Stories". In 2021, he played Danny Bailey in the Apple TV+ musical comedy parody series "Schmigadoon!"; the show's second season was announced and began production in June 2022. Tveit will return to "Moulin Rouge!" as Christian for 12 weeks beginning on January 17, 2023.


title: Aaron Tveit

text: Tveit moved to Manhattan in 2006 where he first lived in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood. From 2007 to 2020, he lived in Astoria, Queens.


title: Josh Giddey

text: Joshua Giddey (born 10 October, 2002) is an Australian professional basketball player for the Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was selected by the Thunder with the sixth overall pick in the 2021 NBA draft. Giddey is the youngest player in NBA history to record a triple-double, having done so at 19 years, 84 days old. He also became the first player since Hall of Famer Oscar Robertson in 1961 to record three consecutive triple-doubles as a rookie.


title: Josh Giddey

text: Giddey grew up in Yarraville and attended St Kevin's College in Melbourne from Year 7 to 10, before emerging as one of Australia's top basketball prospects with the NBA Global Academy, a training center at the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) in Canberra. He attended UC Senior Secondary College Lake Ginninderra alongside his full-time training at the AIS.


title: Josh Giddey

text: At the Australian Under-18 Championships in April 2019, Giddey averaged 20 points, 8.3 rebounds, and six assists per game, leading VIC Metro to the title. In January 2020, Giddey helped the NBA Global Academy win the Torneo Junior Ciutat de L'Hospitalet in Barcelona, where he earned most valuable player (MVP) honors. In the following month at NBA All-Star Weekend in Chicago, he took part in Basketball Without Borders and was named an all-star of the camp.


title: Josh Giddey

text: On 12 March 2020, Giddey signed with the Adelaide 36ers of the National Basketball League (NBL) as a part of the league's Next Stars program to develop NBA draft prospects, and he became the first Australian player to be a part of the program. Giddey turned down offers from several NCAA Division I programs, including Arizona.


title: Josh Giddey

text: On 26 April 2021, he recorded 12 points, 10 rebounds and 10 assists in a 93–77 loss to the New Zealand Breakers, becoming the youngest Australian in NBL history to record a triple double. In the 36ers' next game against the Brisbane Bullets on 1 May, he became the first ever Australian to record a triple-double in consecutive games, finishing with 15 points, 13 assists, and 11 rebounds in a 101–79 win. He had a third triple-double on 9 May in a 97–88 overtime win over the Sydney Kings, finishing with 11 points, 12 assists and 10 rebounds. Giddey was released from the active playing roster on 17 May to prepare for the 2021 NBA draft, and finished the season averaging 10.9 points, 7.3 rebounds and a league-leading 7.6 assists per game in 28 games played. He was selected as the NBL Rookie of the Year.


title: Josh Giddey

text: On 27 April 2021, Giddey declared for the 2021 NBA draft, where he was projected to be a lottery pick. On 29 July, he was drafted as the sixth overall pick by the Oklahoma City Thunder, and on 8 August, Giddey signed a contract with the Thunder. That same day, he suffered an ankle injury five minutes into his NBA Summer League debut and was ruled out for the rest of the competition as a precautionary measure. On 20 October, Giddey made his NBA debut, putting up four points, 10 rebounds, and three assists in a 107–86 loss to the Utah Jazz. On 27 October, Giddey recorded his first double-double with 18 points and 10 assists in a 123–115 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, while also becoming the third-youngest player to record at least 10 assists in a game, behind only LeBron James, who did so twice. Giddey was named the NBA Western Conference Rookie of the Month for games played in October/November.


title: Josh Giddey

text: On 26 December 2021, Giddey became the second player in NBA history, after Norm Van Lier, to record a scoreless double-double, as he compiled ten assists and ten rebounds in the Thunder's 117–112 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. Giddey was named the NBA Western Conference Rookie of the Month for games played in December. On 2 January 2022, Giddey became the youngest ever player to record a triple-double, with 17 points, 14 assists, and 13 rebounds in a 95–86 loss to the Dallas Mavericks, surpassing the previous record set by LaMelo Ball. Giddey was named the NBA Western Conference Rookie of the Month for games played in January and again in February, winning the award four consecutive times.


title: Josh Giddey

text: On 27 March, Giddey was ruled out for the remainder of the season due to hip soreness, and he finished the season averaging 12.5 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 6.4 assists per game while shooting .419, .263, and .709 from the field, the three-point line, and on free throws, respectively, with four triple-doubles. In addition, he was the sole rookie to tally at least 500 points, 400 rebounds, and 300 assists.


title: Josh Giddey

text: Giddey represented Australia at the 2019 FIBA Under-17 Oceania Championship in New Caledonia. He averaged 16.4 points, 7.4 rebounds and five assists per game and was named to the All-Star Five after leading his team to a gold medal. In the final against New Zealand, he collected 25 points, eight rebounds, six assists and five steals in an 85–56 win.


title: Josh Giddey

text: On 23 February 2020, Giddey made his debut for the Australia national basketball team during 2021 FIBA Asia Cup qualification. He recorded 11 points, six assists, and three rebounds in 11 minutes, helping Australia defeat Hong Kong, 115–52. Giddey became the youngest player to play for the senior team since Ben Simmons in 2013.


title: Josh Giddey

text: Giddey was one of the final cuts from the Australian basketball team roster for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics and was instead selected as one of three emergency players.


title: Josh Giddey

text: Giddey's father, Warrick, played basketball professionally and was a longtime player for the Melbourne Tigers in Australia. His mother, Kim, played for the Tigers in the Women's National Basketball League. Giddey's sister, Hannah, plays forward for the Oral Roberts Golden Eagles.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Crimean Khanate ( or ), officially the Great Horde and Desht-i Kipchak () and in old European historiography and geography known as Little Tartary (), was a Crimean Tatar state existing from 1441 to 1783, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde. Established by Hacı I Giray in 1441, it was regarded as the direct heir to the Golden Horde and to Desht-i-Kipchak.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In 1783, violating the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the Russian Empire annexed the khanate. Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding Franco-Ottoman alliance.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Crimean khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of the Golden Horde and Desht-i Kipchak, called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" ().


title: Crimean Khanate

text: According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country".


title: Crimean Khanate

text: English-speaking writers during the 18th and early 19th centuries often called the territory of the Crimean Khanate and of the Lesser Nogai Horde "Little Tartary" (or subdivided it as "Crim Tartary" (also "Krim Tartary") and "Kuban Tartary"). The name "Little Tartary" distinguished the area from (Great) Tartary – those areas of central and northern Asia inhabited by Turkic peoples or Tatars.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The London-based cartographer Herman Moll in a map of c. 1729 shows "Little Tartary" as including the Crimean peninsula and the steppe between Dnieper and Mius River as far north as the Dnieper bend and the upper Tor River (a tributary of the Donets).


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Khanate included the Crimean peninsula and the adjacent steppes, mostly corresponding to parts of South Ukraine between the Dnieper and the Donets rivers (i.e. including most of present-day Zaporizhzhia Oblast, left-Dnepr parts of Kherson Oblast, besides minor parts of southeastern Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and western Donetsk Oblast). The territory controlled by the Crimean Khanate shifted throughout its existence due to the constant incursions by the Cossacks, who had lived along the Don since the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The first known Turkic peoples appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by The Turkic Kaganate. In the 11th century, Cumans (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea, who later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate. In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of the Crimea, inhabited mainly by Turkic peoples — Cumans, became the possession of Ulus Juchi, known as the Golden Horde or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased. Since this time, the local Kipchaks took the name of Tatars ("tatarlar").


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors — Emirs — exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in the Crimea is considered Aran-Timur, the nephew of Batu Khan of the Golden Horde, who received this area from Mengu-Timur, and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient city Qırım (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Qırq Yer and Bağçasaray.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The multi-ethnic population of Crimea then consisted mainly of those who lived in the steppe and foothills of the Peninsula Kipchaks (Cumans), Crimean Greeks, Crimean Goths, Alans, and Armenians, who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of both Kipchak and Horden origin.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in the Crimea, when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example being a well-known campaign of the Nogai Khan in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named in Kypchak "tatar tili") — "Codex Cumanicus", which is the oldest memorial of the Crimean Tatar language and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects — as directly related to the Kipchaks of the Black Sea steppes and Crimea.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: There are legends that in the 14th century, the Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd broke the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastated Chersonesos and seized valuable church objects there. There is a similar legend about his successor Vitovt, who in 1397 went on a Crimean campaign to Caffa and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vitovt is also known in Crimean history for giving refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and Belarus. In 1399 Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla River by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by the Emir Edigei, and made peace.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: During the reign of Canike Hanım, Tokhtamysh's daughter, in Qırq-Or, she supported Hacı I Giray in the struggle against the descendants of Tokhtamysh, Kichi-Muhammada and Sayid Ahmad, who as well as Hacı Giray claimed full power in the Crimea and probably saw him as her heir to the Crimean throne. In the sources of the 16th—18th centuries, the opinion according to which the separation of the Crimean Tatar state was raised to Tokhtamysh, and Canike was the most important figure in this process, completely prevailed.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of the Golden Horde Empire ceased their nomadic life in the Desht-i Kipchak (Kypchak Steppes of today's Ukraine and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea their "yurt" (homeland). At that time, the Golden Horde of the Mongol empire had governed the Crimean peninsula as an ulus since 1239, with its capital at Qirim (Staryi Krym). The local separatists invited a Genghisid contender for the Golden Horde throne, Hacı Giray, to become their khan. Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and traveled from exile in Lithuania. He warred for independence against the Horde from 1420 to 1441, in the end achieving success. But Hacı Giray then had to fight off internal rivals before he could ascend the throne of the khanate in 1449, after which he moved its capital to "Qırq Yer" (today part of Bahçeseray). The khanate included the Crimean Peninsula (except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by the Republic of Genoa & Trebizond Empire) as well as the adjacent steppe.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. The Ottomans intervened and installed one of the sons, Meñli I Giray, on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas."


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command of Gedik Ahmet Pasha, conquered the Greek Principality of Theodoro and the Genoese colonies at Cembalo, Soldaia, and Caffa (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants of Genghis Khan.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting the invasion. After returning from captivity in Constantinople, he accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects. The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary. The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns. Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, Mehmed I Giray. He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The alliance of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to the Polish–Lithuanian union in its importance and durability. The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Poland, Hungary, and Persia.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In 1502, Meñli I Giray defeated the last khan of the Great Horde, which put an end to the Horde's claims on Crimea. The Khanate initially chose as its capital Salaçıq near the Qırq Yer fortress. Later, the capital was moved a short distance to Bahçeseray, founded in 1532 by Sahib I Giray. Both Salaçıq and the Qırq Yer fortress today are part of the expanded city of Bahçeseray.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the Danubian principalities, Poland–Lithuania, and Muscovy to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or "çapuls" ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700. Caffa, an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets. In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Crimeans had a complex relationship with Zaporozhian Cossacks who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Zaporizhian Sich. The assistance of İslâm III Giray during the Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks. The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted a claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the Kazan Khanate and Astrakhan Khanate. This claim pitted it against Muscovy for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by Devlet I Giray upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the burning of Moscow, and he thereby gained the sobriquet, Taht Alğan (seizer of the throne). The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the Battle of Molodi.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Don Cossacks reached lower Don, Donets and Azov by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire, large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam from Christianity. Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare. Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of Khan Kaplan Giray and Ottoman auxiliaries in the battle of Kanzhal.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Turkish traveler writer Evliya Çelebi mentions the impact of Cossack raids from Azak upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By the time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was the Ottoman fortress at Arabat.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without booty, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns, the Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century, Russia became too strong a power for Crimea to pillage and the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks and Russian hatred of the Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: In the first half of the 17th century, Kalmyks formed the Kalmyk Khanate in the Lower Volga and under Ayuka Khan conducted many military expeditions against the Crimean Khanate and Nogays. By becoming an important ally and later part of the Russian Empire and taking an oath to protect its southeastern borders, the Kalmyk Khanate took an active part in all Russian war campaigns in the 17th and 18th centuries, providing up to 40,000 fully equipped horsemen.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The united Russian and Ukrainian forces attacked the Khanate during the Chigirin Campaigns and the Crimean Campaigns. It was during the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) that the Russians, under the command of Field-Marshal Münnich, finally managed to penetrate the Crimean Peninsula itself, burning and destroying everything on their way.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: More warfare ensued during the reign of Catherine II. The Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) resulted in the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, which made the Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the Russian Empire.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The rule of the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (some parts of which had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the Taurida Oblast. In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on Rhodes, by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal. The royal Giray family survives to this day.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Through the 1792 Treaty of Jassy (Iaşi), the Russian frontier was extended to the Dniester River and the takeover of Yedisan was complete. The 1812 Treaty of Bucharest transferred Bessarabia to Russian control.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: All Khans were from the Giray clan, which traced its right to rule to its descent from Genghis Khan. According to the tradition of the steppes, the ruler was legitimate only if he was of Genghisid royal descent (i.e. "ak süyek"). Although the Giray dynasty was the symbol of government, the khan actually governed with the participation of Qaraçı Beys, the leaders of the noble clans such as Şirin, Barın, Arğın, Qıpçaq, and in the later period, Mansuroğlu and Sicavut. After the collapse of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, an important element of the Crimean Khanate were the Nogays, most of whom transferred their allegiance from Astrakhan to Crimea. Circassians (Atteghei) and Cossacks also occasionally played roles in Crimean politics, alternating their allegiance between the khan and the beys.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Nogay pastoral nomads north of the Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. They were divided into the following groups: Budjak (from the Danube to the Dniester), Yedisan (from the Dniester to the Bug), Jamboyluk (Bug to Crimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) and Kuban.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Internally, the khanate territory was divided among the beys, and beneath the beys were mirzas from noble families. The relationship of peasants or herdsmen to their mirzas was not feudal. They were free and the Islamic law protected them from losing their rights. Apportioned by village, the land was worked in common and taxes were assigned to the whole village. The tax was one tenth of an agricultural product, one twentieth of a herd animal, and a variable amount of unpaid labor. During the reforms by the last khan Şahin Giray, the internal structure was changed following the Turkish pattern: the nobles' landholdings were proclaimed the domain of the khan and reorganized into "qadılıqs" (provinces governed by representatives of the khan).


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Crimean law was based on Tatar law, Islamic law, and, in limited matters, Ottoman law. The leader of the Muslim establishment was the mufti, who was selected from among the local Muslim clergy. His major duty was neither judicial nor theological, but financial. The mufti's administration controlled all of the vakif lands and their enormous revenues. Another Muslim official, appointed not by the clergy but the Ottoman sultan, was the kadıasker, the overseer of the khanate's judicial districts, each under jurisdiction of a kadi. In theory, kadis answered to the kadiaskers, but in practice they answered to the clan leaders and the khan. The kadis determined the day to day legal behavior of Muslims in the khanate.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Substantial non-Muslim minorities — Greeks, Armenians, Crimean Goths, Adyghe (Circassians), Venetians, Genoese, Crimean Karaites and Qırımçaq Jews — lived principally in the cities, mostly in separate districts or suburbs. Under the "millet" system, they had their own religious and judicial institutions. They were subject to extra taxes in exchange for exemption from military service, living like Crimean Tatars and speaking dialects of Crimean Tatar. Mikhail Kizilov writes: "According to Marcin Broniewski (1578), the Tatars seldom cultivated the soil themselves, with most of their land tilled by the Polish, Ruthenian, Russian, and Walachian (Moldavian) slaves."


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Jewish population was concentrated in Çufut Kale ('Jewish Fortress'), a separate town near Bahçeseray that was the Khan's original capital. As with other minorities, they spoke a Turkic language. Crimean law granted them special financial and political rights as a reward, according to local folklore, for historic services rendered to an "uluhane" (first wife of a Khan). The capitation tax on Jews in Crimea was levied by the office of the uluhane in Bahçeseray. Much like the Christian population of Crimea, the Jews were actively involved in the slave trade. Both Christians and Jews also often redeemed Christian and Jewish captives of Tatar raids in Eastern Europe.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The nomadic part of the Crimean Tatars and all the Nogays were cattle breeders. Crimea had important trading ports where the goods arrived via the Silk Road were exported to the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Crimean Khanate had many large cities such as the capital Bahçeseray, Gözleve (Yevpatoria), Karasu Bazaar (Karasu-market) and Aqmescit (White-mosque) having numerous "hans" (caravansarais and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under the Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion. Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches. The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseray kilims (oriental rugs) were exported to Poland, and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed the best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The slave trade (15th-17th century) in captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income of Crimean Tartar and Nogay nobility. In this process, known as "harvesting the steppe", raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside. In spite of the dangers, Polish and Russian serfs were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of Ukraine. The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many "dumy" were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and Cossacks, in both directions.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The last recorded major Crimean raid, before those in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) took place during the reign of Peter I (1682–1725).


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The Selim II Giray fountain, built in 1747, is considered one of the masterpieces of Crimean Khanate's hydraulic engineering designs and is still marveled in modern times. It consists of small ceramic pipes, boxed in an underground stone tunnel, stretching back to the spring source more than away. It was one of the finest sources of water in Bakhchisaray.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: One of the notable constructors of Crimean art and architecture was Qırım Giray, who in 1764 commissioned the fountain master Omer the Persian to construct the Bakhchisaray Fountain. The Bakhchisaray Fountain or "Fountain of Tears" is a real case of life imitating art. The fountain is known as the embodiment of love of one of the last Crimean Khans, Khan Qırım Giray for his young wife, and his grief after her early death. The Khan was said to have fallen in love with a Polish girl in his harem. Despite his battle-hardened harshness, he was grievous and wept when she died, astonishing all those who knew him. He commissioned a marble fountain to be made, so that the rock would weep, like him, forever.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: The peninsula itself was divided by the khan's family and several "beys". An estate controlled by a bey was called a "beylik". Beys in the khanate were as important as the Polish "Magnats". Directly to the khan belonged Cufut-Qale, Bakhchisaray, and Staryi Krym (Eski Qirim). The khan also possessed all the salt lakes and the villages around them, as well as the woods around the rivers Alma, Kacha, and Salgir. Part of his own estate included the wastelands with their newly created settlements.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: Part of the main khan's estates were the lands of the "Kalga" who was next in the line of succession of the khan's family. He usually administered the eastern portion of the peninsula. The Kalga was also Chief Commander of the Crimean Army in the absence of the Khan. The next administrative position, called "Nureddin," was also assigned to the khan's family. He administrated the western region of the peninsula. There also was a specifically assigned position for the khan's mother or sister — "Ana-beim" — which was similar to the Ottomans' valide sultan. The senior wife of the Khan carried a rank of "Ulu-beim" and was next in importance to the Nureddin.


title: Crimean Khanate

text: By the end of the khanate regional offices of the "kaimakans", who administered smaller regions of the Crimean Khanate, were created.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Bradley John Walsh (born 4 June 1960) is an English actor, comedian, singer, television presenter, and former professional footballer.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh is known for his roles as Danny Baldwin in the ITV soap opera "Coronation Street" (2004–2006), as DS Ronnie Brooks in the police procedural series "" (2009–2014), and as Graham O'Brien in the BBC science fiction series "Doctor Who" (2018–2022). He has also presented various television game shows for ITV, including "Wheel of Fortune" (1997), "The Chase" (2009–present), "Odd One In" (2010–2011), "Keep It in the Family" (2014–2015), and "Cash Trapped" (2016–2019).


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh hosted the ITV variety show "Tonight at the London Palladium" (2016–2019) and was a team captain on the sports-themed panel show "Play to the Whistle" (2015–2017). He appeared as the coach in the 2001 comedy film "." Since 2019, he has starred in "," alongside his son, Barney.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In addition to his television career, Walsh often appears in theatre shows, particularly pantomimes. As a singer, he has released two studio albums, "Chasing Dreams" (2016) and "When You're Smiling" (2017), that reached 10 and 11 in the UK Albums Chart, respectively.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Bradley John Walsh was born on 4 June 1960 in Watford, Hertfordshire, to a Scottish mother, Margaret, and her English husband Daniel. He grew up near Watford, in Leavesden, with his parents and sister Kerri. Walsh attended Francis Combe School, a comprehensive school in Garston, Hertfordshire where he was voted most likely to become a TV host. Leaving school at 16, Walsh got a job as an apprentice at Rolls-Royce's aircraft engine factory in Watford.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh started his youth football career at Wormley Rovers. In late 1979, at the age of 18, Walsh became a professional football player for Brentford although he failed to make the first team and was regularly a member of the reserves. While Walsh was at Brentford he also played for Barnet on loan, making five Southern Football League appearances in the 1979–80 season. He also played for Tring Town, Boreham Wood and Chalfont St Peter. Ankle fractures ended his football career at the age of 22, in 1982. He categorically denies reports that he played for Dunstable Town.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: He participates in Soccer Aid, a charity football match where England takes on The Rest of the World with teams made up of celebrities and football legends. He helped England win the 2006 events as a player and the 2012 and 2016 events as a coach. Walsh made an episode for Soccer Aid in June 2022.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Following his football career, Walsh had a variety of jobs including working as a bluecoat at Pontins in Morecambe for three months. In October 1982, performing as a newcomer comedian, he came second in a talent contest at the Rolls-Royce Sports and Social Club in his home town of Leavesden.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh was recruited by television channel ITV, who offered him the role as presenter on one of the network's new game shows, "Midas Touch". In 1997, Walsh was asked to front the British adaptation of the popular US game show "Wheel of Fortune" following the decision of long-time presenter Nicky Campbell to leave the show after more than eight years.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh's tenure on "Wheel of Fortune" lasted just one year, when he decided to turn his hand to acting. He also appeared on "Lily Savage's Blankety Blank".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh's first acting job was a minor role in the Channel 4 series, "Lock, Stock...". He also appeared as Dave Dodds in the 2001 Channel 4 TV film "". He returned to ITV in 2002, after landing a regular role in the short lived British soap opera "Night and Day". He featured in a total of 52 episodes. In 2003, while appearing in "Les Miserables" in the West End, he played a minor role in an episode of "The Bill" spin-off series, "M.I.T.: Murder Investigation Team".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: On 31 May 2004, he made his first appearance in "Coronation Street" as factory boss Danny Baldwin. It was originally envisaged that Walsh's character would be called Vic, however, Walsh asked for the character's name to be changed to Danny after his late father. In December 2006, Walsh was written out of "Coronation Street" at his own request.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In October 2007, he appeared in TV drama "Torn". In 2008, Walsh appeared in two episodes of "Doctor Who" spin-off "The Sarah Jane Adventures", in the second story of series two, "The Day of the Clown", as a sinister entity that fed off other people's fear. In his role, he played three parts of the same ego – a sinister American-sounding clown called Odd Bob, a mysterious European-sounding ringmaster called Elijah Spellman, and the infamous Pied Piper of Hamelin.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In January 2009, Walsh began appearing in ITV crime drama "". Walsh plays the character of DS Ronnie Brooks, a recovering alcoholic who has been in the police force for more than twenty years. From 2009 until 2014, Walsh starred in a total of 53 episodes. After the eighth series, Walsh decided to take a break from the programme and ITV decided to rest the show, but it has not been cancelled and is simply on a hiatus. Walsh said he would "like the opportunity to pursue other drama projects which ITV are developing".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In May 2014, Walsh was cast as Brutus in a BBC One comedy series called "SunTrap", starring alongside Kayvan Novak and Keith Allen. The show premiered on 27 May 2015.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In October 2017, the BBC announced that Walsh had been cast as a companion, Graham O'Brien, in the eleventh series of "Doctor Who". He reprised the role for the twelfth series in 2020 and departed the programme in the 2021 New Year's Day special "Revolution of the Daleks". He also appears in the 2022 special "The Power of the Doctor".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In December 2020, it was announced that Walsh had been cast as Pop Larkin in "The Larkins", a new six-part adaptation of "The Darling Buds of May". He started appearing on "The Larkins" in October 2021.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: On 9 September 2007, Walsh hosted the countdown "50 Greatest Stars Polls" on ITV, in which people had to vote for their favourite polls on celebrities. Later that year, on 29 December 2007, Walsh hosted the countdown for the "No. 1 Soap Fan" on ITV.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In August 2008, Walsh fronted his own ITV series entitled "My Little Soldier", in which young contestants are required to do "grown-up things" such as travelling on their own by train. In November and December 2008, Walsh hosted another game show for ITV, called "Spin Star".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In June 2009, Walsh became the presenter of ITV game show "The Chase", as well as the celebrity editions of the programme. "The Chase" has become popular, beating rival BBC quiz show "Pointless" regularly. The show features contestants who take on the "Chaser" in a series of general knowledge quiz rounds. There have also been a number of series of celebrity versions of the show, also hosted by Walsh.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh hosted a pilot for an American version of "The Chase" in 2012. However, it was decided that Brooke Burns would host the show instead.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Between 2010 and 2011, Walsh was the presenter of Saturday panel show "Odd One In", with regular panellists Peter Andre and Jason Manford.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Since 2012, Walsh has hosted the "Crime Thriller Awards" on ITV3. He also hosted the "Crime Thriller Club" on ITV3 in 2013. Walsh also narrated a one-off documentary for ITV called "The Circus".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In August 2014, Walsh hosted an ITV series called "Come on Down! The Game Show Story", which looks back on the history of British game shows.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: On 26 October 2014, after two successful pilots, Walsh began hosting the first series of "Keep It in the Family". He returned to host a second series in 2015.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In 2014, Walsh presented an episode of "Sunday Night at the Palladium". He returned to the show to present another episode in 2015. In 2016, he presented eight episodes of "Tonight at the London Palladium", a spin-off from the Sunday night series. A second series began airing in April 2017. On 26 December 2014, Walsh hosted an entertainment special called "A Christmas Cracker", filmed at the Hammersmith Apollo in London.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In May 2016, Walsh guest presented an episode of "The One Show" with Alex Jones. Also in 2016, Walsh began presenting "Cash Trapped", a daytime game show for ITV. A second and third series aired in 2017 and 2019, respectively.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In 2017, Walsh guest-hosted five episodes of "The Nightly Show" on ITV, which aired from 3 to 7 April. On 1 May 2019, it was announced that Walsh would host a new late-night talk show on ITV, titled "Bradley Walsh's Late Night Guestlist". The pilot episode, featuring guests Holly Willoughby, Maya Jama and Piers Morgan, aired on 11 May 2019. A full series was not commissioned.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In 2020, Walsh was announced as the host of a one-off festive revival of the game show "Blankety Blank" for the BBC. He has, from 2022. been the regular presenter of


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In 2005, Walsh was one of the victims of an Undercover in Series 5 of "Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway". At the end of that Undercover, he "stormed off".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In 2007, Walsh took part in "Northern Rock's All Star Golf Tournament" on ITV, in which his team, Team Europe, won. Walsh stated that he has been playing golf since he was twenty years old.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Since 2015, Walsh has been a team captain on the sports-based panel show "Play to the Whistle". Hosted by Holly Willoughby, the first series lasted for seven episodes, beginning in April 2015. The second series began in April 2016, followed by a third in 2017.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: In 2020, Walsh was the "first ever double Undercover victim" in Series 16 of "Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway".


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh approached rival game show host Alexander Armstrong to ask him for singing advice in 2016. The result, in November, was Walsh's release of his debut album, "Chasing Dreams", which peaked at 10 on the UK Albums Chart. It consists of covers of jazz standards such as "That's Life" and "Mr. Bojangles" as well as the title track, an original song written by Walsh. It became the biggest-selling debut album by a British artist in 2016, selling 111,650 copies.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: A year later, due to the success of "Chasing Dreams", Walsh released a second album, "When You're Smiling", consisting of more covers of traditional pop songs, and one original track. It reached 11 in the charts.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Walsh married dancer Donna Derby in 1997. Together they have a son, Barney, with whom Walsh appeared in the travel series "". Walsh also has a daughter born 1982 from a previous relationship.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundaraswarar Temple is a historic Hindu temple located on the southern bank of the Vaigai River in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi, a form of Parvati, and her consort, "Sundareshwarar", a form of Shiva. The temple is at the center of the ancient temple city of Madurai mentioned in the Tamil Sangam literature, with the goddess temple mentioned in 6th-century-CE texts. This temple is one of the Paadal Petra Sthalams. The Paadal Petra sthalams are 275 temples of lord Shiva that are revered in the verses of Tamil Saiva Nayanars of 6th-9th century CE.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The west tower (gopuram) of the temple is the model based on which the Tamil Nadu State Emblem is designed.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: Madurai Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple was built by Pandayan Emperor Sadayavarman Kulasekaran I (1190 CE–1205 CE). He built the main Portions of the three-storeyed Gopuram at the entrance of Sundareswarar Shrine and the central portion of the Goddess Meenakshi Shrine are some of the earliest surviving parts of the temple. The traditional texts call him a poet-saint king, additionally credit him with a poem called Ambikai Malai, as well as shrines (koil) each for Natarajar and Surya near the main temple, Ayyanar in the east, Vinayagar in the south, Kariamalperumal in the west and Kali in the north. He also built a Mahamandapam. Kulasekara Pandya was also a poet and he composed a poem on Meenakshi named Ambikai Malai.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: Maravarman Sundara Pandyan I built a gopuram in 1231, then called Avanivendaraman, later rebuilt, expanded and named as Sundara Pandya Thirukkopuram. Chitra gopuram (W), also known as Muttalakkum Vayil, was built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II (1238-1251). This gopuram is named after the frescoes and reliefs that depict secular and religious themes of Hindu culture. Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II also added a pillared corridor to the Sundareswara shrine and the Sundara Pandyan Mandapam. It was rebuilt after the 14th-century damage, its granite structure was renovated by Kumara Krishnappar after 1595.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: Though the temple has historic roots, most of the present campus structure was rebuilt after the 14th century AC, further repaired, renovated and expanded in the 17th century by Tirumala Nayaka. In the early 14th century, the armies of Delhi Sultanate led by Muslim Commander Malik Kafur plundered the temple, looted it of its valuables and destroyed the Madurai temple town along with many other temple towns of South India. The contemporary temple is the result of rebuilding efforts started by the Vijayanagara Empire rulers who rebuilt the core and reopened the temple. In the 16th century, the temple complex was further expanded and fortified by the Nayak ruler Vishwanatha Nayakar and later others. The restored complex now houses 14 "gopurams" (gateway towers), ranging from 45–50 m in height, with the southern gopura tallest at . The complex has numerous sculpted pillared halls such as Aayirankaal (1000-pillared hall), Kilikoondu-mandapam, Golu-mandapam and Pudu-mandapam. Its shrines are dedicated to Hindu deities and Shaivism scholars, with the "vimanas" above the "garbhagrihas" (sanctums) of Meenakshi and Sundaresvara gilded with gold.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The temple is a major pilgrimage destination within the Shaivism tradition, dedicated to Meenakshi Devi and Shiva. However, the temple includes Vishnu in many narratives, sculptures and rituals as he is considered to be Meenakshi's brother. This has made this temple and Madurai as the "southern Mathura", one included in Vaishnava texts. The Meenakshi temple also includes Lakshmi, flute playing Krishna, Rukmini, Brahma, Saraswati, other Vedic and Puranic deities, as well as artwork showing narratives from major Hindu texts. The large temple complex is the most prominent landmark in Madurai and attracts tens of thousands visitors a day. The temple attracts over a million pilgrims and visitors during the annual 10-day Meenakshi Tirukalyanam festival, celebrated with much festivities and a "ratha" (chariot) procession during the Tamil month of Chittirai (overlaps with April–May in Georgian calendar, Chaitra in North India). The Temple has been adjudged best 'Swachh Iconic Place' in India as on 1 October 2017 under Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The Meenakshi temple is located in the heart of historic Madurai city, about a kilometer south of the Vaigai River. It is about southwest from Chennai, the state capital. The temple complex is well connected with road network (four lane National Highway 38), near a major railway junction and an airport (IATA: IXM) with daily services. The city roads radiate from the temple complex and major ring roads form a concentric pattern for the city, a structure that follows the "Silpa Sastra" guidelines for a city design. Madurai is one of the many temple towns in the state which is named after the groves, clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a tree or shrub and the same variety of tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The region is believed to have been covered with Kadamba forest and hence called Kadambavanam.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: Meenakshi (, ) is a term meaning "fish-eyed", derived from the words "mina" ("fish") and "akshi" ("eyes"). She was earlier known by the Tamil name "Thadadakai" ("fish-eyed one")"," which was called later as Meenakshi. According to another theory, the name of the goddess literally means "rule of the fish", derived from the Tamil words "meen" (fish) and "aatchi" (rule). She is also known by the Tamil name "Angayarkanni" or "Ankayarkannammai" (literally, "the mother with the beautiful fish eyes").


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The goddess Meenakshi is the principal deity of the temple, unlike most Shiva temples in South India where Shiva is the principal deity. According to a legend found in the Tamil text "Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam", king Malayadwaja Pandya and his wife Kanchanamalai performed a Yajna seeking a son for succession. Instead, a daughter was born out of the fire who was already 3 years old and had three breasts. Shiva intervened and said that the parents should treat her like a son, and when she meets her husband, she will lose the third breast. They followed the advice. The girl grew up, the king crowned her as the successor and when she met Shiva, his words came true, she took her true form of Meenakshi. According to Harman, this may reflect the matrilineal traditions in South India and the regional belief that "penultimate [spiritual] powers rest with the women", gods listen to their spouse, and that the fates of kingdoms rest with the women. According to Susan Bayly, the reverence for Meenakshi is a part of the Hindu goddess tradition that integrates with the Hindu society where the "woman is the lynchpin of the system" of social relationships.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The marriage of Meenakshi and Shiva was the biggest event, with all gods, goddesses and living beings gathered. Vishnu is believed to be the brother of Meenakshi. Vishnu gives her away to Shiva at the wedding.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The town of Madurai is ancient and one mentioned in Sangam era texts. These are dated to be from the 1st to 4th century CE. Some early Tamil texts call Madurai as "Koodal", and these portray it as a capital and a temple town where every street radiated from the temple. Goddess Meenakshi is described as the divine ruler, who along with Shiva were the primary deities that the southern Tamil kingdoms such as the Pandya dynasty revered. The early texts imply that a temple existed in Madurai by the mid 6th century. In medieval literature and inscriptions, it is sometimes referred to as Kadambavanam (lit. "forest of Kadamba") or "Velliambalam" (lit. "silver hall" where Shiva danced). It was described to be the sangam of scholars, or a place where scholars meet. It is mentioned in the Tamil text "Tiruvilayadalpuranam" and the Sanskrit text "Halasya Mahatmya". It is one of the shrines of the 275 Paadal Petra Sthalams.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: Early Tamil texts mention the temple and its primary deity by various epithets and names. Thirugnanasambandar, the famous Hindu saint of Saiva philosophy for example, mentioned this temple in the 7th century, and described the deity as Aalavaai Iraivan. The origin of the temple is mentioned in these early Tamil texts, some in the regional Puranam genre of literature. All of these place the temple in ancient times and include a warrior goddess, but the details vary significantly and are inconsistent with each other. Some link to it deities they call Aalavaai Iraivan and Aalavaai Annal, or alternatively Angayar Kanni Ammai. Some link its legend to other deities such as Indra who proclaims the primacy of the goddess, while some describe Hindu gods appearing before ancient kings or saints urging wealthy merchants to build this temple in the honor of a goddess. One legend describes a childless king and queen performing yajna for a son, they get a daughter who inherits the kingdom, conquers the earth, meets Shiva ultimately, marries him, continues to rule from Madurai, and the temple memorializes those times. Instead of such inconsistent ahistorical mythologies, scholars have attempted to determine the history of the temple from inscriptions found in and outside Madurai, as well as comparing the records relating to South Indian dynasties. These largely post-date the 12th century.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: In the north of India, the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim armies began raiding central India for plunder by the late 13th century. After subduing and extracting huge wealth along with promised annual tributes from the Marathas Yadavas of Devagiri in 1308, the Telugu Kakatiyas of Warangal in 1310 and the Kannada Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra in 1311, Sultan Ala ud Din Khalji's infamous eunuch Muslim general, Malik Kafur, and his Delhi Sultanate forces in 1311 went deeper into the Deccan peninsula for loot and to establish annual tributes to be paid by the Hindu kings. The records left by the court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided Madurai, Chidambaram, Srirangam, Virudhachalam, Rameswaram and other sacred temple towns, destroyed the temples which were sources of gold and jewels. He brought back enormous loot from Dwarasamudra and the Pandya kingdom to Delhi in 1311.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The Islamic invasion in the 14th century brought an abrupt end to the patronage of Tamil Hindu temple towns. The Tamil Hindus revived these towns but in some places such as Madurai, it took a long while. After the conquest and destruction, the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq appointed a Muslim governor in Madurai named Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, who seceded within 1335 from the Delhi Sultanate and began the Madurai Sultanate. The Sultanate sought tributes from the temple towns, instead of supporting them, and on some occasions damaged them heavily and imposed tyranny upon the local populace. The Muslim Madurai Sultanate was relatively short-lived, with the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire under Bukka Raya removing it in 1378 CE. According to one poetic legend called "Madhura Vijayam" attributed to Gangadevi, the wife of the commander Kumara Kampana, she gave him a sword, urged him to liberate Madurai, right the wrongs, and reopen the Meenakshi temple out of its ruins. The Vijayanagara rulers succeeded, cleared the ruins and reopened the temple for active worship. They restored, repaired and expanded the temple through the 16th century, along with many other regional temples.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The temple was rebuilt by the Hindu Nayaka dynasty ruler Vishwanatha Nayak in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Nayaka rulers followed the Hindu texts on architecture called the "Shilpa Shastras" in redesigning the temple city plan and the Meenakshi temple. The city was laid out in the shape of concentric squares and ring roads around them, with radiating streets culminating in the Meenakshi-Sundaresvara temple. These streets use traditional Tamil Hindu month names, such as Adhi, Chitrai, Avani-moola, Masi and others. In each of these months, the Hindus started their tradition of taking the temple bronzes festively through the street of the same name. The temple and the city was once again east facing to greet the rising Surya (sun god). The temple city grew again around the new temple, with human settlements structured as per their castes, with the royalty, Kshatriyas and Vaishya merchants lived on the southeast side of the temple, the Brahmins in a special quarter close to the temple, while others in other areas and fringes of the city. The king started a procession tradition linked to the temple to link his authority with the divine and maintain the social system. In contrast, the procession reflects the traditional matrilineal social values, the brother-sister-groom kinship values that better explain its popularity. The warrior goddess worship tradition is ancient in the Tamil Hindu tradition, and it dramatically expanded after the 14th-century wars.


title: Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

text: The work completed by Vishwanatha Nayaka in 1560 was substantially expanded to the current structure during the reign of Tirumala Nayaka (1623–55). Tirumala Nayaka, a Hindu king, took considerable interest in erecting many complexes inside the temple. His major contributions are the "Vasantha Mandapam" for celebrating "Vasanthotsavam" (spring festival) and "Kilikoondu Mandapam" (corridor of parrots). The corridors of the temple tank and "Meenatchi Nayakar Mandapam" were built by Rani Mangammal. The initiative for some changes to the structure was under the supervision of Ariyanatha Mudaliar, the prime minister of the Nayaka Dynasty.