title: The Pillars of the Earth

text: Game developer and publisher Daedalic Entertainment announced their intention to develop an adventure game based on "The Pillars of the Earth", to be released in 2017. The game was published on 16 August 2017.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis (; reconstructed Frankish: ; – 27 November 511) was the first king of the Franks to unite all of the Frankish tribes under one ruler, changing the form of leadership from a group of petty kings to rule by a single king and ensuring that the kingship was passed down to his heirs. He is considered to have been the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled the Frankish kingdom for the next two centuries.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis succeeded his father, Childeric I, as a king of Salian Franks in 481, and eventually came to rule an area extending from what is now the southern Netherlands to northern France, corresponding in Roman terms to Gallia Belgica (northern Gaul). At the Battle of Soissons (486) he established his military dominance of the rump state of the fragmenting Western Roman Empire which was then under the command of Syagrius. By the time of his death in either 511 or 513, Clovis had conquered several smaller Frankish kingdoms in the northeast of Gaul including some northern parts of what is now France. Clovis also conquered the Alemanni tribes in eastern Gaul, and the Visigothic kingdom of Aquitania in the southwest. These campaigns added significantly to Clovis's domains, and established his dynasty as a major political and military presence in western Europe.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis is also significant due to his conversion to Catholicism in 496, largely at the behest of his wife, Clotilde, who would later be venerated as a saint for this act, celebrated today in both the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. Clovis was baptized on Christmas Day in 508. The adoption by Clovis of Catholicism (as opposed to the Arianism of most other Germanic tribes) led to widespread conversion among the Frankish peoples; to religious unification across what is now modern-day France, the Low Countries and Germany; three centuries later, to Charlemagne's alliance with the Bishop of Rome; and in the middle of the 10th century under Otto I the Great, to the consequent birth of the early Holy Roman Empire.


title: Clovis I

text: Based on the attested forms, the original name is reconstructed in the Frankish language as *"Hlōdowik" or *"Hlōdowig" and is traditionally considered to be composed of two elements, deriving from both Proto-Germanic: "*hlūdaz" ("loud, famous") and "*wiganą" ("to battle, to fight"), resulting in the traditional practice of translating Clovis' name as meaning "famous warrior" or "renowned in battle".


title: Clovis I

text: However, scholars have pointed out that Gregory of Tours consequently transcribes the names of various Merovingian royal names containing the first element as "chlodo-". The use of a close-mid back protruded vowel (o), rather than the expected close back rounded vowel (u) which Gregory does use in various other Germanic names (i.e. Fredegundis, Arnulfus, Gundobadus, etc.) opens up the possibility that the first element instead derives from Proto-Germanic "*hlutą" ("lot, share, portion"), giving the meaning of the name as "loot bringer" or "plunder (bringing) warrior". This hypothesis is supported by the fact that if the first element is taken to mean "famous", then the name of Chlodomer (one of Clovis' sons) would contain two elements ("*hlūdaz" and "*mērijaz") both meaning "famous", which would be highly uncommon within the typical Germanic name structure.


title: Clovis I

text: In Middle Dutch, a language closely related to Frankish, the name was rendered as "Lodewijch" (cf. modern Dutch "Lodewijk"). The name is found in other West Germanic languages, with cognates including Old English "Hloðwig", Old Saxon "Hluduco", and Old High German "Hludwīg" (variant "Hluotwīg"). The latter turned into "Ludwig" in Modern German, although the king Clovis himself is generally named Chlodwig. The Old Norse form "Hlǫðvér" was most likely borrowed from a West Germanic language.


title: Clovis I

text: The Frankish name "*Hlodowig" is at the origin of the French given name "Louis" (variant "Ludovic"), borne by 18 kings of France, via the Latinized form "Hludovicus" (variants "Ludhovicus, Lodhuvicus", or "Chlodovicus"). The English "Lewis" stems from the Anglo-French "Louis". In Spanish, the name became "Luis," in Italian "Luigi" (variants "Ludovico" and Venetian "Alvise", rarer "Aligi" and "Aloisio"), and in Hungarian "Lajos."


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis was the son of Childeric I, a Merovingian king of the Salian Franks, and Basina, a Thuringian princess. The dynasty he founded is, however, named after his supposed ancestor, Merovich. Clovis succeeded his father to become king at the age of 15 in 481, as deduced from Gregory of Tours placing the Battle of Tolbiac (Zülpich) in the fifteenth year of Clovis's reign.


title: Clovis I

text: Numerous small Frankish petty kingdoms existed during the 5th century. The Salian Franks were the first-known Frankish tribe that settled with official Roman permission within the empire, first in Batavia in the Rhine-Maas delta, and then in 375 in Toxandria, which in the present day consists of the province of North Brabant in the Netherlands and parts of neighbouring provinces of Antwerp and Limburg in Belgium. This put them in the north part of the Roman civitas Tungrorum, with Romanized population still dominant south of the military highway Boulogne-Cologne. Later, Chlodio seems to have attacked westwards from this area to take control of the Roman populations in Tournai, then southwards to Artois, and Cambrai, eventually controlling an area stretching to the Somme river.


title: Clovis I

text: Childeric I, Clovis's father, was reputed to be a relative of Chlodio, and was known as the king of the Franks that fought as an army within northern Gaul. In 463 he fought in conjunction with Aegidius, the magister militum of northern Gaul, to defeat the Visigoths in Orléans. Childeric died in 481 and was buried in Tournai; Clovis succeeded him as king, aged just 15. Historians believe that Childeric and Clovis were both commanders of the Roman military in the Province of Belgica Secunda and were subordinate to the magister militum. The Franks of Tournai came to dominate their neighbours, initially aided by the association with Aegidius.


title: Clovis I

text: The death of Flavius Aetius in 454 led to the decline of imperial power in the Gaul; leaving the Visigoths and the Burgundians competing for predominance in the area. The part of Gaul still under Roman control emerged as a kingdom under Syagrius, Aegidius's son.


title: Clovis I

text: Though no primary sources expounding on the language spoken by Clovis exist, historical linguist consider it likely that, based on his family history and core territories, he spoke a form of Old Dutch. In this, the early Merovingians can be contrasted with the later Carolingians, such as Charlemagne, of the late 8th century and onward, who probably spoke various forms of Old High German.


title: Clovis I

text: The ruler of Tournai died in 481 and was succeeded by his sixteen-year-old son, Clovis. His band of warriors probably numbered no more than half a thousand. In 486 he began his efforts to expand the realm by allying himself with his relative, Ragnachar, regulus of Cambrai and another Frankish regulus, Chalaric. Together the triumvirate marched against Syagrius and met the Gallo-Roman commander at Soissons. During the battle Chalaric betrayed his comrades by refusing to take part in the fighting. Despite the betrayal, the Franks landed a decisive victory, forcing Syagrius to flee to the court of Alaric II. This battle is viewed as bringing about the end of the rump state of the Western Roman Empire outside of Italy. Following the battle, Clovis invaded the traitor Chararic's territory and was able to imprison him and his son.


title: Clovis I

text: Prior to the battle, Clovis did not enjoy the support of the Gallo-Roman clergy, so he proceeded to pillage the Roman territory, including the churches. The Bishop of Reims requested Clovis return everything taken from the Church of Reims, and, as the young king aspired to establish cordial relationships with the clergy, he returned a valuable ewer taken from the church. Despite his position, some Roman cities refused to yield to the Franks, namely Verdun‒which surrendered after a brief siege‒and Paris, which stubbornly resisted a few years, perhaps as many as five. He made Paris his capital and established an abbey dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul on the south bank of the Seine.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis came to the realisation that he wouldn't be able to rule Gaul without the help of the clergy and aimed to please the clergy by taking a Catholic wife. He also integrated many of Syagrius's units into his own army. The Roman kingdom was probably under Clovis's control by 491, because in the same year Clovis successfully moved against a small number of Thuringians in the eastern Gaul, near the Burgundian border.


title: Clovis I

text: Around 493 AD, he secured an alliance with the Ostrogoths through the marriage of his sister Audofleda to their king, Theodoric the Great.


title: Clovis I

text: In the same year, the neighboring King of the Burgundians was slain by his brother, Gundobad; bringing civil strife to that kingdom. He proceeded to drown his sister-in-law and force his niece, Chrona, into a convent; another niece, Clotilde, fled to the court of her other uncle. Finding himself in a precarious position this uncle, Godegisel, decided to ally himself to Clovis by marrying his exiled niece to the Frankish king.


title: Clovis I

text: In 496, the Alamanni invaded and some Salians and Ripuarians reguli defected to their side. Clovis met his enemies near the strong fort of Tolbiac. During the fighting, the Franks suffered heavy losses. Clovis, together with over three thousand Frankish companions, may have converted to Christianity around this time. With the help of the Ripuarian Franks he narrowly defeated the Alamanni in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496. Now Christian, Clovis confined his prisoners, Chararic and his son, to a monastery.


title: Clovis I

text: In 500 or 501, the relationship between the Burgundian brothers took a turn for the worse when Godegisel began scheming against his brother Gundobad. He promised his brother-in-law territory and annual tribute for defeating his brother. Clovis was eager to subdue the political threat to his realm and crossed to the Burgundian territory. After hearing about the incident, Gundobad moved against Clovis and called his brother. The three armies met near Dijon, where both the Franks and Godegisel's forces defeated the host of the dumbfounded Gundobad, who escaped to Avignon. Clovis proceeded to follow the Burgundian king and laid siege to the city; however, after some months, he was convinced to abandon the siege and settled for an annual tribute from Gundobad.


title: Clovis I

text: In 501, 502 or 503, Clovis led his troops to Armorica. He had previously restricted of his operations to minor raids, yet this time, the goal was subjugation. Clovis failed to complete his objective via military means; therefore, he was constrained to statecraft, which proved fruitful, for the Armonici shared Clovis's disdain for the Arian Visigoths. Armorica and its fighters were thus integrated into the Frankish realm.


title: Clovis I

text: In 507 Clovis was allowed by the magnates of his realm to invade the remaining threat of the Kingdom of the Visigoths. King Alaric had previously tried to establish a cordial relationship with Clovis by serving him the head of exiled Syagrius on a silver plate in 486 or 487. However, Clovis was no longer able to resist the temptation to move against the Visigoths, for many Catholics under Visigoth yoke were unhappy and implored Clovis to make a move. But just to be absolutely certain about retaining the loyalties of the Catholics under Visigoths, Clovis ordered his troops to omit raiding and plunder, for this was not a foreign invasion, but a liberation.


title: Clovis I

text: Armonici assisted him in defeating the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507, eliminating Visigothic power in Gaul. The battle added most of Aquitaine to Clovis's kingdom and resulted in the death of the Visigothic king Alaric II.


title: Clovis I

text: According to Gregory of Tours, following the battle the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I made Clovis a patrician and honorary consul.


title: Clovis I

text: In 507, following Vouillé, Clovis heard about Chararic's plan to escape from his monastic prison and had him murdered.


title: Clovis I

text: In the same year, Clovis convinced Prince Chlodoric to murder his father, earning him his nickname as Chlodoric the Parricide. Following the murder, Clovis betrayed Chlodoric and had his envoys strike him down.


title: Clovis I

text: In 509, Clovis visited his old ally, Ragnachar in Cambrai. Following his conversion, many of his pagan retainers had defected to Ragnachar's side, making him a political threat. Ragnachar denied Clovis's entry, prompting Clovis to make a move against him. He bribed Ragnachar's retainers and soon, Ragnachar and his brother, Ricchar were captured and executed.


title: Clovis I

text: Shortly before his death, Clovis called a synod of Gallic bishops to meet in Orléans to reform the Church and create a strong link between the Crown and the Catholic episcopate. This was the First Council of Orléans. Thirty-three bishops assisted and passed 31 decrees on the duties and obligations of individuals, the right of sanctuary, and ecclesiastical discipline. These decrees, equally applicable to Franks and Romans, first established equality between conquerors and conquered.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis I is traditionally said to have died on 27 November 511; however, the "Liber Pontificalis" suggests that he was still alive in 513, so the exact date of his death is not known. After his death, Clovis was laid to rest in the Abbey of St Genevieve in Paris. His remains were relocated to Saint Denis Basilica in the mid- to late 18th century.


title: Clovis I

text: When Clovis died, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, Theuderic, Chlodomer, Childebert and Clotaire. This partition created the new political units of the Kingdoms of Rheims, Orléans, Paris and Soissons, and inaugurated a tradition that would lead to disunity lasting until the end of the Merovingian dynasty in 751. Clovis had been a king with no fixed capital and no central administration beyond his entourage. By deciding to be interred at Paris, Clovis gave the city symbolic weight. When his grandchildren divided royal power 50 years after his death in 511, Paris was kept as a joint property and a fixed symbol of the dynasty.


title: Clovis I

text: The disunity continued under the Carolingians until, after a brief unity under Charlemagne, the Franks splintered into distinct spheres of cultural influence that coalesced around Eastern and Western centers of royal power. These later political, linguistic, and cultural entities became the Kingdom of France, the myriad German States, and the semi-autonomous kingdoms of Burgundy and Lotharingia.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis was born a pagan but later became interested in converting to Arian Christianity, whose followers believed that Jesus was a distinct and separate being from God the Father, both subordinate to and created by him. This contrasted with Nicene Christianity, whose followers believe that God the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit are three persons of one being (consubstantiality). While the theology of the Arians was declared a heresy at the First Council of Nicea in 325, the missionary work of Bishop Ulfilas converted a significant portion of the pagan Goths to Arian Christianity in the 4th century. By the time of the ascension of Clovis, Gothic Arians dominated Christian Gaul, and Catholics were in the minority.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis's wife Clotilde, a Burgundian princess, was a Catholic despite the Arianism that surrounded her at court. Her persistence eventually persuaded Clovis to convert to Catholicism, which he initially resisted. Clotilde had wanted her son to be baptized, but Clovis refused, so she had the child baptized without Clovis's knowledge. Shortly after his baptism, their son died, which further strengthened Clovis's resistance to conversion. Clotilde also had their second son baptized without her husband's permission, and this son became ill and nearly died after his baptism. Clovis eventually converted to Catholicism following the Battle of Tolbiac on Christmas Day 508 in a small church in the vicinity of the subsequent Abbey of Saint-Remi in Reims; a statue of his baptism by Saint Remigius can still be seen there. The details of this event have been passed down by Gregory of Tours, who recorded them many years later in the 6th century.


title: Clovis I

text: The king's Catholic baptism was of immense importance in the subsequent history of Western and Central Europe in general, as Clovis expanded his dominion over almost all of Gaul. Catholicism offered certain advantages to Clovis as he fought to distinguish his rule among many competing power centers in Western Europe. His conversion to the Roman Catholic form of Christianity served to set him apart from the other Germanic kings of his time, such as those of the Visigoths and the Vandals, who had converted from Germanic paganism to Arian Christianity. His embrace of the Roman Catholic faith may have also gained him the support of the Catholic Gallo-Roman aristocracy in his later campaign against the Visigoths, which drove them from southern Gaul in 507 and resulted in a great many of his people converting to Catholicism as well.


title: Clovis I

text: On the other hand, Bernard Bachrach has argued that his conversion from Frankish paganism alienated many of the other Frankish sub-kings and weakened his military position over the next few years. In the , Saint Gregory of Tours gave the Germanic gods that Clovis abandoned the names of roughly equivalent Roman gods, such as Jupiter and Mercury. William Daly, more directly assessing Clovis's allegedly barbaric and pagan origins, ignored the Gregory of Tours version and based his account on the scant earlier sources, a sixth-century of Saint Genevieve and letters to or concerning Clovis from bishops (now in the ) and Theodoric.


title: Clovis I

text: Clovis and his wife were buried in the Abbey of St Genevieve (St. Pierre) in Paris; the original name of the church was the Church of the Holy Apostles.


title: Clovis I

text: Under Clovis, the first codification of the Salian Frank law took place. The "Roman Law" was written with the assistance of Gallo-Romans to reflect the Salic legal tradition and Christianity, while containing much from Roman tradition. The "Roman Law" lists various crimes as well as the fines associated with them.


title: Clovis I

text: The legacy of Clovis's conquests, a Frankish kingdom that included most of Roman Gaul and parts of western Germany, survived long after his death. To the French people, he is the founder of France.


title: Clovis I

text: Detracting, perhaps, from this legacy, is his aforementioned division of the state. This was done not along national or even largely geographical lines, but primarily to assure equal income amongst his sons after his death. While it may or may not have been his intention, this division was the cause of much internal discord in Gaul. This precedent led in the long run to the fall of his dynasty, for it was a pattern repeated in future reigns. Clovis did bequeath to his heirs the support of both people and Church such that, when the magnates were ready to do away with the royal house, the sanction of the Pope was sought first.


title: Clovis I

text: By his conversion to Christianity he made himself the ally of the papacy and its protector as well as that of the people, who were mostly Catholics.


title: Clovis I

text: In later centuries, Clovis was venerated as a saint in France. The Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Denis (where Clovis was buried) had a shrine to St. Clovis to the east of the main altar. There was also a shrine to him in the Abbey of Saint Genevieve in Paris. This shrine had a statue and a number of epitaphs and was probably where the veneration of St. Clovis began. Despite Clovis's presence in Paris, his cultus was largely based in the south of France. Abbot Aymeric de Peyrat (d. 1406), the author of the History of the Moissac Abbey, claimed that his own monastery was founded by St. Clovis and there were many monasteries named in his honour. Aymeric not only referred to Clovis as a saint but also prayed for St. Clovis's intercession. There were also known to be shrines dedicated to Clovis in Église Sainte-Marthe de Tarascon and Saint-Pierre-du-Dorât. Boniface Symoneta, Jacques Almain and Paulus Aemilius Veronensis gave hagiographic accounts of Clovis's life and at the time it was common to include Clovis's life in collections of the lives of the saints.


title: Clovis I

text: It has been suggested that the reason that the French state promoted the veneration of Clovis in the south was to establish a border cult that would cause Occitans to venerate the northern-led French state by venerating its founder. Another reason could be that Clovis was a preferable foundation figure for the House of Valois as their predecessors were the Direct Capetians who looked back to Charlemagne whose veneration had been widely recognised. In contrast to the theory of St. Clovis's cult being a primarily northern-supported movement, Amy Goodrich Remensnyder suggests that St. Clovis was used by Occitans to reject the northern concept of the monarchy and to reinstate their autonomy as something granted by the saint.


title: Clovis I

text: St. Clovis had the role of a more militarised royal saint than the pious Louis IX of France. As a saint, Clovis was important as he represented the spiritual birth of the nation and provided a chivalrous and ascetic model for French political leaders to follow. The veneration of St. Clovis was not exclusive to France as a print by the Holy Roman woodcut designer Leonhard Beck made for the Habsburg monarchs depicts Clovis as St. Chlodoveus, St. Boniface's Abbey in Munich depicted St. Chlodoveus as a saint worthy of emulation because of his advocacy, and the Florentine Baroque painter Carlo Dolci painted a large depiction of St. Clovis for the Imperial Apartment in the Uffizi Gallery.


title: Clovis I

text: St. Clovis had no known official canonisation, neither was he beatified, so his sainthood was only ever recognised by popular acclaim. Following the example of the monks of St. Geneviève, St. Clovis's feast day in France was held on 27 November. St. Clovis enjoyed a persistent campaign from French royal authorities that few non-French national or dynastic saints did. French monarchs, beginning in the 14th century at the latest, attempted to officially canonise Clovis a number of times. The most notable attempt, led by King Louis XI and modelled on the successful canonisation campaign of Louis IX, occurred during a conflict with the Burgundians. The cause for Clovis's canonisation was taken up once again in the 17th century, with Jesuit support, a "vita" and an account of posthumous miracles, in opposition to the controversial historical works of Calvinist pastor Jean de Serres who portrayed Clovis as a cruel and bloodthirsty king.


title: Clovis I

text: The Jesuit attempt to formally canonize Clovis came after a rediscovery of Clovis's "cultus" in the 16th century. During this period, the dual role St. Clovis could have for modern France was clarified as that of a deeply sinful man who attained sainthood by submitting himself to the will of God, as well as being the founder of the Gallican Church. He also attained an essentially mystic reputation. St. Clovis role in calling for the First Council of Orléans was understood to be strongly Gallican as he called it without Papal authority and with the understanding that he and his bishops had the authority to call councils that were binding for the Frankish people. For Protestant Gallicans, St. Clovis represented the role of the monarchy in governing the Church and curbing its abuses and was contrasted positively against the Papacy of his time. Protestants were unlikely to mention any of the miracles attributed to St. Clovis, sometimes even writing lengthy rejections of their existence. Instead, they saw his sainthood as evident from his creation of a state more holy and Christian than that of Rome.


title: Clovis I

text: Catholic writers in the 16th century expanded upon the lists of St. Clovis's attributed miracles, but in the early 17th century they also began to minimize their use of the miraculous elements of his hagiography. Mid-to-late-17th-century Jesuit writers resisted this trend and allowed for no doubt as to the miraculous nature of St. Clovis life or his sainthood. Jesuit writers stressed the more extreme elements of his hagiography, and that of other saints associated with him, even claiming that St. Remigius lived for five hundred years. These hagiographies would still be quoted and widely believed as late as 1896, the fourteenth centenary of his baptism, as a speech from Cardinal Langénieux demonstrates. Another factor that led to a resurgence in St. Clovis's veneration was the Spanish Monarchy's use of the title Catholic Monarchs, a title French Monarchs hoped to usurp by attributing it to the much earlier figure of St. Clovis.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Luna Lovegood is a fictional character in the "Harry Potter" book series by J. K. Rowling. She first appears in "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", where she is described as having straggly, waist-length dirty-blond hair and a dazed, dreamy look on her face.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Luna is played by Irish actress Evanna Lynch in the film adaptations of "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince", and both "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" and "Part 2". On her website, Rowling called Lynch "perfect" for the role.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Lynch had to bleach her hair light blond in order to play the role, and has received critical acclaim.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Rowling has often said that Luna is the "anti-Hermione", as Luna believes things on faith alone, while Hermione grounds her views on facts and logic. Hermione repeatedly tries to convince Luna that her beliefs are nonsense, but to no avail. This is not to suggest that Luna is dumb; indeed, as a Ravenclaw, she believes that "wit beyond measure is man's greatest treasure". Hermione sees Luna as gullible, whereas Luna views Hermione as smart, but limited. Though they have different views, Luna and Hermione eventually become friends.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Despite her quirkiness, Luna is often perceptive about human nature, and Harry notes her knack for blunt honesty. She also holds her friends in extremely high regard, as Harry notices (with affection) that she has painted portraits of her friends (Harry, Ron, Hermione, Ginny, and Neville) on the ceiling of her room, connected by chains made of the word "friendship" repeated over and over. Clearly, and despite recurring rudeness from Ron and Hermione, she regards these five as people very close to her.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Both Luna's parents are magical. Her father, Xenophilius Lovegood, first appears in "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows", though Luna earlier identifies him as the editor-in-chief of "The Quibbler", a magazine that, according to Luna, publishes "important stories he thinks the public needs to know". Luna says her mother was an extraordinary witch who died when a spell experiment went wrong. Luna saw the death of her mother when she was only nine and so she can see Thestrals. Luna appears to be an only child as no mention is made of siblings. The Lovegoods live near Ottery St. Catchpole, a small village on the south coast of England that is also home to the Weasley family.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Luna first appears in "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix" when Harry, Ginny, and Neville join her in a compartment on the Hogwarts Express. Luna is isolated at school, but she seems to care little for what others think. She is aware of the nickname everyone calls her—but by which she seems to be unperturbed—"Loony"—by which she is widely known among the students, and is largely unfazed when her classmates tease her by regularly stealing and hiding her possessions. Nevertheless, she values her few friends.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Harry, during this particularly turbulent year of his life, forms a strong friendship with Luna, who is the only person who can quell his anger and calm him down when many of his closer friends cannot, and she supports Harry many times during the series. She and her father, Xenophilius, believe Harry and Albus Dumbledore when they claim that Lord Voldemort has returned; with Hermione, Luna persuades Rita Skeeter to interview Harry so that his views can be published in "The Quibbler", the magazine to which Luna's father is the editor. Luna also joins Dumbledore's Army, and later in the book joins Harry, Ron, Hermione, Ginny, and Neville in the conflict with Death Eaters at the Ministry of Magic Department of Mysteries and, when she is separated from Harry along with Ron and Ginny, appears to be the only one uninjured until hit by a stunning spell. Towards the end of the book, Luna consoles Harry by sharing her views on death after the loss of his godfather, Sirius Black.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: In "Half-Blood Prince", Luna is first seen on the Hogwarts Express. When some other female students invite Harry to join them in their compartment by saying that he does not have to sit with Luna and Neville, implying that they are undesirable companions, Harry witheringly says, "They're friends of mine." Luna observes in her bluntly honest way that people expect someone like Harry to have "cooler friends than us". Harry's response, indicative of the increased fondness he has developed for the pair, is that she and Neville "are" cool.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: At Christmas, Harry invites Luna on a platonic date to the party hosted by Horace Slughorn. Despite wearing a spangled silvery dress, she looks quite nice, Harry notices, and her conversation about the Rotfang conspiracy (where the Aurors are allegedly trying to bring down the Ministry via Dark Magic and gum disease) has Harry coughing into his drink with laughter. Luna also does the Quidditch commentary for Gryffindor's game against Hufflepuff during which she says little about the play – talking instead about "interestingly-shaped clouds" above the stadium and how nice Ginny is and referring to one of the Hufflepuff players as suffering from "Loser's Lurgy". Minerva McGonagall does not quite know what to do with her, but some fans find her commentary highly amusing. This wins over Ron, who remarks that Luna may be mad, but in a good way. Rowling said in an interview that she ""really" enjoyed" writing Luna's commentary and considered it "blinding insight".


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Later, when Death Eaters attack Hogwarts, Luna, Ginny and Neville are the sole D.A. members who answer the call to protect the school. During Dumbledore's funeral, Harry feels a "great rush of affection" for both Luna and Neville as the former helps the latter into his seat.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: In "Deathly Hallows", Luna and her father attend Bill and Fleur's wedding at the Burrow, where she immediately recognises Harry, even though he is disguised with Polyjuice Potion, simply by his facial expression. Luna later returns to school for her sixth year, where she and Ginny help Neville secretly revive Dumbledore's Army, to the fury of Alecto and Amycus Carrow, Death Eater siblings sent to teach at Hogwarts. During the first term, the trio break into the office of Severus Snape and try to steal the sword of Gryffindor to help Harry on his journey. They are captured and apparently punished, but the sanction is a visit to the Forbidden Forest with Rubeus Hagrid.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: When Harry visits the Lovegood home, he notices several pieces of evidence that Luna hasn't been home for weeks despite it being Christmas break: dust over a photo of her and her mother, no clothes in her wardrobe, and her bed, which looks like it hasn't been slept in for some time. It is then revealed that while heading home for Christmas on the Hogwarts Express, Luna was kidnapped in an effort to keep her father from publishing information in support of Harry in "The Quibbler". When Harry, Ron, and Hermione are at the Lovegood home, Xenophilius, desperate to save his only child, betrays them to the Death Eaters in the hope that doing so will secure Luna's release. The trio narrowly escapes - only to land in the cellar of Malfoy Manor as captives themselves a few months later. There, they find Luna being held hostage along with Mr Ollivander the wand maker. They are all rescued by Dobby the house elf, who brings them to Shell Cottage, the home of Bill Weasley and his wife Fleur Delacour, where protective enchantments keep them safe.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: When Harry returns to Hogwarts in search of the Ravenclaw item that Voldemort turned into a Horcrux, Luna helps him enter Ravenclaw's common room in order to view a replica of Rowena Ravenclaw's diadem. She stuns Death Eater Alecto Carrow when they are discovered. Later, she fights bravely in the Battle of Hogwarts and summons her Patronus charm to help fight off hundreds of oncoming Dementors about to attack Harry, Ron and Hermione. After Harry's supposed death, Luna, Hermione and Ginny duel Bellatrix Lestrange, until Molly Weasley takes over and defeats Bellatrix herself. Finally, Luna is among the first to congratulate Harry when Voldemort is defeated. After the battle, she seems to be the only one who sees that Harry needs peace and quiet, so she provides a distraction so that he can escape under his Cloak of Invisibility.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: In Rowling's first televised interview after the release of "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows", she revealed a number of aspects of Luna's life after Hogwarts. Luna continues to be an eccentric person and pursues a career that is "the wizarding equivalent" of a naturalist. She comes to terms with her father's sometimes-false beliefs, but Rowling explains that her background has fostered in her a singular open-mindedness that allows her to make discoveries that more "reality"-oriented individuals might be unable to recognise.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: In a later webchat-based interview, Rowling explained that Luna discovered many new species of animals and became quite famous for it, though she eventually was forced to admit that Crumple-Horned Snorkacks do not exist. She married a fellow naturalist, the grandson of Newt Scamander, named Rolf.


title: Luna Lovegood

text: In the JKR Documentary on ITV, she drew a family tree of the new generation of Weasleys, including Luna and Rolf. They had twin boys, Lorcan and Lysander. The twins were born several years after Luna's friends had their own children. Harry and Ginny named their third child and only daughter Lily Luna after their "dear friend".


title: Luna Lovegood

text: Luna quickly became a fan favourite after her initial appearance in "Order of the Phoenix", due in large part to her quirky personality and happy-go-lucky attitude. IGN ranked Luna as the 12th best "Harry Potter" character stating, "While Luna is often shunned for her oddball ways, things change when she meets Harry Potter and friends on the Hogwarts Express on the way to their fifth year at school. Luna joins the cadre of heroic students in Dumbledore's Army and plays a critical role within the group." "Empire Magazine" listed Luna as the 10th best character. Future Academy Award–nominated actress Saoirse Ronan auditioned for the role of Luna.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The LTV A-7 Corsair II is an American carrier-capable subsonic light attack aircraft designed and manufactured by Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV).


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7 was developed during the early 1960s as replacement for the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. Its design was derived from the Vought F-8 Crusader; in comparison with the F-8, the A-7 is both smaller and restricted to subsonic speeds, its airframe being simpler and cheaper to produce. Following a competitive bid by Vought in response to the United States Navy's (USN) "VAL" (Heavier-than-air, Attack, Light) requirement, an initial contract for the type was issued on 8 February 1964. Development was rapid, first flying on 26 September 1965 and entering squadron service with the USN on 1 February 1967; by the end of that year, A-7s were being deployed overseas for the Vietnam War.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Initially adopted by USN, the A-7 proved attractive to other services, soon being adopted by the United States Air Force (USAF) and the Air National Guard (ANG) to replace their aging Douglas A-1 Skyraider and North American F-100 Super Sabre fleets. Improved models of the A-7 would be developed, typically adopting more powerful engines and increasingly capable avionics. American A-7s would be used in various major conflicts, including the Invasion of Grenada, Operation El Dorado Canyon, and the Gulf War. The type was also used to support the development of the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7 was also exported to Greece in the 1970s and to Portugal in the late 1980s. The USAF and USN opted to retire their remaining examples of the type in 1991, followed by the ANG in 1993 and the Portuguese Air Force in 1999. The A-7 was largely replaced by newer generation fighters such as the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The final operator, the Hellenic Air Force, withdrew the last A-7s during 2014.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: In 1960, officials within the United States Navy (USN) began to consider the need to replace its existing fleet of Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, a light attack aircraft. At that time, it was not clear that the A-4 would eventually remain in production until 1979; furthermore, according to aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, some figures believed there to be an unmet requirement for a more capable attack platform that could routinely attain supersonic speeds, carry heavier payloads, and fly further than its predecessors. Proponents of a new attack aircraft included Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, who urged the Navy's consideration on the matter.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: In December 1962, the "Sea-Based Air Strike Forces" (SBASF) study group started examining detailed performance and cost evaluations on the topic. The group analyzed a total of 144 hypothetical aircraft to support their findings. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, a major finding from these studies was that a subsonic aircraft would achieve superior performance to a supersonic one. By foregoing a supersonic capability, the airframe could be smaller, cheaper, and easier to manufacture; considerably larger quantities of such an attack platform could be procured over a supersonic counterpart. Development speed was also increased by sticking to subsonic speeds, which was a further advantage. A particular emphasis was placed on the accurate delivery of weapons, which would reduce the munitions costs per target.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: On 17 May 1963, these criteria were formulated into a draft requirement, known as "VAL" (Heavier-than-air, Attack, Light). On 29 May 1963, the request for proposals (RFP) associated with the requirement was issued. To minimize costs, all proposals had to be based on existing designs. Accordingly, Vought, Douglas Aircraft, Grumman and North American Aviation chose to respond. The Vought proposal was based on their successful F-8 Crusader fighter and sharing a similar configuration; however, it had a shorter airframe with a rounded nose, giving the aircraft a "stubbier" appearance.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: All bids were received by September 1963 and the evaluation process was completed in early November of that year. On 8 February 1964, funding for VAL was approved by Congress, enabling the programme to proceed; three days later, Vought's submission was selected as the winner. On 19 March 1964, Vought received a contract from the Navy for the manufacture of the initial batch of aircraft, designated "A-7". On 22 June 1964, the mock-up review took place. In 1965, the A-7 received the name "Corsair II"; Vought had previously produced three aircraft known as "Corsair". During the 1920s, they had produced the O2U Corsair biplane scout and observation aircraft and the SBU Corsair scout bomber of the 1930s. During World War II, the firm made the successful F4U Corsair. The name "Corsair II" reflects the well-known F4U Corsair, which famously served as a capable fighter bomber in World War II and the Korean War. It was supposed to establish a lineage between the aircraft from the same manufacturer and intended for the same ground attack role.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: On 27 September 1965, the first "A-7A" performed the type's maiden flight. On 2 November 1965, Vought publicly demonstrated the first pair of A-7As to 1,000 guests; test pilot John Conrad demonstrated the aircraft's ability to perform rapid rolls even while laden with a payload of six and twelve bombs. A Navy spokesperson acknowledged the A-7's ability to carry double the bombload of an A-4E, or the same payload over twice its maximum distance.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The flight test program proceeded at a relatively rapid pace, during which no major setbacks were uncovered or meaningful delays were incurred. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, there were some naval officials that sought to slow the program down so that the A-7's avionics systems could be revised for greater capabilities, but this preference had been overridden by a perceived urgency to getting the type into service. On 14 October 1966, enough aircraft had been delivered to the Navy that the first squadron could be formed. The first A-7 squadrons attained operational status on 1 February 1967; these were able to commence overseas combat operations in the escalating Vietnam War during December of that year.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The June 1964 contract had ordered the completion of seven development aircraft and 35 production-standard fighter bombers. A follow-up contract, placed during September 1965, ordered 140 more aircraft. A third contract for 17 aircraft led to a total of 199 A-7A aircraft being manufactured. As the original version was found to be underpowered, a large order for 196 aircraft of the improved "A-7B" variant, equipped with the more powerful Pratt & Whitney TF30-8 engine, was placed. Further variants of the type would be ordered, including the "A-7D" for the United States Air Force (USAF), during 1966. Partially due to a shortage of engines, the Allison TF41-A-2, a licensed derivative of the Rolls-Royce Spey engine, powered the A-7D. The adoption of a British engine caused some political controversy on both sides of the Atlantic.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: During 1967, the Navy decided to cancel its order for the A-7B, resulting in 257 aircraft less of this variant being constructed. Taking its place, the "A-7E", the definitive model of the aircraft, was specified and placed into production. This variant integrated several of the improvements of the USAF's A-7D, including the TF41 engine and much of its avionics; however, the engine was revised for slightly more thrust and the communications modified for compatibility with naval systems. On 25 November 1968, the first A-7E conducted its first flight; a total of 535 aircraft of this variant would be manufactured. During the 1970s and 1980s, several specialised models, such as the "TA-7C" for training and "EA-7L" for electronic warfare, were developed as well. During 1983, the final delivery of a new-build A-7 took place.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The LTV A-7 Corsair II was a carrier-capable subsonic attack fighter. It was a derivative of the Vought F-8 Crusader, an earlier fighter; compared to the Crusader, it had a shorter, broader fuselage, and a longer-span wing but without the Crusader's variable-incidence feature. The A-7's wing was not only larger but had reduced sweepback, as well as six pylons with the carriage of up to of bombs or other equipment. According to Gunston and Gilchirst, there were no common structural features shared between the two aircraft despite their visual similarity and shared heritage.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7 had fully powered flight controls, as did the F-8. However, conventional outboard ailerons were used (instead of the drooping ailerons mounted inboard of the wing-fold of the F-8 and doubling as flaps when flaps were deployed), along with large slotted flaps on the wing's inboard area; the wing fold was between the flaps and ailerons. The wing leading edge was fixed and had a dog-tooth discontinuity. A large air brake was fitted on the underside of the aircraft. The three-unit landing gear retracted into the fuselage; the twin-wheel nose gear was steerable and stressed for catapult-assisted take-offs.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: To achieve the required range, initial versions of the A-7 were powered by a single Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-6 turbofan engine, which produced of thrust. It had replaced the afterburner-equipped Pratt & Whitney J57-P-20A turbojet engine of the F-8. The same engine had also powered several other combat aircraft of the era, including the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark and early Grumman F-14 Tomcats. The TF30-P-6 did not require an afterburner for its subsonic role.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Later versions of the A-7 used different engines; according to Gunston and Gilchrist, this was largely due to production difficulties in keeping up with numerous military and civil demands. These new powerplants included the more powerful Pratt & Whitney TF30-8 and the Allison TF41-A-2 engines, a licensed model of the Rolls-Royce Spey engine. The TF41 corrected issues that had troubled initial A-7 operations, such as severe compressor stalls and low thrust. The Air Force A-7D had self-contained starting using internal batteries and a gas turbine starter. The Navy A-7E used an air turbine starter driven by an external air supply.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Air was fed to the engine through ducting from a simple nose inlet, similar to that on the F-8, despite the potential hazard it posed to flight deck personnel. An aerial refueling probe was mounted on the righthand side of the nose. Two cannon were installed on the underside of the nose. For self-defense against aerial threats, the A-7, in addition to the cannon, had a mounting for AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles on either side of the fuselage. Later variants had the two cannon replaced with a single M61A1 Vulcan rotary cannon, along with other improvements. To reduce vulnerability to ground fire the flying control hydraulic systems were triplicated, other systems duplicated and much of the fuselage had armor protection.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7 was fitted with an AN/APQ-116 radar, later followed by the AN/APQ-126, which was integrated into the ILAAS digital navigation system. The radar also fed an IBM navigation and weapons delivery computer which made possible accurate delivery of bombs from a greater stand-off distance, greatly improving survivability compared with faster aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. It was the first U.S. aircraft to have a modern head-up display, (made by Marconi-Elliott), now a standard instrument, which displayed information such as dive angle, airspeed, altitude, drift and aiming reticule. The integrated navigation system also had another innovation—the projected map display system (PMDS) which accurately showed aircraft position on two different map scales.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7 had more modern avionics and systems than contemporary aircraft. This included data link capabilities that, among others, provided "hands-off" carrier landing capability when used with its approach power compensator (APC) or auto throttle. Other notable and advanced equipment was a projected map display located just below the radar scope. The map display was slaved to the inertial navigation system and provided a high-resolution map image of the aircraft's position superimposed over TPC/JNC charts. Moreover, when slaved to the all-axis auto pilot, the inertial navigation system could fly the aircraft "hands off" to up to nine individual waypoints. Typical inertial drift was minimal for newly manufactured models and the inertial measurement system accepted flyover, radar, and TACAN updates.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Initial operational basing/homeporting for USN A-7 squadrons was at NAS Cecil Field, Florida for Atlantic Fleet units and NAS Lemoore, California for Pacific Fleet units. This was in keeping with the role of these bases in already hosting the A-4 Skyhawk attack squadrons that would eventually transition to the A-7.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: From 1967 to 1971, a total of 27 US Navy squadrons took delivery of four different A-7A/B/C/E models. The Vought plant in Dallas, Texas, employed up to 35,000 workers who turned out one aircraft a day for several years to support the navy's carrier-based needs for Vietnam and SE Asia and commitments to NATO in Europe. In 1974, when became the first aircraft carrier to be homeported in Yokosuka, Japan, two A-7A squadrons assigned to Carrier Air Wing Five (CVW-5) were moved to NAF Atsugi, Japan. In 1976, these squadrons (VA-93 and VA-56) finally transitioned to the much more advanced A-7E model. Six Naval Reserve attack squadrons would also eventually transition to the A-7, operating from NAS Cecil Field, Florida; NAS Atlanta/Dobbins ARB, Georgia; NAS New Orleans, Louisiana; NAS Alameda, California and NAS Point Mugu, California. An additional active duty squadron stood up in the 1980s, Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 34 (VAQ-34) at NAS Point Mugu, operating twin-seat TA-7C and EA-7L aircraft with both a pilot and a naval flight officer in an adversary electronic warfare role.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Pilots of the early A-7s lauded the aircraft for general ease of flying (with the exceptions of poor stability on crosswind landings and miserable stopping performance on wet runways with an inoperative anti-skid braking system) and excellent forward visibility but noted a lack of engine thrust. This was addressed with A-7B and more thoroughly with A-7D/E. The turbofan engine provided a dramatic increase in fuel efficiency compared with earlier turbojets—the A-7D was said to have specific fuel consumption one sixth that of an F-100 Super Sabre at equivalent thrust. An A-7D carrying twelve bombs at at used only of fuel per hour. Typical fuel consumption at mission retrograde during aircraft carrier recovery was approximately compared to over for the Phantom F-4J/N series. The A-7 Corsair II was tagged with the nickname "SLUF" ("Short Little Ugly Fucker") by pilots.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: In Vietnam, the hot, humid air robbed all jet engines of power, and even the upgraded A-7D and A-7E fell short of their required power levels when serving in these conditions. Takeoff rolls were lengthy, and fully armed aircraft struggled to reach . For A-7A aircraft, high-density altitude and maximum-weight runway takeoffs often necessitated a "low transition", where the aircraft was intentionally held in "ground effect" a few feet off the runway during gear retraction, and as much as a departure at treetop altitude before reaching a safe flap-retraction speed. (A-7A wing flap systems were either fully extended or fully retracted. The A-7A flap handle did not have the microswitch feature of later models that permitted the flaps to be slowly raised by several degrees per tap of the flap handle as airspeed slowly increased during max-weight takeoffs.)


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Carrier catapult launches at maximum weight under these performance-robbing conditions were not significantly better and were characterized by the aircraft decelerating by as much as immediately after launch. As a result, A-7A units operated their aircraft below the rated maximum takeoff weight for the A-7E.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: In a sortie against the Thanh Hóa Bridge on 6 October 1972, four A-7Cs from VA-82 successfully delivered 8,000 lb of high explosives with two aircraft carrying two Walleyes, while two others also carried 2,000 lb in Mk 84 GP bombs. In a simultaneous attack, the center piling on the bridge's west side was hit and broke the span in half. After this, the Thanh Hoa bridge was considered permanently destroyed and removed from the target list.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The United States Army has not been permitted to operate fixed-wing combat aircraft since the establishment of an independent United States Air Force (USAF) in 1947. To meet its need for close air support of its troops in South Vietnam, the Army pressured the Air Force to procure a specialized subsonic close air support fixed-wing aircraft that would suit its needs better than the general-purpose supersonic aircraft that the USAF preferred.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The Vought A-7 seemed to be a relatively quick and inexpensive way to satisfy this need. However, the USAF was initially reluctant to take on yet another Navy-designed aircraft, but Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara was insistent. On 5 November 1965, Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown and USAF Chief of Staff General John P. McConnell announced that they had decided to order a version of the Corsair II, designated A-7D, for the Tactical Air Command.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7D differed from the Navy's Corsair II in several ways. For one, the USAF insisted on significantly more power for its Corsair II version, and it selected the Allison TF41-A-1 turbofan engine, which was a license-built version of the Rolls-Royce Spey. It offered a thrust of , over greater than that of the TF30 that powered the Navy's Corsair IIs. Other changes included a head up display, a new avionics package, and an M61A1 rotary cannon in place of the two single-barreled 20-mm cannon. Also included was a computerized navigation/weapons delivery system with AN/APQ-126 radar and a head-up display.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Two YA-7D prototypes were completed with TF30-P-6 engines, and the first of these flew on 6 April 1968. The first Spey-powered A-7D ("67-14854") flew for the first time on 26 September 1968. The seventeenth production aircraft introduced a provision for boom flight refueling in place of the Navy's retractable starboard-side probe/drogue system, with the boom receptacle being on the top of the fuselage behind the cockpit and offset to port.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7D first entered service in 1970 with the 57th Fighter Weapons Wing at Luke AFB Arizona, and the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina was equipped with four squadrons of A-7Ds by 1972; the 355th TFW at Davis-Monthan AFB was equipped with four squadrons in 1972, and in 1973, the 23d TFW at England AFB, Louisiana was fully equipped with A-7Ds.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The 354th TFW first deployed two squadrons of A-7Ds to Korat Royal Thai AFB, Thailand in September 1972 as part of Operation Cornet Dancer, The A-7Ds were quickly assigned the "Sandy mission" of providing air cover for Combat Search and Rescue missions of downed pilots.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Taking over from Douglas A-1 Skyraiders (and adopting their call sign of "Sandy"), the A-7's higher speed was somewhat detrimental for escorting the helicopters but the aircraft's high endurance and durability were an asset and it performed admirably.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: On 18 November 1972, Major Colin A. Clarke led a successful CSAR mission near Thanh Hoa to rescue a downed Republic F-105 Thunderchief crew. The mission lasted a total of 8.8 hours during which Clarke and his wingman took a number of hits from 0.50 cal (12.7 mm) anti-aircraft fire. For his actions in coordinating the rescue, Clarke was awarded the Air Force Cross, the USAF's second-highest decoration for valor, and his A-7D (AF Serial No. "70-0970") was eventually placed on display on 31 January 1992 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: With the end of US involvement in South Vietnam, the 354th TFW, deployed at Korat, began flying combat sorties in Cambodia to support the Lon Nol government in support of Khmer National Armed Forces against the Khmer Rouge. Rotational deployments began to Korat from the 355th TFW and 23d TFW, with pilots and support personnel beginning six-month deployment cycles. In March 1973, the 354th transferred a squadron of A-7Ds to the 388th TFW, the host wing at Korat RTAFB at the time, which re-established the 3d Tactical Fighter Squadron and created a permanent USAF A-7D presence in Southeast Asia. A-7Ds from both wings stationed at Korat engaged in combat operations in Cambodia until 15 August 1973 when an A-7D of the deployed 353d TFS/354th TFW carried out the last air support mission. In March 1974, the 354th TFW transferred several more aircraft to the 3d TFS prior to its return to Myrtle Beach AFB.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The USAF A-7D flew a total of 12,928 combat sorties during the war with only six losses—the lowest of any U.S. fighter in the theater. The aircraft was second only to Boeing B-52 Stratofortress in the amount of ordnance dropped on Hanoi and dropped more bombs per sortie with greater accuracy than any other U.S. attack aircraft.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The Navy was sufficiently impressed with the increased power offered by the A-7D Spey engine used by the Air Force, and decided to use this engine for its own version of the Corsair II. The designation A-7E was assigned, and this version was to succeed the A-7B in production. However, there were delays in the deliveries of the TF41-A-2 engine specified for the A-7E, so the first 67 aircraft of the order were delivered with the TF30-P-8 engine. These aircraft had all of the other improvements planned for the A-7E, including the improved avionics and the M61 rotary cannon, and were re-designated A-7C after delivery.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The first Spey-powered A-7E flew for the first time on 9 March 1969. The A-7E differed from the USAF A-7D in retaining the probe-and-drogue midair refueling system of the earlier A-7A/B. It entered service in Southeast Asia in May 1970 with VA-146 and VA-147 deployed aboard . The A-7E participated in numerous close-air support missions over both North and South Vietnam, with its state-of-the-art bombing and navigation system being particularly reliable and accurate. Most air wings operating A-4 Skyhawks and early A-7s were re-equipped with A-7Es. The A-7E participated in the mining of Haiphong harbor in 1972, and played a vital role in Operations Linebacker I and Linebacker II that led up to the formal end of US involvement in the Vietnam War on 24 January 1973.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: On 15 May 1975, A-7E aircraft operating from , in conjunction with A-7D aircraft assigned to the 3d TFS at Korat RTAFB, provided air cover in what is considered the last battle of the Vietnam War, the recovery of SS "Mayagüez" after it was hijacked by Khmer Rouge gunboats.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: With the pullout of the USAF from its Thailand bases in late 1975, the A-7Ds stationed at Korat initially went to Clark AB, Philippines. The 3d TFS transitioned from its Corsairs to the F-4E Phantom II and remained at Clark. The A-7Ds were returned to the United States where they were reassigned to several Air National Guard squadrons.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: With the end of the Vietnam War, the Air Force began to transfer its active duty A-7D aircraft to Air National Guard units beginning in 1974. The Corsairs had been, in a sense, a forced acquisition by the USAF in the late 1960s, and the inter-service rivalry of flying a Navy aircraft had led, beginning about 1970, to the development of its own Close Air Support aircraft. In 1974, selection of the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II was made as the replacement for the A-7D. The first A-10As were received by the 354th TFW in 1977 at Myrtle Beach AFB; the 355th TFW at Davis-Monthan AFB began replacing its A-7Ds in 1978, and the 23d TFW at England AFB in 1979. As the A-10s were received, the A-7Ds were transferred from the USAF to the National Guard Bureau for subsequent re-allocation. By 1981, when the 23d TFW sent its last A-7Ds to Tonopah Test Range Airport, Nevada for clandestine use in the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk development program, fifteen ANG squadrons were equipped with the A-7D Corsair II.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: However, Congressional decisions added additional funding to the DOD FY 1975 and FY 1976 budgets for the procurement of additional A-7Ds, primarily to keep the LTV production line in Dallas open and the workers employed in the wake of post-Vietnam DOD procurement reductions. As a result of these unplanned acquisitions, the Air Force assigned these new aircraft (all with 1975 tail numbers) to the Arizona Air National Guard 152nd Tactical Fighter Squadron at Tucson, which operated the Air National Guard transition training school for Corsair II pilots. In 1978, a two-seat A-7 trainer was developed by LTV for the Air Force, designated the A-7K. One prototype aircraft was built by modifying an existing A-7D airframe; however, production A-7Ks were new builds with 1979 and 1980 tail numbers. The A-7K was a fully combat-capable aircraft as well as a dual-control training aircraft. Most of the A-7K trainers went to the transition school at Tucson, with the squadrons' A-7Ds being re-distributed to other ANG squadrons. However, all ANG squadrons were assigned an A-7K trainer as well as their complement of A-7Ds.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: During the post-Vietnam era, the Air National Guard frequently deployed its Corsairs on annual operational exercises. Deployments were made to NATO and USAFE bases in West Germany and Denmark as part of training exercises along with the USAREUR Reforger training exercises.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Beginning in 1974, active-duty squadrons from Myrtle Beach, England and Davis-Monthan Air Force Bases began deployments of A-7Ds to Howard AFB, Panama to train with Army and Naval forces defending the Panama Canal. These deployments, named "Cornet Cove" generally were of ninety (90) days, and were rotated among squadrons of the three wings in the United States. Beginning in 1977, with the phaseout of the A-7D with active-duty units, the Air National Guard began taking over this mission. In December 1989, the South Dakota 175th Tactical Fighter Squadron and Ohio 112th Tactical Fighter Squadron were at Howard AFB on a Coronet Cove deployment when President George H. W. Bush announced Operation Just Cause, the United States Invasion of Panama. The ANG squadrons participated in the invasion, flying 34 combat missions, completing 34 sorties, expended 71.7 flying hours and expended 2,715 rounds of ordnance.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: In the 1981 Muñiz Air National Guard Base attack, on 12 January, 10 A-7Ds of the 198th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Puerto Rico Air National Guard were destroyed or damaged in a terrorist attack by the Boricua Popular Army at Muñiz Air National Guard Base in the largest attack ever on an American military station since the Vietnam War. This terrorist attack was largely unreported due to the Iran hostage crisis at the time.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Navy A-7E squadrons VA-15 and VA-87, from USS "Independence", provided close air support during the Invasion of Grenada, codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, in October 1983.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Navy A-7s also provided air support during the U.S. mission in Lebanon in 1983. An A-7 and an A-6 Intruder were shot down by Syrian surface-to-air missiles (SAM) on 4 December 1983. The A-7 pilot, Commander Edward Andrews, managed to guide his failing Corsair over coastal waters before ejecting; he was rescued by a Lebanese fishing boat and safely returned to the U.S. Marines.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: On 24 March 1986, during the Gulf of Sidra dispute with Libya, Libyan air defense operators launched SA-5 missiles at two Fighter Squadron 102 (VF-102) Grumman F-14 Tomcats from USS "America" that were orbiting in international air space on a Combat Air Patrol (CAP) station. A-7s operating from responded by launching the first AGM-88 HARM missiles ever used in combat. On the next day, A-6s attacked Libyan warships approaching the US fleet, while A-7s again launched HARM missiles against Libyan SAM sites.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: In April 1986, navy Sixth Fleet A-7Es from VA-72 and VA-46 embarked on board USS "America" also participated in Operation El Dorado Canyon, the retaliatory attack on Libya, using HARM and Shrike anti-radar missiles to protect the naval strike force from SAMs.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: While USAF A-7s stayed home in favor of A-10s, the USN deployed two of its last A-7E squadrons to Operation Desert Shield in August 1990 aboard , the only carrier of six deployed to Desert Storm to operate the A-7. The navy squadrons VA-46 and VA-72 made the last combat sorties of the A-7 in Operation Desert Storm flying from the Red Sea to targets throughout Iraq. The A-7 was used both day and night to attack a wide range of heavily defended deep interdiction targets in Iraq as well as "kill boxes" (geographically defined kill zones) in Kuwait, employing a variety of weapons including precision-guided munitions (PGMs), such as the TV-guided Walleye glide bomb, unguided general-purpose bombs, and High Speed Anti-Radiation missiles (HARM). The A-7 was also used as a tanker in numerous in-flight refueling missions.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The 4450th Tactical Group stationed at Nellis AFB, Nevada had the distinction of being the last active USAF unit to operate the A-7 Corsair II. The mission of the 4450th TG was the operational development of the F-117, and the unit needed a surrogate aircraft for pilot training and practice. A-7Ds and A-7Ks were obtained from various active duty and air national guard squadrons and were assigned initially to the "(P)" or "Provisional" unit of the 4450th Tactical Group, redesignated the 4451st Tactical Squadron in January 1983.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: The A-7s were used as a deception and training aircraft by the group between 1981 and 1989. It was selected because it demanded a similar pilot workload expected in the F-117A, was single seat, and many of the F-117A pilots had F-4 or F-111 backgrounds. A-7s were used for pilot training before any F-117As had been delivered, to bring all pilots to a common flight training base line. Later, the A-7s were used as chase planes on F-117A tests and other weapon tests at the Nellis Range.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: A-7 flight operations began in June 1981 concurrent with the very first YF-117A flights. The A-7s wore a unique "LV" tailcode (for Las Vegas) and had a dark purple/black paint motif. The A-7s were based officially at Nellis Air Force Base and were maintained by the 4450th Maintenance Squadron. In addition to providing an excuse for the 4450th's existence and activities, the A-7s were also used to maintain pilot currency, particularly in the early stages when very few production F-117As were available. The pilots learned to fly chase on F-117A test and training flights, perform practice covert deployments, and practice any other purpose that could not be accomplished using F-117As, given the tight restrictions imposed on all F-117A operations.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Some A-7s operated from the Tonopah Test Range Airport, about southeast of Tonopah, Nevada where the F-117s were being operationally tested. As a deception operation, care was taken to ensure that F-117As were never left parked outside aircraft hangars during daylight hours. However, A-7s were deliberately and routinely left outside hangars for the benefit of any orbiting Soviet spy satellites. Soviet intelligence agencies examining spy satellite imagery of the base would undoubtedly notice the A-7s parked on the Tonopah flight line, and would not be particularly interested. The intention of this deception was to convince the Soviets that Tonopah operated nothing more exciting than some obsolete A-7 Corsairs. The cover story to the public was that the A-7s were flying "radar calibration missions" out of Tonopah. Also, in order to help maintain the deception, about five or six A-7Ds were deployed to South Korea in 1984 and 1988. In South Korea they trained with the Army for about a month in Close Air Support operations. It appeared to the Soviets that it was a real squadron with a combat mission because the aircraft could be seen having munitions loaded and performing training missions.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: There were approximately 20 A-7D aircraft used in developing the F-117, including several two-seat A-7K trainers. In January 1989, three months after the USAF admitted the F-117A existed, the A-7s were retired to the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center (AMARC) and were replaced by AT-38B Talons as training aircraft and the 4451st TS was deactivated.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Pilots quipped that the Corsair "is not very fast, but it sure is slow." For dissimilar air combat training (DACT), and aerial demonstrations by the Blue Angels, the Navy would choose the more nimble A-4 Skyhawk as a subsonic maneuvering platform, as some considered the A-7 to be inadequate in air combat, even though it was highly maneuverable. While some questioned its air combat capability it was widely regarded as a highly successful attack aircraft, partly by virtue of being a stable bombing platform. Despite this, the Marine Corps also rejected the Corsair, opting instead for the V/STOL (Vertical/Short Take Off or Landing) AV-8 Harrier as its light attack aircraft to replace its A-4F/M Skyhawks.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Greece's Hellenic Air Force ordered sixty new A-7H aircraft and five TA-7Hs in 1974. The delivery of the airplanes started in 1975 and equipped the 347, 340, 345 Squadrons. In 1993 Hellenic Air Force received an additional sixty-two A-7Es and nineteen TA-7C surplus USN airplanes who were given to the 335 and 336 Squadrons. The last A-7Es were retired in October 2014 from the 336th Bomber Squadron.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons began replacing the Air National Guard Corsairs beginning in the late 1980s and the last were retired in 1993 by the units at Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base, Ohio; Des Moines Air National Guard Base, Iowa; Tulsa Air National Guard Base, Oklahoma; and Springfield Air National Guard Base, Ohio.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: USN A-7 Corsairs began being phased out of the fleet during the mid-1980s with the arrival of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. A-7 squadrons of the United States Navy Reserve transitioned concurrent with (but prior to the completion of) all Regular Navy squadrons. The last Navy A-7s were retired by the last fleet operational squadrons (VA-46 and VA-72) in May 1991 shortly after their return from Operation Desert Storm. By the end of 1998, with the exception of some airframes used as static displays, all US A-7s were disposed of by the AMARC.


title: LTV A-7 Corsair II

text: Some of these surplus aircraft were passed to Greece, Thailand and Portugal. The last Portuguese Air Force A-7Ps were retired in 2007 after 26 years. The Corsair II served for 49 years.


title: Kamehameha I

text: Kamehameha I (; Kalani Paiea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiikui Kamehameha o Iolani i Kaiwikapu kaui Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea;  – May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha the Great, was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. The state of Hawaii gave a statue of him to the National Statuary Hall Collection in Washington, D.C. as one of two statues it is entitled to install there.


title: Kamehameha I

text: Kamehameha (known as Paiea at birth), was born to Kekuʻiapoiwa II, the niece of Alapainui, the usurping ruler of Hawaii Island who had killed the two legitimate heirs of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku during civil war. By most accounts he was born in Ainakea, Kohala, Hawaii. His father was Keōua Kalanikupuapa'ikalaninui; however, Native Hawaiian historian Samuel Kamakau says that Maui monarch Kahekili II had "hānai" adopted (traditional, informal adoption) Kamehameha at birth, as was the custom of the time. Kamakau believes this is why Kahekili II is often referred to as Kamehameha's father. The author also says that Kameʻeiamoku told Kamehameha I that he was the son of Kahekili II, saying, "I have something to tell you: Ka-hekili was your father, you were not Keoua's son. Here are the tokens that you are the son of Ka-hekili."


title: Kamehameha I

text: King Kalakaua wrote that these rumors are scandals and should be dismissed as the offspring of hatred and jealousies of later years. Regardless of the rumors, Kamehameha was a descendant of Keawe through his mother Kekuʻiapoiwa II; Keōua acknowledged him as his son and he is recognized as such by all the sovereigns and most genealogists.


title: Kamehameha I

text: Accounts of Kamehameha I's birth vary, but sources place his birth between 1736 and 1761, with historian Ralph Simpson Kuykendall believing it to be between 1748 and 1761. An early source is thought to imply a 1758 dating because that date matched a visit from Halley's Comet, and would make him close to the age that Francisco de Paula Marín estimated he was. This dating, however, does not accord with the details of many well-known accounts of his life, such as his fighting as a warrior with his uncle, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, or his being of age to father his first children by that time. The 1758 dating also places his birth after the death of his father.


title: Kamehameha I

text: Kamakau published an account in the "Ka Nupepa Kuokoa" in 1867 placing the date of Kamehameha's birth around 1736. He wrote, "It was during the time of the warfare among the chiefs of [the island of] Hawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island (Ke-awe-i-kekahi-aliʻi-o-ka-moku) that Kamehameha I was born". However, his general dating has been challenged as twenty years too early, related to disputes over Kamakau's inaccuracy of dating compared to accounts of foreign visitors. Regardless, Abraham Fornander wrote in his book, "An Account of the Polynesian Race: Its Origins and Migrations": "when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter". "A Brief History of the Hawaiian People" by William De Witt Alexander lists the birth date in the "Chronological Table of Events of Hawaiian History" as 1736. In 1888 the Kamakau account was challenged by Samuel C. Damon in the missionary publication; "The Friend", deferring to a 1753 dating that was the first mentioned by James Jackson Jarves. But the Kamakau dating was widely accepted due to support from Abraham Fornander.


title: Kamehameha I

text: At the time of Kamehameha's birth, Keōua and his half-brother Kalaniʻōpuʻu were serving Alapaʻinui, ruler of the island of Hawaii. Alapaʻinui had brought the brothers to his court after defeating both their fathers in the civil war that followed the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. Keōua died while Kamehameha was young, so Kamehameha was raised in the court of his uncle, Kalaniʻōpuʻu. The traditional "mele" chant of Keaka, wife of Alapainui, indicates that Kamehameha was born in the month of "ikuwā" (winter) or around November. Alapai had given the child, Kamehameha, to his wife, Keaka, and her sister, Hākau, to care for after the ruler discovered the infant had survived.


title: Kamehameha I

text: On February 10, 1911, the Kamakau version was challenged by the oral history of the Kaha family, as published in newspaper articles also appearing in the "Kuoko". After Kamakau's history was published again, to a larger English reading public in 1911 Hawaii, the Kaha version of these events was published by Kamaka Stillman, who had objected to the Nupepa article.


title: Kamehameha I

text: Kamehameha was raised in the royal court of his uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu. He achieved prominence in 1782, upon Kalaniʻōpuʻu's death. While the kingship was inherited by Kīwalaʻō, Kalaniʻōpuʻu's son, Kamehameha was given a prominent religious position as guardian of the Hawaiian god of war, Kūkāilimoku. He was also given control of the district of Waipio Valley. The two cousins' relationship was strained after Kamehameha made a dedication to the gods instead of allowing Kīwalaʻō to do that. Kamehameha accepted the allegiance of a group of chiefs from the Kona district.


title: Kamehameha I

text: The other story took place after the prophecy was passed along by the high priests and high chiefs. When Kamehameha was able to lift the Naha Stone, he was considered the fulfiller of the prophecy. Other ruling chiefs, Keawe Mauhili, the Mahoe (twins) Keoua, and other chiefs rejected the prophecy of Ka Poukahi. The high chiefs of Kauai supported Kiwala`o even after learning about the prophecy.


title: Kamehameha I

text: The five Kona chiefs supporting Kamehameha were Keeaumoku Pāpaiahiahi (Kamehameha's father-in-law/grand uncle), Keaweaheulu Kaluaāpana (Kamehameha's uncle), Kekūhaupio (Kamehameha's warrior teacher), and Kameeiamoku and Kamanawa (twin uncles of Kamehameha). They defended Kamehameha as the unifier Ka Na`i aupuni. High Chiefs Keawe Mauhili and Keeaumoku were by genealogy the next in line for ali`i nui. Both chose the younger nephews Kīwalaʻō and Kamehameha over themselves. Kīwalaʻō was soon defeated in the first key conflict, the Battle of Mokuōhai. Kamehameha and his chiefs took over Konohiki responsibilities and sacred obligations of the districts of Kohala, Kona, and Hāmākua on Hawaii island.


title: Kamehameha I

text: The prophecy included far more than Hawaii island. It went across and beyond the Pacific Islands to the semi-continent of Aotearoa (New Zealand). He was supported by his most political wife Kaahumanu and father, High Chief Keeaumoku. Senior counselor to Kamehameha, she became one of Hawaii's most powerful figures. Kamehameha and his council of chiefs planned to unite the rest of the Hawaiian Islands. Allies came from British and American traders, who sold guns and ammunition to Kamehameha. Another major factor in Kamehameha's continued success was the support of Kauai chief Ka`iana and Captain Brown, who used to be with Kaeo okalani. He guaranteed Kamehameha unlimited gunpowder from China and gave him the formula for gunpowder: sulfur, saltpeter, and charcoal, all of which are abundant in the islands. Two westerners who lived on Hawaii island, Isaac Davis and John Young, married native Hawaiian women and assisted Kamehameha.


title: Kamehameha I

text: In 1789, Simon Metcalfe captained the fur trading vessel the "Eleanora" while his son, Thomas Humphrey Metcalfe, captained the ship along the Northwest Coast. They were to rendezvous in what was then known as the Sandwich Islands. "Fair American" was held up when it was captured by the Spanish and then quickly released in San Blas. The "Eleanora" arrived in 1790, where it was greeted by chief Kameʻeiamoku. The chief did something that the captain took offense to, and Metcalfe struck the chief with a rope's end. Sometime later, while docked in Honuaula, Maui, a small boat tied to the ship was stolen by native townspeople with a crewman inside. When Metcalfe discovered where the boat was taken, he sailed directly to the village of Olowalu. There he confirmed the boat had been broken apart and the man killed. He had already fired muskets into the previous village where he was anchored, killing some residents. Metcalfe now took aim at Olowalu. He had all cannons moved to one side of the ship and began his trading call out to the locals. Hundreds of people came out to the beach to trade and canoes were launched. When they were within firing range, the ship fired on the Hawaiians, killing over 100. Six weeks later, "Fair American" was stuck near the Kona coast of Hawaii where chief Kameʻeiamoku was living, near Kaʻūpūlehu. He had decided to attack the next foreign ship to avenge the strike by the elder Metcalfe. He canoed out to the ship with his men, where he killed Metcalfe's son and all but one (Isaac Davis) of the five crewmen. Kamehameha took Davis into protection and took possession of the ship. "Eleanora" was at that time anchored at Kealakekua Bay, where the ship's boatswain had gone ashore and been captured by Kamehameha's forces because Kamehameha believed Metcalfe was planning more revenge. "Eleanora" waited several days before sailing off, apparently without knowledge of what had happened to "Fair American" or Metcalfe's son. Davis and "Eleanora's" boatswain, John Young, tried to escape, but were treated as chiefs, given wives and settled in Hawaii.


title: Kamehameha I

text: In 1790 Kamehameha's army invaded Maui with the assistance of John Young and Isaac Davis. Using cannons from the "Fair American", they defeated Maui's army at the bloody Battle of Kepaniwai while the alii Kahekili II was on Oahu.


title: Kamehameha I

text: In 1790 Kamehameha advanced against the district of Puna deposing Chief Keawemauhili. At his home in Kaū, where he was exiled, Keōua Kūahuula took advantage of Kamehameha's absence in Maui and began an uprising. When Kamehameha returned, Keōua escaped to the Kīlauea volcano, which erupted. Many warriors died from the poisonous gas emitted from the volcano.


title: Kamehameha I

text: When the Puukoholā Heiau was completed in 1791, Kamehameha invited Keōua to meet with him. Keōua may have been dispirited by his recent losses. He may have mutilated himself before landing so as to render himself an inappropriate sacrificial victim. As he stepped on shore, one of Kamehameha's chiefs threw a spear at him. By some accounts, he dodged it but was then cut down by musket fire. Caught by surprise, Keōua's bodyguards were killed. With Keōua dead, and his supporters captured or slain, Kamehameha became King of Hawaii island.


title: Kamehameha I

text: In 1795, Kamehameha set sail with an armada of 960 war canoes and 10,000 soldiers. He quickly secured the lightly defended islands of Maui and Molokai at the Battle of Kawela. He moved on to the island of Oahu, landing his troops at Waialae and Waikīkī. Kamehameha did not know that one of his commanders, a high-ranking "alii" named Kaʻiana, had defected to Kalanikūpule. Kaiana assisted in cutting notches into the Nuuanu Pali mountain ridge; these notches, like those on a castle turret, were to serve as gunports for Kalanikūpule's cannon. In a series of skirmishes, Kamehameha's forces pushed Kalanikūpule's men back until they were cornered on the Pali Lookout. While Kamehameha moved on the Pali, his troops took heavy fire from the cannon. He assigned two divisions of his best warriors to climb to the Pali to attack the cannons from behind; they surprised Kalanikūpule's gunners and took control. With the loss of their guns, Kalanikūpule's troops fell into disarray and were cornered by Kamehameha's still-organized troops. A fierce battle at Nuʻuanu ensued, with Kamehameha's forces forming an enclosing wall. Using traditional Hawaiian spears, as well as muskets and cannon, they killed most of Kalanikūpule's forces. Over 400 men were forced over the Pali's cliff, a drop of 1,000 feet. Kaiana was killed during the action; Kalanikūpule was later captured and sacrificed to Kūkāilimoku.


title: Kamehameha I

text: In April 1810, Kamehameha I negotiated the peaceful unification of the islands with Kauaʻi. His court genealogist and high priest Kalaikuʻahulu was instrumental in the monarch's decision not to kill Kaumualiʻi, the ruler of that island, when he was the single member of the aliʻi council to agree with Kamehameha's own reluctance to do so. The other aliʻi continued with the plan to poison Kaumualiʻi when Isaac Davis warned him, making the ruler cut his trip short and return to Kauaʻi, leaving Davis to be poisoned by the aliʻi instead.


title: Kamehameha I

text: As ruler, Kamehameha took steps to ensure the islands remained a united realm after his death. He unified the legal system. He used the products collected in taxes to promote trade with Europe and the United States.


title: Kamehameha I

text: The origins of the "Law of the Splintered Paddle" are derived from before the unification of the Island of Hawaii. In 1782 during a raid, Kamehameha caught his foot in a rock. Two local fishermen, fearful of the great warrior, hit Kamehameha hard on the head with a large paddle, which broke the paddle. Kamehameha was stunned and left for dead, allowing the fisherman and his companion to escape. Twelve years later, the same fishermen were brought before Kamehameha for punishment. The king instead blamed himself for attacking innocent people, gave the fishermen gifts of land and set them free. He declared the new law, "Let every elderly person, woman, and child lie by the roadside in safety."


title: Kamehameha I

text: Young and Davis became advisors to Kamehameha and provided him with advanced weapons that helped in combat. Kamehameha was also a religious king and the holder of the war god Kuka ilimoku. The explorer George Vancouver noted that Kamehameha worshiped his gods and wooden images in a heiau, but originally wanted to bring England's religion, Christianity, to Hawaii. Missionaries were not sent from Great Britain because Kamehameha told Vancouver that the gods he worshiped were his gods with "mana", and that through these gods, Kamehameha had become supreme ruler over all of the islands. Witnessing Kamehameha's devotion, Vancouver decided against sending missionaries from England.


title: Kamehameha I

text: After about 1812, Kamehameha spent his time at Kamakahonu, a compound he built in Kailua-Kona. As was the custom of the time, he had several wives and many children, though he outlived about half of them.


title: Kamehameha I

text: When Kamehameha died on May 8 or 14, 1819, his body was hidden by his trusted friends, Hoapili and Hoolulu, in the ancient custom called "hūnākele" (literally, "to hide in secret"). The "mana", or power of a person, was considered to be sacred. As per the ancient custom, his body was buried in a hidden location because of his "mana". His final resting place remains unknown. At one point in his reign, Kamehameha III asked that Hoapili show him where his father's bones were buried, but on the way there Hoapili knew that they were being followed, so he turned around.


title: Kamehameha I

text: Kamehameha had many wives. The exact number is debated because documents that recorded the names of his wives were destroyed. Hiram Bingham I lists 21 wives, but earlier research from Mary Kawena Pukui counted 26. In "Kamehameha's Children Today" authors Charles Ahlo, Rubellite Kawena Johnson and Jerry Walker list 30 wives: 18 who bore children, and 12 who did not. They state the total number of children to be 35: 17 sons and 18 daughters. While he had many wives and children, his children through his highest-ranking wife, Keōpūolani, succeeded him to the throne. In "Ho`omana: Understanding the Sacred and Spiritual", Chun stated that Keōpūolani supported Kaʻahumanu's ending of the Kapu system as the best way to ensure that Kamehameha's children and grandchildren would rule the kingdom.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Benjamin Andrew Stokes (born 4 June 1991) is an English international cricketer who is the captain of the England Test team and plays for the England Twenty20 International (T20I) team. In domestic cricket, he represents Durham and has played in multiple Twenty20 leagues, including the Indian Premier League, playing for Rising Pune Supergiant and Rajasthan Royals.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Born in New Zealand, Stokes moved to England as a child. He made his T20I debut in 2011, his Test debut in 2013, and played for England's One Day International (ODI) team from 2011 before retiring from the format in July 2022. He was part of the England team that won the 2019 Cricket World Cup, top-scoring in England's innings in the final before batting in the tied Super Over, winning the Man of the Match award. He was named the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World in 2019 and 2020, and won the ICC Award for Best Men's Cricketer and BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award in 2019. He was appointed captain of England's Test team in April 2022. He was part of the England team that won the 2022 T20 World Cup, top-scoring in the final.


title: Ben Stokes

text: An all-rounder, Stokes is a left-handed middle-order batsman and right-arm fast bowler. He holds the Test world record for most runs in an innings at number six, scoring 258 against South Africa during England's 2015-16 tour. In the same Test, he and Jonny Bairstow set the world record for highest sixth-wicket stand in Tests, at 399.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes was born on 4 June 1991 in Christchurch, New Zealand, the son of rugby league player and coach Gerard Stokes, known as 'Ged Stokes', and an English mother. Stokes moved to England at the age of 12 after his father was appointed head coach of Workington Town rugby league club, and grew up in the small West Cumbrian town of Cockermouth, attending Cockermouth School and playing cricket for Cockermouth Cricket Club. He won the North Lancashire & Cumbria Cricket League Premier Division Title with the club as a 15 year old in 2006. His parents subsequently moved back to New Zealand to reside again in Christchurch; Ged Stokes died in New Zealand on 8 December 2020 due to brain cancer.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes made his one-day debut for Durham in 2009 at The Oval and managed to take the wicket of the highly experienced batsman Mark Ramprakash with only his third delivery in professional cricket. He played in two youth Tests against Bangladesh U19 during 2009, in which he made a half-century and took a few wickets. He then went on to play in the 2010 Under-19 World Cup, during which he scored a century against the India Under-19 team.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes made his first-class debut for Durham against the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) during the traditional season opener, which for 2010 was taking place at the Sheikh Zayed Stadium in Abu Dhabi. During that match, he bagged a half-century and took one wicket. At the start of the 2010 County Cricket Season, he also made his Championship debut for Durham when he played in a fixture against Essex. He made his maiden first-class century against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge on 13 May 2010. He has also featured for Durham in the Clydesdale Bank 40-over competition. Durham's continuing problems with many players becoming injured at the start of the 2010 season meant that Stokes continued playing in all forms of the game for Durham. Having had a very successful debut season in first-class cricket, he was given a place in the England Performance Programme and travelled to Australia during the 2010–11 Ashes.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes was a key member of the Durham side that won the 2013 County Championship, and was also named Man of the Match in the final of the 2014 Royal London One-Day Cup Final at Lord's, having scored 38* and taken 2 wickets in a low-scoring game against Warwickshire.


title: Ben Stokes

text: On 2 January 2015, Stokes joined the Melbourne Renegades of Australia's Big Bash League for the remainder of the season as a replacement for Jesse Ryder, who was ruled out due to an injury.


title: Ben Stokes

text: On 13 February 2017, Stokes was appointed vice-captain of England's test team, deputising under Joe Root, who was made captain the same day. In April 2022, he was bought by the Northern Superchargers for the 2022 season of The Hundred.


title: Ben Stokes

text: In February 2017, Stokes was bought by Rising Pune Supergiants to play in the Indian Premier League during the 2017 season. He made his maiden Twenty20 century against Gujarat Lions, hitting 103 not out from 63 balls, including hitting seven fours and six sixes. He was named as Most Valuable Player for the 2017 season. For the 2018 season he moved to Rajasthan Royals having been bought for £1.7million, the most expensive player in the 2018 IPL auction. In October 2020, he scored 107 not out for Rajasthan Royals as part of an unbeaten partnership of 152 with Sanju Samson. During the 2021 IPL, Stokes suffered a finger injury which ruled him out from the entire season after playing in only one match. He pulled out of the 2022 edition as he wanted to focus on his country's Test team.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes made his senior England debut in a One Day International (ODI) against Ireland in August 2011. Stokes was caught and bowled by Paul Stirling for just three runs and did not bowl; however, he did take a catch.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes was selected for the England squad for the 2013–14 Ashes series against Australia. He became the 658th player to represent England at Test level. He made his debut in the 2nd Test and took the wickets of Michael Clarke and Peter Siddle before contributing 1 run in England's first innings. In the second innings, he made 28 runs off 90 balls in England's loss. He was selected in the 3rd Test and took the wicket of Brad Haddin, he then made 18 off 57 deliveries. In Australia's second innings he bowled Michael Clarke and took Steve Smith's wicket. In England's second innings he made his maiden Test century scoring 120 off 195 balls before being caught. In the first innings of the 4th Test he made 14 runs, then managed to get Shane Watson out. In the second innings he hit 19 runs and took the wicket of David Warner in England's loss. Stokes took a career-best 6 wickets for 99 runs in the first innings of the 5th Test, including the major wickets of captain Clarke for 10 and top-scorer for the innings Steve Smith for 115. Stokes top scored for England with 47 runs in the first innings to help England limp to 155 all out. In the second innings he made 32 and finished the series on the losing end of a 5–0 whitewash. Stokes enjoyed a solid series, however, finishing as England's third-highest run scorer with 279 runs and also second-highest wicket taker with 15 wickets. Stokes was the only English batsman to score a hundred in the series. Stokes was praised for his batting efforts on a typical fast and bouncy Waca surface against the hostile fast bowling of Mitchell Johnson at the height of his bowling powers. "The Guardian" described Stokes's WACA century as "the only welcome positive for the future."


title: Ben Stokes

text: In the one off T20I against Australia, Stokes took figures of 1–29 as England won by five runs. Stokes played in all five ODIs against Australia, his best performance with the ball coming in the second game of the series where he took figures of 3–60, although England lost the match by 59 runs. During the second ODI match of the series against Australia, Stokes was given out obstructing the field. He became only the sixth batsman to be given out in this manner in an ODI game. While Stokes never took another wicket in the series, his batting did improve. He scored 41 in the fourth ODI which England won by 3 wickets. Although England lost the final ODI to lose the series 3–2, Stokes was one of England's better performers, scoring 42 of their 138 runs.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes was named in the England test squad for the tour against Pakistan hosted in the UAE. In the first test in Abu Dhabi, he took 4–57 with the ball in Pakistan's first innings before himself scoring 57 with the bat in England's first innings; the match ultimately ended in a draw when bad light stopped play on the final day. In the second match of the series Stokes was ineffective, taking just one wicket in the match and making scores of 4 and 13 with the bat as England suffered a 127-run defeat. He suffered a shoulder injury in the third and final test in Sharjah, but still batted at number 11 as England ultimately lost the match and with it the series.


title: Ben Stokes

text: Stokes returned to full fitness to take his place in England's winter tour of South Africa. While Stokes did not make a stand out contribution in the first test, England won by 241 runs. In England's first innings of the second test in Cape Town, Stokes arrived at the crease with England 167–4, facing a hat-trick ball from Kagiso Rabada. Stokes then hit a career-best score of 258, which included 30 fours and 11 sixes. It was the second fastest double century in the history of test cricket (from 167 balls). His sixth wicket stand with Jonny Bairstow (who himself scored 150 not out) of 399 was a new world record, of which 196 were scored in 25 overs in the morning session on Day 2 alone. Stokes' innings was ended in bizarre fashion, when after hitting two successive sixes, he was dropped by AB de Villiers only to be run out having paused between the wickets. The match finished in a draw with the batsmen dominating the game. In the third Test Stokes took five wickets as England won, securing a series victory for England. The fourth and final match of the series was won by South Africa, although Stokes did take another five wickets, including 4–86 in South Africa's first innings.