title: Hausa people

text: The Hausa language, a member of Afroasiatic family of languages, has more first-language speakers than any other African language. It has around 50 million first-language speakers, and close to 30 million second-language speakers. The main Hausa-speaking area is northern Nigeria and Niger. Hausa is also widely spoken in northern Ghana, Cameroon, Chad, Sudanese Hausa in Sudan and the Ivory Coast as well as among Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Gur, Shuwa Arab, and other Afro-Asiatic speaking groups. There are also large Hausa communities in every major African city in neighbourhoods called "zango"s or "zongo"s, meaning "caravan camp" in Hausa (denoting the trading post origins of these communities). Most Hausa speakers, regardless of ethnic affiliation, are Muslims; Hausa often serves as a lingua franca among Muslims in non-Hausa areas.


title: Hausa people

text: There is a large and growing printed literature in Hausa, which includes novels, poetry, plays, instruction in Islamic practice, books on development issues, newspapers, news magazines, and technical academic works. Radio and television broadcasting in Hausa is ubiquitous in northern Nigeria and Niger, and radio stations in Cameroon have regular Hausa broadcasts, as do international broadcasters such as the BBC, VOA, Deutsche Welle, Radio Moscow, Radio Beijing, RFI France, IRIB Iran, and others.


title: Hausa people

text: Hausa is used as the language of instruction at the elementary level in schools in northern Nigeria, and Hausa is available as course of study in northern Nigerian universities. In addition, several advanced degrees (Masters and PhD) are offered in Hausa in various universities in the UK, US, and Germany. Hausa is also being used in various social media networks around the world.


title: Hausa people

text: Hausa is considered one of the world's major languages, and it has widespread use in a number of countries of Africa. Hausa's rich poetry, prose, and musical literature, is increasingly available in print and in audio and video recordings. The study of Hausa provides an informative entry into the culture of Islamic Africa. Throughout Africa, there is a strong connection between Hausa and Islam.


title: Hausa people

text: The influence of the Hausa language on the languages of many non-Hausa Muslim peoples in Africa is readily apparent. Likewise, many Hausa cultural practices, including such overt features as dress and food, are shared by other Muslim communities. Because of the dominant position which the Hausa language and culture have long held, the study of Hausa provides crucial background for other areas such as African history, politics (particularly in Nigeria and Niger), gender studies, commerce, and the arts.


title: Hausa people

text: Orthodox Sunni Islam of the Maliki madhhab, is the predominant and historically established religion of the Hausa people. Islam has been present in Hausaland as early as the 11th century — giving rise to famous native Sufi saints and scholars such as Wali Muhammad dan Masani (d.1667) and Wali Muhammad dan Marna (d. 1655) in Katsina — mostly among long-distance traders to North Africa whom in turn had spread it to common people while the ruling class had remain largely pagan or mixed their practice of Islam with pagan practices. By the 14th Century, Hausa traders were already spreading Islam across large swathe of west Africa such as Ghana, Cote d Ivoire etc..


title: Hausa people

text: Muslim scholars of the early 19th century disapproved of the hybrid religion practiced in royal courts. A desire for reform contributed to the formation of the Sokoto Caliphate. The formation of this state strengthened Islam in rural areas. The Hausa people have been an important factor for the spread of Islam in West Africa. Today, the current Sultan of Sokoto is regarded as the traditional religious leader ("Sarkin Musulmi") of Sunni Hausa–Fulani in Nigeria and beyond.


title: Hausa people

text: Maguzanci, an African Traditional Religion, was practised extensively before Islam. In the more remote areas of Hausaland, the people continue to practise Maguzanci. Closer to urban areas, it is not as common, but with elements still held among the beliefs of urban dwellers. Practices include the sacrifice of animals for personal ends, but it is not legitimate to practise Maguzanci magic for harm. People of urbanized areas tend to retain a "cult of spirit possession," known as Bori. It incorporates the old religion's elements of African Traditional Religion and magic.


title: Hausa people

text: The Hausa were famous throughout the Middle Ages for their cloth weaving and dyeing, cotton goods, leather sandals, metal locks, horse equipment and leather-working and export of such goods throughout the west African region as well as to north Africa (Hausa leather was erroneously known to medieval Europe as Moroccan leather). They were often characterized by their Indigo blue dressing and emblems which earned them the nickname "bluemen". They traditionally rode on fine Saharan camels and horses. Tie-dye techniques have been used in the Hausa region of West Africa for centuries with renowned indigo dye pits located in and around Kano, Nigeria. The tie-dyed clothing is then richly embroidered in traditional patterns. It has been suggested that these African techniques were the inspiration for the tie-dyed garments identified with hippie fashion.


title: Hausa people

text: The traditional dress of the Hausa consists of loose flowing gowns and trousers. The gowns have wide openings on both sides for ventilation. The trousers are loose at the top and center, but rather tight around the legs. Leather sandals and turbans are also typical. The men are easily recognizable because of their elaborate dress which is a large flowing gown known as "Babban riga" also known by various other names due to adaptation by many ethnic groups neighboring the Hausa (see indigo Babban Riga/Gandora). These large flowing gowns usually feature elaborate embroidery designs around the neck and chest area.


title: Hausa people

text: Men also wear colourful embroidered caps known as "hula." Depending on their location and occupation, they may wear the turban around this to veil the face, called Alasho. The women can be identified by wrappers called "zani," made with colourful cloth known as "atampa or Ankara", (a descendant of early designs from the famous Tie-dye techniques the Hausa have for centuries been known for, named after the Hausa name for Accra the capital of what is now Ghana, and where an old Hausa speaking trading community still lives) accompanied by a matching blouse, head tie (kallabi) and shawl (Gyale).


title: Hausa people

text: Like other Muslims and specifically Sahelians within West Africa, Hausa women traditionally use Henna (lalle) designs painted onto the hand instead of nail-polish. A shared tradition with other Afro-Asiatic speakers like Berbers, Habesha, (ancient) Egyptians and Arab peoples, both Hausa men and women use kohl ('kwalli') around the eyes as an eye shadow, with the area below the eye receiving a thicker line than that of the top. Also, similar to Berber, Bedouin, Zarma and Fulani women, Hausa women traditionally use kohl to accentuate facial symmetry. This is usually done by drawing a vertical line from below the bottom lip down to the chin. Other designs may include a line along the bridge of the nose, or a single pair of small symmetical dots on the cheeks.


title: Hausa people

text: The architecture of the Hausa is perhaps one of the least known but most beautiful of the medieval age. Many of their early mosques and palaces are bright and colourful, including intricate engraving or elaborate symbols designed into the facade This architectural style is known as "Tubali" which means "architecture" in the Hausa language. The ancient Kano city walls were built in order to provide security to the growing population. The foundation for the construction of the wall was laid by Sarki Gijimasu from 1095 through 1134 and was completed in the middle of the 14th century. In the 16th century, the walls were further extended to their present position. The gates are as old as the walls and were used to control movement of people in and out of the city.


title: Hausa people

text: Hausa buildings are characterized by the use of dry mud bricks in cubic structures, multi-storied buildings for the social elite, the use of parapets related to their military/fortress building past, and traditional white stucco and plaster for house fronts. At times the facades may be decorated with various abstract relief designs, sometimes painted in vivid colours to convey information about the occupant.


title: Hausa people

text: The Hausa culture is rich in traditional sporting events such as boxing (Dambe), stick fight (Takkai), wrestling (Kokawa) etc. that were originally organized to celebrate harvests but over the generations developed into sporting events for entertainment purposes.


title: Hausa people

text: Dambe is a brutal form of traditional martial art associated with the Hausa people of West Africa. Its origin is shrouded in mystery. However, Edward Powe, a researcher of Nigerian martial art culture recognizes striking similarities in stance and single wrapped fist of Hausa boxers to images of ancient Egyptian boxers from the 12th and 13th dynasties.


title: Hausa people

text: It originally started out among the lower class of Hausa Butcher caste groups and later developed into a way of practicing military skills and then into sporting events through generations of Northern Nigerians. It is fought in rounds of three or less which have no time limits. A round ends if an opponent is knocked out, a fighter's knee, body or hand touch the ground, inactivity or halted by an official.


title: Hausa people

text: Dambe's primary weapon is the “spear”, a single dominant hand wrapped from fist to forearm in thick strips of cotton bandage that is held in place by knotted cord dipped in salt and allowed to dry for maximum body damage on opponents, while the other arm, held open, serve as the “shield" to protect fighters head from opponent's blows or used to grab an opponent. Fighters usually end up with split brows, broken jaws and noses or even sustain brain damage. Dambe fighters may receive money, cattle, farm produce or jewelry as winnings but generally it was fought for fame from representations of towns and fighting clans.


title: Hausa people

text: The most common food that the Hausa people prepare consists of grains, such as sorghum, millet, rice, or maize, which are ground into flour for a variety of different kinds of dishes. This food is popularly known as "tuwo" in the Hausa language.


title: Hausa people

text: Usually, breakfast consists of cakes and dumplings made from ground beans and fried, known as "kosai"; or made from wheat flour soaked for a day, fried and served with sugar or chili, known as "funkaso". Both of these cakes can be served with porridge and sugar known as "kunu" or "koko". Lunch or dinner usually feature a heavy porridge with soup and stew known as "tuwo da miya". The soup and stew are usually prepared with ground or chopped tomatoes, onions, and local spices.


title: Hausa people

text: Spices and other vegetables, such as spinach, pumpkin, or okra, are added to the soup during preparation. The stew is prepared with meat, which can include goat or cow meat, but not pork, due to Islamic food restrictions. Beans, peanuts, and milk are also served as a complementary protein diet for the Hausa people.


title: Hausa people

text: The most famous of all Hausa food is most likely Suya, a spicy shish kebab like skewered meat which is a popular food item in various parts of Nigeria and is enjoyed as a delicacy in much of West Africa and balangu or gashi.


title: Hausa people

text: Hausa Language has been written in modified Arabic script, known as Ajami,since pre-colonial times.The earliest Hausa Ajami manuscript with reliable date is the Ruwayar Annabi Musa by the Kano scholar Abdullah Suka, who lived in the sixteen hundreds. This manuscript may be seen in the collection of the Jos Museum. Other well-known scholars and saints of the Sufi order from Katsina, Danmarna and Danmasani have been composing Ajami and Arabic poetry from much earlier times also in the sixteen hundreds. Gradually, increasing number of Hausa Ajami manuscripts were written which increased in volume through the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries and continuing into the twentieth. With the Nineteenth Century witnessing even more impetus due to the Usman dan Fodio Islamic reform, himself a copious writer who encouraged literacy and scholarship, for both men and women, as a result of which several of his daughters emerged as scholars and writers. Ajami book publishing today has become greatly surpassed by romanized Hausa, or Boko, publishing.


title: Hausa people

text: A modern literary movement led by female Hausa writers has grown since the late 1980s when writer Balaraba Ramat Yakubu came to popularity. In time, the writers spurred a unique genre known as Kano market literature — so named because the books are often self-published and sold in the markets of Nigeria. The subversive nature of these novels, which are often romantic and family dramas that are otherwise hard to find in the Hausa tradition and lifestyle, have made them popular, especially among female readers. The genre is also referred to as "littattafan soyayya", or "love literature."


title: Hausa people

text: A "Hausa ethnic flag" was proposed in 1966 (according to online reports dated 2001). It shows five horizontal stripes—from top to bottom in red, yellow, indigo blue, green, and khaki beige.


title: Hausa people

text: An older and traditionally established emblem of Hausa identity, the 'Dagin Arewa' or Northern knot, in a star shape, is used in historic architecture, design and embroidery.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberries are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the subgenus Oxycoccus of the genus "Vaccinium". In Britain, cranberry may refer to the native species "Vaccinium oxycoccos", while in North America, cranberry may refer to "Vaccinium macrocarpon". "Vaccinium oxycoccos" is cultivated in central and northern Europe, while "Vaccinium macrocarpon" is cultivated throughout the northern United States, Canada and Chile. In some methods of classification, "Oxycoccus" is regarded as a genus in its own right. They can be found in acidic bogs throughout the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to long and in height; they have slender, wiry stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with very distinct "reflexed" petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by bees. The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially light green, turning red when ripe. It is edible, but with an acidic taste that usually overwhelms its sweetness.


title: Cranberry

text: In 2020, the United States, Canada, and Chile accounted for 97% of the world production of cranberries. Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, jam, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. Cranberry sauce is a traditional accompaniment to turkey at Christmas and Thanksgiving dinners in the United States and Canada, and at Christmas dinner in the United Kingdom.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberries are related to bilberries, blueberries, and huckleberries, all in "Vaccinium" subgenus "Vaccinium". These differ in having bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed, and woodier stems, forming taller shrubs. There are 3-4 species of cranberry, classified by "subgenus":


title: Cranberry

text: The name "cranberry" derives from the German "kraanbere" (English translation, "craneberry"), first named as "cranberry" in English by the missionary John Eliot in 1647. Around 1694, German and Dutch colonists in New England used the word, cranberry, to represent the expanding flower, stem, calyx, and petals resembling the neck, head, and bill of a crane. The traditional English name for the plant more common in Europe, "Vaccinium oxycoccos", , originated from plants with small red berries found growing in fen (marsh) lands of England.


title: Cranberry

text: In North America, the Narragansett people of the Algonquian nation in the regions of New England appeared to be using cranberries in pemmican for food and for dye. Calling the red berries, "sasemineash", the Narragansett people may have introduced cranberries to colonists in Massachusetts. In 1550, James White Norwood made reference to Native Americans using cranberries, and it was the first reference to American cranberries up until this point. In James Rosier's book "The Land of Virginia" there is an account of Europeans coming ashore and being met with Native Americans bearing bark cups full of cranberries. In Plymouth, Massachusetts, there is a 1633 account of the husband of Mary Ring auctioning her cranberry-dyed petticoat for 16 shillings. In 1643, Roger Williams's book "A Key Into the Language of America" described cranberries, referring to them as "bearberries" because bears ate them. In 1648, preacher John Elliott was quoted in Thomas Shepard's book "Clear Sunshine of the Gospel" with an account of the difficulties the Pilgrims were having in using the Indians to harvest cranberries as they preferred to hunt and fish. In 1663, the Pilgrim cookbook appears with a recipe for cranberry sauce. In 1667, New Englanders sent to King Charles ten barrels of cranberries, three barrels of codfish and some Indian corn as a means of appeasement for his anger over their local coining of the pine tree shilling minted by John Hull in the "Hull Mint" with Daniel Quincy. In 1669, Captain Richard Cobb had a banquet in his house (to celebrate both his marriage to Mary Gorham and his election to the Convention of Assistance), serving wild turkey with sauce made from wild cranberries. In the 1672 book "New England Rarities Discovered" author John Josselyn described cranberries, writing:


title: Cranberry

text: Sauce for the Pilgrims, cranberry or bearberry, is a small trayling ["sic"] plant that grows in salt marshes that are overgrown with moss. The berries are of a pale yellow color, afterwards red, as big as a cherry, some perfectly round, others oval, all of them hollow with sower ["sic"] astringent taste; they are ripe in August and September. They are excellent against the Scurvy. They are also good to allay the fervor of hoof diseases. The Indians and English use them mush, boyling ["sic"] them with sugar for sauce to eat with their meat; and it is a delicate sauce, especially with roasted mutton. Some make tarts with them as with gooseberries.


title: Cranberry

text: "The Compleat Cook's Guide", published in 1683, made reference to cranberry juice. In 1703, cranberries were served at the Harvard University commencement dinner. In 1787, James Madison wrote Thomas Jefferson in France for background information on constitutional government to use at the Constitutional Convention. Jefferson sent back a number of books on the subject and in return asked for a gift of apples, pecans and cranberries. William Aiton, a Scottish botanist, included an entry for the cranberry in volume II of his 1789 work "Hortus Kewensis". He notes that "Vaccinium macrocarpon" (American cranberry) was cultivated by James Gordon in 1760. In 1796, cranberries were served at the first celebration of the landing of the Pilgrims, and Amelia Simmons (an American orphan) wrote a book entitled "American Cookery" which contained a recipe for cranberry tarts.


title: Cranberry

text: American Revolutionary War veteran Henry Hall first cultivated cranberries in the Cape Cod town of Dennis around 1816. In the 1820s, Hall was shipping cranberries to New York City and Boston from which shipments were also sent to Europe. In 1843, Eli Howes planted his own crop of cranberries on Cape Cod, using the "Howes" variety. In 1847, Cyrus Cahoon planted a crop of "Early Black" variety near Pleasant Lake, Harwich, Massachusetts.


title: Cranberry

text: By 1900, were under cultivation in the New England region. In 2021, the total output of cranberries harvested in the United States was 790 million lbs (359 million kg), with Wisconsin as the largest state producer (59% of total), followed by Massachusetts and Oregon.


title: Cranberry

text: Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Today's cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas with a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form dykes around the bed perimeter. Clean sand is hauled in and spread to a depth of four to eight inches (10 to 20 centimeters). The surface is laser leveled flat to provide even drainage. Beds are frequently drained with socked tile in addition to the perimeter ditch. In addition to making it possible to hold water, the dykes allow equipment to service the beds without driving on the vines. Irrigation equipment is installed in the bed to provide irrigation for vine growth and for spring and autumn frost protection.


title: Cranberry

text: A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the autumn to facilitate harvest and again during the winter to protect against low temperatures. In cold climates like Wisconsin, New England, and eastern Canada, the winter flood typically freezes into ice, while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds, trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand to control pests and rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent, light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year. The cost of renovating cranberry beds is estimated to be between .


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberries are harvested in the fall when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color, and most ideally after the first frost. Berries that receive sun turn a deep red when fully ripe, while those that do not fully mature are a pale pink or white color. This is usually in September through the first part of November. To harvest cranberries, the beds are flooded with six to eight inches (15 to 20 centimeters) of water above the vines. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years, water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corralled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they are cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing. While cranberries are harvested when they take on their deep red color, they can also be harvested beforehand when they are still white, which is how white cranberry juice is made. Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely. Vines can also be trained through dry picking to help avoid damage in subsequent harvests.


title: Cranberry

text: Although most cranberries are wet-picked as described above, 5–10% of the US crop is still dry-picked. This entails higher labor costs and lower yield, but dry-picked berries are less bruised and can be sold as fresh fruit instead of having to be immediately frozen or processed. Originally performed with two-handed comb scoops, dry picking is today accomplished by motorized, walk-behind harvesters which must be small enough to traverse beds without damaging the vines.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms, which deter decay by allowing air to circulate. Because harvest occurs in late autumn, cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station.


title: Cranberry

text: In 2020, world production of cranberry was 663,345 tonnes, mainly by the United States, Canada, and Chile, which collectively accounted for 97% of the global total (table). Wisconsin (59% of US production) and Quebec (60% of Canadian production) were the two largest regional producers of cranberries in North America. Cranberries are also a major commercial crop in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington, as well as in the Canadian province of British Columbia (33% of Canadian production).


title: Cranberry

text: As fresh cranberries are hard, sour, and bitter, about 95% of cranberries are processed and used to make cranberry juice and sauce. They are also sold dried and sweetened. Cranberry juice is usually sweetened or blended with other fruit juices to reduce its natural tartness. At one teaspoon of sugar per ounce, cranberry juice cocktail is more highly sweetened than even soda drinks that have been linked to obesity.


title: Cranberry

text: Usually cranberries as fruit are cooked into a compote or jelly, known as cranberry sauce. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast turkey, as a staple of Thanksgiving (both in Canada and in the United States) as well as English dinners. The berry is also used in baking (muffins, scones, cakes and breads). In baking it is often combined with orange or orange zest. Less commonly, cranberries are used to add tartness to savory dishes such as soups and stews.


title: Cranberry

text: Fresh cranberries can be frozen at home, and will keep up to nine months; they can be used directly in recipes without thawing.


title: Cranberry

text: Raw cranberries are 87% water, 12% carbohydrates, and contain negligible protein and fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw cranberries supply 46 calories and moderate levels of vitamin C, dietary fiber, and the essential dietary mineral manganese, each with more than 10% of its Daily Value. Other micronutrients have low content (table).


title: Cranberry

text: Dried cranberries are commonly processed with up to 10 times their natural sugar content. The drying process also eliminates vitamin C content.


title: Cranberry

text: A comprehensive review in 2012 of available research concluded there is no evidence that cranberry juice or cranberry extract as tablets or capsules are effective in preventing urinary tract infections (UTIs). The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the evidence for one brand of cranberry extract and concluded a cause and effect relationship had not been established between cranberry consumption and reduced risk of UTIs.


title: Cranberry

text: One 2017 systematic review showed that consuming cranberry products reduced the incidence of UTIs in women with "recurrent" infections. Another review of small clinical studies indicated that consuming cranberry products could reduce the risk of UTIs by 26% in otherwise healthy women, although the authors indicated that larger studies were needed to confirm such an effect.


title: Cranberry

text: A 2021 systematic review found that there was insufficient evidence for or against using cranberry products to treat an "acute" UTI.


title: Cranberry

text: When the quality of meta-analyses on the efficacy of consuming cranberry products for preventing or treating UTIs is examined, large variation and uncertainty of effect are seen, resulting from inconsistencies of clinical research design and inadequate numbers of subjects.


title: Cranberry

text: Raw cranberries, cranberry juice and cranberry extracts are a source of polyphenols – including proanthocyanidins, flavonols and quercetin. These phytochemical compounds are being studied in vivo and in vitro for possible effects on the cardiovascular system, immune system and cancer. However, there is no confirmation from human studies that consuming cranberry polyphenols provides anti-cancer, immune, or cardiovascular benefits. Potential is limited by poor absorption and rapid excretion.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberry juice contains a high molecular weight non-dializable material that is under research for its potential to affect formation of plaque by "Streptococcus mutans" pathogens that cause tooth decay. Cranberry juice components are also being studied for possible effects on kidney stone formation.


title: Cranberry

text: Problems may arise with the lack of validation for quantifying of A-type proanthocyanidins (PAC) extracted from cranberries. For instance, PAC extract quality and content can be performed using different methods including the European Pharmacopoeia method, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, or a modified 4-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde colorimetric method. Variations in extract analysis can lead to difficulties in assessing the quality of PAC extracts from different cranberry starting material, such as by regional origin, ripeness at time of harvest and post-harvest processing. Assessments show that quality varies greatly from one commercial PAC extract product to another.


title: Cranberry

text: The anticoagulant effects of warfarin may be increased by consuming cranberry juice, resulting in adverse effects such as increased incidence of bleeding and bruising. Other safety concerns from consuming large quantities of cranberry juice or using cranberry supplements include potential for nausea, and increasing stomach inflammation, sugar intake or kidney stone formation.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberry sales in the United States have traditionally been associated with holidays of Thanksgiving and Christmas.


title: Cranberry

text: In the U.S., large-scale cranberry cultivation has been developed as opposed to other countries. American cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative marketing. As early as 1904, John Gaynor, a Wisconsin grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from Des Moines, Iowa, organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in New Jersey and Massachusetts were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the Eatmor brand. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, area and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell.


title: Cranberry

text: With surplus cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began canning cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market. Competition between canners was fierce because profits were thin. The Ocean Spray cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal under American antitrust laws had attorney John Quarles not found an exemption for agricultural cooperatives. , about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative.


title: Cranberry

text: In 1958, Morris April Brothers—who produced Eatmor brand cranberry sauce in Tuckahoe, New Jersey—brought an action against Ocean Spray for violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act and won $200,000 in real damages plus triple damages, just in time for the Great Cranberry Scare: on 9 November 1959, Secretary of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Arthur S. Flemming announced that some of the 1959 cranberry crop was tainted with traces of the herbicide aminotriazole. The market for cranberries collapsed and growers lost millions of dollars. However, the scare taught the industry that they could not be completely dependent on the holiday market for their products; they had to find year-round markets for their fruit. They also had to be exceedingly careful about their use of pesticides. After the aminotriazole scare, Ocean Spray reorganized and spent substantial sums on product development. New products such as cranberry-apple juice blends were introduced, followed by other juice blends.


title: Cranberry

text: Cranberry handlers (processors) include Ocean Spray, Cliffstar Corporation, Northland Cranberries Inc. (Sun Northland LLC), Clement Pappas & Co., and Decas Cranberry Products as well as a number of small handlers and processors.


title: Cranberry

text: The Cranberry Marketing Committee is an organization that was established in 1962 as a Federal Marketing Order to ensure a stable, orderly supply of good quality product. The order has been renewed and modified slightly over the years. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: 1962 (12%), 1963 (5%), 1970 (10%), 1971 (12%), 2000 (15%), and 2001 (35%). Even though supply still exceeds demand, there is little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production.


title: Cranberry

text: The Cranberry Marketing Committee, based in Wareham, Massachusetts, represents more than 1,100 cranberry growers and 60 cranberry handlers across Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Washington and New York (Long Island). The authority for the actions taken by the Cranberry Marketing Committee is provided in Chapter IX, Title 7, Code of Federal Regulations which is called the Federal Cranberry Marketing Order. The Order is part of the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937, identifying cranberries as a commodity good that can be regulated by Congress. The Federal Cranberry Marketing Order has been altered over the years to expand the Cranberry Marketing Committee's ability to develop projects in the United States and around the world. The Cranberry Marketing Committee currently runs promotional programs in the United States, China, India, Mexico, Pan-Europe, and South Korea.


title: Cranberry

text: , the European Union was the largest importer of American cranberries, followed individually by Canada, China, Mexico, and South Korea. From 2013 to 2017, U.S. cranberry exports to China grew exponentially, making China the second largest country importer, reaching $36 million in cranberry products. The China–United States trade war resulted in many Chinese businesses cutting off ties with their U.S. cranberry suppliers.


title: Dee Wallace

text: Deanna Wallace (née Bowers; born December 14, 1948), also known as Dee Wallace Stone, is an American actress. She is perhaps best known for her role as Mary Taylor, the mother in the 1982 blockbuster film "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial". She is also known for her starring roles in several horror films including "The Hills Have Eyes" (1977), "The Howling" (1981), "Cujo" (1983) and "Critters" (1986).


title: Dee Wallace

text: Wallace was born in Kansas City, Kansas, the daughter of Maxine (née Nichols) and Robert Stanley Bowers. She attended Wyandotte High School, before attending the University of Kansas and obtaining an education degree. She briefly taught high school drama at Washington High School in her native Kansas City in the early 1970s.


title: Dee Wallace

text: She was briefly married first to Barry Wallace and still uses his last name in her career. Their marriage ended in divorce. She married Christopher Stone in 1980, who died suddenly in 1995. They have one daughter, Gabrielle Stone.


title: Dee Wallace

text: Wallace is a public speaker and self-help author, having written three books, and has her own call-in radio show where she talks exclusively about the creation of "self". She often speaks about how you can get through tough times with determination and love. She has also written a book called "Bright Light" about her life lessons from an acting career.


title: Dee Wallace

text: Wallace began her career on television appearing in episodes of "The Streets of San Francisco", "Starsky & Hutch" and "Police Woman", before appearing in the box-office horror hit film "The Hills Have Eyes" (1977). In 1981, she played a leading role in the horror film "The Howling" opposite her husband Christopher Stone. They later starred together in "Cujo" (1983) based on Stephen King's 1981 novel of the same name.


title: Dee Wallace

text: In 1982, Wallace went on to star in Steven Spielberg's science fiction film "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" (1982). The film became the highest-grossing film of all time—a record held for eleven years until "Jurassic Park", another Spielberg-directed film, surpassed it in 1993. Wallace received a Saturn Award nomination for her performance. Wallace also starred in a number of comedy movies, including "10" (1979), "Jimmy the Kid" (1982) and "Secret Admirer" (1985). In 1986, she starred in the horror comedy film "Critters" (a role she later reprised in a sequel, "Critters Attack!", in 2019). She has also appeared in many other horror films, most notably Peter Jackson's "The Frighteners" (1996).


title: Dee Wallace

text: On television, Wallace played a leading role in the CBS sitcom "Together We Stand" (1986–1987) and the family drama "The New Lassie" (1989–1992). She guest starred in episodes of a number of shows, including "The Twilight Zone", "Hotel", "Murder, She Wrote", "Touched by an Angel", "Bones", "Grey's Anatomy", "My Name Is Earl", "Criminal Minds", and "The Office". In 2015, Wallace was cast on the ABC soap opera series "General Hospital", as Patricia Spencer, the unseen, long-lost older sister of Luke and Bobbie Spencer; Wallace also appeared in the show "Supernatural", in the episode titled "Into the Mystic" (01/27/2016).


title: Dee Wallace

text: She was nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Guest Performer in a Drama Series.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: Jillian Noel Hennessy (born November 25, 1968) is a Canadian actress and singer. She is most known for her roles on the American television series "Law & Order", on which she played prosecutor Claire Kincaid for three seasons, and "Crossing Jordan", on which she played the lead character, Jordan Cavanaugh, for six seasons. She has also acted in films such as "RoboCop 3" and "Most Wanted", and the independent films "Chutney Popcorn" and "The Acting Class", the latter of which she also wrote and co-directed.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: Hennessy was born in Edmonton, Alberta. Her father, John Hennessy, was a meat salesman and sales/marketing executive, a job that required considerable travel and resulted in frequent moves for the family. Her mother, Maxine, a secretary, left the family in 1982, leaving her daughter to be partially raised by her paternal grandmother, Eleanor, in Kitchener, Ontario. She has a younger brother, John Paul "J.P." Hennessy, Jr., and an identical twin sister, Jacqueline, who is a magazine writer and TV show host in Canada. Hennessy has Irish, French, Swedish and Italian ancestry on her father's side, and mostly Ukrainian Roma, as well as Austrian, ancestry on her mother's. She attended Stanley Park Senior Public School and graduated from Grand River Collegiate Institute, both in Kitchener, Ontario, and used to busk in the Toronto subway.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: Hennessy and her sister made their acting debut playing twin call girls in 1988's "Dead Ringers". She was short listed for the role of Dana Scully on "The X-Files" according to Gillian Anderson, the actress who eventually got the role.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: Hennesey's big network breakthrough came in 1993, when Dick Wolf signed Hennessy as assistant district attorney Claire Kincaid in the hit NBC crime drama "Law & Order". She played the role for three seasons, leaving the show in 1996.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: In 1999, she appeared as Lisa in "Chutney Popcorn." In 2000, Hennessy wrote, produced, and jointly directed (with Elizabeth Holder) an independent film mockumentary titled "The Acting Class", which looked at the trials and tribulations of a dysfunctional acting class. The film co-starred her identical twin sister Jacqueline, and included cameo appearances from a number of Hennessy's former "Law & Order" co-stars. She also starred in the film "Nuremberg", as Elsie Douglas.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: In 2001, she portrayed Jackie Kennedy in the film "Jackie, Ethel, Joan: The Women of Camelot". That same year she appeared in a small role as Commander Annette Mulcahy in the Steven Seagal action film "Exit Wounds", a car crash victim similar than the one in "Law & Order". She received particular praise from critic Owen Gleiberman who said "With the right role, Hennessy might just be a movie star." In 2003, she made a cameo appearance in the film "Abby Singer". From 2001 to 2007, she starred on the TV show "Crossing Jordan" as title character Jordan Cavanaugh. She also played the wife of Tim Allen's character in the 2007 film "Wild Hogs". On June 9, 2007, she received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: During sessions in Austin, Texas, Hennessy recorded the album "Ghost in My Head", which was released in June 2009. She performed as a guest of the Indigo Girls on a November 2009 show of "Mountain Stage" and was the focus of a show for herself later that same month. She performed on the Village Stage of the 2010 edition of Lilith Fair.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: Hennessy starred in the independent crime thriller "Small Town Murder Songs" in 2010. She also appeared as a veterinarian in the HBO series "Luck", while serving as an endorser of Zaxby's "Zalads" in a pair of television commercials during 2012.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: In 2015, Hennessy appeared in several episodes of "Madam Secretary". In October of that year, her second album, "I Do", was released.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: In 2018, she appeared on the Michael Weatherly series "Bull" as the mother of the deceased hacker character Cable McCrory. Also in 2018, she began the role of Senator Huntington on the series "Yellowstone".


title: Jill Hennessy

text: Hennessy is multilingual, speaking English, Italian, French, Spanish and German. Hennessy plays the guitar and sings, and enjoys riding motorcycles with her husband, Paolo Mastropietro, whom she married in 2000. They had a second marriage ceremony in January 2001, which took place at New York City Hall with Mayor Rudy Giuliani officiating. Their son Marco was born in 2003, and a second son, Gianni, was born in 2007.


title: Jill Hennessy

text: The Minneapolis-based band Mollycuddle wrote the song "The Ballad of Jill Hennessy" in honor of the actress. Hennessy was reportedly very pleased and offered to perform with the band on rhythm guitar.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Vishwanath Patekar (born 1 January 1951), better known as Nana Patekar, is an Indian actor, screenwriter, film maker, and a former Indian Territorial Army officer, mainly working in Hindi and Marathi cinema. He is regarded as one of the finest and influential actors in Indian Cinema, Patekar is recipient of three National Film Awards and four Filmfare Awards for his acting performances. He was bestowed with the Padma Shri award in 2013 for his contribution in cinema and arts.


title: Nana Patekar

text: After making his acting debut in Bollywood with the 1978 drama "Gaman", Patekar acted in a few Marathi films and some Bollywood films. After acting in the Academy Award-nominated "Salaam Bombay" in 1988, he won the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in "Parinda" (1989), following with another negative role in "Angaar" (1992). He acted in and made his directorial debut with "" (1991). Patekar subsequently starred in and received critical acclaim for his performance in several commercially successful films of the 1990s, including "Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman" (1992); "Angaar" (1992), for which he won the Filmfare Award for Best Villain; "Tirangaa" (1993); "Krantiveer" (1994), for which he won the National Film Award for Best Actor and the Filmfare Award for Best Actor. Further acclaim came his way for "Agni Sakshi", for which he won the third National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor; and "" (1996).


title: Nana Patekar

text: During the early 2000s, he received praise for his performances in "" (2002), "Ab Tak Chhappan" (2004) and "Apaharan" (2005); the latter earned him a second Best Villain award at Filmfare and "Taxi No. 9211" (2006). Patekar's gained widespread appreciation for playing a noted gangster "Uday Shetty" in the comedy "Welcome" (2007) and its sequel "Welcome Back" (2015), and a politician in the political thriller "Raajneeti" (2010). In 2016, he starred in the critically and commercially successful Marathi film "Natsamrat"; in which he portrayed a retired stage actor. He won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor (Marathi) for his performance.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Nana Patekar was born as Vishwanath Patekar in a Marathi family on 1 January 1951 in Murud-Janjira of present-day Raigad District, Maharashtra. He is an alumnus of the Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art, Mumbai.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Patekar has played many types of roles. He has played the occasional villain, but has been a hero in most of his films.


title: Nana Patekar

text: His debut film was "Gaman" (1978), after which he did several small roles in Marathi cinema. He did the role of Nathuram Godse in the British television series "". He had notable roles in "Aaj Ki Awaz" (1984), "Ankush" (1986), "Pratighaat" (1987), "Mohre" (1987), "Trishagni" (1988), "Awam" (1987) and "Sagar Sangam" (1988).


title: Nana Patekar

text: His performance in Mira Nair's "Salaam Bombay!" (1988) was praised. He was noticed by the mainstream Hindi Cinema for his portrayal of a crime lord in "Parinda" (1989), for which he won his first National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor and was also awarded the Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award.


title: Nana Patekar

text: He turned director with his movie "" (1991), co-starring Madhuri Dixit, for which he underwent training for his role as an Indian Army officer. His role in "Angaar" (1992) earned him the Filmfare Best Villain Award. He co-starred with industry veteran Raaj Kumar in "Tirangaa" (1993). He played a truant, gambling son in "Krantiveer" (1994), for which he won the National Film Award for Best Actor and also won the Filmfare Award and the Star Screen Awards. Patekar portrayed the character of a ghost in the children's film "Abhay", which won two awards at the 42nd National Film Festival held in 1994. He co-starred with Rishi Kapoor in "Hum Dono" (1995). He played a sadist husband in "Agni Sakshi" (1996), a deaf father to Manisha Koirala in "" (1996), a gangster in "Ghulam-E-Mustafa" (1997), an honest, but maverick cop in "Yeshwant" (1997) and a schizophrenic in "Wajood" (1998). He co-starred with Amitabh Bachchan in "Kohram" (1999), where he played an undercover Indian Army intelligence officer chasing Bachchan's incognito. His other notable films of this decade were "Yugpurush" (1998) and "Hu Tu Tu" (1999).


title: Nana Patekar

text: He starred with Aditya Pancholi as the CBI director in the crime drama "Tarkieb" (2000). After a hiatus of a year he returned to acting in "" (2002) in which he played an extremely violent father. In "Ab Tak Chhappan" (2004), he played a police officer who is an encounter specialist. His performance in "Apaharan" (2005) earned him his second Filmfare Best Villain Award as well as the Star Screen Award Best Villain. He played a taxi driver in "Taxi No. 9211" (2006). Patekar has also done comic roles, such as in "Welcome" (2007), in which he plays a powerful crime lord in Dubai who once desired to be an actor in films. He acted in Sangeeth Sivan's film "" (2009). He played a school headmaster in "Paathshaala" (2010). He also acted in Prakash Jha's multi-star political drama film "Raajneeti" (2010). In 2011, he starred in the critically acclaimed "Shagird" and a Marathi film "Deool". His next film was Ram Gopal Verma's "The Attacks of 26/11" (2013) based on the events of the 2008 Mumbai Attacks in which he played Joint Commissioner of Police Rakesh Maria. In 2014, he starred in another Marathi film "Dr. Prakash Baba Amte – The Real Hero". In 2015, he made two sequels reprising his roles in "Ab Tak Chhappan 2", sequel of "Ab Tak Chhappan" and "Welcome Back", the sequel of "Welcome". In 2016, he starred as Ganpatrao "Appa" Belwalkar in the film adaptation of the Drama "Natsamrat" which was highly successful critically and commercially. He did the voice acting for Shere Khan in the Hindi version of "The Jungle Book" (2016).


title: Nana Patekar

text: In April 2022, Patekar announced his return to the silver screen with a social-thriller drama "The Confessions". This would be the first movie after a long break from the film industry of roughly four years, since his in the 2018 film "Kaala".


title: Nana Patekar

text: Patekar did some playback singing in the films "Yeshwant" (1997), "Wajood" (1998) and "Aanch" (2003).


title: Nana Patekar

text: Patekar married Neelkanti at age 27. His father died of a heart attack when Nana was 28 and later Patekar also lost his first son. Patekar was a chain smoker until he quit at the age of 56. In an interview, he said that his father loved plays and encouraged him to watch them. This is how he developed his love for acting. Vijaya Mehta directed his first play. Patekar lives in Andheri, Mumbai in 1BHK apartment.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Patekar was commissioned as an honorary Captain in the Indian Territorial Army in 1990, after undergoing a three-year training period to prepare for the movie , and worked with General V. K. Singh, who had the rank of Colonel at that time and had a cameo appearance. During the Kargil War in 1999, Patekar also lent his services in the Maratha Light Infantry regiment as an honorary Major.


title: Nana Patekar

text: In 2008, Tanushree Dutta accused Patekar of sexually harassing her on the sets of the movie "Horn 'Ok' Pleassss". In March 2008, she filed a complaint with 'CINTAA' (Cine & TV Artists Association) but no action was taken then. This allegation was repeated in an interview in 2013 and again made in 2018. In late 2018, CINTAA apologized to Dutta admitting that the "chief grievance of sexual harassment wasn't even addressed (in 2008)" but added that since the case was more than three years old, they could not reopen it.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Nana Patekar considers Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar as his inspiration. In 2017, actor Nana Patekar attended the 'Guest Lecture Series' organized by Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, Mumbai. At the event, Nana Patekar was asked by a person, "Nana, who is the 'inspiration' for you? You are the inspiration for us." Patekar immediately replied – "Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. Babasaheb Ambedkar used in the suit (as a best clothe). He worked for everyone all his life. He has not only worked for Dalits. It is a misconception about Babasaheb Ambedkar that he is only a Dalit leader. He has worked for all societies. Babasaheb gave his whole life for them." B. R. Ambedkar has worked for all, for all societies, so Nana Patekar has considered him as his role model.


title: Nana Patekar

text: In 2018, Dutta restated her accusation of sexual harassment by Patekar in 2018, and her accusations led to the Me Too movement coming to Bollywood. Subsequently, she complained to the Maharashtra Women Commission and demanded an investigation into the allegations of harassment levelled by her against Patekar, Ganesh Acharya, producer Samee Siddiqui, director Rakesh Sarang, and several Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) party workers. In the late hours of 10 October 2018, An FIR was registered against Patekar and three others at Oshiwara police station following a complaint by Dutta late on Wednesday night. Patekar, choreographer Ganesh Acharya, director Rakesh Sarang and producer Samee Siddiqui were booked for molestation and obscenity under the Indian Penal Code (IPC).


title: Nana Patekar

text: In June 2019, Patekar was cleared of the sexual harassment charges. The B-Summary report filed by the Oshiwara police station in Mumbai said that the complaint filed by Dutta could be "malicious" and "out of revenge". Dutta said that her lawyers may approach the Bombay High Court to reopen the case.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Patekar is known for his simple lifestyle and his generosity in donating to charities. He contributed money towards rebuilding of the flood ravaged villages in Bihar through the charitable organisation "Anubhuthi". All the monetary remuneration he obtained for his performance in the movie "Paathshaala" was donated by him to five different charitable organisations. When he was awarded the Raj Kapoor award which carries a cash prize of Rs , he donated the entire amount towards drought relief activities in Maharashtra. He also provided financial aid to families of farmers who committed suicide due to indebtedness brought about by drought. He distributed cheques worth Rs 15,000 to 62 families of farmers from Vidarbha region in August 2015 and another 113 families from Latur and Osmanabad districts of Marathwada in September 2015.


title: Nana Patekar

text: In September 2015, Patekar established the Naam Foundation, with fellow Marathi actor Makarand Anaspure, which works to provide aid to farmers overcome by drought conditions in Maharashtra.


title: Nana Patekar

text: Using a Twitter campaign with the hashtag IcareIsupport, Patekar was able to obtain funds to help Maharashtra drought victims.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tupolev Tu-144 (; NATO reporting name: Charger) is a Soviet supersonic passenger airliner designed by Tupolev in operation from 1968 to 1999.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tu-144 was the world's first commercial supersonic transport aircraft with its prototype's maiden flight from Zhukovsky Airport on 31 December 1968, two months before the British-French Concorde. The Tu-144 was a product of the Tupolev Design Bureau, an OKB headed by aeronautics pioneer Aleksey Tupolev, and 16 aircraft were manufactured by the Voronezh Aircraft Production Association in Voronezh. The Tu-144 conducted 102 commercial flights, of which only 55 carried passengers, at an average service altitude of and cruised at a speed of around (Mach 2). The Tu-144 first went supersonic on 5 June 1969, four months before Concorde, and on 26 May 1970 became the world's first commercial transport to exceed Mach 2.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Reliability and developmental issues, together with repercussions of the 1973 Paris Air Show Tu-144 crash and rising fuel prices, restricted the viability of the Tu-144 for regular use. The Tu-144 was introduced into passenger service with Aeroflot between Moscow and Alma-Ata on 1 November 1977, but withdrawn less than seven months later after another Tu-144 crash-landed on 23 May 1978. The Tu-144 remained in commercial service as a cargo aircraft until the cancellation of the Tu-144 program in 1983. The Tu-144 was later used by the Soviet space program to train pilots of the Buran spacecraft, and by NASA for supersonic research until 1999. The Tu-144 made its final flight on 26 June 1999 and surviving aircraft were put on display across the world or into storage.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Soviet government published the concept of the Tu-144 in an article in the January 1962 issue of the magazine "Technology of Air Transport". The air ministry started development of the Tu-144 on 26 July 1963, 10 days after the design was approved by the Council of Ministers. The plan called for five flying prototypes to be built in four years, with the first aircraft to be ready in 1966.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The MiG-21I (1968; Izdeliye 21–11; "Analog") I = Imitator ("Simulator") was a testbed for the wing design of the Tu-144.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Despite the similarity in appearance of the Tu-144 to the Anglo-French supersonic aircraft (which earned it the nickname "Concordski"), there were significant differences between two aircraft. The Tu-144 is bigger and faster than the Concorde (M2.15 vs. M2.04). Concorde used an electronic engine control package from Lucas, which Tupolev was not permitted to purchase for the Tu-144 as it could also be used on military aircraft. Concorde's designers used fuel as coolant for the cabin air conditioning and for the hydraulic system (see Concorde for details). Tupolev also used fuel/hydraulic heat exchangers, but used cooling turbines for the cabin air.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tu-144 prototype was a full-scale demonstrator aircraft with the very different production aircraft being developed in parallel. While both Concorde and the Tu-144 prototype had ogival delta wings, the Tu-144's wing lacked Concorde's conical camber. Production Tu-144s replaced this wing with a double delta wing including spanwise and chordwise camber. They also added two small retractable surfaces called a moustache canard, with fixed double-slotted leading-edge slats and retractable double-slotted flaps. These were fitted just behind the cockpit and increased lift at low speeds.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Moving the elevons downward in a delta-wing aircraft increases the lift, but also pitches its nose downward. The canards cancel out this nose-downwards moment, thus reducing the landing speed of the production Tu-144s to , still faster than that of Concorde. The NASA study lists final approach speeds during Tu-144LL test flights as . An FAA circular lists Tu-144S approach speed as , as opposed to Concorde's approach speed of , based on the characteristics declared by the manufacturers to Western regulatory bodies. It is open to argument how stable the Tu-144S was at the listed airspeed. In any event, when NASA subcontracted Tupolev bureau in the 1990s to convert one of the remaining Tu-144D to a Tu-144LL standard, the procedure set by Tupolev for landing defined the Tu-144LL "final approach speed... on the order of 360 km/h depending on fuel weight." Brian Calvert, Concorde's technical flight manager and its first commercial pilot in command for several inaugural flights, cites final approach speed of a typical Concorde landing to be . The lower landing speed compared to Tu-144 is due to Concorde's more refined design of the wing profile that provides higher lift at low speeds without degrading supersonic cruise performance – a feature often mentioned in Western publications on Concorde and acknowledged by Tupolev designers as well.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Along with early Tu-134s, the Tu-144 was one of the last commercial aircraft with a braking parachute. The Tu-144 was not fitted with any reverse thrust capabilities, and so the parachute was used as the sole alternative. The prototypes were also the only passenger jets ever fitted with ejection seats, albeit only for the crew and not the passengers.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: SSTs for M2.2 had been designed in the Soviet Union before Tupolev was tasked with developing one. Design studies for the Myasishchev SST had shown that a cruise specific fuel consumption (SFC) of not more than 1.2 kg/kgp hr would be required. The only engine available in time with the required thrust and suitable for testing and perfecting the aircraft was the afterburning Kuznetsov NK-144 turbofan with a cruise SFC of 1.58 kg/kgp hr. Development of an alternative engine to meet the SFC requirement, a non-afterburning turbojet, the Kolesov RD-36-51A, began in 1964. It took a long time for this engine to achieve acceptable SFC and reliability. In the meantime the NK-144 high SFC gave a limited range of about , far less than Concorde. A maximum speed of (Mach 2.29) was reached with the afterburner. Afterburners were added to Concorde to meet its take-off thrust requirement and were not necessary for supersonic cruise; the Tu-144 used maximum afterburner for take-off and minimum for cruise.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tu-144S, of which nine were produced, was fitted with the Kuznetsov NK-144A turbofan to address lack of take-off thrust and surge margin. SFC at M2.0 was 1.81 kg/kgp hr. A further improvement, the NK-144V, achieved the required SFC, but too late to influence the decision to use the Kolesov RD-36-51.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tu-144D, of which five were produced (plus one uncompleted), was powered by the Kolesov RD-36-51 turbojet with an SFC of 1.22 kg/kgp hr. The range with full payload increased to 5,330 km compared to 6,470 km for Concorde. Plans for an aircraft with a range in excess of range were never implemented.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The engine intakes had variable intake ramps and bypass flaps with positions controlled automatically to suit the engine airflow. They were very long to help prevent surging; twice as long as those on Concorde. Jean Rech (Sud Aviation) states the need for excessive length was based on the misconception that length was required to attenuate intake distortion. The intakes were to be shortened by 10 feet on the projected Tu-144M.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Kolesov RD-36-51 had an unusual variable con-di nozzle for the nozzle pressure ratios at supersonic speeds. Without an afterburner there was no variable nozzle already available. A translating plug nozzle was used.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Although its last commercial passenger flight was in 1978, production of the Tu-144 did not cease until 1983, when construction of the airframe was stopped and left partially complete. The last production aircraft, Tu-144D number 77116, was not completed and was left derelict for many years on Voronezh East airfield. There was at least one ground test airframe for static testing in parallel with the development of prototype 68001.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tu-144S went into service on 26 December 1975, flying mail and freight between Moscow and Alma-Ata in preparation for passenger services, which commenced on 1 November 1977. The type certificate was issued by the USSR Gosaviaregister on 29 October 1977.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The passenger service ran a semi-scheduled service until the first Tu-144D experienced an in-flight failure during a pre-delivery test flight, crash-landing on 23 May 1978 with two crew fatalities. The Tu-144's 55th and last scheduled passenger flight occurred on 1 June 1978.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: An Aeroflot freight-only service recommenced using the new production variant "Tu-144D" ("D" for "Dal'nyaya" – "long range") aircraft on 23 June 1979, including longer routes from Moscow to Khabarovsk made possible by the more efficient Kolesov RD-36-51 turbojet engines, which also increased the maximum cruising speed to Mach 2.15.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Tu-144 programme was cancelled by a Soviet government decree on 1 July 1983 that also provided for future use of the remaining Tu-144 aircraft as airborne laboratories. In 1985, Tu-144D were used to train pilots for the Soviet Buran space shuttle. In 1986–1988 Tu-144D No. 77114, built in 1981, was used for medical and biological research of high-altitude atmosphere radiological conditions. Further research was planned but not completed, due to lack of funding.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: In the early 1990s, a wealthy businesswoman, Judith DePaul, and her company IBP Aerospace negotiated an agreement with Tupolev, NASA, Rockwell and later Boeing. They offered a Tu-144 as a testbed for NASA's High Speed Commercial Research program, which was intended to design a second-generation supersonic jetliner called the High Speed Civil Transport. In 1995, Tu-144D No. 77114 (with only 82.5 hours of flight time) was taken out of storage and after extensive modification at a cost of US$350million, designated the "Tu-144LL" (where LL is a Russian abbreviation for Flying Laboratory, , "Letayushchaya Laboratoriya"). The aircraft made 27 flights in Russia during 1996 and 1997. Though regarded as a technical success, the project was cancelled for lack of funding in 1999.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: This aircraft was reportedly sold in June 2001 for $11M via an on-line auction, but the aircraft sale did not proceed. Tejavia Systems, the company handling the transaction, reported in September 2003 that the deal was not signed as the replacement Kuznetsov NK-321 engines from a Tupolev Tu-160 bomber were military hardware and the Russian government would not allow them to be exported.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: In 2003, after the retirement of Concorde, there was renewed interest from several wealthy individuals who wanted to use the Tu-144LL for a transatlantic record attempt, despite the high cost of a flight readiness overhaul even if military authorities would authorize the use of NK-321 engines outside Russian Federation airspace.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The last two aircraft remain in Gromov Flight Research Institute in Zhukovsky, Nos. 77114 (the Tu-144LL) and 77115. In March 2006, it was reported that both aircraft would be preserved, with one erected on a pedestal near Zhukovsky City Council or above the Gromov Flight Research Institute entrance from Tupolev avenue.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Early flights in scheduled service indicated the Tu-144S was extremely unreliable. During 102 flights and 181 hours of freight and passenger flight time, the Tu-144S suffered more than 226 failures, 80 of them in flight. (The list was included in the Tu-144 service record provided by the USSR to British Aircraft Corporation-Aérospatiale in late 1978, when requesting Western technological aid with the Tu-144, and probably incomplete.) Eighty of these failures were serious enough to cancel or delay the flight.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: After the inaugural flight, two subsequent flights, during the next two weeks, were cancelled and the third flight rescheduled. The official reason given by Aeroflot for cancellation was bad weather at Alma-Ata; however when the journalist called the Aeroflot office in Alma-Ata about local weather, the office said that the weather there was perfect and one aircraft had already arrived that morning. Failures included decompression of the cabin in flight on 27 December 1977, and engine-exhaust duct overheating causing the flight to be aborted and returned to the takeoff airport on 14 March 1978.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Aleksey Tupolev, Tu-144 chief designer, and two USSR vice-ministers (of aviation industry and of civil aviation) had to be personally present at Domodedovo airport before each scheduled Tu-144 departure to review the condition of the aircraft and make a joint decision on whether it could be released into flight. Subsequently, flight cancellations became less common, as several Tu-144s were docked at Moscow's Domodedovo International Airport.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Tu-144 pilot Aleksandr Larin remembers a troublesome flight around 25 January 1978. The flight with passengers suffered the failure of 22 to 24 onboard systems. Seven to eight systems failed before takeoff, but given the large number of foreign TV and radio journalists and also other foreign notables aboard the flight, it was decided to proceed with the flight to avoid the embarrassment of cancellation.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: After takeoff, failures continued to multiply. While the aircraft was supersonic en route to the destination airport, Tupolev bureau's crisis centre predicted that the front and left landing gear would not extend and that the aircraft would have to land on the right gear alone, at a landing speed of over . Due to expected political fallout, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev was personally notified of what was going on in the air.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: With the accumulated failures, an alarm siren went off immediately after takeoff, with sound and volume similar to that of a civil defence warning. The crew could not figure a way to switch it off so the siren stayed on throughout the remaining 75 minutes of the flight. Eventually, the captain ordered the navigator to borrow a pillow from the passengers and stuff it inside the siren's horn. After all the suspense, all landing gear extended and the aircraft landed.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: A subsequent flight of Tu-144 on around 30 May 1978, not long before the type was withdrawn from passenger service, involved valve failure on one of the fuel tanks.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Only one commercial route, Moscow to Alma-Ata (present-day Almaty), was ever used and flights were limited to one a week, despite there being eight Tu-144S certified aircraft available and a number of other routes suitable for supersonic flights, suggesting that the Soviet decision-makers had little confidence in the Tu-144 when passenger service began in 1977. Considering the high rate of technical failures, their reasoning was sound. Bookings were limited to 70–80 passengers or fewer for each flight, falling well below both the Tu-144's seating capacity and the demand for seats. On its 55 scheduled flights, Tu-144s transported 3,194 passengers, an average of 58 passengers per flight. With officials acutely aware of the aircraft's poor reliability and fearful of possible crashes, Soviet decision-makers deliberately limited flight frequency to the minimum allowing them to claim regular service, and also limited passenger load to minimize the impact and political fallout of a possible crash.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: A serious problem was discovered when two Tu-144S airframes suffered structural failures during laboratory testing just prior to the Tu-144 entering passenger service. Details are included in a chapter in Fridlyander's memoirs and mentioned by Bliznyuk et al. The problem, discovered in 1976, may have been known prior to this testing; a large crack was discovered in the airframe of the prototype Tu-144 (aircraft 68001) during a stopover in Warsaw following its appearance at the 1971 Paris Air Show.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The aircraft was assembled from parts machined from large blocks and panels, many over long and wide. While at the time, this approach was heralded as an advanced feature of the design, it turned out that large whole-moulded and machined parts contained defects in the alloy's structure that caused cracking at stress levels below that which the part was expected to withstand. Once a crack started to develop, it spread quickly over many metres, with no crack-arresting design feature to stop it. In 1976, during repeat-load and static testing at TsAGI (Russia's "Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute"), a Tu-144S airframe cracked at 70% of expected flight stress with cracks running many metres in both directions from their origin.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Later the same year, a test airframe was subjected to a test simulating the temperatures and pressures occurring during a flight. The Tu-144 was placed in a hyperbaric chamber and heated to . Contraction and expansion happened because of the cooling during ascent and descent, heating during supersonic acceleration and cruise and because of the pressure change from high altitude (low outside pressure causing the airframe to expand) to ground-level pressure (causing it to contract). The airframe cracked in a similar way to that of the TsAGI load testing.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: While fatigue cracks of an acceptable length are normal in aircraft, they are usually found during routine inspections or stopped at a crack-arresting feature. Aircraft fly with acceptable cracks until they are repaired. The Tu-144 design was the opposite of standard practice, allowing a higher incidence of defects in the alloy structure, leading to crack formation and propagation many metres in length.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The Soviet leadership made a political decision to enter the Tu-144 into passenger service in November 1977, despite receiving testing reports indicating that the Tu-144 airframe was unsafe and not airworthy for regular service. Aeroflot appears to have thought so little of the aircraft that it did not mention it in its five-year plan for 1976-1980. However, it was not the airline executives' decision and Aeroflot reluctantly put the Tu-144 into passenger service on 1 November 1977.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Though the decision to cancel the Tu-144S passenger service came a few days after the Tu-144D crashed during the test flight on 23 May 1978, this crash was regarded as the last straw over mounting concerns about the reliability of the Tu-144. Even the fact that the technical reason for the crash was specific to the Tu-144D fuel pump system and did not apply to the Tu-144S did not help. The decision to pull the Tu-144S out of passenger service after merely 55 flights is thus more likely to be attributable to high incidence of failures during and before the scheduled flights.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: A problem for passengers was the very high noise level inside the cabin, measuring at least 90–95 dB on average. The noise came from the engines; unlike Concorde, it could only sustain supersonic speeds using afterburners, like military aircraft. In addition, the unique active heat insulation system used for the air conditioning, which used the flow of spent cabin air, was described as excessively noisy. Passengers seated next to each other could have a conversation only with difficulty, and those seated two seats apart could not hear each other even when screaming and had to pass hand-written notes instead. Noise in the back of the aircraft was unbearable. Aleksey Tupolev acknowledged the problem to foreign passengers and promised to fix it, but never had the means to do so.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: There were unprecedented Soviet requests for Western technological aid with the development of the Tu-144. The request was made despite obviously not helping to foster Soviet technological prestige, which was one of the key purposes of the Tu-144 programme. In 1977, the USSR approached Lucas Industries, a designer of the engine control system for Concorde, requesting help with the design of the electronic management system of the Tu-144 engines, and also asked BAC-Aérospatiale for assistance in improving the Tu-144 air intakes. (The design of air intakes' variable geometry and their control system was one of the most intricate features of Concorde, contributing to its fuel efficiency. Over half of the wind-tunnel time during Concorde development was spent on the design of air intakes and their control system.) In late 1978, the USSR requested a wide range of Concorde technologies, evidently reflecting the broad spectrum of unresolved Tu-144 technical issues. The list included de-icing equipment for the leading edge of the air intakes, fuel-system pipes and devices to improve durability of these pipes, drain valves for fuel tanks, fireproof paints, navigation and piloting equipment, systems and techniques for acoustical loading of airframe and controls (to test against acoustic fatigue caused by high jet-noise environment), ways to reinforce the airframe to withstand damage, firefighting equipment, including warning devices and lightning protection, emergency power supply, and landing gear spray guards (a.k.a. water deflectors or "mud flaps" that increase engine efficiency when taking off from wet airstrips). These requests were denied after the British government vetoed them on the ground that the same technologies, if transferred, could be also employed in Soviet bombers. Soviet approaches were also reported in British mainstream press of the time, such as "The Times".


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: On 31 August 1980, Tu-144D (77113) suffered an uncontained compressor disc failure in supersonic flight which damaged part of the airframe structure and systems. The crew was able to perform an emergency landing at Engels-2 strategic bomber base. On 12 November 1981, a Tu-144D's RD-36-51 engine was destroyed during bench tests, leading to a temporary suspension of all Tu-144D flights. One of the Tu-144Ds (77114, a.k.a. aircraft 101) suffered a crack across the bottom panel of its wing.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Finally, the higher oil prices of the 1970s were starting to catch up with the Soviet Union. Much later than in the West, but since the late 1970s, commercial efficiency was starting to become a factor in aviation development decision-making even in the USSR. The Tu-144 disappeared from Aeroflot published prospects, replaced by the Ilyushin Il-86, a jumbo jet that was to become the Soviet flagship airliner.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: In the late 1970s, Soviet insiders were intensely hopeful in conversations with Western counterparts of reintroducing Tu-144 passenger service for the 1980 Moscow Olympic games, even perhaps for flights to Western Europe, given the aircraft's high visibility, but apparently the technical condition of the aircraft weighed against such re-introduction even for token flights.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: As discussed in Howard Moon's book "Soviet SST" (1989), economic efficiency alone would not have doomed the Tu-144 altogether; continuation of token flights for reasons of political prestige would have been possible, if only the aircraft itself would have allowed for it, but it did not. The Tu-144 was to a large extent intended to be and trumpeted as a symbol of Soviet technological prestige and superiority.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The decision to cease Tu-144D production was issued on 7 January 1982, followed by a USSR government decree dated 1 July 1983 to cease the whole Tu-144 programme and to use produced Tu-144 aircraft as flying laboratories.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: In retrospect, it is apparent that the Tu-144 suffered from a rush in the design process to the detriment of thoroughness and quality, and this rush to get airborne exacted a heavy penalty later. The rush is apparent even in outward timing: the 1963 government decree launching the Tu-144 programme defined that the Tu-144 should fly in 1968; it first flew on "the last day" of 1968 (31 December) to fulfill government goals set five years earlier. (By the way of comparison, Concorde's first flight was originally scheduled for February 1968, but was pushed back several times until March 1969 in order to iron out problems and test components more thoroughly). Unlike Concorde development, the Tu-144 project was also strongly driven by ideologically and politically motivated haste of Soviet self-imposed racing against Concorde; Aleksei Poukhov, one of Tupolev's designers, reminiscences: "For the Soviet Union to allow the West to get ahead and leave it behind at that time was quite unthinkable. We not only had to prevent the West from getting ahead, but had to compete and leapfrog them, if necessary. This was the task Khrushchev set us... We knew that when Concorde's maiden flight had been set for February or March, 1969, we would have to get our aircraft up and flying by the end of 1968."


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The introduction of the Tu-144 into passenger service was timed to the 60th anniversary of the Communist revolution, as was duly noted in Soviet officials' speeches delivered at the airport before the inaugural flight – whether the aircraft was actually ready for passenger service was deemed of secondary importance. Even the outward details of the inaugural Tu-144 flight betrayed the haste of its introduction into service: several ceiling panels were ajar, service trays stuck, window shades dropped without being pulled, reading lights did not work, not all toilets worked and a broken ramp delayed departure half an hour. On arrival to Alma-Ata, the Tu-144 was towed back and forth for 25 minutes before it could be aligned with the exit ramp. Equally telling is the number of hours spent on flight testing. Whereas Concorde had been subjected to 5,000 hours of testing by the time it was certified for passenger flight, making it the most tested aircraft ever, total flight testing time of the Tu-144 by the time of its introduction into passenger service was fewer than 800 hours. Flight testing time logged on the prototype (68001) was 180 hours; flight testing time for the Tu-144S until the completion of state acceptance tests was 408 hours; service tests until the commencement of passenger service were 96 hours of flight time; altogether totalling 684 hours. It is unclear why the Minister of Aviation Industry and the Minister of Civil Aviation did not endorse the protocols of state acceptance tests for four months after the tests completion. One reason could be the change of the guard – Minister Dementiev, who was one of the chief backers of Tu-144, died a day before the tests completed – but it might also have something to do with aircraft reliability record uncovered during the tests that was no better than the subsequent dismal service record.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Fridlyander points out that in addition to the Tu-144, Tupolev's bureau had to work on other projects, including the Tu-154 passenger aircraft and the Tu-22M bomber. Despite large and high-priority resource investment in the Tu-144 development programme and the fact that a large part of the whole Soviet R&D infrastructure was subordinated to the Tu-144 project, parallel project development overwhelmed the bureau causing it to lose focus and make design errors. (Design errors affected not only the Tu-144, but the Tu-154 as well). The first batch of 120 Tu-154s suffered from wing destruction due to excessive structural load and had to be withdrawn.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The rushed introduction to service of poorly tested aircraft happened previously with another Tupolev project that had high political visibility and prestige: the Tu-104 passenger jet-liner was the first successful Soviet passenger jet in service. In a decision-making similar to the Tu-144-story, the Soviet government introduced the Tu-104 into passenger service before satisfactory stability and controllability had been achieved. During high-altitude and high-speed flight the aircraft was prone to longitudinal instability, and also at high altitudes, it had a narrow range of angle of attack separating the aircraft from stalls known as coffin corner. These problems created the preconditions for spin dives, that happened twice before the Tu-104 was eventually properly tested and the problem was resolved.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: This politically motivated rush, along with the fact that the project was essentially ideologically motivated rather than driven by intrinsic needs of the Soviet society, and with general technological insufficiencies of Soviet industrial base, contributed to the final undoing of the Tu-144 project. (Alexander Poukhov, one of the Tu-144 design engineers who subsequently rose to be one of the bureau's senior designers, estimated in 1998 that the Tu-144 project was 10–15 years beyond the USSR's capabilities at that time).


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Moon suggests that subordination of available Soviet R&D resource allocation to the Tu-144 programme significantly slowed down the development of other Soviet aircraft projects, such as the Il-86 wide-body jet, and stagnated Soviet aviation development for almost a decade.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: After ceasing the Tu-144 programme, Tu-144D No. 77114 (aircraft 101 or 08-2) carried out test flights between the 13–20 July 1983 to establish 13 world records registered with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). These records established an altitude of with a range of loads up to 30 tonnes, and a sustained speed of over a closed circuit of up to with similar loads.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: To put the numbers in perspective, Concorde's service ceiling under a typical Transatlantic flight payload of 10 tonnes is , and this is higher than the record set by the Tu-144D. According to unverified sources, during a 26 March 1974 test flight a Concorde reached its maximum speed ever of (Mach 2.23) at an altitude of , and during subsequent test flights reached maximum altitude of . It is unclear why Tu-144D's maximum achievable altitude would be lower than Concorde's even regular flight altitude, given that Tupolev's data claim better lift-to-drag ratio for the Tu-144 (over 8.0 for Tu-144D vs Concorde's 7.3–7.7 at Mach 2.x) and the thrust of the Tu-144D's RD-36-51 engines is higher than Concorde's Olympus 593 engines.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Concorde was originally designed for cruising speeds up to Mach 2.2, but its regular service speed was limited to Mach 2.02 to reduce fuel consumption, extend airframe life and provide a higher safety margin. One of Tupolev's web site pages states that "TU-144 and TU-160 aircraft operation has demonstrated expediency of limitation of cruise supersonic speed of M=2.0 to provide structure service life and to limit cruising altitude".


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The aircraft was designed for a 30,000-hour service life over 15 years. Airframe heating and the high temperature properties of the primary structural materials, which were aluminium alloys, set the maximum speed at Mach 2.2. 15% by weight was titanium and 23% non-metallic materials. Titanium or stainless steel were used for the leading edges, elevons, rudder and the rear fuselage engine-exhaust heat shield.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: A project study, assigned the number Tu-144DA, increased the wing area and the take-off weight, and replaced the engines with the RD-36-61 which had 5% more thrust. The Tu-144DA increased fuel capacity from 98,000 kg to 125,000 kg with a higher maximum certified take-off weight (MCTOW) of 235,000 kg. and range up to 7,500 km.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Early configurations of the Tu-144 were based on the unbuilt Tupolev Tu-135 bomber, retaining the latter aircraft's canard layout, wings and nacelles. Deriving from the Tu-135 bomber, early Tupolev's design for supersonic passenger airplane was code-named Tu-135P before acquiring the Tu-144 project code.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Over the course of the Tu-144 project, the Tupolev bureau created designs of a number of military versions of Tu-144 but none were ever built. In the early 1970s, Tupolev was developing the Tu-144R intended to carry and air-launch up to three solid-fueled ICBMs. The launch was to be performed from within Soviet air space, with the aircraft accelerating to its maximum speed before releasing the missiles. The original design was based on the Tu-144S, but later changed to be derived from the Tu-144D. Another version of the design was to carry air-launched long-range cruise missiles similar to the Kh-55. The study of this version envisioned the use of liquid hydrogen for the afterburners.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: In the late 1970s. Tupolev contemplated the development of a long-range heavy interceptor (DP-2) based on the Tu-144D also able to escort bombers on long-range missions. Later this project evolved into an aircraft for electronic countermeasures (ECM) to suppress enemy radars and facilitate bomber's penetration through enemy air defenses (Tu-144PP). In the early 1980s this functionality was supplanted with theatre and strategic reconnaissance (Tu-144PR).


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The dimmer civil prospects for Tu-144 were becoming apparent the more Tupolev tried to "sell" the aircraft to the military. One of the last attempts to sell a military version of the Tu-144 was the Tu-144MR, a project for a long-range reconnaissance aircraft for the Soviet Navy intended to provide targeting information to the Navy's ships and submarines on sea and oceanic theaters of operations. Another proposed navy version was to have a strike capability (two Kh-45 air-to-surface cruise missiles), along with a reconnaissance function. The Tu-144MR was also to have served as a carrier aircraft for the Tupolev Voron reconnaissance drone, designed to compete with the Lockheed D-21 and influenced by it, but the project never materialised.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The military was unreceptive to Tupolev's approaches. Vasily Reshetnikov, the commander of Soviet strategic aviation and subsequently, a vice-commander of the Soviet Air Force, remembers how, in 1972, he was dismayed by Tupolev's attempts to offer for military use the aircraft that "fell short of its performance target, was beset by reliability problems, fuel-thirsty and difficult to operate".


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The development and construction of the supersonic airliner, the future Tu-144, was included in the five-year plan and was under the auspices of the influential D.F. Ustinov (then Soviet minister of defence and confidant of Brezhnev, who represented interests of defence industries lobby in opposition to the military) who regarded this mission as a personal responsibility – not so much to his country and people as to "dear Leonid Il'ych" (Brezhnev) whom he literally worshipped, sometimes to the point of shamelessness... Yet the supersonic passenger jet was apparently not making headway and, to the dismay of its curator, it looked as though Brezhnev might be disappointed. It was then that Dmitry Fedorovich (Ustinov) jumped at someone's idea to foist Aeroflot's "bride in search of a wedding" on the military. After it had been rejected in bomber guise, Ustinov used the Military Industrial Commission (one of the most influential Soviet government bodies) to promote the aircraft to the Strategic Aviation as a reconnaissance or ECM platform, or both. It was clear to me that these aircraft could not possibly work in concert with any bomber or missile carrier formation; likewise I could not imagine them operating solo as "Flying Dutchmen" in a war scenario, therefore I resolutely turned down the offer.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Ustinov could not be put off that easily. He managed to persuade the Navy C-in-C (admiral) S.G. Gorshkov who agreed to accept the Tu-144 for Naval Aviation service as a long-range reconnaissance aircraft without consulting anyone on the matter. Mironenko rebelled against this decision, but the commander-in-chief would not hear of heed – the issue is decided, period. On learning of this I was extremely alarmed: if Mironenko had been pressured into taking the Tu-144, this meant I was going to be next. I made a phone call to Aleksandr Alekseyevich, urging him to take radical measures; I needn't have called because even without my urging Mironenko was giving his C-in-C a hard time. Finally Ustinov got wind of the mutiny and summoned Mironenko to his office. They had a long and heated discussion but eventually Mironenko succeeded in proving that Ustinov's ideas were unfounded. That was the last time we heard of Tu-144.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: While several Tu-144s were donated to museums in Moscow Monino, Samara and Ulyanovsk, at least two Tu-144D remained in open storage in Moscow Zhukovsky.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: As of June 2010, two aircraft (tail numbers СССР-77114 and СССР-77115) are located outdoors at Gromov Flight Research Institute, Zhukovsky (at coordinates and ). Previously, they were constantly on display at MAKS Airshows. Tail number 77115 was bought in 2005 by the Heros Club of Zhukovsky and still on display at MAKS as of 2019. In 2019, tail number 77114 was repainted in Aeroflot livery and put on display in front of the Gromov Flight Research institute main gate.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: A Tu-144S, registration СССР-77106, is on display at Central Air Force Museum of Russia in Monino. Its maiden flight was on 4 March 1975, the final one on 29 February 1980. The aircraft was used to assess the effectiveness of the air-conditioning systems and to solve some problems on the fuel system. It can be considered the first production aircraft, being the first to be equipped for commercial use and delivered to Aeroflot. The first operational flight was on 26 December 1975 between Moscow and Alma-Ata carrying cargo and mail. This aircraft was the first SST to land on a dirty runway when she was retired to Monino.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Another Tu-144, tail number СССР-77107, is on open display in Kazan and located at . The aircraft was constructed in 1975 and was a production model intended for passenger use. However, it was only used during test flights. On 29 March 1976 it made its last flight to Kazan. This aircraft was put on sale on eBay in 2017.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: TU-144S, tail number СССР-77108, is on display in the museum of Samara State Aerospace University (). It made its maiden flight on 12 December 1975, and its final flight on 27 August 1987. Development works on navigation system were made in this aircraft as well as flight-director approach.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: TU-144S, tail number СССР-77110, is on display at the Museum of Civil Aviation in Ulyanovsk. Maiden flight occurred on 14 February 1977, the final Flight on 1 June 1984. This aircraft was the second of the two aircraft used for regular passengers' flights on Moscow – Alma-Ata route. In 1977 it flew to Paris to take part in the XXXII Paris Air Show at Le Bourget Airport. This was the last appearance of a Tu-144 in West Europe.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: СССР-77110 was the last aircraft produced of the model Tu-144S, powered with Kuznetsov NK-144A engines.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: In the first half of 2008 the cabin was open for visits and between August and September was restored and painted in the original Aeroflot livery.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: The only Tu-144 on display outside the former Soviet Union, tail number СССР-77112, was acquired by the Auto & Technikmuseum Sinsheim in Germany, where it was shipped – not flown – in 2001 and where it now stands, in its original Aeroflot livery, on display next to an Air France Concorde. As of 2017, the Technikmuseum Sinsheim remains the only museum in the world where the Tu-144 and Concorde are on display together.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: At the Paris Air Show on 3 June 1973, the development program of the Tu-144 suffered severely when the first "Tu-144S" production airliner (reg 77102) crashed.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: At the end of the officially approved demonstration flight, which was an exact repeat of the previous day's display, instead of landing as expected the aircraft entered a very steep climb before making a violent downwards manoeuvre. As it tried to recover the aircraft broke apart and crashed, destroying 15 houses and killing all six people on board the Tu-144 and eight more on the ground.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Gordon et al. state that the flight crew had departed from the approved flight profile for the display, a serious offense in itself. They were under instructions to outperform the Concorde display by all means. During the unapproved, and therefore unrehearsed manoeuvres, the stability and control augmentation system was not operating normally. If it had been it would have prevented the loads that caused the port wing to fail.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: A popular Soviet theory for the crash was that the Tu-144 tried to avoid a French Mirage chase-plane that was attempting to photograph its canards, which were very advanced for the time, and that the French and Soviet governments colluded with each other to cover up such details. The flight of the Mirage was denied in the original French report of the incident, perhaps because it was engaged in industrial espionage. More recent reports have admitted the existence of the Mirage (and the fact that the Soviet crew was not told about the Mirage's flight), though not its role in the crash. The official press release did state: "though the inquiry established that there was no real risk of collision between the two aircraft, the Soviet pilot was likely to have been surprised."


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: Another theory relates to deliberate misinformation on the part of the Anglo-French design team. The main point of this theory is that the Anglo-French team knew the Soviet team was planning to steal the design plans of Concorde, and allegedly passed ersatz (substituted) blueprints with a flawed design to the Soviets. The case, it is claimed, contributed to the imprisonment by the Soviets of Greville Wynne in 1963 for spying. Wynne was imprisoned on 11 May 1963 and the development of the Tu-144 was not sanctioned until 16 July 1963.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: On 23 May 1978, the Tu-144 supersonic passenger jet was to make a test flight before delivery to Aeroflot. At an altitude of 3,000 m, a fire started at the APU located in the right delta-shaped wing. A turn was made to return to the airport and both engines located in the right wing (engines no. 3 and 4) were shut down and the aircraft began to lose altitude. Fire trailed the aircraft and the cockpit filled with smoke. Then one of the remaining two engines failed. Six minutes after the fire started, the crew managed to belly-land the aircraft in a field near Yegoryevsk. On impact, the nose cone collapsed under the fuselage, penetrating the compartment in which two flight engineers were seated, killing both.


title: Tupolev Tu-144

text: It was later determined that, 27 minutes prior to the ignition, a fuel line had ruptured, causing eight tons of fuel to leak into several compartments on the right wing. The fuel readings were judged incorrect by the flight engineers and thus were not reported to the commander. In addition to the two flight engineers killed on impact, six other crewmembers were injured.


title: University of California

text: The University of California (UC) is a public land-grant research university system in the U.S. state of California. The system is composed of the campuses at Berkeley, Davis, Irvine, Los Angeles, Merced, Riverside, San Diego, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, and Santa Cruz, along with numerous research centers and academic abroad centers. The system is the state's land-grant university. Major publications generally rank most UC campuses as being among the best universities in the world. Six of the campuses, Berkeley, Davis, Irvine, Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and San Diego are considered Public Ivies, making California the state with the most universities in the nation to hold the title. UC campuses have large numbers of distinguished faculty in almost every academic discipline, with UC faculty and researchers having won 71 Nobel Prizes as of 2021.