title: The Salvation Army

text: The latest International Congress was held in London on 1–5 July 2015, in commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the Salvation Army's founding.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In Russia the Army was founded around 1917 and the Army struggled on until 1922 at which point the situation had become extremely challenging. A Moscow court ruled that the Salvation Army was a paramilitary organisation subject to expulsion. In October 2006, the European Court of Human Rights ruled the decision illegal. The Salvation Army International website lists the Russian Federation, now part of the Territory of Eastern Europe.


title: The Salvation Army

text: William Booth's dying wish for the Salvation Army to be established in China was fulfilled in a pledge made in 1912 by Bramwell Booth to his father. In 1915 the first officers were sent, and during the 1931 famine fed 100,000 people daily. Following political difficulties by 1952 the Army withdrew from the country but work still continues in the provinces of Macau and Hong Kong, as well as in Taiwan.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army flag is a symbol of the Army's war against sin and social evils. The red on the flag symbolises the blood shed by Jesus Christ, the yellow for the fire of the Holy Spirit and the blue for the purity of God the Father.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 1878 Captain W. H. Ebdon suggested a logo, and in 1879 it was to be found on the letterhead of the Salvation Army Headquarters. The captain's suggested design was changed only slightly and a crown was added.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Red Shield has its origins in Salvation Army work during wartime. At the end of the 19th century, Staff-Captain Mary Murray was sent by William Booth to support British troops serving in the Boer War in South Africa. Then, in 1901, this same officer was given the task of establishing the Naval and Military League, the forerunner of the Red Shield Services.


title: The Salvation Army

text: Salvation Army officers serving in the Red Shield Services in wartime performed many functions. The Doughnut Girls of World War I are an early example, serving refreshments to troops in the trenches. They also provided first aid stations, ambulances, chaplaincy, social clubs, Christian worship and other front-line services.


title: The Salvation Army

text: This symbol is still used in Blue Shield Services that serve the British Armed Forces but it is widely used as a simple, more readily identifiable symbol in many Salvation Army settings. It is common to see the Red Shield used on casual Salvation Army uniform. It is now official Salvation Army policy in the UK that the red shield should be used as the external symbol of the Salvation Army, with the Crest only being used internally. Therefore, any new Salvation Army building will now have the red shield on the outside rather than the crest which certainly would have been used on its Corps (church) buildings. This was "imposed" in the UK by the Senior Management with little or no consultation with members. Not all have welcomed this change.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In Australia, the Red Shield has become one of the country's most identified and trusted symbols, leading the Australian Salvation Army to prefer to use this symbol over the logo on its uniform, corps buildings and advertising materials. In the 5th volume of "Australian Superbrands" it was recorded that "Research reveals that the popular Salvation Army slogan 'Thank God for the Salvos' has almost total recognition amongst the Australian public, achieving 93 per cent aided awareness".


title: The Salvation Army

text: Salvation Army officers, cadets (trainee officers) and soldiers often wear uniforms. The idea that they should do so originated with Elijah Cadman, who, at the Salvation Army's "War Congress" in August 1878, said, "I would like to wear a suit of clothes that would let everyone know I meant war to the teeth and salvation for the world". The uniform identifies the wearer as a Salvationist and a Christian. It also symbolises availability to those in need. The uniform takes many forms internationally but is characterised by the 'S' insignia for 'Salvation' and carries the meaning 'Saved to Serve', or 'Saved to Save'. Different colours and styles represent different ranks including soldiers, cadets, lieutenants, captains, majors, colonels, commissioner, and even the General.


title: The Salvation Army

text: Characteristics of the uniform vary between ranks where accessories (the official term is "trimmings") comprise epaulettes and hexagonal lapel patches.


title: The Salvation Army

text: Other letters are substituted to conform with local language. The words "The Salvation Army" are woven into the fabric of the uniform as a logo on shirts, blouses and jackets.


title: The Salvation Army

text: Since 1983 there has been an official Salvation Army tartan. It was designed by Captain Harry Cooper, for the Perth Citadel Corps centenary commemoration in Scotland. It is based upon the colours of the Salvation Army flag, with which it shares the same symbolism. It is rarely seen outside Scotland.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army has a unique form of salute which involves raising the right hand above shoulder-height with the index finger pointing upwards. It signifies recognition of a fellow citizen of heaven, and a pledge to do everything possible to get others to heaven also. In the case of saluting in response to applause, in circumstances such as a musical festival or being applauded for a speech, it also signifies that the Salvationist wishes to give Glory to God and not themselves. In some instances, the salute is accompanied with a shout of 'hallelujah!'


title: The Salvation Army

text: In many countries, the Salvation Army is recognised during the Christmas season with its volunteers and employees who stand outside of businesses and play/sing Christmas carols, or ring bells to inspire passers-by to place donations of cash and cheques inside red kettles. A tradition has developed in the United States in which, in some places, gold coins or rings or bundles of large bills are anonymously inserted into the kettles. This was first recorded in 1982, in Crystal Lake, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. The red kettles are not only used during the Christmas season though. They are used throughout the year at other fundraising events, such as on National Doughnut Day in the U.S. On this day, some doughnut shops that teamed up with the Salvation Army have a red kettle set up for donations. Each corps has a specific goal chosen for them by DHQ [Divisional Headquarters] which differs based on size and capability


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Red Shield Appeal and Self-Denial Appeal are annual fundraising campaigns in some territories, such as the UK and Australia. Each year, officers, soldiers, employees and volunteers take to the streets worldwide to participate in door-to-door or street collections. The money raised is specifically channelled towards The Salvation Army's social work in each respective territory. Within the territory defined by the United Kingdom and Ireland (UKIT) this collection is known as the Annual Appeal, and it often carries another name that the general public would more readily know – in 2012 becoming The Big Collection.


title: The Salvation Army

text: As the popularity of the organisation grew and Salvationists worked their way through the streets of London attempting to convert individuals, they were sometimes confronted with unruly crowds. A family of musicians (the Frys, from Alderbury, Wiltshire) began working with the Army as their "bodyguards" and played music to distract the crowds. In 1891 a Salvation Army band attempted to parade and play music in Eastbourne, Sussex, England. This was in contravention of local by-laws and resulted in the arrest of 9 Salvationists. Unperturbed the Army continued to parade in defiance of the law, with the aim of gathering support for a change in legislation. Over the next few months the situation in the town escalated to such an extent that there were riots, and mounted police had to be called in from surrounding areas to try to maintain order.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The tradition of having musicians available continued and eventually grew into standard brass bands. These are still seen in public at Army campaigns, as well as at other festivals, parades and at Christmas. Across the world the brass band has been an integral part of the Army's ministry and an immediately recognisable symbol to Salvationists and non-Salvationists alike. The Salvation Army also has choirs; these are known as Songster Brigades, normally comprising the traditional soprano, alto, tenor and bass singers. The premier Songster Brigade in the Salvation Army is the International Staff Songsters (ISS). The standard of playing is high and the Army operates bands at the international level, such as the International Staff Band (a brass band) which is the equal of professional ensembles although it does not participate in the brass band contest scene, and territorial levels such as the New York Staff Band. Some professional brass players and contesting brass band personnel have Salvation Army backgrounds. Many Salvation Army corps have brass bands that play at Salvation Army meetings, although not all. The Salvation Army also fielded large concertina bands. From the turn of the (20th) century to the Second World War between a third and a half of all SA officers in Britain played concertina. For an evangelist the concertina's portability, its ability to play both melody and chords, and most especially the fact that the player can sing or speak while playing, were all distinct advantages over brass instruments.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Army tradition in music is to use the popular idiom of the day to reach people for Jesus. The Army's Joy Strings were a hit pop group in the 1960s and early 1970s in the UK and beyond, reaching the charts and being featured on national television. Another popular band is The Insyderz, an American ska-core group popular in the 1990s and early 2000s. Hundreds of bands carry on this Salvation Army tradition, such as New Zealand's Moped, Chamberlain, Vatic, Agent C, and The Lads; England's Electralyte; Australia's Soteria Music Ministries, Summer Carnival Band, Crown of Thorns and Escape; and America's transMission, The Singing Company, HAB, BurN, and CJD – Cookies, Juice, & Donuts. Saytunes is a website designed to encourage and promote these contemporary Salvation Army bands and artists. Another significant musical feature of the Salvation Army is its use of tambourines. With colourised ribbons representing the colours of the Salvation Army flag, timbrels play an integral facet of music in the Salvation army. They are mainly played by women.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army publishes books, magazines, and sheet music. Due to the way in which the Salvation Army is constituted, copyright of some Army publications is vested in the General of The Salvation Army, and not necessarily the original authors.


title: The Salvation Army

text: There are official social media accounts run by the Salvation Army on Twitter, Facebook groups run by Territories and Corps officers, and unofficial fan groups.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 1994, the "Chronicle of Philanthropy", an industry publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organisation popularity and credibility. The study showed that The Salvation Army was ranked as the 4th "most popular charity/non-profit in America" of over 100 charities researched, with 47% of Americans over the age of 12 choosing 'Love' and 'Like A Lot' for The Salvation Army.


title: The Salvation Army

text: General Bramwell Booth instituted the "Order of the Founder" on 20 August 1917 and the first awards were made in 1920 to one Soldier and 15 Officers.


title: The Salvation Army

text: General George Carpenter founded the "Order of Distinguished Auxiliary Service" in 1941 to express the Salvation Army's gratitude for service given to the organisation by non-Salvationists.


title: The Salvation Army

text: Because the Salvation Army is a church, Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 allows it to inquire into people's religious beliefs in its hiring practices. The Salvation Army states that it does not "discriminate against hiring gays and lesbians for the majority of its roughly 55,000 jobs," but historically it has supported legislation which would allow it to deny employment and federally-funded services to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 1986, The Salvation Army campaigned throughout New Zealand against the Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986, which decriminalised homosexuality. In 2006, the Army released a statement regretting the ill feelings that persisted following this activity. It stated in part "We do understand though that The Salvation Army's official opposition to the Reform Bill was deeply hurtful to many, and are distressed that ill-feeling still troubles our relationship with segments of the gay community. We regret any hurt that may remain from that turbulent time and our present hope is to rebuild bridges of understanding and dialogue between our movement and the gay community."


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 1997, the city of San Francisco enacted a law requiring all companies doing business with the city government to extend domestic benefits to same-sex partners of employees. In refusing to do so, the Salvation Army declined a US $3.5million contract. In 2001, the Salvation Army pressed the Bush Administration to exempt it and other religious groups from anti-discrimination legislation which it felt infringed on the organisation's religious freedoms. This request was denied, and was sharply rebuked by David Smith, then-spokesperson for the Human Rights Campaign. "Gays and lesbians are taxpayers, too," said Smith. "Their money should not be used by religious groups to fund discriminatory practices against them."


title: The Salvation Army

text: In February 2000, the Salvation Army in the United Kingdom publicly opposed the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, which prevented local authorities from "intentionally promot[ing] homosexuality".


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army Western Territory approved a plan in October 2001 to start offering domestic partnership benefits to employees in same-sex relationships. Members of various evangelical Christian interest groups protested the decision. Focus on the Family founder James Dobson excoriated the Salvation Army for abandoning its "moral integrity" and urged his radio listeners to bombard the organisation's offices with phone calls and letters. The American Family Association also accused the Salvation Army of a "monstrous ... appeasement of sin" that resulted in a "betrayal of the church". In November 2001 the Salvation Army US-wide rescinded the Western Territory's decision with an announcement that it would only provide benefits coverage for different-sex spouses and dependent children of its employees.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2004, the Salvation Army said that it would close operations in New York City unless it was exempted from a municipal ordinance requiring them to offer benefits to gay employees' partners. The City Council refused to make the exemption. Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg's administration chose not to enforce the ordinance. The administration's right to decline to enforce the ordinance was upheld by the New York State Court of Appeals in 2006.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2008, a trans woman named Jennifer Gale died outside a church in Austin, Texas. A city council member attributed her death to workers at a Salvation Army shelter refusing to house her in the women's quarters. The city council member later partially retracted their statements, stating "The Salvation Army...do apparently have a policy of non-discrimination and they do not turn trans people away, but I'm not fully sold on their ability to actually understand the issue. If they are not full they will give trans people privacy (maybe they have private quarters of some sort), but if full and they are in an overflow shelter situation, as they were Tuesday night, I am under the impression that they will assign people according to their anatomy."


title: The Salvation Army

text: Between 2010 and 2013, various individuals and organisations critically noted a "position statement" with regard to "same-sex" "sexual orientations" published on the Salvation Army's website:


title: The Salvation Army

text: Likewise, there is no scriptural support for demeaning or mistreating anyone for reason of his or her sexual orientation. The Salvation Army opposes any such abuse.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In keeping with these convictions, the services of The Salvation Army are available to all who qualify, without regard to sexual orientation. [...]


title: The Salvation Army

text: According to a June 2012 article in "The Atlantic", the position statement was subsequently "deleted". An article published by CTV News noted in December of the same year that "The site currently states that the organisation's position on homosexuality is 'under review.'"


title: The Salvation Army

text: On 15 December 2012, in Canada, Andrea Le Good noticed a Salvation Army bell-ringer carrying a sign reading "if you support gay rights: please do not donate". While the bell-ringer claimed he had permission from the charity to wear the sign, Salvation Army spokeswoman Kyla Ferns said that it had no part in the sign, and that the bell-ringer was pulled away immediately when the charity learned about it.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In November 2013 it was made known that the Salvation Army was referring LGBT individuals to one of several conversion therapy groups. As a response, the Salvation Army removed links to the conversion groups from their website.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2016, The Salvation Army withdrew support for an Australian safe schools program that focused on LGBT students, stating that "the provision of a government approved anti-bullying program needs to consider all high risk student groups."


title: The Salvation Army

text: In November 2019, according to "The Dallas Morning News", "singer Ellie Goulding [...] threaten[ed] to cancel her performance at the Cowboys' Thanksgiving halftime show" out of concern for "the LGBTQ community" following negative responses to an Instagram post that she made promoting the organisation:


title: The Salvation Army

text: "Upon researching this, I have reached out to The Salvation Army and said that I would have no choice but to pull out unless they very quickly make a solid, committed pledge or donation to the LGBTQ community," she wrote. "I am a committed philanthropist as you probably know, and my heart has always been in helping the homeless, but supporting an anti-LGBTQ charity is clearly not something I would ever intentionally do. Thank you for drawing my attention to this."


title: The Salvation Army

text: The show "serves as the kickoff for the Salvation Army's yearly Red Kettle Campaign". Goulding later opted to perform.


title: The Salvation Army

text: A positional statement on the Salvation Army UK and Ireland site stated (but has since been taken down):


title: The Salvation Army

text: The positional statement is, however, intended explicitly for members of the Salvation Army and the Salvation Army mission statement as of 2013 states:


title: The Salvation Army

text: , activists were still calling on the Salvation Army to change its stance on LGBT issues, citing ongoing discrimination.


title: The Salvation Army

text: , the "Inclusion" page on the official UK website stated that the Salvation Army stands against homophobia and does not permit discrimination in its employment practices or delivery of care.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The USA Central Territory website, as of 2018, explicitly states that it serves and welcomes the LGBT community.


title: The Salvation Army

text: On the website of its USA division, the organisation currently maintains an informative and promotional document titled "The LGBTQ Community and The Salvation Army" in which it states (among other things) that it is "committed to serving the LGBTQ community"; "[w]hen a transgender person seeks help from us, we serve them in the same manner as any other person seeking assistance"; it "is an Equal Opportunity Employer" with regard to "sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression" (et al.); and that it "provide[s] benefits to the spouses of employees in same-sex marriages".


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2019, 2020, and 2021, The Salvation Army continued to be criticized in publications like "Vox", "Forbes", and "Out", for homophobic and transphobic views and practices expressed by its leaders and policies, such as in public statements and lobbying.


title: The Salvation Army

text: During the 2010 Christmas season, the Salvation Army in Calgary, Alberta, refused to accept toys based on the "Harry Potter" and "Twilight" franchises because of a perceived conflict with the organisation's religious principles. One volunteer claimed that the toys were destroyed instead of being given to other agencies. The volunteer also criticised the Salvation Army for accepting violence-themed toys such as plastic rifles while not accepting "Harry Potter" or "Twilight" toys. A Salvation Army captain said that the toys were given to other organisations, not disposed of. This policy is however, not universal, as the Wetaskiwin corps of the Salvation Army has accepted Harry Potter toys. One captain called the series "a classic story of good winning over evil".


title: The Salvation Army

text: Also during the 2010 Christmas season, the Salvation Army in Vancouver, BC, came under fire from advocacy group Families Against Crime & Trauma (FACT) for a program that provided goodie bags to federal inmates for Christmas by playing Santa to incarcerated criminals. The advocacy group called on the public to cease donations to the Salvation Army. Families Against Crime & Trauma, which takes a hardline position against criminal rehabilitation, claimed the gifts were undeserved rewards that should instead go to the victims of crime and their families. The Salvation Army responded that their prisoner visitation program was established over a century ago and that they provided these particular services as contractors to the federal and provincial government, and as such no charitable donations were spent on the program.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2004, the Salvation Army's New York division was named in a lawsuit filed by 18 current and former employees of its social service arm, claiming that the organisation asked about the religious and sexual habits of employees in programs funded by local and state government. One member claimed the organisation forced them to agree "to preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ". Proselytising or otherwise pursuing religious motives in a government-funded program is generally considered a violation of the Establishment Clause of the US Constitution. While the employment-discrimination portion of the lawsuit was dismissed in 2005, government agencies agreed in a 2010 settlement to set up monitoring systems to ensure that the Army did not violate church–state separation in its publicly funded projects. The organisation did not dispute allegations that nine-year-olds in a city-funded foster care program were put through a "confirmation-like" ceremony, where they were given Bibles and prayed over.


title: The Salvation Army

text: From the 1940s to the 1980s the Salvation Army in Australia sheltered approximately 30,000 children. In 2006 the Australian division of the Salvation Army acknowledged that sexual abuse may have occurred during this time and issued an apology. In it, the Army explicitly rejected a claim, made by a party unnamed in the apology, that there were as many as 500 potential claimants.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2013 it was reported that private settlements totalling A$15.5 million had been made in Victoria relating to 474 abuse cases; a Salvation Army spokesman said that "This should not have happened and this was a breach of the trust placed in us" and that they were "deeply sorry" whilst claiming that the abuse was "the result of individuals and not a culture within the organisation".


title: The Salvation Army

text: On 28 January 2014, the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, a royal commission of inquiry initiated in 2013 by the Australian Government and supported by all of its state governments, began an investigation into abuse cases at the Alkira Salvation Army Home for Boys at ; the Riverview Training Farm (also known as Endeavour Training Farm) at both in Queensland; the Bexley Boys' Home at ; and the Gill Memorial Home at both in New South Wales. The investigation also examined the Salvation Army's processes in investigating, disciplining, removing and transferring anyone accused of or found to have engaged in child sexual abuse in these homes. On 27 March 2014, the Royal Commission began an investigation into the handling by the Salvation Army (Eastern Territory) of claims of child sexual abuse between 1993 and 2014.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Royal Commission published a case study report on the findings and recommendations for one of the above-mentioned case studies.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In November 2021, The Salvation Army released a guidance pamphlet titled "Let's Talk About Racism" which encouraged its members to "lament, repent and apologize for biases or racist ideologies held and actions committed." This was interpreted by critics as an endorsement of critical race theory, during a time of broader public controversy around CRT in the United States. In response, The Salvation Army called the accusations "sensationalist" and "simply not true", and that they had never told people to "apologize for the color of their skin" or "abandoned its Biblical beliefs". After the continued backlash they retracted the document and again stated that they do not endorse any ideology or belief system other than Christianity and reject the idea that "America is an inherently racist society". The anti-CRT group Color Us United promised to "continue its battle" with The Salvation Army despite these statements.


title: The Salvation Army

text: In April 2022 an investigation by "The Guardian" and ITV news found serious problems at properties owned and rented out by the Salvation Army in Hadleigh, Essex. The investigation found that tenants had been exposed to "serious" hazards for at least seven years and that many of the properties were not in line with fire regulations. A 2014 survey, commissioned by the Salvation Army, found damp and breaches of fire regulations. Residents of one property reported a hole in their roof to Salvation Army's agent six years prior to the newspaper's investigation. A resident of one house said, "There's the damp problem, obviously the roof, because we need to keep the heat in the house not having it blowing up out the house. The windows and doors don't fit properly...(I) have to have the heating on 24 hours a day to keep the house warm (in the winter)." The managing director of the environmental health consultancy Building Forensics, Jeff Charlton, found mould on a wall next to the bed of an asthmatic child in another home.


title: The Salvation Army

text: Alan Read, the Salvation Army's managing director, met with residents in 2018 and issued an apology for neglecting them. Many of the 40 residents at the meeting were left with the impression they could be evicted if the Salvation Army could not afford to carry out repairs.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The local authority, Castle Point Borough Council, wrote to the Salvation Army in March 2019 warning it would take legal action over the condition of the properties. In 2022 The Guardian and ITV News found conditions within the homes had not improved since the Castle Point Borough Council's warning in 2019. The behaviour of the Salvation Army was described as a "sordid mess" by an environmental officer at the Council. Category one and category two hazards were found by the Council's environmental department. Category one hazards include risks of "death, permanent paralysis, permanent loss of consciousness, loss of a limb or serious fracture".


title: The Salvation Army

text: In April the local authority 2022 issued improvement notices to the Salvation Army, which was criticised for not carrying out repairs at the same time it was spending an estimated £32 million on a new territorial headquarters building in Southwark, London. The Salvation Army said the new territorial headquarters was funded by the sale of its old headquarters, not by donations or rental income from tenants.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army released a statement saying, "It is clear that we let down the tenants of Seaview Terrace and Mount Zion and we are deeply sorry. Considerable refurbishment and improvement work is already underway. We have employed a contractor as a Project Manager dedicated to Hadleigh and will be employing a Building Surveyor on a permanent basis to focus on Hadleigh going forward".


title: The Salvation Army

text: The MP for Castle Point, Rebecca Harris said she had repeated meetings with the Salvation Army over a number of years to try and get the church to improve living conditions. She said, "They kept making promises that failed to materialise."


title: The Salvation Army

text: In 2004, the Army in the United States received a $1.6 billion donation in the will of Joan B. Kroc, the third wife of former McDonald's CEO Ray Kroc. This donation was among the larger individual philanthropic gifts ever given to a single organisation. The donation came with certain restrictions that caused some controversy.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army is featured in many popular movies such as "Guys and Dolls" and "Major Barbara", The Salvation Army is only briefly shown or discussed in these movies such as a bell ringer on the corner in the movie "Maid in Manhattan" and "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation", and briefly mentioned in "Batman Begins". Additionally, in "Lord of War", a main character (an illegal gun merchant) claimed that the Salvation Army had been the only "army" he had not "supplied". "L'Armée du salut" (Salvation Army) was the title of a book written by Abdellah Taïa, which was adapted to film with the same title.


title: The Salvation Army

text: A book detailing over 500 films in which the Salvation Army appears or is mentioned was published in 2020 entitled "The Salvation Army at the Movies", written by Rob Kinnon-Brettle.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The Salvation Army began producing silent films when they started their own film studio called The Limelight Department in 1892, which was the first in Australia. The original studio still stands today and is being preserved by the Salvation Army. One of the films included was a documentary called "Inauguration of the Australian Commonwealth". In the years between 1898 and 1909, The Limelight Department produced over 300 films and documented Australia's Federation Ceremonies in 1909.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The hit song Seven Nation Army was inspired by Jack White's childhood mispronunciation of the Salvation Army.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The song "Sally" by Sade is about the Salvation Army. In the song, the Army is personified as Sally, a woman who helps men through hard times. The song appears on their debut album Diamond Life, released in 1984.


title: The Salvation Army

text: The song The Preacher and the Slave was written by labor activist Joe Hill as a parody about the Salvation Army. It has also been performed by Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger and Utah Phillips.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux Union (; ; ), also known as simply Benelux, is a politico-economic union and formal international intergovernmental cooperation of three neighboring states in western Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The name is a portmanteau formed from joining the first few letters of each country's name and was first used to name the customs agreement that initiated the union (signed in 1944). It is now used more generally to refer to the geographic, economic, and cultural grouping of the three countries.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux is an economically dynamic and densely populated region, with 5.6% of the European population (29.55 million residents) and 7.9% of the joint EU GDP (€36,000/resident) on no more than 1.7% of the whole surface of the EU. Currently 37% of the total number of EU frontier workers work in the Benelux and surrounding areas. 35,000 Belgian citizens work in Luxembourg, while 37,000 Belgian citizens cross the border to work in the Netherlands each day. In addition, 12,000 Dutch and close to a thousand Luxembourg residents work in Belgium.


title: Benelux

text: The main institutions of the Union are the Committee of Ministers, the Council of the Union, the General Secretariat, the Interparliamentary Consultative Council and the Benelux Court of Justice while the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property covers the same land but is not part of the Benelux Union.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux General Secretariat is located in Brussels. It is the central platform of the Benelux Union cooperation. It handles the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the Council of Benelux Union and the sundry committees and working parties. The General Secretariat provides day-to-day support for the Benelux cooperation on the substantive, procedural, diplomatic and logistical levels. The Secretary-General is Alain de Muyser from Luxembourg and there are two deputies: Deputy Secretary-General Frank Weekers from the Netherlands and Deputy Secretary-General Michel-Etienne Tilemans from Belgium.


title: Benelux

text: The presidency of the Benelux is held in turn by the three countries for a period of one year. Luxembourg holds the presidency for 2022.


title: Benelux

text: In 1944, exiled representatives of the three countries signed the London Customs Convention, the treaty that established the Benelux Customs Union. Ratified in 1947, the treaty was in force from 1948 until it was superseded by the Benelux Economic Union. The initial form of economic cooperation expanded steadily over time, leading to the signing of the treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union ("Benelux Economische Unie", "Union Économique Benelux") on 3 February 1958 in The Hague, which came into force on 1 November 1960. Initially, the purpose of cooperation among the three partners was to put an end to customs barriers at their borders and ensure free movement of persons, capital, services, and goods between the three countries. This treaty was the first example of international economic integration in Europe since the Second World War.


title: Benelux

text: The three countries therefore foreshadowed and provided the model for future European integration, such as the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Community–European Union (EC–EU). The three partners also launched the Schengen process, which came into operation in 1985. Benelux cooperation has been constantly adapted and now goes much further than mere economic cooperation, extending to new and topical policy areas connected with security, sustainable development, and the economy.


title: Benelux

text: In 1965, the treaty establishing a Benelux Court of Justice was signed. It entered into force in 1974. The court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three states, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of common legal rules. This international judicial institution is located in Luxembourg.


title: Benelux

text: The 1958 Treaty between the Benelux countries establishing the Benelux Economic Union was limited to a period of 50 years. During the following years, and even more so after the creation of the European Union, the Benelux cooperation focused on developing other fields of activity within a constantly changing international context.


title: Benelux

text: At the end of the 50 years, the governments of the three Benelux countries decided to renew the agreement, taking into account the new aspects of the Benelux-cooperation – such as security – and the new federal government structure of Belgium. The original establishing treaty, set to expire in 2010, was replaced by a new legal framework (called the Treaty revising the Treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union), which was signed on 17 June 2008.


title: Benelux

text: The new treaty has no set time limit and the name of the "Benelux Economic Union" changed to "Benelux Union" to reflect the broad scope on the union. The main objectives of the treaty are the continuation and enlargement of the cooperation between the three member states within a larger European context. The renewed treaty explicitly foresees the possibility that the Benelux countries will cooperate with other European member states or with regional cooperation structures. The new Benelux cooperation focuses on three main topics: internal market and economic union, sustainability, justice and internal affairs. The number of structures in the renewed Treaty has been reduced and thus simplified.


title: Benelux

text: Benelux seeks region-to-region cooperation, be it with France and Germany (North Rhine-Westphalia) or beyond with the Baltic States, the Nordic Council, the Visegrad countries, or even further. In 2018 a renewed political declaration was adopted between Benelux and North Rhine-Westphalia to give cooperation a further impetus.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux is particularly active in the field of intellectual property. The three countries established a Benelux Trademarks Office and a Benelux Designs Office, both situated in The Hague. In 2005, they concluded a treaty establishing the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property, which replaced both offices upon its entry into force on 1 September 2006. This organisation is the official body for the registration of trademarks and designs in the Benelux. In addition, it offers the possibility to formally record the existence of ideas, concepts, designs, prototypes and the like.


title: Benelux

text: Some examples of recent Benelux initiatives include: automatic level recognition of diplomas and degrees within the Benelux for bachelor's and master's programs in 2015, and for all other degrees in 2018; common road inspections in 2014; and a Benelux pilot with digital consignment notes (e-CMR) in 2017; a new Benelux Treaty on Police Cooperation in 2018, providing for direct access to each other's police databases and population registers within the limits of national legislation, and allowing some police forces to cross borders in some situations. The Benelux is also committed to working together on adaptation to climate change. A joint political declaration in July 2020 called on the European Commission to prioritise cycling in European climate policy and Sustainable Transport strategies, to co-finance the construction of cycling infrastructure, and to provide funds to stimulate cycling policy.


title: Benelux

text: On 5 June 2018 the Benelux Treaty celebrated its 60 years of existence. In 2018, a Benelux Youth Parliament was created.


title: Benelux

text: In addition to cooperation based on a Treaty, there is also political cooperation in the Benelux context, including summits of the Benelux government leaders. In 2019 a Benelux summit was held in Luxembourg. In 2020, a Benelux summit was held – online, due to the COVID-19 pandemic – under Dutch Presidency on 7 October between the prime ministers.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux countries also work together in the so-called Pentalateral Energy Forum, a regional cooperation group formed of five members—the Benelux states, France, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Formed on 6 June 2007, the ministers for energy from the various countries represent a total of 200 million residents and 40% of the European electricity network.


title: Benelux

text: In 2017 the members of the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly, three members of the Nordic Council (Sweden, Denmark and Finland), and all the other countries EU member states, sought to increase cooperation in the Digital Single Market, as well as discussing social matters, the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, immigration and defence cooperation. Foreign relations in the wake of Russia's annexation of Crimea and the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum were also on the agenda.


title: Benelux

text: Under the 2008 treaty there are five Benelux institutions: the Benelux Committee of Ministers, the Benelux Council, the Benelux Parliament, the Benelux Court of Justice, the Benelux Secretariat General. Beside these five institutions, the Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property is also an independent organisation.


title: Benelux

text: The Committee of Ministers is the supreme decision-making body of the Benelux. It includes at least one representative at ministerial level from the three countries. Its composition varies according to its agenda. The ministers determine the orientations and priorities of Benelux cooperation. The presidency of the Committee rotates between the three countries on an annual basis.


title: Benelux

text: The council is composed of senior officials from the relevant ministries. Its composition varies according to its agenda. The council's main task is to prepare the dossiers for the ministers.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux Parliament (officially referred to as an "Interparliamentary Consultative Council") was created in 1955. This parliamentary assembly is composed of 49 members from the respective national parliaments (21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourg parliament). Its members inform and advise their respective governments on all Benelux matters. On 20 January 2015, the governments of the three countries, including, as far as Belgium is concerned, the community and regional governments, signed in Brussels the Treaty of the Benelux Interparliamentary Assembly. This treaty entered into force on 1 August 2019. This superseded the 1955 Convention on the Consultative Interparliamentary Council for the Benelux. The official name has been largely obsolete in daily practice for a number of years: both internally in the Benelux and in external references, the name Benelux Parliament has been used "de facto" for a number of years now.


title: Benelux

text: The Benelux Court of Justice is an international court. Its mission is to promote uniformity in the application of Benelux legislation. When faced with difficulty interpreting a common Benelux legal rule, national courts must seek an interpretive ruling from the Benelux Court, which subsequently renders a binding decision. The members of the Court are appointed from among the judges of the 'Cour de cassation' of Belgium, the 'Hoge Raad of the Netherlands' and the 'Cour de cassation' of Luxembourg.


title: Benelux

text: The General Secretariat, which is based in Brussels, forms the cooperation platform of the Benelux Union. It acts as the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the council and various commissions and working groups. The General Secretariat has years of expertise in the area of Benelux cooperation and is familiar with the policy agreements and differences between the three countries. Building on what already been achieved, the General Secretariat puts its knowledge, network and experience at the service of partners and stakeholders who endorse its mission. It initiates, supports and monitors cooperation results in the areas of economy, sustainability and security.


title: Benelux

text: The Treaty establishing the Benelux Union explicitly provides that the Benelux Committee of Ministers can resort to four legal instruments (art. 6, paragraph 2, under a), f), g) and h)):


title: Benelux

text: Decisions are legally binding regulations for implementing the Treaty establishing the Benelux Union or other Benelux treaties.


title: Benelux

text: Their legally binding force concerns the Benelux states (and their sub-state entities), which have to implement them. However, they have no direct effect towards individual citizens or companies (notwithstanding any indirect protection of their rights based on such decisions as a source of international law). Only national provisions implementing a decision can directly create rights and obligations for citizens or companies.


title: Benelux

text: The Committee of Ministers can draw up agreements, which are then submitted to the Benelux states (and/or their sub-state entities) for signature and subsequent parliamentary ratification. These agreements can deal with any subject matter, also in policy areas that are not yet covered by cooperation in the framework of the Benelux Union.


title: Benelux

text: These are in fact traditional treaties, with the same direct legally binding force towards both authorities and citizens or companies. The negotiations do however take place in the established context of the Benelux working groups and institutions, rather than on an ad hoc basis.


title: Benelux

text: Recommendations are non-binding orientations, adopted at ministerial level, which underpin the functioning of the Benelux Union. These (policy) orientations may not be legally binding, but given their adoption at the highest political level and their legal basis vested directly in the Treaty, they do entail a strong moral obligation for any authority concerned in the Benelux countries.


title: Benelux

text: Directives of the Committee of Ministers are mere inter-institutional instructions towards the Benelux Council and/or the Secretariat-General, for which they are binding. This instrument has so far only been used occasionally, basically in order to organise certain activities within a Benelux working group or to give them impetus.


title: Benelux

text: All four instruments require the unanimous approval of the members of the Committee of Ministers (and, in the case of agreements, subsequent signature and ratification at national level).


title: Dyscalculia

text: Dyscalculia () is a disability resulting in difficulty learning or comprehending arithmetic, such as difficulty in understanding numbers, learning how to manipulate numbers, performing mathematical calculations, and learning facts in mathematics. It is sometimes colloquially referred to "math dyslexia", though this analogy is misleading as they are distinct syndromes.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Dyscalculia is associated with dysfunction in the region around the intraparietal sulcus and potentially also the frontal lobe. Dyscalculia does not reflect a general deficit in cognitive abilities or difficulties with time, measurement, and spatial reasoning. Estimates of the prevalence of dyscalculia range between 3 and 6% of the population. In 2015 it was established that 11% of children with dyscalculia also have ADHD. Dyscalculia has also been associated with Turner syndrome and people who have spina bifida.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Mathematical disabilities can occur as the result of some types of brain injury, in which case the term acalculia is used instead of dyscalculia which is of innate, genetic or developmental origin.


title: Dyscalculia

text: The earliest appearance of dyscalculia is typically a deficit in subitizing, the ability to know, from a brief glance and without counting, how many objects there are in a small group. Children as young as five can subitize six objects, especially looking at a die. However, children with dyscalculia can subitize fewer objects and even when correct take longer to identify the number than their age-matched peers. Dyscalculia often looks different at different ages. It tends to become more apparent as children get older; however, symptoms can appear as early as preschool. Common symptoms of dyscalculia are having difficulty with mental math, trouble analyzing time and reading an analog clock, struggle with motor sequencing that involves numbers, and often counting on fingers when adding numbers.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Dyscalculia is characterized by difficulties with common arithmetic tasks. These difficulties may include:


title: Dyscalculia

text: Although many researchers believe dyscalculia to be a persistent disorder, evidence on the persistence of dyscalculia remains mixed. For instance, in a study done by Mazzocco and Myers (2003), researchers evaluated children on a slew of measures and selected their most consistent measure as their best diagnostic criterion: a stringent 10th-percentile cut-off on the TEMA-2. Even with their best criterion, they found dyscalculia diagnoses for children longitudinally did not persist; only 65% of students who were ever diagnosed over the course of four years were diagnosed for at least two years. The percentage of children who were diagnosed in two consecutive years was further reduced. It is unclear whether this was the result of misdiagnosed children improving in mathematics and spatial awareness as they progressed as normal, or that the subjects who showed improvement were accurately diagnosed, but exhibited signs of a non-persistent learning disability.


title: Dyscalculia

text: There are very few studies of adults with dyscalculia who have had a history of it growing up, but such studies have shown that it can persist into adulthood. It can affect major parts of an adult's life. Most adults with dyscalculia have a hard time processing math at a 4th grade level. For 1st-4th grade level, many adults will know what to do for the math problem, but they will often get them wrong because of "careless errors", although they are not careless when it comes to the problem. The adults cannot process their errors on the math problems or may not even recognize that they have made these errors. Visual-spatial input, auditory input, and touch input will be affected due to these processing errors. Dyscalculics may have a difficult time adding numbers in a column format because their mind can mix up the numbers, and it is possible that they may get the same (wrong) answer twice due to their mind processing the problem incorrectly. Dyscalculics can have problems determining differences in different coins and their size or giving the correct amount of change and if numbers are grouped together, it is possible that they cannot determine which has less or more. If a dyscalculic is asked to choose the greater of two numbers, with the lesser number in a larger font than the greater number, they may take the question literally and pick the number with the bigger font. Adults with dyscalculia have a tough time with directions while driving and with controlling their finances, which causes difficulties on a day-to-day basis.


title: Dyscalculia

text: College students particularly may have a difficult time due to the fast pace and change in difficulty of the work they are given. As a result of this, students may develop much anxiety and frustration. After dealing with their anxiety for a long time, students can become averse to math and try to avoid it as much as possible, which may result in lower grades in math courses. (That said, students with dyscalculia can also do exceptionally well in writing, reading, and speaking.)


title: Dyscalculia

text: Both domain-general and domain-specific causes have been put forth. With respect to pure developmental dyscalculia, domain-general causes are unlikely as they should not impair one's ability in the numerical domain without also affecting other domains such as reading.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Two competing domain-specific hypotheses about the causes of developmental dyscalculia have been proposed – the "magnitude representation" (or "number module deficit hypothesis") and the "access deficit hypothesis".


title: Dyscalculia

text: Dehaene's "number sense" theory suggests that approximate numerosities are automatically ordered in an ascending manner on a mental number line. The mechanism to represent and process non-symbolic magnitude (e.g., number of dots) is often known as the "approximate number system" (ANS), and a core deficit in the precision of the ANS, known as the "magnitude representation hypothesis" or "number module deficit hypothesis", has been proposed as an underlying cause of developmental dyscalculia.


title: Dyscalculia

text: In particular, the structural features of the ANS is theoretically supported by a phenomenon called the "numerical distance effect", which has been robustly observed in numerical comparison tasks. Typically developing individuals are less accurate and slower in comparing pairs of numbers closer together (e.g., 7 and 8) than further apart (e.g., 2 and 9). A related "numerical ratio effect" (in which the ratio between two numbers varies but the distance is kept constant, e.g., 2 vs. 5 and 4 vs. 7) based on the Weber's law has also been used to further support the structure of the ANS. The numerical ratio effect is observed when individuals are less accurate and slower in comparing pairs of numbers that have a larger ratio (e.g., 8 and 9, ratio = 8/9) than a smaller ratio (2 and 3; ratio = 2/3). A larger numerical distance or ratio effect with comparison of sets of objects (i.e., non-symbolic) is thought to reflect a less precise ANS, and the ANS acuity has been found to correlate with math achievement in typically developing children and also in adults.


title: Dyscalculia

text: More importantly, several behavioral studies have found that children with developmental dyscalculia show an attenuated distance/ratio effect than typically developing children. Moreover, neuroimaging studies have also provided additional insights even when behavioral difference in distance/ratio effect might not be clearly evident. For example, Gavin R. Price and colleagues found that children with developmental dyscalculia showed no differential distance effect on reaction time relative to typically developing children, but they did show a greater effect of distance on response accuracy. They also found that the right intraparietal sulcus in children with developmental dyscalculia was not modulated to the same extent in response to non-symbolic numerical processing as in typically developing children. With the robust implication of the intraparietal sulcus in magnitude representation, it is possible that children with developmental dyscalculia have a weak magnitude representation in the parietal region. Yet, it does not rule out an impaired ability to access and manipulate numerical quantities from their symbolic representations (e.g., Arabic digits).


title: Dyscalculia

text: Moreover, findings from a cross-sectional study suggest that children with developmental dyscalculia might have a delayed development in their numerical magnitude representation by as much as five years. However, the lack of longitudinal studies still leaves the question open as to whether the deficient numerical magnitude representation is a delayed development or impairment.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Rousselle & Noël propose that dyscalculia is caused by the inability to map preexisting representations of numerical magnitude onto symbolic Arabic digits. Evidence for this hypothesis is based on research studies that have found that individuals with dyscalculia are proficient on tasks that measure knowledge of non-symbolic numerical magnitude (i.e., non-symbolic comparison tasks) but show an impaired ability to process symbolic representations of number (i.e., symbolic comparison tasks). Neuroimaging studies also report increased activation in the right intraparietal sulcus during tasks that measure symbolic but not non-symbolic processing of numerical magnitude. However, support for the access deficit hypothesis is not consistent across research studies.


title: Dyscalculia

text: At its most basic level, dyscalculia is a learning disability affecting the normal development of arithmetic skills.


title: Dyscalculia

text: A consensus has not yet been reached on appropriate diagnostic criteria for dyscalculia. Mathematics is a specific domain that is complex (i.e. includes many different processes, such as arithmetic, algebra, word problems, geometry, etc.) and cumulative (i.e. the processes build on each other such that mastery of an advanced skill requires mastery of many basic skills). Thus dyscalculia can be diagnosed using different criteria, and frequently is; this variety in diagnostic criteria leads to variability in identified samples, and thus variability in research findings regarding dyscalculia.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Other than using achievement tests as diagnostic criteria, researchers often rely on domain-specific tests (i.e. tests of working memory, executive function, inhibition, intelligence, etc.) and teacher evaluations to create a more comprehensive diagnosis. Alternatively, fMRI research has shown that the brains of the neurotypical children can be reliably distinguished from the brains of the dyscalculic children based on the activation in the prefrontal cortex. However, due to the cost and time limitations associated with brain and neural research, these methods will likely not be incorporated into diagnostic criteria despite their effectiveness.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Research on subtypes of dyscalculia has begun without consensus; preliminary research has focused on comorbid learning disorders as subtyping candidates. The most common comorbidity in individuals with dyscalculia is dyslexia. Most studies done with comorbid samples versus dyscalculic-only samples have shown different mechanisms at work and additive effects of comorbidity, indicating that such subtyping may not be helpful in diagnosing dyscalculia. But there is variability in results at present.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Due to high comorbidity with other disabilities such as dyslexia and ADHD, some researchers have suggested the possibility of subtypes of mathematical disabilities with different underlying profiles and causes. Whether a particular subtype is specifically termed "dyscalculia" as opposed to a more general mathematical learning disability is somewhat under debate in the scientific literature.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Studies have also shown indications of causes due to congenital or hereditary disorders, but evidence of this is not yet concrete.


title: Dyscalculia

text: To date, very few interventions have been developed specifically for individuals with dyscalculia. Concrete manipulation activities have been used for decades to train basic number concepts for remediation purposes. This method facilitates the intrinsic relationship between a goal, the learner's action, and the informational feedback on the action. A one-to-one tutoring paradigm designed by Lynn Fuchs and colleagues which teaches concepts in arithmetic, number concepts, counting, and number families using games, flash cards, and manipulables has proven successful in children with generalized math learning difficulties, but intervention has yet to be tested specifically on children with dyscalculia. These methods require specially trained teachers working directly with small groups or individual students. As such, instruction time in the classroom is necessarily limited. For this reason, several research groups have developed computer adaptive training programs designed to target deficits unique to dyscalculic individuals.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Software intended to remediate dyscalculia has been developed. While computer adaptive training programs are modeled after one-to-one type interventions, they provide several advantages. Most notably, individuals are able to practice more with a digital intervention than is typically possible with a class or teacher. As with one-to-one interventions, several digital interventions have also proven successful in children with generalized math learning difficulties. Räsänen and colleagues have found that games such as The Number Race and Graphogame-math can improve performance on number comparison tasks in children with generalized math learning difficulties.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Several digital interventions have been developed for dyscalculics specifically. Each attempts to target basic processes that are associated with maths difficulties. Rescue Calcularis was one early computerized intervention that sought to improve the integrity of and access to the mental number line. Other digital interventions for dyscalculia adapt games, flash cards, and manipulables to function through technology.


title: Dyscalculia

text: While each intervention claims to improve basic numerosity skills, the authors of these interventions do admit that repetition and practice effects may be a factor involved in reported performance gains. An additional criticism is that these digital interventions lack the option to manipulate numerical quantities. While the previous two games provide the correct answer, the individual using the intervention cannot actively determine, through manipulation, what the correct answer should be. Butterworth and colleagues argued that games like The Number Bonds, which allows an individual to compare different sized rods, should be the direction that digital interventions move toward. Such games use manipulation activities to provide intrinsic motivation toward content guided by dyscalculia research. One of these serious games is Meister Cody – Talasia, an online training that includes the CODY Assessment – a diagnostic test for detecting dyscalculia. Based on these findings, Dybuster Calcularis was extended by adaptation algorithms and game forms allowing manipulation by the learners. It was found to improve addition, subtraction and number line tasks, and was made available as Dybuster Calcularis.


title: Dyscalculia

text: A study used transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) to the parietal lobe during numerical learning and demonstrated selective improvement of numerical abilities that was still present six months later in typically developing individuals. Improvement were achieved by applying anodal current to the right parietal lobe and cathodal current to the left parietal lobe and contrasting it with the reverse setup. When the same research group used tDCS in a training study with two dyscalculic individuals, the reverse setup (left anodal, right cathodal) demonstrated improvement of numerical abilities.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Dyscalculia is thought to be present in 3–6% of the general population, but estimates by country and sample vary somewhat. Many studies have found prevalence rates by gender to be equivalent. Those that find gender difference in prevalence rates often find dyscalculia higher in females, but some few studies have found prevalence rates higher in males.


title: Dyscalculia

text: The term 'dyscalculia' was coined in the 1940s, but it was not completely recognized until 1974 by the work of Czechoslovakian researcher Ladislav Kosc. Kosc defined dyscalculia as "a structural disorder of mathematical abilities." His research proved that the learning disability was caused by impairments to certain parts of the brain that control mathematical calculations and not because symptomatic individuals were 'mentally handicapped'. Researchers now sometimes use the terms "math dyslexia" or "math learning disability" when they mention the condition. Cognitive disabilities specific to mathematics were originally identified in case studies with patients who experienced specific arithmetic disabilities as a result of damage to specific regions of the brain. More commonly, dyscalculia occurs developmentally as a genetically linked learning disability which affects a person's ability to understand, remember, or manipulate numbers or number facts (e.g., the multiplication tables). The term is often used to refer specifically to the inability to perform arithmetic operations, but is also defined by some educational professionals and cognitive psychologists such as Stanislas Dehaene and Brian Butterworth as a more fundamental inability to conceptualize numbers as abstract concepts of comparative quantities (a deficit in "number sense"), which these researchers consider to be a foundational skill upon which other mathematics abilities build. Symptoms of dyscalculia include the delay of simple counting, inability to memorize simple arithmetic facts such as adding, subtracting, etc. There are few known symptoms because little research has been done on the topic.


title: Dyscalculia

text: Dyscalculia comes from Greek and Latin and means "counting badly". The prefix ""dys-"" comes from Greek and means "badly". The root ""calculia"" comes from the Latin ""calculare"", which means "to count"; it is also a cognate of "calculation" and "calculus".


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji Bhosale (14 May 1657 – 11 March 1689) was the second Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire, ruling from 1681 to 1689. He was the eldest son of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. Sambhaji's rule was largely shaped by the ongoing wars between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal Empire, as well as other neighbouring powers such as the Siddis, Mysore and the Portuguese in Goa. After Sambhaji's death, his brother Rajaram I succeeded him as the next Chhatrapati.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji was born into a Marathi Hindu family at Purandar fort to the Maratha ruler Shivaji, and his first wife Saibai, who died when he was two years old and he was raised by his paternal grandmother Jijabai. At the age of nine, Sambhaji was sent to live with Raja Jai Singh I of Amber as a political hostage to ensure compliance of the Treaty of Purandar that Shivaji had signed with the Mughals on 11 June 1665. As a result of the treaty, Sambhaji became a Mughal mansabdar. He and his father Shivaji attended the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's court at Agra on 12 May 1666. Aurangzeb put both of them under house arrest but they escaped on 22 July 1666. However, the two sides reconciled and had cordial relations during the period 1666–1670. During the period between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji with general Prataprao Gujar to serve the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, Prince Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection. In this period, Shivaji and Sambhaji fought alongside the Mughals against the Sultanate of Bijapur.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji was married to Jivubai in a marriage of political alliance; per Maratha custom she took the name Yesubai. Jivubai was the daughter of Pilajirao Shirke, who had entered Shivaji's service following the defeat of a powerful deshmukh Rao Rana Suryajirao Surve who was his previous patron. This marriage thus gave Shivaji access to the Konkan coastal belt. Yesubai had two children, daughter Bhavani Bai and then a son named Shahu, who later became the Chhatrapati of the Maratha empire.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji's behaviour, including alleged irresponsibility and addiction to sensual pleasures, led Shivaji to imprison his son at Panhala fort in 1678 to curb his behaviour. Sambhaji escaped from the fort with his wife and defected to the Mughals in December 1678 for a year, but then returned home when he learnt of a plan by Dilir Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, to arrest him and send him to Delhi. Upon returning home, Sambhaji was unrepentant and was put under surveillance at Panhala.


title: Sambhaji

text: When Shivaji died in the first week of April 1680, Sambhaji was still held captive at Panhala fort. At that time, Soyrabai, Shivaji's ambitious widow and Sambhaji's step-mother, along with influential courtiers such as Annaji Datto and other ministers conspired against Sambhaji, to prevent him from succeeding the throne. In a rush, they installed Soyrabai's son, and Sambhaji's half-brother, Rajaram, then aged ten, on the throne on 21 April 1680. Upon hearing this news, Sambhaji plotted his escape and took possession of the Panhala fort on 27 April after killing the fort commander. On 18 June, he acquired control of Raigad Fort. Sambhaji formally ascended the throne on 20 July 1680. Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai and mother Soyarabai were imprisoned. Soon after there was another conspiracy attempt against Sambhaji using prince Akbar, Aurangzeb's fourth son, Soyarabai, her kinsmen from the Shirke family and some of Shivaji's ministers such as Annaji Datto were executed on charges of conspiracy.


title: Sambhaji

text: Bahadur Khan was first in charge of The fort of Burhanpur who later gave it to Kakar Khan. Kakar was at the duty of collecting jizya tax from the Hindu citizens of Burhanpur. The Jizya was collected and stored captive at the Burhanpur fort. Sambhaji plundered and ravaged Burhanpur in 1680. His forces completely routed the Mughal garrison and punitively executed captives. The Marathas then looted the city and set its ports ablaze. Sambhaji then withdrew into Baglana, evading the forces of Mughal commander Khan Jahan Bahadur.


title: Sambhaji

text: In 1681, Aurangzeb's fourth son Akbar left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court south to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji. Sambhaji's ministers including Annaji Datto, and other ministers took this opportunity and conspired again to enthrone Rajaram again. They signed a treasonable letter against Sambhaji in which they promised to join Akbar, to whom the letter was sent. Akbar gave this letter to Sambhaji. Enraged, Sambhaji executed conspirators on charges of treason.


title: Sambhaji

text: For five years, Akbar stayed with Sambhaji, hoping that the latter would lend him men and money to strike and seize the Mughal throne for himself. Unfortunately for Sambhaji, giving asylum to Akbar did not bear fruit. Eventually, Sambhaji helped Akbar flee to Persia. On the other hand, Aurangzeb after coming to Deccan never returned to his capital in the north.


title: Sambhaji

text: In 1682, the Mughals laid siege to the Maratha fort of Ramsej, but after five months of failed attempts, including planting explosive mines and building wooden towers to gain the walls, the Mughal siege failed.


title: Sambhaji

text: Aurangzeb tried attacking the Maratha Empire from all directions. He intended to use the Mughal numerical superiority to his advantage. Sambhaji had prepared well for the invasions and the Maratha forces promptly engaged the numerically strong Mughal army in several small battles using guerilla warfare tactics. However, Sambhaji and his generals attacked and Defeated the Mughal generals whenever they got an opportunity to lure the Mughal generals into decisive battles in the Maratha stronghold territories. Sambhaji had devised a strategy of minimising the losses on his side. If there used to be an opportunity then the Maratha army attacked decisively, however, if the Mughals were too strong in numbers then the Marathas used to retreat. This proved to be a very effective strategy as Aurangzeb's generals were not able capture the Maratha territories for a period of three years.


title: Sambhaji

text: Aurangzeb then decided to attack the Maratha capital Raigad Fort directly from the North and the South directions. He made a pincer attempt to surround the Maratha Capital that led to Mughal invasions of Konkan (1684). The Mughals were badly defeated due to the Maratha strategy and the harsh climate of the region. These failures forced Aurangzeb to look away from the Maratha Empire and search for success against the Qutb Shahi dynasty and Adil Shahi dynasty. Under Sambhaji (1680–89) the Marathas ranged up and down western India.


title: Sambhaji

text: The Marathas under Shivaji came into conflict with the Siddis, Muslims of Abyssinian descent settled in India, over the control of the Konkan coast. Shivaji was able to reduce their presence to the fortified island of Janjira. Sambhaji continued the Maratha campaign against them, while at that time the Siddis formed an alliance with the Mughals. At the start of 1682, a Maratha army later joined by Sambhaji personally, attacked the island for thirty days, doing heavy damage but failing to breach its defenses. Sambhaji then attempted a ruse, sending a party of his people to the Siddis, claiming to be defectors. They were allowed into the fort and planned to detonate the gunpowder magazine during a coming Maratha attack. However, one of the female defectors became involved with a Siddi man and he uncovered the plot, and the infiltrators were executed. The Maratha then attempted to build a stone causeway from the shore to the island, but were interrupted halfway through when the Mughal army moved to menace Raigad. Sambhaji returned to counter them and his remaining troops were unable to overcome the Janjira garrison and the Siddi fleet protecting it.


title: Sambhaji

text: Having failed to take Janjira in 1682, Sambhaji sent a commander to seize the Portuguese coastal fort of Anjadiva instead. The Marathas seized the fort, seeking to turn it into a naval base, but in April 1682 were ejected from the fort by a detachment of 200 Portuguese. This incident led to a larger conflict between the two regional powers.


title: Sambhaji

text: The Portuguese colony of Goa at that time provided supplies to the Mughals, allowed them to use the Portuguese ports in India and pass through their territory. In order to deny this support to the Mughals, Sambhaji undertook a campaign against Portuguese Goa in late 1683, storming the colony and taking its forts. The situation for the colonists became so dire that the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco de Távora, conde de Alvor went with his remaining supporters to the cathedral where the crypt of Saint Francis Xavier was kept, where they prayed for deliverance. The viceroy had the casket opened and gave the saint's body his baton, royal credentials and a letter asking the saint's support. Sambhaji's Goa campaign was checked by the arrival of the Mughal army and navy in January 1684, forcing him to withdraw.


title: Sambhaji

text: Meanwhile, in 1684 Sambhaji signed a defensive treaty with the English at Bombay, realising his need for English arms and gunpowder, particularly as their lack of artillery and explosives impeded the Maratha's ability to lay siege to fortifications. Thus reinforced, Sambhaji proceeded to take Pratapgad and a series of forts along the Ghats.


title: Sambhaji

text: Much like his father Shivaji's Karnataka campaign, Sambhaji attempted in 1681 to invade Mysore, then a southern principality ruled by Wodeyar Chikkadevaraja. Sambhaji's large army was repelled, as had happened to Shivaji in 1675. The Chikkadevraja later made treaties and rendered tribute to the Maratha kingdom during the conflicts of 1682–1686. The Chikkadevraja however began to draw close to the Mughal empire and ceased to follow his treaties with the Marathas. In response, Sambhaji invaded Mysore in 1686, accompanied by his Brahmin friend and poet Kavi Kalash.


title: Sambhaji

text: The 1687 Battle of Wai saw the Maratha forces badly weakened by the Mughals. The key Maratha commander Hambirao Mohite was killed and troops began to desert the Maratha armies. Sambhaji's positions were spied upon by his own relations, the Shirke family, who had defected to the Mughals. Sambhaji and 25 of his advisors were captured by the Mughal forces of Muqarrab Khan in a skirmish at Sangameshwar in February 1689.Accounts of Sambhaji's confrontation with the Mughal ruler and following torture, execution and disposal of his body, vary widely depending on the source, though generally all agree that he was tortured and executed on the emperor's orders.


title: Sambhaji

text: The captured Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash were taken to Bahadurgad in present-day Ahmednagar district, where Aurangzeb humiliated them by parading them wearing clown's clothes and they were subjected to insults by Mughal soldiers. Accounts vary as to the reasons for what came next: Mughal accounts state that Sambhaji was asked to surrender his forts, treasures and names of Mughal collaborators with the Marathas and that he sealed his fate by insulting both the emperor and the Islamic prophet Muhammad during interrogation and was executed for having killed Muslims. The ulema of the Mughal Empire sentenced Sambhaji to death for the atrocities his troops perpetrated against Muslims in Burhanpur, including plunder, killing, rape, and torture.


title: Sambhaji

text: Maratha accounts instead state that he was ordered to bow before Aurangzeb and convert to Islam and it was his refusal to do so, by saying that he would accept Islam on the day the emperor presented him his daughter's hand, that led to his death. By doing so he earned the title of "Dharmaveer" ("protector of dharma"). Aurangzeb ordered Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash to be tortured to death; the process took over a fortnight and included plucking out their eyes and tongue, pulling out their nails and removing their skin. Sambhaji was finally killed on 11 March 1689, reportedly by tearing him apart from the front and back with wagh nakhe (metal "tiger claws") and beheading with an axe at Tulapur on the banks of the Bhima river near Pune.


title: Sambhaji

text: Other accounts state that Sambhaji challenged Aurangzeb in open court and refused to convert to Islam. Dennis Kincaid writes, "He (Sambhaji) was ordered by the Emperor to embrace Islam. He refused and was made to run the gauntlet of the whole Imperial army. Tattered and bleeding he was brought before the Emperor and repeated his refusal. His tongue was torn and again the question was put. He called for writing material and wrote 'Not even if the emperor bribed me with his daughter!' So then he was put to death by torture".


title: Sambhaji

text: Some accounts state that Sambhaji's body was cut into pieces and thrown into the river or that the body or portions were recaptured and cremated at the confluence of rivers at Tulapur. Other accounts state that Sambhaji's remains were fed to the dogs.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji inherited the governance system created by Shivaji. He continued with most of his father's policies. The administration of the state was managed by Sambhaji with the help of Chandogamatya and the council of eight ministers. According to P. S. Joshi Sambhaji was a good administrator who gave impartial justice to his subjects.


title: Sambhaji

text: Maharashtra witnessed severe drought during the reign of Sambhaji (1684–88). Sambhaji had to take several administrative measures to tackle the situation. Sambhaji continued Shivaji's policies by helping poor farmers. Shankar Narayan Joshi has stated that his approach against famine was very constructive and he provided solutions to many complicated problems. His policies of water storage, irrigation and developing crop patterns show about his progressive policies.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji provided grain seeds, exemptions in taxes, oxen for agricultural work and agricultural tools to the farmers in the drought situation. All these measures were implemented sincerely during the drought period.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji encouraged the agricultural activity in the Maratha state. Agriculture was the backbone of the rural Maratha economy. He encouraged people to cultivate more and more land. The government of Sambhaji gave promises of safety to the Marathas who gained independence from the Mughals and asked them to carry out their previous work of cultivation in their territories. It also called back the people who had absconded because of their inability to pay taxes and asked them carry out their previous work of cultivation.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji in his letter of 3 June 1684 addressed to Hari Shivdev (Subhedar and Karkun of Tarf Chaul), his Peshwa Nilkantha Moreshwar directed him to bring the agricultural land of the villages confiscated by the government under cultivation which otherwise would have remained uncultivated. He also asked Hari Shivdev to distribute fifty khandis of grain which were being sent to him from Sagargad among the cultivators.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji tried to increase the income (revenue) from the agricultural activities. He also made efforts to cultivate more wasted or barren lands.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji is used to have used many innovations during his campaigns, one such innovation was when he made jackets from leather for his soldiers to ensure protection from lethal arrows fired by the Mysore army during his campaign against Mysore, it was highly successful as after the initial defeat of the Maratha army due to the poisonous arrows, the Maratha army was able to negate the arrows and achieved victory by using these leather jackets.


title: Sambhaji

text: He also had an idea of building a causeway in the sea from Rajapuri to the gate of Janjira for defeating the siddis of Janjira, it is said that he had even built a causeway of 800 meters but he could not proceed further due to Mughal invasion of Hasan Ali Khan on Kalyan-Bhiwandi.


title: Sambhaji

text: P. S. Joshi states that Sambhaji, his ministers and officers took interest in supporting the cultural and religious activity in the state. They honoured and encouraged learning by granting land, grains and money to scholars.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji was sophisticated, educated and well-versed in a few languages besides Marathi. Keshav Pandit was employed for Sambhaji's education. Keshav Pandit, alias Keshav Bhatta of Shringarpur, was an erudite scholar in the Nitishastra and Sanskrit language and literature. He seems to have deeper knowledge of the different forms of Sanskrit literature; Hindu jurisprudence and the Puranas. He also seems to have made Sambhaji familiar with the famous works of different sciences and music written by ancient scholars in the Sanskrit language.


title: Sambhaji

text: Sambhaji composed several books during his lifetime. The most notable is "Budhbhushanam" written in Marathi and Sanskrit, and three other books, "Nayikabhed", "Saatsatak", "Nakhshikha" are in Hindustani language. In "Budhbhushanam", Sambhaji wrote poetry on politics. In the book Sambhaji writes about dos and don'ts for a king and discusses military tactics. The first few "shlokas" are praises for Shahaji (his grandfather) and his father Shivaji. In "Budhbhushan" Sambhaji considers Shivaji to be the incarnation that saved the earth and restored righteousness.


title: Sambhaji

text: The Maratha Kingdom was put into disarray by Sambhaji's death and his younger half-brother Rajaram I assumed the throne. Rajaram shifted the Maratha capital far south to Jinji, while Maratha guerrilla fighters under Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav continued to harass the Mughal army. A few days after Sambhaji's death, the capital Raigad Fort fell to the Mughals. Sambhaji's widow, Yesubai, son, Shahu and Shivaji's widow, Sakvarbai were captured; Sakvarbai died in Mughal captivity. Shahu, who was seven years of age when captured, remained prisoner of the Mughals for 18 years from February 1689 until Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Shahu was then set free by Emperor Muhammad Azam Shah, son of Aurangzeb. After his release Shahu had to fight a brief succession war with his aunt Tarabai, Rajaram's widow who claimed the throne for her own son, Shivaji II. The Mughals kept Yesubai captive to ensure that Shahu adhered to the terms of his release. She was released in 1719 when Marathas became strong enough under Shahu and Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Robert Lawler (born March 20, 1982) is an American professional mixed martial artist who has been competing since 2001. He is the former UFC Welterweight Champion, former EliteXC Middleweight Champion, and has formerly competed in Strikeforce, PRIDE, and the IFL. Known for his aggressive fighting style, Lawler is the only fighter to have won three consecutive "Fight of the Year" awards from Sherdog and MMA Fighting, for his bouts against Johny Hendricks (at UFC 171, in 2014), Rory MacDonald (at UFC 189, in 2015), and Carlos Condit (at UFC 195, in 2016).


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was born in San Diego, California. He moved to Bettendorf, Iowa at the age of ten to live with his father, who served in the Marines. Lawler began training in taekwondo at the age of eight, picking up karate two years later. Lawler attended Bettendorf High School where he received All-State honors in wrestling and football. Lawler was taken under the wing of Pat Miletich when he was 16 years old and began training with Miletich Fighting Systems as soon as he graduated in 2000.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler made his professional debut in 2001 and won his first four career fights all by TKO/KO, his second fight being in the IFC.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler made his UFC debut at UFC 37 against veteran Aaron Riley. Lawler won the bout via unanimous decision. Lawler fought again in the next month against Steve Berger at UFC 37.5 and won via TKO. In his next fight, Lawler faced another veteran, Tiki Ghosn at UFC 40 and won in a highlight-reel knockout. Lawler then fought against Pete Spratt at UFC 42 and lost after he submitted due to a hip injury. Lawler came back to get a win over fellow boxing and wrestling specialist Chris Lytle via unanimous decision at UFC 45.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: In his next UFC bout, Lawler faced former WEC Welterweight Champion and future longtime Strikeforce Welterweight Champion Nick Diaz at UFC 47. Lawler was handed the first of only two knockout losses of his career to date in the second round. Lawler then lost again at UFC 50 against the late Evan Tanner, who would win the UFC Middleweight Championship in his next fight.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler then fought at SuperBrawl in Hawaii, defeating Falaniko Vitale via knockout to become the SuperBrawl Middleweight Champion. Lawler then made his debut for King of the Cage, being scheduled to fight Jeremy Brown, and won via armbar submission.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler then faced Falaniko Vitale again, this time for the ICON Sport Middleweight Championship, and won again in the rematch by knockout, becoming the ICON Sport Middleweight Champion.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: In his next bout and first title defense, Lawler lost to Jason "Mayhem" Miller via arm-triangle choke submission.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler then made his PRIDE debut in Las Vegas, Nevada against Joey Villasenor at PRIDE 32 and won via knockout.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: In his next fight, Lawler made his IFL debut in Atlanta, Georgia against Eduardo Pamplona and won via TKO.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: On March 31, 2007, he fought Frank Trigg for the ICON Sport Middleweight Championship and won by KO in the fourth round, becoming the ICON Sport Middleweight Champion a second time. On September 15, 2007, he fought PRIDE Fighting Championships veteran Murilo Rua for the EliteXC Middleweight Championship and won by TKO in the third round due to punches.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was scheduled to fight Kala Hose for the ICON Sport Middleweight Championship on December 15, 2007, in Honolulu, Hawaii, Lawler however pulled out of the fight due to an injury. After pulling out again due to the same circumstances,


title: Robbie Lawler

text: ICON Sport stripped Lawler of the middleweight title on February 9, 2008, for failing to defend the title.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler defended his EliteXC Middleweight Championship against Scott Smith at on May 31, 2008, at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey, which ended in a no contest after Smith caught an accidental finger in the eye from Lawler.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: On July 26, 2008, Lawler and Scott Smith had their rematch at . Lawler defeated Smith by TKO in the second round.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: After defeating Scott Smith, Lawler's employers, EliteXC, announced that they would be shutting down and filing for bankruptcy. Lawler's contract was picked up by Strikeforce with his first bout under the Strikeforce banner on June 6, 2009, against Jake Shields. The bout was fought at a catchweight of 182 lb. Lawler lost via submission due to a guillotine choke at 2:02 of the first round.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced K-1 veteran Melvin Manhoef on January 30, 2010 at . During the bout, Lawler suffered significant damage to his leg which Manhoef inflicted using leg kicks. In dramatic fashion, Lawler came back to win by knockout late in the first round with an overhand right.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was expected to face Jason Miller on June 16, 2010, at but Lawler instead faced former Strikeforce Light Heavyweight Champion Renato Sobral in a 195 lbs. Catchweight bout. Lawler had two unsuccessful attempts to meet the 195 lbs mark at the Strikeforce: Los Angeles Weigh-Ins, but was finally booked for the fight weighing 195.5 pounds, after stepping on the scale for the third time. Sobral defeated Lawler via unanimous decision. Sobral utilized his reach advantage and grappling expertise to defeat the much smaller Lawler.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler fought Olympic Games silver medalist Matt Lindland at on December 4, 2010. He defeated Lindland fifty seconds into the first round via KO.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Strikeforce Middleweight Champion Ronaldo Souza on January 29, 2011 at . Lawler rocked Souza in the first round but ended up losing the fight via submission in the third round.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler returned and faced Tim Kennedy at . He lost the fight via unanimous decision, being dominantly controlled throughout the fight on the floor by Kennedy.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler got back on track with a highlight reel first-round TKO victory due to a flying knee over rising prospect Adlan Amagov at .


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler next faced Lorenz Larkin at on July 14, 2012. He lost the fight via unanimous decision, despite rocking Larkin early in the first round with a short right hook. He left Miletich Fighting Systems after this loss and joined Florida-based gym American Top Team.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler returned to the Welterweight division and faced Josh Koscheck on February 23, 2013 at UFC 157. He won via first-round TKO. Koscheck visibly protested the stoppage, but replay footage showed he was not defending himself in a dangerous position, as Lawler landed repeated blows. The finish earned him the "Knockout of the Night" bonus.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was expected to face former Strikeforce Welterweight Champion Tarec Saffiedine on July 27, 2013 at UFC on Fox 8. However, Saffiedine was forced out of the bout with an injury and was replaced by Siyar Bahadurzada. Then on July 11, it was announced that Bahadurzada also pulled out of the bout and was replaced by Bobby Voelker. Lawler won the fight via knockout in the second round.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: On December 13, 2013 news came that Georges St-Pierre would be taking an indefinite break from MMA and vacate the UFC Welterweight Championship. Following the announcement, Dana White announced that Lawler would face Johny Hendricks on March 15, 2014 at UFC 171 for the vacated title. Lawler lost the close back-and-forth bout via unanimous decision. Despite the loss, the fight earned Lawler his first "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Returning quickly to the cage, Lawler replaced an injured Tarec Saffiedine and fought Jake Ellenberger at UFC 173 on May 24, 2014. He won the fight via TKO in the third round due to a combination of a knee and punches.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Matt Brown in a 5-round Welterweight title eliminator bout on July 26, 2014 at UFC on Fox 12. He won the fight via unanimous decision. The win also earned him a "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler fought a rematch with Johny Hendricks for the UFC Welterweight Championship at UFC 181 on December 6, 2014. He won the fight, and the title, via split decision.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: A rematch with Rory MacDonald took place on July 11, 2015 at UFC 189. Lawler retained his title in the fifth round via TKO. The back and forth action earned both participants "Fight of the Night" honors. The fight was considered an instant classic by fans and media alike with UFC President Dana White hailing it as one of the best welterweight fights in the promotion's history. The fight was chosen as the Sherdog Fight of the Year for 2015. The fight has since been acclaimed as one of the greatest in the history of mixed martial arts, voted the best fight in the history of the UFC in an ESPN poll in 2017.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was expected to face Carlos Condit on November 15, 2015 at UFC 193. However, the bout was scrapped from the event after Lawler suffered a thumb injury. The fight was rescheduled as the headliner at UFC 195 on January 2, 2016. Lawler defended his title, and defeated Condit via split decision in a very close fight. The bout also earned Lawler his fourth "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Tyron Woodley on July 30, 2016 in the main event at UFC 201. He lost the fight via knockout early in the first round, thus losing the title.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was briefly linked to a bout with Donald Cerrone on November 12, 2016 at UFC 205. However, just a few days after the announcement, it was revealed that Lawler had declined the fight to allow more recovery time from his last defeat. He was replaced by middleweight winner Kelvin Gastelum.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was expected to face Cerrone on July 8, 2017 at UFC 213. However, reports began to circulate on June 28 that Cerrone had sustained a minor injury and that the pairing would be left intact, but is expected to take place three weeks later at UFC 214. UFC President Dana White confirmed later that same day that Cerrone in fact had a staph infection and a pulled groin.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Cerrone on July 29, 2017 at UFC 214. He won the fight via unanimous decision. In the post fight interview, Lawler dedicated his win to Matt Hughes, who was involved in a truck accident in June 2017 and was then recovering from serious injuries.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Rafael Dos Anjos on December 16, 2017 in the main event at . He lost the fight by unanimous decision, and he suffered from a torn ACL from the fight which would prevent him from fighting in 2018.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced UFC newcomer Ben Askren on March 2, 2019, at UFC 235. Although Lawler looked to have the upper hand on Askren early on in the fight, he eventually lost the fight due to a bulldog choke. The ending of the fight was controversial because referee Herb Dean stopped the fight thinking that Lawler had passed out when this may not have been the case; Lawler's arm appeared to go limp indicating he had passed out, however, while Dean was checking to see if he was out he appeared to signal a thumbs up and jumped up fully conscious straight after the stoppage. Despite that, Nevada State Athletic Commission director Bob Bennett was in full support of Dean's decision to stop the fight.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: A rematch with Tyron Woodley was expected to take place on June 29, 2019 at UFC on ESPN 3. On May 16, 2019 it was reported that Woodley suffered a hand injury and was pulled from the fight. The bout was ultimately scrapped.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Colby Covington on August 3, 2019 at UFC on ESPN 5. He lost the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was scheduled to face Santiago Ponzinibbio on December 14, 2019 at UFC 245. However, on October 12, 2019, it was revealed that Ponzinibbio had pulled out of the fight due to a staph infection.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Neil Magny, replacing Geoff Neal, on August 29, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 175. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was expected to face Mike Perry on November 21, 2020, at UFC 255. However, due to injuries, Lawler pulled out of the bout.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced returning veteran Nick Diaz in a rematch on September 25, 2021 at UFC 266. The bout was contested at middleweight and was a special non-title, non-main event five round fight. In the third round, Lawler knocked down Diaz, who did not respond to the referee's instruction to return to his feet. As a result Lawler was awarded the win by TKO.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler faced Bryan Barberena on July 2, 2022, at UFC 276. He lost the back-and-forth bout by TKO in the second round. This fight earned him a "Fight of the Night" award.


title: Robbie Lawler

text: Lawler was scheduled to face Santiago Ponzinibbio on December 10, 2022, at UFC 282. However, the week of the event, Lawler was forced to withdraw due to an undisclosed injury.


title: Meet the Robinsons

text: Meet the Robinsons is a 2007 American computer-animated science-fiction comedy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 47th animated film produced by the studio, it is loosely based on the 1990 children's book "A Day with Wilbur Robinson" by William Joyce. The film was directed by Stephen J. Anderson (in his feature directorial debut) and produced by Dorothy McKim, from a screenplay written by Anderson, Don Hall, Nathan Greno, Joe Mateo, Aurian Redson, Jon Bernstein, and Michelle Spitz. The film stars the voices of Daniel Hansen, Jordan Fry, Wesley Singerman, Angela Bassett, Tom Selleck, Harland Williams, Laurie Metcalf, Nicole Sullivan, Adam West, Ethan Sandler, Tom Kenny, and Anderson. "Meet the Robinsons" follows the interactions between Lewis (Fry), an orphaned 12-year-old inventor desperate to be adopted, and Wilbur Robinson (Singerman), a young time-traveler who travels to the year 2037 for visit the family. Along the way, the two must prevent a mysterious bowler-hatted man (Anderson) from changing Lewis' story, and, by proxy, the entire future.