title: Aer Lingus

text: On 6 February 2007, however, the airline announced its intention to form a new alliance with JetBlue. This new alliance was to act as a weblink between the two airlines, enabling Aer Lingus customers to book JetBlue destinations from the Aer Lingus website. In 2008, it also announced an alliance with United Airlines for connecting services within the US.


title: Aer Lingus

text: With the flotation of Aer Lingus on the stock exchange, Aer Lingus had planned to expand its route network, but this was put on hold due to the economic situation.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 5 October 2006, Ryanair launched a bid to buy Aer Lingus. Ryanair CEO Michael O'Leary said the move was a "unique opportunity" to form an Irish airline. The "new" airline would carry over 50 million passengers a year. Ryanair said it had bought a 16% stake in Aer Lingus and was offering €2.80 for the remaining shares, a premium over the €2.20 the shares were trading for. The firm was trading at €1.13bn but Ryanair's offer valued it at €1.48bn. On the same day Aer Lingus rejected Ryanair's takeover bid. On 5 October 2006, Ryanair confirmed it had raised its stake to 19.2%, and said it had no problem in the Irish Government keeping its 28.3%. "The Irish Times" reported that the Government would possibly seek judgement from the courts, and referral to competition authorities in Dublin – although this would be automatic under European regulation, as the combined group would control 78% of the Dublin – London passenger air traffic.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 21 December 2006, Ryanair announced it was withdrawing its bid for Aer Lingus, with the intent of pursuing another bid soon after the European Commission finishes investigating the bid. The EC has been concerned that the takeover would reduce consumer choice and increase fares.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 27 June 2007, the European Commission announced its decision to block the bid on competition grounds saying the two airlines controlled more than 80% of all European flights to and from Dublin Airport.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 7 August 2007, the airline announced that it would establish its first base outside the Republic of Ireland at Belfast International Airport in Northern Ireland. Services from Belfast International commenced in December 2007. , the airline had three Airbus A320 aircraft based at the airport, serving eleven European destinations. Significantly, this move restored the Belfast International to London Heathrow Airport link and Aer Lingus cooperated with its codeshare partner British Airways on this route to connect with BA's network at Heathrow. To do so, the airline discontinued its Shannon-Heathrow service, a move that generated political controversy in the west of Ireland, particularly as the Shannon-London route was still profitable. The airline predicted that this move would add one million additional passengers annually. The Shannon to Heathrow service has since been reinstated.


title: Aer Lingus

text: After five years at Belfast International Airport, Aer Lingus announced on 19 July 2012 that it would be moving its operations to George Best Belfast City Airport. The airline transferred its Belfast – London Heathrow flights to there, and also announced the operation of a thrice-daily London Gatwick service (no longer operated), and on 31 March 2013, launched services to Faro and Málaga. Aer Lingus based 2 aircraft in Belfast City Airport for the Winter 2012–2013 season and a third aircraft arrived for the Summer 2013 season.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 22 March 2007, as a result of the EU–US Open Skies Agreement, Aer Lingus announced three new long-haul services to the United States. From Autumn 2007, Aer Lingus commenced direct flights to Orlando, San Francisco and Washington, D.C.-Dulles, facilitated by the arrival of two new Airbus A330 aircraft in May 2007. The airline also serves Boston (Logan International Airport), Chicago (O'Hare International Airport), and New York (JFK Airport). Aer Lingus ended its Middle-Eastern Route to Dubai in March 2008 and ended its Los Angeles route in November 2008. The Washington and the San Francisco routes were discontinued . Services from Washington, D.C. resumed on 28 March 2010 when the airline began flights from Washington D.C. to Madrid, Spain in a joint venture with United Airlines. The airline terminated this route on 30 October 2012. Services from San Francisco have since resumed on 2 April 2014. New Route: Dublin-Washington Aer Lingus has given details of its Summer 2015 schedule which includes the introduction of a new, four times weekly summer service from Dublin to Washington-Dulles starting May 2015. The Dublin-Los Angeles route was reintroduced on 4 May 2016.


title: Aer Lingus

text: After reporting losses of €22 million for the first half of the year, in October 2008, Aer Lingus announced a €74 million cost-saving plan. This plan included cutting up to 1,500 jobs, scaled back ground operations at the Cork airport, and outsourced all ground staff at the Dublin airport. This met with a largely negative response particularly from trade unions.


title: Aer Lingus

text: In December 2008, Aer Lingus announced that the Shannon – Heathrow service would resume from 29 March 2009 following new arrangements with the trade unions on staff costs and the Shannon Airport Authority on airport charges. However at the end of June 2009 the company had accumulated losses of €93 million and Chairman Colm Barrington confirmed this situation could not continue. In October 2009, newly appointed Chief Executive Christoph Mueller announced a radical cost-cutting plan that would lead to the loss of 676 jobs at the company and see pay and pension reductions for those being retained. The total plan aimed to achieve savings of €97 million between then and 2011. As a 6-week consultation process began, Mueller refused to rule out further cuts in the future.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 1 December 2008, Ryanair launched a second takeover bid of Aer Lingus, making an all-cash offer of €748 million (£619mil; US$950mil). The €1.40 offer was a 28% premium on the average closing price of Aer Lingus stock during the 30 days to 28 November 28 (€1.09), but half what Ryanair had offered in 2006. Ryanair said, "Aer Lingus, as a small, stand-alone, regional airline has been marginalised and bypassed as most other EU flag carriers consolidate." The two airlines would operate separately and Ryanair claimed that it would double the Aer Lingus short-haul fleet from 33 to 66 and create 1,000 new jobs. The Aer Lingus Board rejected the offer and advised its shareholders to take no action. The offer was eventually rejected by a majority of the other shareholders. It was the second failed attempt by Michael O'Leary to take over the national flag carrier. Ryanair initially left the offer open to Aer Lingus until it withdrew the bid on 28 January 2009. The Irish Government slammed O'Leary's offer as "undervaluing the airline" and stated that a Ryanair takeover would have a "significant negative impact" on competition in the industry and on the Irish consumer. Ryanair repeatedly stated that another bid was unlikely, but it kept a stake in Aer Lingus, prompting an investigation by competition regulators in the UK.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 19 December 2008, Aer Lingus announced that it would open a base at Gatwick Airport. Four aircraft were based there beginning April 2009, serving eight destinations that included Dublin, Faro, Knock, Málaga, Munich, Nice, Vienna and Zürich. CEO Dermot Mannion also said the company expects to increase the number of aircraft based at Gatwick to eight within 12 months.


title: Aer Lingus

text: , the airline based an additional A320 aircraft at Gatwick, bringing the total number to five and making Gatwick its biggest base outside Ireland. This resulted in six new routes to Bucharest, Eindhoven, Lanzarote, Tenerife, Vilnius and Warsaw which commenced in late October 2009. The Gatwick to Nice route was suspended for the winter months.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 8 January 2010, due to the weak demand in air travel, Aer Lingus announced that it was to reduce the number of aircraft based at Gatwick from five to three. The three remaining aircraft were to operate the carrier's services to Dublin, Knock and Málaga as well as a new route to Cork.


title: Aer Lingus

text: In January 2011, Aer Lingus announced a new daily service from Gatwick to Shannon starting at the end of March. The service has since been suspended.


title: Aer Lingus

text: The Gatwick to Cork route ended 27 October 2012. A new service from Gatwick to Belfast City Airport started on 28 October, operating three times per day, and follows the airline's move from Belfast-International Airport to Belfast City Airport. That service was suspended on 27 April 2016.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 6 April 2009, CEO Dermot Mannion announced his resignation from the airline after four years as Chief Executive. He was replaced by German-born Christoph Müller (alternative spelling "Mueller"), former head of TUI Travel and Sabena, who joined Aer Lingus on 1 October 2009.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 2 December 2009, Aer Lingus announced that talks with its unions had broken down. As a result, the board voted to reduce capacity, and with it associated jobs, as a response. According to Mueller, concessions offered by unions were of a short-term nature, and the airline was asked for high compensation in return. Aer Lingus did not identify the routes or jobs to be cut, but they would most likely "commence immediately and will be compulsory," according to Mueller.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Mueller indicated that Aer Lingus intended to reposition itself again, moving away from head-to-head competition with Ryanair in the low-cost sector to a more hybrid model with a stronger emphasis on service. As part of this move, Aer Lingus entered talks to join an airline alliance again, having left Oneworld in 2007.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus announced on 15 June 2010 that it would suspend services from Shannon to Boston and New York (JFK) for 11 weeks beginning January 2011.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus celebrated its 75th anniversary in 2011. On 26 March, the company presented its latest aircraft which has been painted in the 1960s livery and the crew was wearing a selection of historical uniforms.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 19 June 2012, Ryanair announced its intention to launch another bid to take over Aer Lingus, at €1.30 per share, for a total of €694 million. Ryanair expressed the hope that the competition authorities would not block this attempt, pointing to the recent takeovers of bmi and Brussels Airlines by International Airlines Group (IAG) (parent company of Iberia and British Airways) and Lufthansa, respectively.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 20 June 2012, Aer Lingus issued a press release stating that having reviewed Ryanair's proposed offer, the company board rejected it and advised the company's shareholders not to take any action concerning it. The statement pointed out that any offer from Ryanair was unlikely to be capable of completion due to, firstly, the EU Commission's 2007 decision to block the airline's bid for Aer Lingus at the time, and, secondly, the UK Competition Commission's ongoing investigation of Ryanair's minority stake in Aer Lingus. Furthermore, the press release stated that the Aer Lingus board believed that Ryanair's offer undervalued Aer Lingus, considering the airline's profitability and balance sheet, including cash reserves over €1 billion ().


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 27 February 2013, the European Commission blocked the third attempt by Ryanair to take over Aer Lingus, stating that the merger would have damaged consumers' choice and resulted in increased fares.


title: Aer Lingus

text: In December 2012, following the acquisition of British Midland International by British Airways, Virgin Atlantic was awarded slots to fly domestic routes in the UK from Heathrow Airport, ending the monopoly on these services that BA had held since its successful takeover. Aer Lingus supplied on a wet lease agreement four Airbus A320-214 aircraft (painted in Virgin's colours but under Irish registration) as well as crew for these services, which operated from London Heathrow to Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Manchester. Services began on 31 March 2013 to Manchester. This wet-lease agreement ended in September 2015, as Virgin Atlantic cancelled its domestic services.


title: Aer Lingus

text: In July 2013, expansion into North America was announced launching in 2014; including a direct service from Dublin to San Francisco five times weekly and a daily service from Dublin to Toronto to be operated by Air Contractors with Boeing 757s on behalf of the airline. It was also announced that transatlantic services from Shannon to Boston and New York would operate daily all year round from January 2014 to Boston and from March 2014 to New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport; however, the airline would lease Boeing 757 aircraft from Air Contractors to operate these routes, rather than using its Airbus A330 aircraft as it had done before. Also, the service to Washington Dulles airport resumed 1 May 2015, with four flights weekly.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 24 March 2021, Aer Lingus announced the launch of new long-haul routes to New York JFK and Boston from Manchester Airport, using its A321LR airliners.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 18 July 2014, Aer Lingus said it had "been agreed" between the company and Mueller that he would step down as CEO and director in May 2015. Mueller left to join Malaysia Airlines as part of its restructuring exercise. On 16 February 2015 the company announced that the new CEO and director would be Stephen Kavanagh, beginning 1 March 2015. As of 1 January 2019, Sean Doyle became the new Aer Lingus CEO.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 14 December 2014, International Airlines Group (IAG), owner of British Airways, Iberia and Vueling, launched a €1 billion takeover-bid (€2.30 per-share) for Aer Lingus Group plc. The Aer Lingus Board rejected the offer on 16 December 2014, with Aer Lingus commenting that the offer was, "preliminary, highly conditional and non-binding". It was further noted: "The board has reviewed the proposal and believes that it fundamentally undervalues Aer Lingus and its attractive prospects. Accordingly, the proposal was rejected".


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 9 January 2015, Aer Lingus rejected a second bid from IAG, proposing a €2.40 per-share takeover. On 24 January 2015, IAG launched a third bid for Aer Lingus, proposing a €2.55 per-share takeover offer, totalling close to €1.4 billion. On 27 January 2015, Aer Lingus's board announced that "the financial terms of IAG's third proposal for the airline are at a level it is willing to recommend", Aer Lingus said it noted, "IAG's intentions regarding the future of the company, in particular, that Aer Lingus would operate as a separate business with its own brand, management and operations".


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 26 May 2015, the Irish Government agreed to the sale of its 25% shareholding to IAG, with a takeover now dependent on Ryanair's position on the matter. On 10 July 2015, Ryanair voted to sell its nearly 30% stake in the airline. The takeover was later approved by the EU and US regulators subject to IAG giving up five slot pairs at London Gatwick Airport. On 2 September 2015, IAG assumed control of Aer Lingus. On 17 September 2015, following completion of the acquisition by IAG, the company's shares were withdrawn from the Irish Stock Exchange and the London Stock Exchange.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 25 February 2020, Aer Lingus noted it had been advised by the Department of Foreign Affairs that travel restrictions were being placed on several Italian towns within Italy's Lombardy region as a result of an outbreak of COVID-19 there, however stated all flights would continue to operate, further advising all flights operated would continue to comply with guidelines locally from the HSE as well as from the WHO and EASA.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 28 February, Aer Lingus had been informed that a passenger had travelled with COVID-19 on a service from Milan-Linate to Dublin and that it was cooperating fully with the HSE and Department for Foreign Affairs. Four Aer Lingus Cabin Crew were also placed into self-isolation from the flight in question. The following day, Aer Lingus announced flight suspensions to Northern Italy, subsequently extending this on 10 March to all services to Italy.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 13 March, Donald Trump, the President of the United States, announced a European travel ban which initially exempted Ireland, however this was extended to cover Ireland the following day. Aer Lingus subsequently announced network-wide reductions which eventually saw its network of flights reduced by 95%, the airlines plan for its biggest summer schedule within its history was scuppered as a result of what became a global pandemic. In a temporary measure, the airline confirmed it was cutting hours and salaries for all employees by 50%.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Later that month on 29 March, Aer Lingus flight EI9019 from Beijing, China touched down at Dublin Airport carrying vital PPE for Ireland's health service workers, it marked the start of hundreds of flights the carrier was expected to operate to/from China on request of the Government.


title: Aer Lingus

text: With just 5% of scheduled flights operating, it was announced on 1 May 2020 that Aer Lingus was seeking 900 job cuts. The airline subsequently entered into talks with Trade Unions about changes to work practices and proposed job cuts, Aer Lingus CEO Sean Doyle commented that it would take years for the aviation industry to recover. Aer Lingus later confirmed it was seeking further temporary pay cuts and changes to work practices in a cost saving exercise, advising that its 2021 schedule would be at least 20% lower than planned. Job cuts were confirmed later that month, those holding temporary contracts were made redundant and Cabin Crew based in Shannon were informed that they would be temporarily laid off as the airline was not operating services from there.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 13 June, media reporting indicated broad acceptance of proposed measures based on a final draft document between Aer Lingus and Trade Unions, however the following day the union Fórsa representing over 1,400 Aer Lingus Cabin Crew advised of its intention to ballot members. The airline stated on 15 June, that if acceptance was not agreed by 6pm that evening, it would withdraw its offer and implement them unilaterally with a 70% cut to employees' wages excluding pilots. As the deadline passed the airline initiated the action to implement the changes angering Trade Unions representing the majority of Aer Lingus employees. On 17 June, the airline agreed to allow a ballot for up to two weeks for its pilots for changes to work practices and recovery of salaries.


title: Aer Lingus

text: In June 2021, the airline said it wanted to freeze workers' pay for five years while it is proposing sharp cuts in rates paid to new cabin and crew staff.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus was listed on the Irish and London Stock Exchanges, under ticker EIL1 on the Irish Stock Exchange and ticker AERL on the London Stock Exchange. However it was delisted on 17 September 2015 following its majority acquisition by IAG. Shareholdings () are:


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus Cargo is the airline's cargo division. It uses reserved areas of passenger aircraft cargo-holds. Aer Lingus Cargo is available on all routes to the US from Dublin and Shannon. Cargo services are also offered on most European routes and some routes to the UK, the division subsequently rebranded as IAG Cargo.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus had a franchise agreement with Irish regional airline Stobart Air (formerly Aer Arann), under which Stobart Air operated several routes under the Aer Lingus Regional brand, livery and flight code. Stobart Air had not operated any flights under its own RE code since April 2012, and all its routes were transferred to Aer Lingus with flight numbers in the EI3XXX range. Stobart Air was placed into liquidation in June 2021; Aer Lingus and BA CityFlyer stepped in to operate the routes on a temporary basis.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus Regional flights have been operated by Emerald Airlines on a franchise basis since 17 March 2022.


title: Aer Lingus

text: Following its acquisition by IAG on 18 August 2015, separate Annual Reports are no longer published for Aer Lingus, however some data are shown separately within the IAG Annual Report. Key available trends for Aer Lingus over recent years are shown below (as at year ending 31 December):


title: Aer Lingus

text: Aer Lingus adopted a "small frills" strategic approach – a hybrid between a traditional legacy airline and a low-cost carrier. The difference lies in the services offered on short-haul and long-haul flights with meals offered free on the latter only.


title: Aer Lingus

text: The new strategy required considerable negotiation with the unions, and a consensus was reached that lower costs and a reinvention of the airline were necessary for its survival. The union concessions that arose from the negotiations were detrimental to the airline's image however; by 2003 the wage freeze had been lifted and there were 3,800 voluntary redundancies with no forced layoffs. These factors contributed to the airline's reported profits in 2002, 2003 and 2005, with only a small loss recorded in 2004.


title: Aer Lingus

text: The Aer Lingus head office is located on the grounds of Dublin Airport in Fingal, County Dublin. Dublin Airport Authority (DAA) renovated an existing building to create Aer Lingus's headquarters.


title: Aer Lingus

text: The HOB Site, the former head office site includes the former head office building, the services annexe, the Iolar House, the Mock-Up Building, the ALSAA swimming pool, and various smaller structures and buildings. The Head Office Building housed the corporate head office of Aer Lingus and its subsidiaries, and many administrative functions, employees, and car parking spaces, were located in this building. The Iolar House and Mock-Up Building housed training facilities for Aer Lingus crew and office space. This former head office is proximate to the former Ryanair head office. Brian Lavery of "The New York Times" said in 2004 that the proximity, described by Lavery as "a few parking lots away," was "a symbol of just how close the competition is to home." In 2010, Aer Lingus announced that it surrendered the lease on its head office building to the Dublin Airport Authority and that it would move its employees to Hangar 6 and other buildings in the airline's property portfolio during the year of 2011. The airline said that its head office building, which was stated by the "International Business Times" to require refurbishing, was too large for the company's needs following the "Greenfield" cost reduction programme. On 8 November 2011 Aer Lingus signed the contract with the Dublin Airport Authority for the surrender of the leasehold interest in the HOB Site. Aer Lingus would pay €22.15 million and interest to the DAA, with €10.55 million being paid over ten years in annual payments, with each being equal size. The payments will involve a 5% interest rate per annum. The former HOB Site was redeveloped into Dublin Airport Central, with the Dublin Airport Authority planning to spend €10 million. The former head office became One, Dublin Airport Central.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 30 May 2014, Aer Lingus cabin crew staged a 24-hour strike resulting in the cancellation of around 200 flights and the disruption of travel plans by up to 200,000 people. The workers were seeking changes to their rosters, which the airline said that if implemented would mean the loss of 300 jobs in Ireland, which would have to be relocated to North America.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 30 April 2015, it was announced that Aer Lingus would become the Official Airline of the Irish Rugby Team. On the same day, it was announced that one aircraft was to be renamed "Green Spirit" and wear a special livery for the Irish Rugby Team. Another aircraft would also be painted in the same livery.


title: Aer Lingus

text: As of April 2020, Aer Lingus flies to 93 destinations throughout Asia, Europe and North America; including destinations in Austria, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States.


title: Aer Lingus

text: , Aer Lingus (excluding its subsidiaries Aer Lingus Regional and Aer Lingus UK) operates an all-Airbus fleet, composed of the following aircraft:


title: Aer Lingus

text: In January 2017, Aer Lingus announced its intention to finalize an order for eight A321LR twinjets to develop thinner transatlantic routes which cannot be operated profitably and fuel efficiently using A330s. As of November 2018, the airline has orders for fourteen A321LRs.


title: Aer Lingus

text: At the 2019 Paris Air Show, IAG agreed to purchase 14 Airbus A321XLR aircraft, 8 for delivery to Iberia and 6 to Aer Lingus, with options for a further 14 of the aircraft. The first aircraft will be delivered in 2023 and replace their Boeing 757-200s.


title: Aer Lingus

text: In April 2020, Aer Lingus terminated their contract with the Irish airline CityJet which operated 2 BAE Avro RJ85's on behalf of the airline. The aircraft were primarily used for the Dublin to London-City route.


title: Aer Lingus

text: On 17 January 2019, Aer Lingus unveiled a new brand and livery. The refreshed brand includes a new typeface, refreshed shamrock and a new colour scheme. The new livery consists of a white fuselage and teal engines and tail. All aircraft were expected to receive the new livery by the end of 2021.


title: Aer Lingus

text: From 2015 to 2016, Aer Lingus sold pre-packaged Tayto sandwiches on board some of their flights. In 2018, the company announced that it would offer a complimentary glass of wine or beer on transatlantic flights. That year the company also announced plans to offer free wifi to Smart Fare transatlantic economy customers. In 2019, Aer Lingus introduced AerSpace, its premium economy class.


title: Aer Lingus

text: AerClub is Aer Lingus' frequent-flyer programme. It launched in November 2016, taking over from the airline's previous programme, Gold Circle. AerClub consists of four tiers: the entry-level Green, Silver, Platinum, and Concierge. The club uses Avios points as its member currency.


title: Aer Lingus

text: It has had 12 incidents, including six accidents which left aircraft written-off (of which three were fatal) and one hijacking.


title: Carburetor

text: A carburetor (also spelled carburettor) is a device used by an internal combustion engine to control and mix air and fuel entering the engine. The primary method of adding fuel to the intake air is through the venturi tube in the main metering circuit, however various other components are also used to provide extra fuel or air in specific circumstances.


title: Carburetor

text: Since the 1990s, carburetors have been largely replaced by fuel injection for cars and trucks, however carburetors are still used by some small engines (e.g. lawnmowers, generators and concrete mixers) and motorcycles. Diesel engines have always used fuel injection instead of carburetors.


title: Carburetor

text: The name "carburetor" is derived from the verb "carburet", which means "to combine with carbon," or in particular, "to enrich a gas by combining it with carbon or hydrocarbons." Thus a carburetor mixes intake air with hydrocarbon-based fuel, such as petrol or autogas (LPG).


title: Carburetor

text: The name is spelled "carburetor" in American English and "carburettor" in British English. Colloquial abbreviations include "carb" in the UK and North America or to "carby" in Australia.


title: Carburetor

text: The carburetor is located upstream of the inlet manifold. Air from the atmosphere enters the carburetor (usually via an air cleaner), has fuel added within the carburetor, passes through the inlet valve(s) and then enters the combustion chamber. Most engines use a single carburetor shared between all of the cylinders, however some high-performance engines have used multiple carburetors.


title: Carburetor

text: The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the static pressure of the intake air reduces at higher speeds, drawing more fuel into the airstream. In most cases (except for the "accelerator pump"), the driver pressing the throttle pedal does not directly increase the fuel entering the engine. Instead, the airflow through the carburetor increases, which in turn increases the amount of fuel drawn into the intake mixture.


title: Carburetor

text: The main disadvantage of basing a carburetor's operation on Bernoulli's Principle is that being a fluid dynamic device, the pressure reduction in a venturi tends to be proportional to the square of the intake airspeed. The fuel jets are much smaller and fuel flow is limited mainly by the fuel's viscosity so that the fuel flow tends to be proportional to the pressure difference. So jets sized for full power tend to starve the engine at lower speed and part throttle. Most commonly this has been corrected by using multiple jets. In SU and other variable jet carburetors, it was corrected by varying the jet size.


title: Carburetor

text: The orientation of the carburetor is a key design consideration. Older engines used updraft carburetors, where the air enters from below the carburetor and exits through the top. From the late 1930s, downdraft carburetors become more commonly used (especially in the United States), along with sidedraft carburetors (especially in Europe).


title: Carburetor

text: The main metering circuit consists of a pipe which temporarily narrows, forming a venturi. Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes (the "main jets") at the narrowest part of the venturi, where the air is at its highest speed.


title: Carburetor

text: Downstream of the venturi is a throttle (usually in the form of a butterfly valve) which is used to control the amount of air entering the carburetor. In a car, this throttle is connected to the vehicle's throttle pedal, which (along with the brakes) is the driver's main method of controlling the car's speed.


title: Carburetor

text: At greater throttle openings, the speed of air passing through the venturi increases, which lowers the pressure of the air and draws more fuel into the airstream. At the same time, the reduced manifold vacuum results in less fuel flow through the idle and off-idle circuits.


title: Carburetor

text: At lesser throttle openings, the air speed through the venturi is insufficient to maintain the fuel flow, therefore the fuel is instead supplied by the carburetor's idle and off-idle circuits.


title: Carburetor

text: During cold starts, fuel vaporizes less readily and tends to condense on the walls of the intake manifold, starving the cylinders of fuel and making the engine difficult to start, thus additional fuel is required (for a given amount of air) to start and run the engine until it warms up.


title: Carburetor

text: A "choke" is used to supply this extra fuel. While the engine is warming up, a partially closed choke restricts the flow of air at the entrance to the carburetor, which increases the vacuum in the main metering circuit, causing more fuel to be supplied to the engine via the main jets. In older cars, the choke was manually operated by the driver, often using a lever or knob on the dashboard. Automatic chokes became more commonplace from the late 1950s, whereby a thermostat was used to automatically open the choke based on the temperature of the engine's coolant liquid. Leaving the choke closed after the engine has warmed up increases the engine's fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions.


title: Carburetor

text: However, excessive fuel (called a flooded engine) can prevent an engine from starting. To remove the excess fuel, many carburetors inclue an 'unloader mechanism', whereby the choke is held open to allow extra air into the engine in order to clear out the excess fuel. In order to activate the unloader mechanism, the driver holds the throttle pedal fully open while cranking the engine.


title: Carburetor

text: Another method used by carburetors to improve the operation of a cold engine is a "fast idle cam". This cam is connected to the choke and prevents the throttle from closing fully while the choke is in operation. The resulting increase in idle speed provides a more stable idle for a cold engine (by better atomizing the cold fuel) and helps the engine warm up quicker.


title: Carburetor

text: Many carburettors use an off-idle circuit, which includes an additional fuel jet which is briefly used as the throttle starts to open. This jet is located in a low-pressure area behind the throttle. The additional fuel it provides is used to compensate for the reduced vacuum that occurs when the throttle is opened, thus smoothing the transition from the idle circuit to the main metering circuit.


title: Carburetor

text: In a four-stroke engine, often it is desirable to provide extra fuel to the engine at high loads (to increase the power output and reduce engine knocking). A 'power valve', which is a spring-loaded valve that is held shut by engine vacuum, is often used to provide this extra fuel. As the airflow through the carburetor increases, the reduced manifold vacuum pulls the power valve open, allowing more fuel into the main metering circuit.


title: Carburetor

text: In a two-stroke engine, the power valve operates in the opposite manner: in most circumstances the valve allows extra fuel into the engine, then at a certain engine speed (RPM) it closes to reduce the fuel entering the engine. This is done in order to extend the engine's maximum RPM, since many two-stroke engines can temporarily achieve higher RPM with a leaner air-fuel ratio.


title: Carburetor

text: A 'metering rod' or 'step-up rod' system is sometimes used as an alternative to a power valve in a four-stroke engine, in order to supply extra fuel at high loads. One end of the rods is tapered, which sits in the main metering jets and acts as a valve for fuel flow in the jets. At high engine loads, the rods are lifted away from the jets (either mechanically or using manifold vacuum), increasing the volume of fuel can flow through the jet. In this manner, the amount of fuel delivered is tailored to the transient demands of the engine. These systems have been used by the Rochester Quadrajet and in the 1950s Carter Carburetor models.


title: Carburetor

text: The main metering circuit can adequately supply fuel to the engine in steady-state conditions, however there is a temporary shortfall as the throttle is opened. This is due to the inertia of the fuel being higher than that of air, and a reduction in fuel evaporation due to the reduced manifold vacuum. Therefore, an 'accelerator pump' is often used to briefly provide extra fuel as the throttle is opened. When the driver presses the throttle pedal, the accelerator pump (a small piston pump or a diaphragm pump) directly pumps extra fuel into the carburetor throat.


title: Carburetor

text: The accelerator pump can also be used to "prime" an engine with extra fuel prior to assist with a cold start.


title: Carburetor

text: Carburetors include a reservoir of fuel, called a 'float chamber' or 'float bowl'. Fuel is supplied into the float chamber by a fuel pump. It is important to maintain a constant volume of fuel within the float chamber, therefore a floating inlet valve regulates the fuel entering the float chamber (similar to a toilet cistern). Unlike in a fuel injected engine, the fuel system in a carbureted engine is not pressurized. For engines where the intake air travelling through the carburetor is pressurized (such as where the carburetor is downstream of a supercharger) the entire carburetor must be contained in an airtight pressurized box to operate. However, this is not necessary where the carburetor is upstream of the supercharger.


title: Carburetor

text: Problems of fuel boiling and vapor lock can occur in carbureted engines, especially in hotter climates. Since the float chamber is located close to the engine, heat from the engine (including for several hours after the engine is shut off) can cause the fuel to heat up to the point of vaporization. This causes air bubbles in the fuel (similar to the air bubbles that necessitate brake bleeding), which prevents the flow of fuel and is known as 'vapor lock'.


title: Carburetor

text: To avoid pressurizing the float chamber, vent tubes allow air to enter and exit the float chamber. These tubes usually extend into the carburetor throat, and placement of these vent tubes is critical to prevent fuel from sloshing out of them into the carburetor.


title: Carburetor

text: If the engine must be operated when the carburetor is not in an upright orientation (for example a chainsaw or airplane), a float chamber is not suitable, since fuel would leak out of it due to gravity. In these situations, a 'diaphragm chamber' is often used instead. This consists of a flexible diaphragm on one side of the fuel chamber, connected to a needle valve which regulates the fuel entering the chamber. As the volume of fuel in the chamber reduces, the diaphragm moves inward, which opens the needle valve to admit more fuel. As the fuel volume in the chamber approaches the correct amount, the diaphragm moves outwards, which causes the valve to reduce the amount of fuel entering the chamber. A balanced state is reached which creates a steady fuel reservoir level, which remains constant in any orientation.


title: Carburetor

text: The basic design for a carburetor consists of a single venturi (main metering circuit), however designs with two or four venturi (2-barrel and 4-barrel carburetors respectively) are also quite commonplace. Typically the barrels consist of "primary" barrel(s) used for lower load situations and secondary barrel(s) activating when required to provide additional air/fuel at higher loads. The primary and secondary venturi are often sized differently and incorporate different features to suit the situations in which they are used.


title: Carburetor

text: Many 4-barrel carburetors use two primary and two secondary barrels. A 4-barrel design of two primary and two secondary barrels was commonly used in V8 engines.


title: Carburetor

text: The use of multiple carburetors (e.g. a carburetor for each cylinder or pair of cylinders) also results in the intake air being drawn through multiple venturi. Some engines have used multiple 2-barrel or 4-barrel carburetors, for example two 4-barrel carburetors have been used on several high-performance American V8 engines.


title: Carburetor

text: In 1826, American engineer Samuel Morey received a patent for a "gas or vapour engine" which used a heated-surface carburetor to mix the turpentine fuel with air, however the design did not reach production. In 1875, German engineer Siegfried Marcus produced a car powered by the first petrol engine to use a carburetor (along with the first magneto ignition system). Karl Benz's Benz Patent-Motorwagen, built in 1885, also used a carburetor.


title: Carburetor

text: The aforementioned carburetors were all "surface curburetors", which operate moving air across the top of a vessel containing the fuel. However, the 1885 "Grandfather Clock" engine created by German engineers Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler introduced the float-fed carburetor design, which used an atomizer nozzle. The Butler Petrol Cycle car - built in England in 1888 - also used a float-fed carburetor.


title: Carburetor

text: The first carburetor for a stationary engine was patented in 1893 by Hungarian engineers János Csonka and Donát Bánki.


title: Carburetor

text: The first 4-barrel carburetors were the "Carter Carburetor WCFB" and identical "Rochester 4GC" introduced in various General Motors models for 1952. Oldsmobile referred the new carburetor as the “Quadri-Jet” (original spelling) while Buick called it the “Airpower”.


title: Carburetor

text: In the United States, carburetors were the common method of fuel delivery for most US-made gasoline (petrol) engines until the late 1980s, when fuel injection became the preferred method. Once of the last motorsport uses of carburetors was NASCAR, which switched to electronic fuel injection after the 2011 Sprint Cup series.


title: Carburetor

text: In Europe, carburetors were largely replaced by fuel injection in the late 1980s, although fuel injection had been increasingly used in luxury cars and sports cars since the 1970s. EEC legislation required all vehicles sold and produced in member countries to have a catalytic converter after December 1992. This legislation had been in the pipeline for some time, with many cars becoming available with catalytic converters or fuel injection from around 1990.


title: Carburetor

text: A significant concern for aircraft engines is the formation of ice inside the carburetor. The temperature of air within the carburetor can by reduced by up to , due to a combination of the reduced air pressure in the venturi and the latent heat of the evaporating fuel. The conditions during the descent to landing are particularly conducive to icing, since the engine is run at idle for a prolonged period with the throttle closed. Icing can also occur in cruise conditions at altitude.


title: Carburetor

text: A 'carb heat' system is often used to prevent icing. This system consists of a secondary air intake which passes around the exhaust, in order to heat the air before it enters the carburetor. Typically, the system is operated by the pilot manually switching the intake air to travel via the heated intake path as required. The carb heat system reduces the power output (due to the lower density of heated air) and causes the intake air filter to be bypassed, therefore the system is only used when there is a risk of icing.


title: Carburetor

text: If the engine is operating at idle RPM, another method to prevent icing is to periodically open the throttle, which increases the air temperature within the carburetor.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Dato' Sri Ismail Sabri bin Yaakob (; born 18 January 1960) is a Malaysian lawyer and politician who served as the 9th Prime Minister of Malaysia from August 2021 to November 2022. He is both the shortest-serving Prime Minister who served for 15 months and the Deputy Prime Minister who served for 40 days, the first and only Prime Minister born after the independence of Malaya in 1957, the first ever former Leader of the Opposition to become Prime Minister, the first and only Prime Minister who is not the highest in rank in a political party or coalition and the first and only Prime Minister without having a deputy prime minister.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: A Member of Parliament (MP) for Bera since 2004, Ismail is the vice-president of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), a component party of the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition which is aligned with the Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition. As of a result of the ongoing 2020–21 Malaysian political crisis, he was formally appointed and sworn in as Prime Minister on 21 August 2021 following the resignation of his predecessor Muhyiddin Yassin.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail served in several cabinet positions in the BN administration under former Prime Ministers Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Najib Razak, from March 2008 to its 2018 general election loss. He was the 15th Leader of the Opposition in the Pakatan Harapan (PH) administration from March 2019 to its collapse in February 2020 amid the 2020 Malaysian political crisis. In the PN government, he was prominent in the country's response to the COVID-19 pandemic in his roles as Senior Minister for Security, and later during a 40-day stint as Deputy Prime Minister. He led a faction of his party (UMNO) that continued supporting Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin in June 2021, when the party withdrew its support over the government's handling of the pandemic. After this culminated in the collapse of the government and Muhyiddin's resignation, he successfully entered negotiations to become Prime Minister in August 2021 after garnering the support of the most MPs. As Prime Minister, Ismail Sabri lifted the Movement Control Order following the expansion of the vaccination programme and oversaw the Twelfth Malaysia Plan.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri has attracted controversy for his comments in support of ethnic Malay pre-eminence in Malaysia.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri was born in Temerloh, Pahang, Malaysia. His parents are Yaakob Abdul Rahman and Wan Jah Wan Mamat who were originally from Kelantan. His father worked as a rubber tapper. His education began in 1967 at Sekolah Kebangsaan Bangau, followed by Sekolah Menengah Air Putih in Kuantan in 1973, and Sekolah Menengah Teknik Kuantan in 1976. He was a hawker when he was in primary school, selling limes on the roadside and fish at Pekan Sehari market, Temerloh. After graduating from form six at Jaya Akademik, he continued his studies at the University of Malaya majoring in law in 1980. The title of his Bachelor of Laws (LLB) thesis is "Treatment of political detainees in Malaysia" (""Layanan terhadap tahanan politik di Malaysia"").


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In 1985, Ismail began his legal career as a lawyer. He was then appointed as a Member of the Temerloh District Council in 1987 and a Member of the Temerloh Municipal Council in 1996. In 1995, he was appointed Political Secretary to the Minister of Culture, Arts and Tourism, Sabbaruddin Chik. He also was appointed to the Board of Directors of the Pahang Tenggara Board (DARA) in 1995 as well as the Malaysian Tourism Promotion Board in the same year. Before entering Parliament in 2004, Ismail Sabri served as Chairman of the National Sports Complex.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Following Ismail's appointment as a Member of the Temerloh Division UMNO Committee in 1987, he held several positions such as Temerloh Division UMNO Information Chief in 1988, Temerloh Division UMNO Youth Chief in 1993, and Temerloh Division UMNO Deputy Chief in 2001. He was appointed as inaugural Bera Division UMNO Chief in 2004 following the border redelineation process for parliamentary constituencies. Ismail Sabri was elected to Parliament in the 2004 general election, becoming the first MP for the new seat of Bera.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri was re-elected in 2008 general election, and was appointed in the third cabinet of former Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi as Minister for Youth and Sports. He served in the position from 2008 to 2009 for a year when Abdullah resigned as prime minister and was replaced by Najib Razak who switched Ismail Sabri to another ministerial portfolio.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In April 2009, under new Prime Minister Najib Razak Ismail became the Minister for Domestic Trade, Co-operatives and Consumerism (2009–2013).


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: The Malaysia Competition Act of 2010 was introduced under Ismail's tenure to regulate competition in the private sector. He also introduced the (MR1M) program in 2011 that aims to help the people get food at affordable prices. As of February 2012, 1,314 food premises across the country were participating in the program.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: After the 2013 general election, in which Ismail retained his parliamentary seat, he was appointed as the Minister for Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry (2013–2015).


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail's ministry has introduced the 'Jihad Against the Middlemen' (Malay: "Jihad Memerangi Orang Tengah") initiative which aims to eliminate the role of middlemen in the agriculture sector. Produce from the three agriculture sub-sectors, namely paddy, fisheries, and vegetables and fruits, are marketed directly to consumers through various platforms including Paddy Purchasing Center (Pusat Belian Padi), Fishermen's Market (Pasar Nelayan), Farmers' Market (), and Agrobazaar Kedai Rakyat. Public Service Department of Malaysia claims that the income of crop farmers, fishermen, and livestock producers have increased as a result of this initiative, while consumers can obtain fresh products at lower prices than those offered in the public market (pasar awam).


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri was appointed as the Minister of Rural and Regional Development (2015–2018) after July 2015 cabinet reshuffle.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail's ministry launched Rural Urbanization (Malay: "Membandarkan Luar Bandar") initiative in November 2015 to address people's needs and wants while keeping the rural development process on track. To encourage the younger generation to continue living and building their future in rural areas, basic rural infrastructure is expanded, particularly in underserved areas such as Sabah and Sarawak, as well as rural areas in peninsular Malaysia, including Orang Asli areas.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: During Ismail's tenure in this position, Ismail came up with the concept of Mara Digital Malls in August 2015, which are essentially malls that sell IT products, but only from Bumiputera vendors. The initiative was intended to enable more Bumiputra traders to sell digital goods and IT gadgets, with lower rents than existing IT centres. Traders were given a six-month rental subsidy to establish themselves.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In March 2020 following the change from PH to PN government, Ismail was appointed as Senior Minister of Malaysia (Security Cluster) and Minister of Defence under new Prime Minister, Muhyiddin Yassin to serve in the PN cabinet. His tenure involved conducting daily briefings related to security issues during the COVID-19 pandemic, including those related to Movement Control Order (MCO) restrictions. He criticised "Al Jazeera" for a documentary about treatment of immigrants during the MCO, demanding the network apologise for what he alleged was "false reporting". During the 2020 Sabah state election, Ismail Sabri told the press that voters who had travelled to Sabah to vote from other states would not need to quarantine upon their return.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: After the defeat of BN and UMNO in the 2018 general election, Ismail contested for the UMNO vice-presidency in the subsequent 2018 UMNO leadership election on 30 June 2018 and won by the highest number of votes ahead of two other winners with lower number of votes, who are former Minister of Education Mahdzir Khalid and former Menteri Besar of Johor Mohamed Khaled Nordin. As he was the most-voted among the three party vice presidents, he is also the highest-ranking party vice president as the party first vice president. He is ranked the third after party president Ahmad Zahid Hamidi and party deputy president Mohamad Hasan. On 20 December 2018, he was tasked to cover the duties and act as the party deputy president in place of Mohamad who was covering the duties and acting as the party president during the period when Ahmad Zahid took the "garden leave" for over half of a year from December 2018 to June 2019.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ahmad Zahid has repeatedly called for the next Malaysian general election to be held as soon as possible while Ismail Sabri remains uninterested and undecided on the issue. However, Ismail Sabri also promised to hold the election when the "time is right" and when he is confident that BN will win it and return to power. On 17 September 2022, he added that the election would not be too far away and reiterated that he would set the election date with four other top leaders of UMNO besides him who are the president, deputy president and two other vice presidents. Ahmad Zahid however, reaffirmed his strong stance for the election to be held as soon as possible or better immediately. Although having been named as the prime minister candidate of BN in the 2022 general election, the opposition has repeatedly accused that BN would not honour its promise of renominating its Member of the Supreme Council and incumbent Prime Minister Ismail Sabri as the prime minister if the coalition wins the election. Instead of him, the coalition would nominate its Chairman, higher-ranking and more senior Ahmad Zahid, who was also facing corruption court charges. However, Ismail Sabri has denied and played down the accusations, stressing that they were false and he would remain prime minister. He justified that the issue had been decided in the UMNO general assembly and even to the extent of branch meetings, where majority of the branches supported his reappointment to the position after the election and party presidents of other BN component parties namely the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) and Parti Bersatu Rakyat Sabah (PBRS) have also agreed with the decision.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In March 2019, Ahmad Zahid stepped down as the Leader of the Opposition. The position of Ismail Sabri as the UMNO first vice president has allowed him to be appointed to replace Ahmad Zahid instead of UMNO deputy president Mohamad Hasan. Although Mohamad is ranked higher than Ismail Sabri as the UMNO deputy president, he was not an elected MP and did not satisfy the criteria to be appointed to the position.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In July 2021, Ismail was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia by Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin while retaining his substantive post as the Defence Minister. He was replaced by Dato' Seri Hishammuddin Hussein as Senior Minister of Malaysia (security cluster). The reshuffle was interpreted by media as a tactic for Muhyiddin to ease tensions within Perikatan Nasional by promoting UMNO figures into positions of power, as some members in the party had begun to challenge Muhyiddin's leadership.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri spearheaded a faction of UMNO that continued to support Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin in July 2021, despite a substantial proportion of the party withdrawing its support over his government's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. This split the party and led to uncertainty as to whether Muhyiddin continued to harbour majority support.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Subsequent to Muhyiddin's resignation as Prime Minister on 16 August 2021 after the loss of the government's majority amid the ongoing political crisis, his cabinet was dissolved. At 40 days of service, Ismail Sabri is to date the shortest-serving Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri was appointed as the 9th Prime Minister of Malaysia by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong after being satisfied that he had commanded the confidence of the majority in Parliament, with a total of 114 from 220 members of the Dewan Rakyat nominating him in accordance with Article 40(2)(a) and Article 43(2)(a) of the Federal Constitution. He was formally sworn in as Prime Minister at the Istana Negara on 21 August 2021. He is the third person to be appointed as PM during the tumultuous period of 14th Malaysian Parliament, which has the most turnover of prime ministers in a single term. With his appointment as Prime Minister, the Barisan Nasional (BN) and United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) which dominated the politics of Malaysia for more than six decades from the independence in 1957 to 2018, came back to power and regained the premiership to lead the administration. It was only three years after Najib Razak's election defeat in the 2018 Malaysian general election amid the 1MDB corruption scandal. Leader of the Opposition Anwar Ibrahim said that the Opposition needed to serve harder as effective check and balance against the government. However, an online petition was launched against his appointment as Prime Minister, having garnered more than 350,000 signatures as of 21 August 2021.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: The following day after Ismail's appointment, 22 August 2021, he viewed flood-hit areas in his first official visit as PM and made his maiden and inaugural address and speech to the nation to introduce "Malaysian Family" (Keluarga Malaysia) concept, which is the theme of his administration aimed at uniting all parties of the nation to overcome the COVID-19 pandemic, he invited the Opposition to be part of the National Recovery Council (NRC), appealed to all Members of Parliament (MPs) to work together to help the nation and added that another six million COVID-19 vaccine doses were expected to arrive in early September 2021. There have been debates over the name of his administration, some labelled it as Perikatan Nasional (PN) administration, same as the Muhyiddin administration, as the member parties of his cabinet are the same as the previous Muhyiddin cabinet and PN is the governing coalition which holds the most seats in parliament and cabinet but some labelled it as BN administration as BN holds the highest political power and position of prime minister which leads the administration.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 23 October 2021, Ismail began his first and working trip to Sarawak after his appointment as Prime Minister and told in a press conference after visiting the Petra Jaya Hospital project site that he did not hope the practice of appointing rescue contractors to persist and instead called for closer monitoring of government projects from the beginning to ensure they are completed according to the schedule. In addition, he also told to set up "Yayasan Keluarga Malaysia" (Malaysian Family Foundation) to support children orphaned by COVID-19 when launching the "Keluarga Malaysia" concept at Borneo Convention Centre in Kuching.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 13 September 2021, the fourth session of the Parliament, first under Ismail's administration, was opened by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong Abdullah with a traditional royal address at the Dewan Rakyat , he and four leaders of the Pakatan Harapan (PH), the largest opposition coalition, namely Anwar Ibrahim, Leader of the Opposition and President of the People's Justice Party (PKR), Lim Guan Eng, Secretary-General of the Democratic Action Party (DAP), Mohamad Sabu, President of the National Trust Party (AMANAH) and Wilfred Madius Tangau, President of the United Progressive Kinabalu Organisation (UPKO) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on bipartisan cooperation and political transformation in parliament in efforts to realise political ceasefire.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 27 September 2021, Ismail tabled the 12th Malaysian Plan (12MP) in Dewan Rakyat, Parliament and expected the financial position of Malaysia to improve in 2023. 12MP focuses on four human capital development areas in education sector, set aside RM 400 billion for ongoing and new projects, become carbon-neutral by 2050 to attract foreign investment, tackle climate change issues, 5G being deployed by the end of 2021, community Internet centres to be upgraded, its Public Service Law also meets calls for efficient and transparent government, its Governance Index to boost performance, integrity and compliance with global anti-graft standards, aims at Malaysia being transformed into a high-income nation by 2025 and where the average income of every families reaches RM 10000 and ensures 51% Bumiputra equity in local freight forwarding companies.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In December 2021, Ismail Sabri and his government faced criticism by the opposition coalition, Pakatan Harapan, for the response to major floods that affected many states in Peninsular Malaysia. Described as among the worst in the country's history and displacing over 60,000 people, the federal government's response was criticized by the opposition coalition, Pakatan Harapan, for its slowness; Ismail Sabri admitted there had been weaknesses in the response. On 24 December 2021, he instructed all his Cabinet ministers who were abroad to return to Malaysia immediately and those who were on leave and planning to go on holiday to cancel their plans till the flood disaster is resolved. On 20 January 2022, during the Special Meeting to discuss flood issues in Parliament, he claimed that he was on the ground at the first day of the flood and lots of opposition MPs are not there.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 10 August 2022 in the midst LCS scandal, Ismail Sabri said that the government will declassify the Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) documents.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri highly emphasised the use of Bahasa Malaysia (Malaysian language) among Malaysians. He also proposed the language to be designated as the second official language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) besides English. He added that "we do not need to feel ashamed or awkward to use Bahasa Malaysia at the international level because this effort to uphold the language is also in line with one of the priority areas". On 7 September 2022, he praised and wished the newly-elected Malaysian-born Member of Parliament (MP) for Tangney of Australia Sam Lim the best for speaking the language during his inaugural speech in the Parliament of Australia. He also expressed his proudness of seeing the language being heard in the chamber and the language being elevated in the world stage. On 24 September 2022, he created history as the first Malaysian prime minister to deliver a speech using the language in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 21 August 2021, Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong invited Ismail Sabri to Singapore for official visit during his congratulatory call to Ismail Sabri and they hoped to strengthen bilateral relations.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri raised concerns over the AUKUS security pact with Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison. Malaysia announced it would hold consultations with Chinese officials to clarify their views on the deal.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri discussed mutual recognition of COVID-19 vaccine certificates between Malaysia and Indonesia to ease travel between the two countries.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 15 October 2021, Ismail revealed that Malaysia had won a seat with 183 votes in the United Nations Human Rights Council for a term from 2022 to 2024.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri did not attend the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, but gave a mandate for Malaysia's delegation to table a new national carbon neutral commitment at the summit.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 14 February 2022, Ismail arrived in Brunei, and met with the Sultan of Brunei Hassanal Bolkiah to discuss Myanmar, infrastructure and the South China Sea dispute.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 10 October 2021 during a special press conference, Ismail announced that restrictions on interstate travel and international travel would be lifted from the next day on 11 October 2021.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 22 October 2021, after chairing meeting of the COVID-19 Pandemic Management Special Committee, he said international tourists would be allowed to visit Langkawi under an international tourism travel bubble pilot project with effect on 15 November 2021, the pilot project will be on for three months for the Ministry of Health and National Security Council to evaluate its effectiveness before the initiative is expanded to other islands and tourism destinations. In addition, a standard operating procedure (SOP) has been approved for the entry of foreign workers into the nation to meet the workforce demand by the plantation sector and said the same SOP would later be enforced on all sectors and approval to bring in workers from abroad will be on a case-by-case basis. Furthermore, he said complete vaccination for adolescents between 12 and 17 would be a condition stated in all SOPs and all conveniences enjoyed by fully vaccinated adults should be extended to teenagers who have been fully vaccinated.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 8 March 2022, he unveiled that Malaysia will transition into the endemic phase of COVID-19 and reopen its borders to international tourists on 1 April 2022. He further commented that the operating hours for businesses would no longer be limited but the wearing of face masks would carry on to be mandatory and that fully vaccinated visitors and Malaysian returnees would no longer be ordered to undergo quarantine upon arrivals in Malaysia.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In April 2022, UMNO announced Ismail Sabri as its candidate for prime minister in the 15th Malaysian general election, due to be held by 19 November 2022.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 10 October 2022 during a special televised address to the nation, he announced the dissolution of the 14th Parliament effective immediately after having an audience with and getting consent from the Yang di-Pertuan Agong Abdullah a day prior on 9 October 2022, paving the way for the 15th general election to be held within 60 days, by 19 November 2022.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri caused controversy in February 2015 with a Facebook comment urging Malay consumers to use their "power" to force the Chinese minority to cut prices by boycotting the Chinese businesses.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Political analyst Wan Saiful Wan Jan said that any Malaysian voter regardless of race would be repelled by Ismail's comments. MCA's Wee Ka Siong slammed the statement, saying, "As a minister in the Cabinet, he should not make such ethnic generalisations. It is not as if only Chinese are businessmen". Inspector-General of Police (IGP) Khalid Abu Bakar stated that the minister would be investigated under the Sedition Act 1948 and Ismail Sabri has since deleted the Facebook comment.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In October 2018, Ismail agreed to pay DAP's Ngeh Koo Ham RM80,000 in damages and RM5,000 in legal fees after being found guilty of defamation. Ngeh's office clarified that Ngeh has no share or interest in OldTown White Coffee, and that the anti-Islam allegation is "false" and "absurd".


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: In 2015, Ismail Sabri proposed establishing "Low Yat 2", a digital gadget mall that would only house Malay traders. He claims that "Low Yat 2" will be able to compete with Plaza Low Yat, Malaysia's most well-known electronic products store. Although the traders are all Malay, Ismail calls on the minorities to support the mall.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: MCA then-president Liow Tiong Lai said that the setting up of Low Yat 2 would only hurt racial relations, and described the proposal for the bumiputra-only mall as an “antagonistic approach”. Fellow UMNO member Saifuddin Abdullah also criticised the proposal, claiming that Ismail Sabri's proposal would be detrimental to Malays and Malaysians in general, and that having commercial sectors divided by ethnicity would be counterproductive.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Taylor's University terminated the services of a bus operator who utilised their vehicles with the university's logo to transport passengers to the racially-motivated 2015 Malay Dignity rally. According to Ismail Sabri, the sponsorship for the next intake of students to Taylor's University will be terminated by MARA. However, he did not specify the reasons for the revocation. When questioned if this was due to the cancellation of the service, he answered, "There are many reasons". Ismail stated that he will notify Mara's director-general to evaluate its funding of Taylor's University.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: DAP's Teresa Kok criticised the decision, calling it a "personal vendetta and abuse of power", and called for the cabinet to censure Ismail Sabri, as well as challenging him to publicly reveal the reasons for the decision, as well as publish the internal report which led to the decision. MCA's Chai Kim Sen said the minister's inability to state even one reason for this decision was not only “unbecoming” but “even childish”. He said his latest announcement about MARA would only “further weaken his already-tarred reputation as a racist”. He further added that the education institutes are expected to remain apolitical.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri sparked another controversy ahead of the 2018 Malaysian general election, when he stated that every vote for the DAP is a vote for the Pakatan Harapan to eliminate the purported Malay "special rights" and "uniqueness" of Islam. Lim Kit Siang responded that Ismail Sabri appeared to be attempting to frame the upcoming general election as a battle between Malays and Chinese, as well as between Islam and its "enemies". Lim also explained that Pakatan Harapan's basic documents, including its election manifesto, had been clear and specific in giving unconditional support to Article 153 on Malay special rights and Article 3 on Islam as the official religion of the Federation. He also stated that although the Democratic Action Party or other races party managed to form a new government in the country if winning the election, the Malays will never perish since the overwhelming majority of Malaysian voters are still Malays and the overwhelming majority of parliamentary and state assembly constituencies in the country are Malay voter-majority constituencies.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: On 9 November 2015, Ismail Sabri stated that he supports the vaping industry in Malaysia. He says that the Malay-dominated industry is a success story for bumiputera entrepreneurism despite health warnings by the Malaysian Health Ministry. He has gone further in hoping that the unregulated industry can expand globally. Many prominent doctors and physicians have publicly chided Ismail Sabri's support for the industry, including the Sultan of Johor Ibrahim Ismail, who publicly decreed that all vape outlets must be shut down by 1 January 2016.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: PKR's Nurul Izzah Anwar sued Ismail Sabri Yaakob and IGP Khalid Abu Bakar in November 2015 for allegedly accusing her of being a traitor to the country. She claimed that Ismail Sabri said words that implied she was a traitor to the country and had declared war on the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. She also claimed that Khalid said defamatory words about her in another press conference. Both incidents occur just a few days after photographs of her with Jacel Kiram, daughter of Jamalul Kiram III, who is said to have ordered or led the 2013 invasion of Sabah surfaced. In April 2018, the High Court ordered Ismail and Khalid to pay Nurul RM600,000 and RM400,000 in damages, respectively, after ruling that their statements had defamed Nurul in their natural and ordinary meaning.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Hours after Ismail Sabri was announced and nominated by his party as the 9th Prime Minister of Malaysia on 19 August 2021, an online petition was launched to address to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as well as the Istana Negara, calling on all Malaysians against his possible appointment as the nation's next prime minister after the collapse of the Perikatan Nasional administration on 16 August 2021. The petition on change.org gained over 200,000 signatures within 8 hours of going online, later increasing to over 350,000 signatures. The petition was critical of Ismail Sabri's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in his prior positions leading to large-scale infections, and for previous comments on race and Malay "special rights". According to the petition, he had also issued numerous remarks which were deemed inappropriate such as the boycott call in 2015, where he urged Malay consumers to use their "power and rights" to pressure the Chinese minority to lower prices, as well as promoting racial segregation between the Malays and Chinese in the country. Ismail has been also criticised in the petition for the sometimes confusing and conflicting health protocols, namely Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), including on which economic sectors should stay shut as COVID-19 cases kept rising.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: A new equity policy for "bumiputeras" in the Twelfth Malaysia Plan (12MP) attracted controversy which were announced by Ismail. It is said to ensure sustainable equity holdings by bumiputeras, an equity safety net would be launched to guarantee that the sale of shares or bumiputera-owned firms would only be sold solely to bumiputera-owned companies, consortium or individuals. Syed Saddiq said that the new rulings were unfair as they would be tantamount to taking equity from the non-bumiputeras and giving them to bumiputeras. Former Health Minister, Dzulkefly Ahmad had also described the policy as "suicidal" and claimed that the new policy would only kill the bumiputera companies economically if that is their intention. He also said that based on the feedback from Malay businessmen, most were against the idea of the new bumiputera-only policy being implemented. Ismail Sabri announced it after revealing that the government’s target to raise bumiputera equity ownership to 30% had yet to be achieved. He also announced funding to improve bumiputera businesses’ sustainability to hit 15% contribution in gross domestic product (GDP) by bumiputera micro, small and medium enterprises by 2025.


title: Ismail Sabri Yaakob

text: Ismail Sabri married Muhaini Zainal Abidin in 1986. He is the father of one daughter and three sons: Nina Sabrina, Gaddafi, Iqbal and Nashriq. His son or more popularly known as Dafi is a former participant-student of entertainment reality show Akademi Fantasia Season 5 turned singer and actor. His only daughter, Nina Sabrina, is married to fashion designer Jovian Mandagie.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The Cossack Hetmanate (; or "Cossack state"), officially the Zaporizhian Host or Army of Zaporizhia (; ), was a Ukrainian Cossack state in the region of what is today Central Ukraine between 1648 and 1764 (although its administrative-judicial system persisted until 1782).


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The Hetmanate was founded by the Hetman of Zaporizhian Host Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Uprising of 1648–57 in the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Establishment of vassal relations with the Tsardom of Russia in the Treaty of Pereyaslav of 1654 is considered a benchmark of the Cossack Hetmanate in Soviet, Ukrainian, and Russian historiography. The second Pereyaslav Council in 1659 further restricted the independence of the Hetmanate, and from the Russian side there were attempts to declare agreements reached with Yurii Khmelnytsky in 1659 as nothing more than the "former Bohdan's agreements" of 1654. The 1667 Treaty of Andrusovo – conducted without any representation from the Cossack Hetmanate – established borders between the Polish and Russian states, dividing the Hetmanate in half along the Dnieper and putting the Zaporozhian Sich under a formal joint Russian-Polish administration.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: After a failed attempt to break the union with Russia by Ivan Mazepa in 1708, the whole area was included into the Government of Kiev and Cossack autonomy was severely restricted. Catherine II of Russia officially abolished the institute of the Hetman in 1764, and in 1764-1781 the Cossack Hetmanate was incorporated as the Little Russia Governorate headed by Pyotr Rumyantsev, with the last remnants of the Hetmanate's administrative system abolished in 1781.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The official name of the Cossack Hetmanate was the "Zaporizhian Host" or "Army of Zaporizhia" (). The historiographic term Hetmanate (, "Hetman state") was coined in the late 19th century, deriving from the word "hetman", the title of the general of the Zaporizhian Army. Despite not being centered in Zaporizhia, the region's name (meaning "beyond the rapids" in Ukrainian) was derived from cossacks in Southern Ukraine centered on the Zaporizhian Sich, as well as a general name of Ukrainian Cossacks as a political and military organization.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk refers to it as Ukraine (, ), which also is the name found in various Polish, Ottoman and Arab sources. The Cossack Hetmanate was called the Country of Ukraine ("") by the Ottoman Empire. In the text of Treaty of Buchach, it is mentioned as the Ukrainian State (). Map of Ukraine, made by Johann Homann, refers to it as Ukraine, or the Land of Cossacks (). In Russian diplomatic correspondence, it was called Little Russia (").


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The founder of the Hetmanate, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, declared himself the ruler of the Ruthenian state to the Polish representative Adam Kysil in February 1649. His contemporary Metropolitan Sylvestr Kosiv recognized him as "the leader and the commander of our land". In his letter to Constantin Șerban (1657), he referred to himself as '. Grand Principality of Ruthenia was the proposed name of the Cossack Hetmanate as part of the Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: After many successful military campaigns against the Poles, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky made a triumphant entry into Kyiv on Christmas 1648, where he was hailed as a liberator of the people from Polish captivity. In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation, Khmelnytsky made it clear to the Poles that he wanted to be the Hetman of a Ruthenia stretching to Chelm and Halych, and build with the Tatar's help. He warned them he intended to resume his military campaign.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: When the delegation returned and informed John II Casimir of Khmelnytsky's new campaign, the king called for an all szlachta volunteer army, and sent regular troops against the cossacks in southern Volhynia. However, after obtaining intelligence of superior cossack forces, the Polish troops retreated to Zbarazh to set up a defense. The forces of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki reinforced the Zbarazh defenders while he took the lead of all Polish forces. Khmelnytsky besieged the city, wearing it down through a series of random attacks and bombardments. The king, while rushing to help Wiśniowiecki, was ambushed with his newly gathered forces. Khmelnytsky, leaving part of his army with Ivan Cherniata near Zbarazh, moved together with İslâm III Giray to intercept the Polish reinforcements and block their way at a river crossing near Zboriv. Caught by some degree of surprise, John Casimir started negotiations with the Tatar's khan. With the khan at his side, he forced Khmelnytsky to start peace negotiations. Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Zboriv in August 1649, with a result somewhat less than the Cossack leader had anticipated from his campaign.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: As ruler of the Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres: military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested the Zaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new Ruthenian state, and he unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. This involved building a government system and a developed military and civilian administration out of Cossack officers and Ruthenian nobles, as well as the establishment of an elite within the Cossack Hetman state.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The Hetmanate used Polish currency, and Polish as an administrative language and language of command. However, after the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, the "simple language" (), or the commonly spoken vernacular language of Ukraine, began to be written down and widely used in official documents of the Cossack Hetmanate.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: After the Crimean Tatars betrayed the Cossacks for the third time in 1653, Khmelnytsky realized he could no longer rely on Ottoman support against Poland, and he was forced to turn to Tsardom of Russia for help. Final attempts to negotiate took place in January 1654 in the town of Pereyaslav between Khmelnytsky with Cossack leaders and the Tsar's ambassador, Vasiliy Buturlin. The treaty was concluded in April in Moscow by the Cossacks Samiilo Bohdanovych-Zarudny and Pavlo Teteria, and by Aleksey Trubetskoy, Vasilii Buturlin, and other boyars. As a result of the treaty, the Zaporozhian Host became an autonomous Hetmanate within the Russian state. The treaty also led to the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The period of Hetmanate history known as "the Ruin", lasting from 1657 to 1687, was marked by constant civil wars throughout the state. After Bohdan Khmelnytsky died in 1657, his sixteen-year-old son Yurii Khmelnytsky was elected as successor. However, the son was not only too young and inexperienced, but also clearly lacked the charisma and leadership qualities of his father.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: In response, Ivan Vyhovsky, the general scribe ("pysar") of the Hetmanate and an adviser to Bohdan Khmelnytsky, was elected hetman in 1657 by the Starshyna council. His election caused widespread discontent among other regiments and the Zaporizhian Host, who sent runners to Moscow with complaints. As a result, new elections were called that same year at which Vyhovsky was reelected at the General Military Council. This election was also confirmed by Russian authorities who were informed according to the Pereyaslav treaty. Moscow continued to accept runners from the regions of Cossack Hetmanate completely disregarding the authority of hetman and spreading rumors that in truth Russia did not support the candidacy of Vyhovsky. Vyhovsky, seeing the situation turning out of his control, went on to extinguish the revolt led by the Zaporozhian Kosh Otaman Yakiv Barabash and Poltava Colonel Martyn Pushkar. In the spring of 1658 Vyhovsky crossed Dnieper and confronted mutineers near Poltava with the help of Tatars. During the battle Pushkar was killed and replaced with a new colonel, while the leaders of the uprising were strictly repressed.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: After this, Vyhovsky and General Starshyna considered the relationship with Russia to be broken. The newly elected Metropolitan Dionisi Balaban was transferred to Chyhyryn, away from Kyiv. A manifest nullifying the union with Russia was sent throughout Europe, mainly because it was conducting friendly relationships with Poland and supporting internal opposition within the Hetmanate. Negotiations with Sweden had frozen, while he had military support from the Crimean Khanate, so Vyhovsky decided to renegotiate with Poland, with whom talks continued for quite some time.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: On September 16, 1658 in Hadyach, an official document was signed between representatives of the Cossack Hetmanate and Poland. Under the conditions of the treaty, Ukraine would become a third and autonomous component of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, under the ultimate sovereignty of the King of Poland but with its own military, courts, and treasury. But the treaty, although ratified by the Diet in May 1659, was never implemented because it was unpopular among the lower classes of the Ruthenian society, where more rebellions occurred. Eventually Vyhovsky surrendered the office of hetman and fled to Poland. The newly re-installed Yurii Khmelnytsky signed the newly composed Pereyaslav Articles that were increasingly unfavorable for the Hetmanate and later led to introduction of serfdom rights.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: In 1667, the Russo-Polish war ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo, which split the Cossack Hetmanate along the Dnieper River: Left-bank Ukraine enjoyed a degree of autonomy within the Tsardom of Russia, while Right-bank Ukraine remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and was temporarily occupied by the Ottoman Empire in the period of 1672-1699 ("see" the Treaty of Buchach and the Treaty of Karlowitz). For a short time, Petro Doroshenko became the hetman of both banks. After treason by Demian Mnohohrishny and a new Polish offensive, Dorosenko concluded an alliance with the Ottomans, who granted him Ukraine, while the hetman agreed to support Ottoman military action with his army. "By 1669 the Porte issued a patent (berat, nişan) granting Doroshenko all of Cossack Ukraine as an Ottoman sancak or province". After the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, Poland managed to recover right-bank Ukraine by 1690, except for the city of Kyiv, and reincorporated it into their respective voivodeships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while all the Hetmanate administration was abolished between 1699 and 1704.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The period of the Ruin effectively ended when Ivan Mazepa was elected hetman, serving from 1687 to 1708. He brought stability to the Hetmanate, which was again united under a single hetman. The Hetmanate flourished under his rule, particularly in literature and architecture. The architectural style that developed during his reign was called the Cossack Baroque style.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: During his reign, the Great Northern War broke out between Russia and Sweden. Mazepa's alliance with Peter I caused heavy losses of cossacks and Russian interference in the Hetmanate's internal affairs. When the tsar refused to defend Ukraine against the Polish King Stanislaus Leszczynski, an ally of Charles XII of Sweden, Mazepa and some Zaporozhian Cossacks allied themselves with the Swedes on October 28, 1708. The decisive battle of Poltava (in 1709) was won by Russia, putting an end to Mazepa's goal of independence, promised in an earlier treaty with Sweden.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Following the Battle of Poltava, the Hetmanate's autonomy became nominal and the governorate of Kyiv was established. The Russian Empire also began to purge all suspected allies of Mazepa, culminating in the executions of Cossacks in Lebedin. This resulted in the death of over 900 cossack officials, accused of treason.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: During the reign of Catherine II of Russia, the Cossack Hetmanate's autonomy was progressively destroyed. After several earlier attempts, the office of hetman was finally abolished by the Russian government in 1764, and his functions were assumed by the Little Russian Collegium, thus fully incorporating the Hetmanate into the Russian Empire.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: On May 7, 1775, Empress Catherine II issued a direct order that the Zaporozhian Sich was to be destroyed. On June 5, 1775, Russian artillery and infantry surrounded the Sich and razed it to the ground. The Russian troops disarmed the Cossacks, and the treasury archives were confiscated. The Koshovyi Otaman, Petro Kalnyshevsky, was arrested and incarcerated in exile at Solovetsky Monastery. This marked the end of the Zaporozhian Cossacks.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The Hetmanate coincided with a period of cultural flowering in Ukraine, particularly during the reign of hetman Ivan Mazepa.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Visitors from abroad commented on the high level of literacy, even among commoners, in the Hetmanate. There was a higher number of elementary schools per population in the Hetmanate than in either neighboring Russia or Poland. In the 1740s, of 1,099 settlements within seven regimental districts, as many as 866 had primary schools. The German visitor to the Hetmanate, writing in 1720, commented on how the son of Hetman Danylo Apostol, who had never left Ukraine, was fluent in the Latin, Italian, French, German, Polish and Russian languages Under Mazepa, the Kyiv collegium was transformed into an academy and attracted some of the leading scholars of the Orthodox world. It was the largest educational institution in lands ruled by Russia. Mazepa established another collegium in Chernihiv. These schools largely used the Polish and Latin languages and provided a classic western education to their students. Many of those trained in Kyiv – such as Feofan Prokopovich – would later move to Moscow, so that Ivan Mazepa's patronage not only raised the level of culture in Ukraine but also in Moscow itself. A musical academy was established in 1737 in the Hetmanate's then-capital of Hlukhiv. Among its graduates were Maksym Berezovsky (the first composer from the Russian Empire to be recognized in Europe) and Dmitry Bortniansky.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: In addition to traditional printing presses in Kyiv, new printing shops were established in Novhorod-Siverskyi and Chernihiv. Most of the books published were religious in nature, such as the "Peternik", a book about the lives of the monks of the Kyiv-Pechersk monasatary. Books on local history were compiled. In a book written by Inokentiy Gizel in 1674, the theory that Moscow was the heir of ancient Kyiv was developed and elaborated for the first time.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: In 1620 The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople reestablished the Kyiv Metropolis for the Eastern Orthodox communities that refused to join the Union of Brest. In 1686 the Orthodox Church in Ukraine changed from being under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch in Constantinople to being under the authority of the Patriarch of Moscow. Nevertheless, before and after this date local Church leaders pursued a policy of independence. Hetman Ivan Mazepa established very close relations with Metropolitan Varlaam Iasynsky (reigned 1690–1707). Mazepa provided donations of land, money and entire villages to the Church. He also financed the building of numerous churches in Kyiv, including the Church of the Epiphany and the cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, and restoration of older churches such as Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which had deteriorated to near ruin by the mid-17th century, in a style known as Ukrainian Baroque.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The social structure of the Hetmanate consisted of five groups: the nobility, the Cossacks, the clergy, the townspeople, and the peasants.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: As had been the case under Poland, the nobility continued to be the dominant social class during the Hetmanate, although its composition and source of legitimacy within the new society had changed radically. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, the Polish nobles and Polonized Ruthenian magnates fled the territory of the Hetmanate. As a result, the noble estate now consisted of a merger between the nobility that had stayed in the territory of the Hetmanate (old noble families that did not succumb to Polonization and lesser nobles who had participated in the uprising on the side of the Cossacks against Poland) with members of the emergent Cossack officer class. Unlike the Polish nobles whose lands were redistributed, the nobles loyal to the Hetmanate retained their privileges, their lands, and the services of the peasants. Together, the old nobles and the new Cossack officers became known as the Distinguished Military Fellows (). Thus, the nature of noble status was fundamentally changed. It no longer depended on ancient heredity, but instead on loyalty to the Hetmanate. Over time, however, Cossack officer lands and privileges too became hereditary, and the Cossack noble and officer class acquired huge landed estates comparable to those of the Polish magnates whom they had replaced and emulated.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Most Cossacks failed to enter the noble estate and continued their role as free soldiers. The lower rank Cossacks often resented their wealthier brethren and were responsible for frequent rebellions, particularly during the Ruin, a period of instability and civil war in the 17th century. These resentments were frequently exploited by Russia. The Zaporizhian Sich served as a refuge for Cossacks fleeing the Hetmanate as it had been prior to Khmelnytsky's uprising.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: During the Hetmanate, the Roman Catholic Church and Uniate clergy were driven from Ukraine. The "black", or monastic, Orthodox clergy enjoyed a very high status in the Hetmanate, controlling 17% of the Hetmanate's land. Monasteries were exempt from taxes and at no times were peasants bound to monasteries allowed to forgo their duties. The Orthodox hierarchy became as wealthy and powerful as the most powerful nobles. The "white", or married, Orthodox clergy were also exempt from paying taxes. Priests' sons often entered the clergy or the Cossack civil service. It was not uncommon for nobles or Cossacks to become priests and vice versa.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Twelve cities within the Hetmanate enjoyed Magdeburg rights, in which they were self-governing and controlled their own courts, finances and taxes. Wealthy townsmen were able to hold office within the Hetmanate or even to buy titles of nobility. Because the towns were generally small (the largest towns of Kyiv and Nizhyn had no more than 15,000 inhabitants), this social group was not very significant relative to other social groups.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Peasants comprised the majority of the Hetmanate's population. Although the institution of forced labor by the peasants was reduced significantly by the Khmelnytsky Uprising, in which the Polish landlords and magnates were expelled from the territory controlled by the Hetman, those nobles loyal to the Hetman as well as the Orthodox Church expected the peasants under their control to continue to provide their services. Thus as a result of the uprising, approximately 50% of the territory consisted of lands given to Cossack officers or free self-governing villages controlled by the peasants, 33% of the land was owned by Cossack officers and nobles, and 17% of the land was owned by the Church. With time, the amount of territory owned by the nobles and officers gradually grew at the expense of the lands owned by peasants and rank-and-file Cossacks, and the peasants were forced to work increasingly more days for their landlords. Nevertheless, their obligations remained lighter than they had been prior to the uprising; and until the end of the Hetmanate, peasants were never fully enserfed and retained the right to move.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The Hetmanate was divided into military-administrative districts known as regimental districts ("polki") whose number fluctuated with the size of the Hetmanate's territory. In 1649, when the Hetmanate controlled the Right and the Left Banks, it included 16 such districts. After the loss of the Right Bank, this number was reduced to ten. The regimental districts were further divided into companies ("sotnias"), which were administered by captains ("sotnyk"). Companies were named either by a toponym of their origin or their leader and greatly varied in numbers up to 16.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: It is known that the first who introduced the regimental division was Prince in 1515. Initially created 20 regiments consisting of 2,000 Cossacks each, were reduced by the King of Poland Stephen Báthory in 1576 to 10.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The first regimental districts were confirmed by the Treaty of Kurukove in 1625, among which were Bila Tserkva Regiment, Kaniv Regiment, Korsun Regiment, Kyiv Regiment, Pereyaslav Regiment, Cherkasy Regiment. All of them were situated within the Kiev Voivodship. According to the Treaty of Zboriv, there were 23 regiments. In 1667 the signing of Truce of Andrusovo between the Tsardom of Russia and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth secured 10 regiments of the Left-bank Ukraine for Russia, including Kyiv, while the other six stayed at the Right-bank Ukraine as part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The capital was the city of Chyhyryn. After the Treaty of Andrusovo, in 1669 the capital was transferred to Baturyn, as Chyhyryn became part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (locate at the Right-bank Ukraine). After the Baturyn's tragedy of 1708 conducted by the Russian army of Aleksandr Menshikov, the area was incorporated into the Kiev Governorate the city of Hlukhiv nominally served as the residence of Hetman.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Within the Hetmanate, Polish was frequently used as the language of administration and even of command.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: In 1764-65 both Cossack Hetmante and Sloboda Ukraine were liquidated and transformed into Malorossiya Governorate and Sloboda Ukraine Governorate. On the territory of Zaporizhian Sich was created the Novorossiya Governorate. The general-governor of all Ukrainian territories became Pyotr Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: The state supreme power belonged to the General Cossack (Military) Council, while the office of head of state was presided by the Hetman. There also was an important advising body Council of Officers (Starshyna). The hetman was initially chosen by the General Council, consisting of all cossacks, townspeople, clergy and even peasants. By the end of the 17th century, however, its role became more ceremonial as the hetman came to be chosen by the Council of Officers and the Hetmanate itself was turning into an authoritarian state. After 1709, the Battle of Poltava, hetman nomination was to be confirmed by the tsar. Hetman presided until he either died or was forced out by the General Cossack Council. The office of hetman had complete power over the administration, the judiciary, the finances, and the army. His cabinet functioned simultaneously as both the general staff and as the cabinet of ministers. The Hetman also had the right to conduct foreign policy, although this right was increasingly limited by Russia in the 18th century.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Each of the regimental districts making up the Hetmanate was administered by a colonel who had dual roles as supreme military and civil authority on his territory. Initially elected by that regimental district's Cossacks, by the 18th century the colonels were appointed by the Hetman. After 1709, the colonels were frequently chosen by Moscow. Each colonel's staff consisted of a quartermaster (second-in-command), judge, chancellor, aide-de-camp, and flag-bearer.


title: Cossack Hetmanate

text: Throughout the 18th century, local autonomy was gradually eroded within the Hetmanate. After the Baturyn's tragedy the autonomy was abolished, incorporating it into the Kiev Governorate. After the Battle of Poltava, hetmans elected by the Council of Officers were to be confirmed by the tsar. They served more as a military administrators and have little influence over the domestic policies. The tsar also frequently appointed the colonels of each regimental district.