title: United States sanctions

text: The sanctions of the following years, then, according to Chomsky, undercut the possibility of a popular uprising that would have left the country in the hands of Iraqis who might have been independent of Washington. The United States, Chomsky believes, sought to instigate the coup by groups it controlled, but a popular rebellion would not have left the US in charge. At the Azores Summit in March 2003, Bush reiterated his position that the United States would attack even if Saddam and his allies left the country.


title: United States sanctions

text: The effects of sanctions on the population of Iraq have been disputed. The figure of 500,000 child deaths was widely cited for a long period but in 2017, research showed that figure was the result of survey data manipulated by the Saddam Hussein regime. Three surveys conducted since 2003 all found the child mortality rate between 1995 and 2000 was approximately 40 per 1000, meaning there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after sanctions were implemented.


title: United States sanctions

text: In January 2020, US President Donald Trump said sanctions would be imposed against Iraq if US troops were forced to exit Iraq.


title: United States sanctions

text: Griswold said China as an example of how economic interaction can help a country slowly change for the better. Since 2000, China has become the fourth-largest US trading partner and the second-largest recipient of direct foreign investment after the US. China's domestic market reform and increasing openness have led to rapid growth, leading to higher living standards and greater independence for citizens. The share of government-controlled industry has fallen from almost 100% in 2000 to less than 50% today. Private ownership of homes and businesses is dramatically rising. Continued economic engagement has also helped admit China to organizations that promote religious and political freedom. More than a decade after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, the Chinese government began releasing political prisoners and allowing little internal criticism. As in Taiwan and South Korea, Chinese economic liberalization encouraged a stronger civil society independent of government control.


title: United States sanctions

text: In the case of Iraq, Hans von Sponeck said a "constructive solution" to regime change in Iraq "would be to lift the economic sanctions that have impoverished society, decimated the Iraqi middle class and eliminated any possibility for the emergence of alternative leadership ... twelve years of sanctions have only strengthened the current regime". Sanctions forced people to depend on the ruling dictatorship for their survival and further reduced the likelihood of a constructive solution. Denis Halliday commented:


title: United States sanctions

text: We have saved [the regime] and missed opportunities for change ... if the Iraqis had their economy, had their lives back, and had their way of life restored, they would take care of the form of governance that they want, that they believe is suitable to their country.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: War Machine (born Jonathan Paul Koppenhaver, November 30, 1981) is an American former professional mixed martial artist, former pornographic actor, and incarcerated felon. He is currently serving a life sentence for multiple counts of rape, kidnapping, and domestic battery, among other charges.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: Koppenhaver/Machine had a 14–5 overall record in mixed martial arts fighting in various MMA promotions, including Bellator and the UFC, the latter for a short period. He competed in the Welterweight division. He was a fighter on "" as part of Team Serra and also competed for Bellator MMA, Tachi Palace Fights, BAMMA, and the Xtreme Fighting Championships. In 2008, he legally changed his name to "War Machine". He also appeared in several pornographic films.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: In March 2017, he was convicted on 29 felony counts after raping and assaulting his ex-girlfriend Christine Mackinday, as well as assaulting her boyfriend at the time during an incident in 2014. On June 5, 2017, he was sentenced to life in prison with the possibility of parole after 36 years. He will be 72 years old when he is eligible for parole in 2053.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: Koppenhaver was born in the Los Angeles suburb of Simi Valley, California. His German-American father was an officer for the Los Angeles Police Department. His Mexican-American mother worked as a nurse and later became a work-at-home mother. Due to his mother's drug addiction, Koppenhaver would often take care of his younger brother and sister. When he was 13, Koppenhaver suffered a horrific trauma when he unsuccessfully performed CPR on his father after he died of a heart attack.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: In August 2000, Koppenhaver attended The Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina, for two years before being expelled for "poor behavior". While attending, he majored in biology. In an interview, Koppenhaver claimed that he had been earning high marks at The Citadel.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: Koppenhaver was a fighter on "", fighting on "Team Serra". He was not part of the original sixteen fighters. Instead, Koppenhaver was brought in as a replacement when Roman Mitichyan broke his elbow during evaluations and was sent home. Koppenhaver lost by unanimous decision to Tom Speer.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: After a dispute with TNA Wrestling over the use of his nickname, he legally changed his name from "Jon Koppenhaver" to "War Machine" in 2008.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: In War Machine's official UFC debut, he defeated Jared Rollins in via KO at 2:01 of the third round. War Machine and Rollins both received $25,000 due to winning fight of the night honors and War Machine winning knockout of the night. His last UFC fight was at UFC 84 against Yoshiyuki Yoshida which he lost via submission in the first round.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: He was released from the UFC after rejecting a fight offered by UFC matchmaker Joe Silva, and after comments made about the death of fellow UFC fighter Evan Tanner. War Machine posted on his Myspace that he believed that Tanner had gone to the isolated southern California desert to kill himself after he realized his career might have been over and had basically made no money during it. Medical examiners eventually proved that Tanner's death was not a suicide, but War Machine stood by his statements.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: War Machine was signed and then released by Bellator Fighting Championships. His MySpace blog cited disparaging comments about Barack Obama as the cause for his non-participation in their upcoming tournament.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On June 20, 2009, War Machine was set to fight Roger Bowling. They were then set to fight at XFC 9 in Tampa, Florida on September 5, where it was to be the main event and would broadcast live over HDNet's website.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On September 5, 2009, War Machine stepped into the cage and faced off against Mikey Gomez. The ref stopped the fight, giving a somewhat controversial win to War Machine by TKO (punches), at 13 seconds in the third round. War Machine was scheduled to fight October 3, 2009 against Jacob McClintock, but cancelled the fight so he could fight on October 8, 2009, against David Mitchell.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On April 17, 2010, he was set to face Tex Johnson in the main event of Wild Bill's Fight Night. On April 16, TMZ.com reported that War Machine left a comment on his Twitter saying he would not be turning up to the event for the fight.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On December 7, 2011, it was announced that War Machine was re-signed to an exclusive deal with Bellator Fighting Championships and would be competing in their Season 6 Welterweight Tournament. War Machine was expected to fight Karl Amoussou in the opening round of the welterweight tournament at Bellator 63. War Machine was sentenced to a year in prison for the prior assault in Las Vegas, Nevada from December 2009 and was forced out of the bout and the tournament.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: He was set to make his Bellator debut on January 17, 2013, against Paul Daley when he tore his ACL and broke his fibula which forced him out of the fight.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: War Machine then took part in Bellator MMA's Season Nine Welterweight Tournament at Bellator 100 against Vaughn Anderson in the Quarterfinals. He won via technical submission due to a rear naked choke in the second round.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: War Machine then faced Ron Keslar on October 18, 2013, at Bellator 104 in the semifinals of the Season Nine Welterweight Tournament. He lost via technical submission due to a rear naked choke in the first round.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On August 8, 2014, Bellator MMA announced the release of War Machine after he assaulted and raped his former girlfriend Christine Mackinday, known by her stage name Christy Mack.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On October 31, 2009, War Machine announced that he would pursue a career in pornographic films along with fighting mixed martial arts. In his announcement, War Machine revealed that he had signed with LA Direct Models and made his debut scene with pornographic actress Riley Steele. Between 2009 and 2010, War Machine appeared in thirteen adult films. War Machine was featured in the January 2014 issue of "Hustler" magazine in a nude pictorial with Christy Mack.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On September 2, 2007, he was found guilty of striking a Las Vegas man in the face and choking him unconscious during a parking lot scuffle. In February 2008, he was sentenced to three years of probation and 30 days of community service, avoiding the possible felony charge and accompanying prison time.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On February 22, 2008, Koppenhaver pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor charge of assault and battery, and was fined and sentenced to probation.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: In August 2010, Koppenhaver was sentenced to one year in the county jail for a felony assault conviction stemming from a fight at a Point Loma bar earlier in the year, as well as an additional fight at a Pacific Beach, San Diego bar. He was imprisoned in San Diego's George Bailey County Detention Facility, mostly in solitary confinement. After going to jail, War Machine maintained his Twitter account as well as a blog documenting his time in jail. On February 1, 2012, it was announced via Koppenhaver's Twitter that he would be serving another year of jail time, due to preceding events. He was released on October 29, 2012, after serving 2 years and 2 months. He was released right out of solitary confinement.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: Sometime in April 2013, Koppenhaver began dating adult film actress Christine Mackinday, better known by her stage name Christy Mack. Mackinday, nearly 10 years Koppenhaver's junior, was a leading figure in the adult film industry at the time. Their relationship, as described by Mackinday, was passionate, but she also described Koppenhaver as physically and mentally abusive, and controlling. The abuse got to a point where Mack ended their relationship in May 2014.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On August 8, 2014, Koppenhaver brutally assaulted Mackinday and her then boyfriend Corey Thomas in Mack's Las Vegas home. He first went for Thomas, and attacked him for ten minutes. Koppenhaver then put Thomas in a chokehold, only to be let go after he was made to swear not to go to the authorities. After Thomas escaped, Koppenhaver then set himself on Mackinday, whom he assaulted for two full hours.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: Mackinday was raped, severely beaten, and cut with a knife by Koppenhaver. Mackinday only managed to escape once Koppenhaver's back was turned, and once she managed to escape via the balcony, she went to the house of a neighbor, who promptly called 911. Mackinday was hospitalized, where it was found that she suffered from 18 broken facial bones, a broken nose, 12 missing teeth, a fractured rib and her liver was critically ruptured.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: On August 15, Koppenhaver, who had managed to elude the authorities while on the run for a week, was apprehended after posting self-pitying tweets the entire time, which enabled authorities to easily trace the IP location of his cell phone, and made it far easier for them to track him down. Koppenhaver was arrested in Simi Valley, California, by U.S. Marshals and Simi Valley police, and was then extradited to Nevada where he was charged with 36 felony counts, including multiple attempted murder, kidnapping, rape and sexual assault charges.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: According to the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Koppenhaver was found unresponsive in his cell on October 14, 2014, at around 9:30 p.m. by a corrections officer conducting routine checks in the cells. The cell officer found Koppenhaver struggling to breathe, with a torn piece of linen around his neck that was tied to the leg of his bunk bed. After the officer cut the linen, Koppenhaver's vitals stabilized within 15 minutes, and he was moved to a medical ward, where he was placed on suicide watch. In a suicide note found in his cell, he quoted philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche twice to explain his actions. The incident occurred on the same day he was supposed to appear in court to discuss a plea deal.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: His trial, originally scheduled for September 2015, was postponed twice before beginning in February 2017. On March 20, 2017, he was convicted on 29 of 36 felony counts, including kidnapping and sexual assault with a weapon, for which he faced life in prison. The jury deadlocked on two counts of attempted murder.


title: War Machine (mixed martial artist)

text: Koppenhaver was represented by Jay Leiderman and Brandon Sua. On June 5, 2017, Koppenhaver was sentenced to an aggregate sentence of life in prison with a possibility of parole after 36 years has been served. His earliest release date is in 2053.


title: Arnis

text: Arnis, also known as Kali or Eskrima/Escrima, is the national martial art of the Philippines. The three are roughly interchangeable umbrella terms for the traditional martial arts of the Philippines ("Filipino Martial Arts", or FMA), which emphasize weapon-based fighting with sticks, knives, bladed weapons, and various improvised weapons, as well as "open hand" techniques without weapons.


title: Arnis

text: There have been campaigns for arnis to be nominated in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, along with other Philippine martial arts. As of 2018, UNESCO has inscribed nine martial-arts–related intangible heritages.


title: Arnis

text: Arnis comes from "arnés", the Old Spanish for "armour" ("harness" is an archaic English term from same root). It is said to derive from the armour costumes used in traditional "Moro-moro" stage plays, where actors fought mock battles with wooden swords. "Arnes" is also an archaic Spanish term for weapon, used as early as 1712.


title: Arnis

text: Eskrima (also spelled Escrima) is a derived from the Spanish word for fencing, "esgrima". Their cognate in French is "escrime" and is related to the English term 'skirmish'.


title: Arnis

text: The name Kali is most likely derived from the pre-Hispanic Filipino term for blades and fencing, "Kalis" (Spanish spelling: ""Calis""), documented by Ferdinand Magellan's expedition chronicler Antonio Pigafetta during their journey through the Visayas and in old Spanish to Filipino Mother Tongue dictionaries and vocabulary books dating from 1612 to the late 1800s, such as in "Vocabulario de Lengua Tagala" by Fr. Pedro de San Buenaventura. The term "calis" in various forms was present in these old Spanish documents in Ilocano, Ibanag ("calli-t"; pronounced as kal-lî), Kapampangan, Tagalog, Bicolano ("caris"), Waray ("caris"), Hiligaynon, Cebuano ("calix, baladao" – ""kalis balaraw"/dagger" and "cales"), and Moro-Maguindanao in Mindanao ("calis" – the kris, weapon). In some of these dictionaries, the term calis refers to a sword or knife kris or keris, while in others it refers to both swords and knives and their usage as well as a form of "esgrima" stick fighting. While Mirafuente posits that the original term was "Kali" and that the letter "S" was added later, the late Grandmaster Remy Presas suggests that the "S" was dropped in modern times and became presently more known as "Kali" in FMA circles.


title: Arnis

text: There exist numerous similar terms of reference for martial arts such as "kalirongan", "kaliradman", and "pagkalikali". These may be the origin of the term "kali" or they may have evolved from it.


title: Arnis

text: In their book "Cebuano Eskrima: Beyond the Myth" however, Dr. Ned Nepangue and Celestino Macachor contend that the term "Kali" in reference to Filipino martial arts did not exist until the Buenaventura Mirafuente wrote in the preface of the first known published book on Arnis, "Mga Karunungan sa Larong Arnis" by Placido Yambao, the term "Kali" as the native mother fighting art of the Philippine islands.


title: Arnis

text: Practitioners of the arts are called "arnisador" (male, plural "arnisadores") and "arnisadora" (female, plural "arnisadoras") for those who call theirs "arnis", "eskrimador" (male, plural "eskrimadores") or "eskrimadora" (female, plural "eskrimadoras") for those who call their art "eskrima", and "kalista" or "mangangali" for those who practise "kali".


title: Arnis

text: It is also known as "Estoque" (Spanish for rapier), "Estocada" (Spanish for thrust or stab) and "Garrote" (Spanish for club). In Luzon it may go by the name of "Arnis de Mano" or "Arnes de Mano".


title: Arnis

text: The indigenous martial art that the Spanish encountered in 1610 was not yet called "Eskrima" at that time. During those times, this martial art was known as "Paccalicali-t" (pronounced as "pakkali-kalî") to the Ibanags, "Didya" (later changed to "Kabaroan") to the Ilokanos, "Sitbatan" or "Kalirongan" to Pangasinenses, "Sinawali" ("to weave") to the Kapampangans, "Calis" or "Pananandata" ("use of weapons") to the Tagalogs, "Pagaradman" to the Ilonggos and "Kaliradman" to the Cebuanos. Kuntaw and Silat are separate martial arts that are also practised in the Philippine Archipelago.


title: Arnis

text: Arnis also includes hand-to-hand combat, joint locks, grappling and weapon disarming techniques. Although in general, emphasis is put on weapons for these arts, some systems put empty hands as the primary focus and some old school systems do not teach weapons at all.


title: Arnis

text: For all intents and purposes, arnis, eskrima and kali all refer to the same family of Filipino weapon-based martial arts and fighting systems. Both "Arnis" and "Eskrima" are loans from Spanish, as seen in "Ilustración de la Destreza Indiana", by Francisco Santos de la Paz (1712):


title: Arnis

text: <poem>""Siendo tan infalible la execucion desta Doctrina, que no solo consigue ésta superioridad en concurso de Armas iguales, sino tambien hallandose el contrario con la aparente ventaja de venir armado de los dos Arneses, Espada, y Daga; pues aun con ellos experimenta la dificultad de resistir á esta Espada sola...""


title: Arnis

text: "The execution of this doctrine is so infallible, that not only does it prove its superiority in contests with equal arms, but also when finding the opponent with the apparent advantage of showing up armed with two weapons, sword and dagger. For, even armed with those, experience shows the difficulty of resisting the single sword used in this way..."</poem>


title: Arnis

text: As "Arnis" was an art usually practised by the poor or commoner class (as opposed to nobility or warrior classes), most practitioners lacked the scholarly education to create any kind of written record. While the same can be said of many martial arts, this is especially true for Arnis because almost all of its history is anecdotal, oral or promotional. The origin of Arnis can be traced back to native "Pintados" or then "Tintadus" fighting techniques during conflicts among the various Prehispanic Filipino tribes or kingdoms, though the current form has Spanish influence from old fencing which originated in Spain in the 15th century. It has other influences as well, as settlers and traders travelling through the Malay Archipelago brought the influence of silat as well as Chinese and Indian martial arts. Some of the population still practise localized Chinese fighting methods known as kuntaw.


title: Arnis

text: It has also been theorized that the Filipino art of Arnis may have roots in India and came to the Philippines via people who traveled through Indonesia and Malaysia to the Philippine islands. Silambam, a stick/staff-based ancient martial art of India influenced many martial arts in Asia like Silat. As such, Arnis may share ancestry with these systems – some Arnis moves are similar to the short stick (kali or kaji) and other weapon based fighting styles of Silambam.


title: Arnis

text: When the Spaniards first arrived in the Philippines, they already observed weapons-based martial arts practised by the natives, which may or may not be related to present-day Arnis. The earliest written records of Filipino culture and life, including martial arts, come from the first Spanish explorers. Some early expeditions fought native tribesmen armed with sticks and knives. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan was killed in Cebu at the Battle of Mactan by the forces of Datu Lapulapu, the chief of Mactan. Some Arnisadors hold that Lapulapu's men killed Magellan in a sword-fight, though historical evidence proves otherwise. The only eyewitness account of the battle by chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, tells that Magellan was stabbed in the face and the arm with spears and overwhelmed by multiple warriors who hacked and stabbed at him:


title: Arnis

text: The natives continued to pursue us, and picking up the same spear four or six times, hurled it at us again and again. Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice, but he always stood firmly like a good knight, together with some others. Thus did we fight for more than one hour, refusing to retire farther. "An Indian hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face", but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the Indian's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. "When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats." Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats, which were already pulling off.


title: Arnis

text: Due to the conflict-ridden nature of the Philippine archipelago, where port-kingdoms (Kedatuans, Rajahnates and Sultanates) were often at war with one another or raiding each other, warriors were forged in the many wars in the islands, thus during the precolonial era, the geographical area acquired a reputation for its capable mercenaries, which were soon employed all across South, Southeast and East Asia. Lucoes (warriors from Luzon) aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD. At the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defense of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya.


title: Arnis

text: The former sultan of Malacca decided to retake his city from the Portuguese with a fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525 AD. Lucoes influence even manifested in East Asia at Japan where Lucoes sailors initially guided Portuguese ships to the Shogunate and even South Asia in Sri Lanka where Lungshanoid pottery from Luzon were found in burials there.


title: Arnis

text: Pinto noted that there were a number of them in the Islamic fleets that went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century. The Sultan of Aceh as well as Suleiman, the Ottoman Commander who was brother of the Viceroy of Cairo, gave one of them (Sapetu Diraja) the task of ruling and holding Aru (northeast Sumatra) in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511. Pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521. One famous Lucoes is Regimo de Raja, who was appointed by the Portuguese at Malacca as Temenggung (Jawi: تمڠݢوڠ ) or Supreme Governor and Chief General. The Luzones were so commercially and militarily influential that the Portuguese soldier Joao de Barros considered them, "the most warlike and valiant of these parts."


title: Arnis

text: Opinions differ on the degree to which Spanish rule in the Philippines affected Arnis. The fact that a large number of techniques and the names of the arts themselves (arnis/"arnes", eskrima/"esgrima", "garrote", "estoque", etc.) have Spanish names suggest an influence. Some argue though that Spanish names in the martial art simply reflect the fact that Spanish was the lingua franca of the Philippines until the early 20th century, and that actual Spanish martial influence was limited.


title: Arnis

text: What is certain is that the Spaniards brought with them and used their bladed weapon arts (including the system of Destreza developed by Carranza) when they started colonizing the archipelago in the 16th century. What is also known is that the Spaniards recruited soldiers from Mexico and Peru and sent them to fortify the Philippines and they had also trained mercenaries and warriors from local people like the Pangasinenses, Kapampangans, Tagalogs, Ilonggos, Cebuanos and Warays to pacify regions and put down revolts. Of the Kapampangans, Fray Casimiro Díaz relates in 1718:


title: Arnis

text: <poem>"Los primeros que se decidieron á experimentar fortuna fueron los pampangos, nación la más belicosa y noble de estas Islas, y cercana á Manila. Y era lo peor hallarse ejercitada en el arte militar en nuestras escuelas en los presidios de Ternate, Zamboanga, Joló, Caraga y otras partes, donde se conoció bien su valor; pero este necesita del abrigo del nuestro, y así decían que un español y tres pampangos, valían por cuatro españoles."


title: Arnis

text: The first who decided to experiment with their fortune (revolt) were the Pampangos, the most warlike and prominent people of these islands, and close to Manila. And it was all the worse because these people had been trained in the military art in our own schools in the presidios (fortified outposts) of Ternate, Zamboanga, Jolo, Caraga and other places where their valor was well known; but this needs the help of ours, and so they say that a Spaniard plus three Pampangos equal four Spaniards.</poem>


title: Arnis

text: Logic dictates that these native warriors and foreign soldiers would have passed on to very close friends and family members these newly learned skills to augment already existing and effective local ones. They would have also shared tactics and techniques with each other when placed in the same military group and fighting on the same side in foreign regions such as Formosa, Mindanao, the Moluccas and the Marianas.


title: Arnis

text: One of the more prominent features of Arnis that point to possible Spanish influence is the "Espada y Daga" (Spanish for "sword and dagger") method, a term also used in Spanish fencing. Filipino "espada y daga" differs somewhat from European rapier and dagger techniques; the stances are different as weapons used in Arnis are typically shorter than European swords. According to Grandmaster Federico Lazo† (1938–2010), unlike in European historical fencing, there is no lunging in the Northern Ilocano "Kabaroan" style of Arnis – it is more of an evasive art. On the other hand, it is present in some Visayan styles documented by FMA researchers Celestino Macachor and Ned Nepangue such as "Yasay Sable Estocada" from Bago. Having done comparative studies, Kalis Ilustrisimo archivist Romeo Macapagal also estimates that 40% of the blade-oriented style of Antonio "Tatang" Ilustrisimo† (1904–1997) descends from European styles, brought by the Spanish.


title: Arnis

text: After the Spanish colonized the Philippines, a decree was set that prohibited civilians from carrying full-sized swords (such as the Kris and the Kampilan). Despite this, the practitioners found ways to maintain and keep the arts alive, using sticks made out of rattan rather than swords, as well as small knives wielded like swords. Some of the arts were passed down from one generation to the other. Sometimes the art took the form choreographed dances such as the "Sakuting" stick dance or during mock battles at "Moro-moro" ("Moros y Cristianos") stage plays. Also as a result, a unique and complex stick-based technique evolved in the Visayas and Luzon regions. The southern Mindanao retains almost exclusively blade-oriented techniques, as the Spaniards and Americans never fully conquered the southern parts of this island.


title: Arnis

text: Although Arnis combines native fighting techniques with old Spanish fencing and other influences, a degree of systematization was achieved over time, resulting in a distinguishable Philippine martial art. With time, a system for the teaching of the basics also evolved. However, with the exception of a few older and more established systems, it was previously common to pass the art from generation to generation in an informal approach. This has made attempts to trace the lineage of a practitioner difficult. For example, aside from learning from their family members like his uncle Regino Ilustrisimo, Antonio Ilustrisimo seemed to have learned to fight while sailing around the Philippines, while his cousin and student Floro Villabrille claimed to have been also taught by a blind Moro princess in the mountains; a claim later refuted by the older Ilustrisimo. Both have since died.


title: Arnis

text: The Philippines has what is known as a "blade culture". Unlike in the West where Medieval and Renaissance combative and self-defense blade arts have gone almost extinct (having devolved into sport fencing with the advent of firearms), blade fighting in the Philippines is a living art. Local folk in the Philippines are much more likely to carry knives than guns. They are commonly carried as tools by farmers, used by street vendors to prepare coconuts, pineapples, watermelons, other fruits and meats, and balisongs are cheap to procure in the streets as well as being easily concealed. In fact, in some areas in the countryside, carrying a farming knife like the "itak" or "bolo" was a sign that one was making a living because of the nature of work in those areas. In the country of Palau, the local term for Filipino is "chad ra oles", which literally means "people of the knife" because of Filipinos' reputation for carrying knives and using them in fights.


title: Arnis

text: Soldiers and mercenaries trained in the Philippines which were recruited by France which was then in an alliance with Spain, had fought in Cambodia and Vietnam justified by defending newly converted Catholic populations from persecutions and had assisted France in establishing French Cochinchina centered in Saigon. Also in Asia, at China, during the Taiping Rebellion, Filipinos who were described as Manilamen and were ‘Reputed to be brave and fierce fighters’ and ‘were plentiful in Shanghai and always eager for action’ were employed by the Foreign forces as mercenaries to successfully quell the Taiping Rebellion. In the opposite side of the world at the Americas, descendants of Filipinos were active in the Anti-Imperialist Wars in the Americas. Filipinos living in Louisiana at the independent settlement of Saint Malo were recruited to be soldiers commanded by Jean Lafitte in the defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812 against a Britain attempting to reconquer a rebel America. "Manilamen" recruited from San Blas together with the Argentinian of French descent, Hypolite Bouchard, joined other nationalities living nearby such as Frenchmen, Mexicans and Americans in the assault of Spanish California during the Argentinian War of Independence.


title: Arnis

text: Mexicans of Filipino descent being led by Filipino-Mexican General Isidoro Montes de Oca assisted Vicente Guerrero in the Mexican war of independence against Spain. Isidoro Montes de Oca was a celebrated war hero famous for the battle action of the Treasury of Tamo, in Michoacán on September 15, 1818, in which the opposing forces numbered four times greater, yet they were totally destroyed.


title: Arnis

text: Contrary to the view of some modern historians that it was only guns that won the Philippine revolutionaries against the Spaniards, blades also played a large part.


title: Arnis

text: <poem>... The Philippine native, like all the kindred Malay races, cannot do any fighting as a rule except at close quarters, slashing with his heavy knife. The weapon is called machete, or bolo, or kampilan, or parang, or kris. The plan of action is the same – to rush in unexpectedly and hack about swiftly, without the slightest attempt at self-preservation.


title: Arnis

text: The Mauser rifle, too, in hard work is found to be a mistake. It has a case of five cartridges, which have to be all used before any others can be inserted. That is, to say, if a soldier has occasion to fire three cartridges he must go on and waste the other two, or else leave himself to meet a possible sudden rush with only two rounds in his rifle. Perhaps it may be the fault of the men, or their misfortune in being undrilled, but they are often knifed while in the act of reloading their rifles. Whatever be the explanation there is something wrong in troops with rifles and bayonets being driven steadily back by natives armed with knives. The insurgents have some guns, but most of the wounded Spanish soldiers seen in the streets have knife wounds.</poem>


title: Arnis

text: Americans were first exposed to Arnis during the Philippine–American War in events such as the Balangiga massacre where most of an American company was hacked to death or seriously injured by bolo-wielding guerillas in Balangiga, Eastern Samar – and in battles in Mindanao, where an American serviceman was decapitated by a Moro warrior even after he emptied his .38 Long Colt caliber revolver into his opponent. That and similar events led to the request and the development of the Colt M1911 pistol and the .45 ACP cartridge by Col. John T. Thompson, Louis La Garde and John Browning which had more stopping power.


title: Arnis

text: During World War II, many Filipinos fought the Japanese hand to hand with their blades as guerilla fighters or as military units under the USAFFE like the Bolo Battalion (now known as the Tabak Division).


title: Arnis

text: Some of the grandmasters who are known to have used their skills in World War II are Antonio Ilustrisimo, Benjamin Luna-Lema, Leo Giron, Teodoro "Doring" Saavedra, brothers Eulogio and Cacoy Cañete, Timoteo "Timor" Maranga, Sr, Jesus Bayas and Balbino Tortal Bonganciso. The Philippines was the bloodiest theatre of the Pacific War for the invading Japanese Empire, incurring the most Japanese deaths in World War II with at least 498,600 Japanese troops killed in fighting the combined Filipino resistance and American soldiers, a larger number of soldiers killed compared to the second-placed theater, the entirety of China, which caused the Japanese about 455,700 casualties. The guerrilla warfare practised by the Arnisadors was so effective, the Japanese Empire managed to control only 12 out of 48 provinces of the Philippines.


title: Arnis

text: The arts had no traditional belting or grading systems as they were taught informally. It was said that to proclaim a student a "master" was considered ridiculous and a virtual death warrant as the individual would become challenged left and right to potentially lethal duels by other Arnisadores looking to make names for themselves. Belt ranking was a recent addition adopted from Japanese arts such as karate and judo, which had become more popular with Filipinos. They were added to give structure to the systems, and to be able to compete for the attention of students.


title: Arnis

text: With regards to its spread outside the Philippines, Arnis was brought to Hawaii and California as far back as the 1920s by Filipino migrant workers. Its teaching was kept strictly within Filipino communities until the late 1960s when masters such as Angel Cabales began teaching it to others. Even then, instructors teaching Arnis in the 1960s and 70s were often reprimanded by their elders for publicly teaching a part of their culture that had been preserved through secrecy. The spread of Arnis was helped in Australia through brothers Jeff and Chris Traish, Richard Marlin and Terry Lim (founder of Loong Fu Pai martial arts academy) who also holds a 4th Dan in International Philippine Martial Arts Federation.


title: Arnis

text: In recent years, there has been increased interest in Arnis for its usefulness when defending against knives in street encounters. As a result, many systems of Arnis have been modified in varying degrees to make them more marketable to a worldwide audience. Usually this involves increased emphasis on locking, controls, and disarms, focusing mainly on aspects of self-defense. However, most styles follow the philosophy that the best defense is a good offense. Modern training methods tend to de-emphasize careful footwork and low stances, stressing the learning of techniques in favor of more direct (and often lethal) tactics designed to instantly end an encounter.


title: Arnis

text: In the Philippines, the spread is more significant due to the efforts of Richardson "Richard" Gialogo and Aniano "Jon" Lota, Jr. through the Department of Education (DepEd) Task Force on School Sports (TFSS). Arnis was first introduced in 1969 to some public and private school teachers when Remy Presas taught his personal style of Arnis which he called "Modern Arnis". He taught his own style to the students of the National College of Physical Education (NCPE) when he was given the chance to teach there. The style "Modern Arnis" is not synonymous with the concept of modern or contemporary Arnis, where it has become a full blown sport embraced by the Department of Education, although there are some similarities. There was no formal program for Arnis from the 1970s to 1980s. Although some schools taught Arnis, these were not official nor prescribed.


title: Arnis

text: The earliest historical record was the DECS Memorandum No. 294 Series of 1995 which entailed the Arnis Development Program Phase I. This was a joint effort of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports or DECS and the Office of then Senator Orlando "Orly" Mercado who awarded a budget from his pork barrel for the implementation of a national Arnis program. The Office of Senator Mercado was given the authority to designate the Arnis instructors for the said program.


title: Arnis

text: The next stage was the Arnis Development Program Phase II. It was just a continuation of Phase I through DECS Memorandum No. 302 series of 1997. The same group conducted the seminars; known as the Arnis Association International (AAI). The Arnis instructors designated by Senator Mercado were informally called the "Mercado boys". They were Mr. Jeremias V. Dela Cruz, Rodel Dagooc and others who were direct students of Mr. Remy Presas of the Modern Arnis style. In this memorandum, there were two seminars conducted: October 6–11, 1997 in Baguio City and November 10–15, 1997 in General Santos City. The Arnis Module Development however did not push through.


title: Arnis

text: It was also during this time when the first Arnis instructional video was developed by the Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports (BPESS) entitled "Dynamic Arnis". This video featured the Gialogo Brothers: Richardson and Ryan Gialogo, direct students of Jeremias V. Dela Cruz.


title: Arnis

text: However, the national Arnis program of Senator Orly Mercado and DECS died a natural death. It was only after nine years that Arnis found its way back into the Department of Education (formerly known as Department of Education, Culture and Sports or DECS). On February 5, 2004, the Task Force on School Sports (TFSS) of the Department of Education (DepEd), the new agency after the defunct BPESS, met with the National Sports Association (NSA) for Arnis in a Senate hearing. The Head of the TFSS was National Coordinator Mr. Feliciano N. Toledo II, considered the "Father of Arnis" in the Department of Education. He met with the top NSA officials at that time; however, nothing happened.


title: Arnis

text: It was only in 2006 when the Task Force on School Sports had a new program for Arnis. The "National Training of Trainors in Arnis and Dance Sports", sponsored by the Task Force on School Sports, Department of Education (DepEd), was held at Teacher's Camp, Baguio City on March 13–17, 2006 and was conducted by two top-caliber figures in the Arnis community: Mr. Aniano Lota, Jr. and Mr. Richardson Gialogo, then Secretary-General and vice-president respectively of the National Sports Association for Arnis. And this was the start of the modern, contemporary and prevailing Arnis in the Department of Education.


title: Arnis

text: In just two months, Arnis became part of the Palarong Pambansa (National Games) as a demonstration sport. The 2006 Palarong Pambansa was held in Naga City, Bicol Region with nine out of the seventeen regions of the Philippines participating. National, regional and provincial Arnis Seminars were conducted by the tandem of Mr. Aniano Lota, Jr. and Mr. Richardson Gialogo from 2006 to 2007 in coordination with the TFSS National Coordinator, Mr. Feliciano "Len" Toledo, and with the financial and logistical backing of the Department of Education. In 2007, Arnis was already a regular event in the Palarong Pambansa with all seventeen regions participating. Five weight divisions in the Full-contact Event and four categories in the Anyo (Forms) Event were played and became part of the official medal tally of the participants. This was held in Coronadal in Mindanao.


title: Arnis

text: Arnis Seminars were continued in national, regional and provincial levels. These were all conducted by the tandem of Mr. Aniano Lota, Jr. and Mr. Richardson Gialogo, now both Arnis Consultants and official Lecturers of the Task Force on School Sports of the Department of Education. In 2008, Arnis was played in the Palarong Pambansa and again, with all seventeen regions participating. All nine events were played. This was held in Puerto Princesa City, Palawan.


title: Arnis

text: Aside from Sports Officiating and Accreditation seminars, coaching and skill training seminars continued in national, regional and provincial levels. Requests from cities and even districts were also welcomed. The "evangelization" of Arnis was continued and both Gialogo and Lota were careful not to teach their personal styles. Both taught in "generic" form and focused on the rules of sports as promulgated by the Department of Education.


title: Arnis

text: In 2009, Secondary Girls (High School Girls) were finally included in Palarong Pambansa and again, all seventeen regions participated. From the original five member teams, the number doubled with the inclusion of the girls. The medal tally also doubled from nine to eighteen. The 2009 Palarong Pambansa was held in Tacloban, Leyte in the Visayas.


title: Arnis

text: In 2009, the "Writeshop of the Revision of the Physical Fitness Test and the Development of Learning Competencies in Arnis and Archery" was held in Teacher's Camp, Baguio City in October 5–8, 2009. Phase I of the National Curriculum for Arnis was finished and the curriculum writers were Mr. Richardson Gialogo and Mr. Aniano Lota, Jr.


title: Arnis

text: The 2010 Palarong Pambansa was held in Tarlac, In Luzon. Again, both secondary boys and girls competed in the eighteen categories. It was here that the Department of Education Arnis Association Philippines or DEAAP had its first national elections.


title: Arnis

text: One of the most important practices in classical Arnis was dueling, without any form of protection. The matches were preceded by cock-fighting and could be held in any open space, sometimes in a specially constructed enclosure. Arnisadores believe this tradition pre-dates the colonial period, pointing to similar practices of kickboxing matches in mainland Indochina as evidence. Spanish records tell of such dueling areas where cock-fights took place. The founders of most of the popular Arnis systems were famous duelists and legends circulate about how many opponents they killed. In rural areas throughout the Philippines today, modern Arnis matches are still held in dueling arenas. In bigger cities, recreations of duels are sometimes held at parks by local Arnis training-halls. These demonstrations are not choreographed beforehand but neither are they full-contact competitions.


title: Arnis

text: In modern times, public dueling with blades has been deemed illegal in the Philippines due to high potential of severe injury or death. Dueling with live sticks and minimal protection still occurs during barrio fiestas in some towns such as in Paete in Laguna.


title: Arnis

text: After decades of lobbying and overdue recognition, Arnis/Eskrima/Kali was proclaimed as the official National Martial Art and Sport of the Philippines in January 2010.


title: Arnis

text: There are two main types of Arnis practised as a sport. The most common system used internationally is that of the WEKAF (World Eskrima Kali Arnis Federation), established 1989. The earlier Arnis Philippines (ARPI) system, established in 1986, was most prominently used during the 2005 Southeast Asian Games.


title: Arnis

text: The WEKAF system works on a 10-point must system similar to boxing where participants spar with live sticks while wearing a long padded vest with skirt and sleeves and a helmet similar to Kendo headgear. Hitting below the thigh is prohibited. This format has sometimes been criticized because it emphasizes a heavy offense at the expense of defensive techniques sometimes with players raining blows on each other without defending, giving rise to the impression that combatants are merely hitting each other in a disorganized way. This has been tackled by introducing a "four second rule", to prevent constant and unrealistic attacks, and judges do not to score the same strike if the fighter uses it more than twice in succession. Judges warn fighters and remove points if they continue after two warnings. However, fights can easily come down to an unrealistic attack from an unskilled fighter who impresses judges with many body hits after taking two or three clear, strong hits to the hands and head.


title: Arnis

text: This is, to some, an antithesis to traditional training methods, where training in footwork and arm/weapon movements are intricate and precise and any part of an opponent's body is fair game. As a consequence, WEKAF tournaments may be seen as not promoting the original art. Moreover, participants have been known to suffer broken bones and injured tendons due to the fact that live sticks are used, so the older system is considered more 'hardcore' and less safe. Another complaint about the WEKAF system is that it uses the 10-point must system, which is more subjective depending on who is judging.


title: Arnis

text: Since the WEKAF system is more risky, it is preferred by many practitioners who want to test themselves. The WEKAF system is the most widely used format internationally


title: Arnis

text: Arnis competitions uses foam-padded sticks about an inch in diameter with thin rattan cores roughly a centimeter in diameter. These sticks are meant to break before serious injury occurs. For protection, the same headgear used in the WEKAF system, and a large groin guard is required for males. Vests (optional for men, required for women), optional armguards, shinguards and leg wraps are used. Scoring is more similar to fencing where fighters are separated after solid clean hits are made (observed by multiple judges stationed at different positions to observe if hits were clean and unblocked, and determine the strength of the strike by the loudness of the impact). Alternative ways to score are to disarm one's opponent or to force him to step outside the ring.


title: Arnis

text: Any part of the body, from head to toe, is fair game as a target – except for the back of the head, which the headgear does not protect. Stabs to the face are not allowed, because the thin rattan core may penetrate the padding and slip through the grills of the headgear into the player's eye. Thrusts to the body score points, but are harder to present to judges for scoring because they make less noise and it is difficult to determine impact.


title: Arnis

text: Punches, kicks and throws are not allowed. Prolonged clinching to prevent the opponent from striking is not allowed (similar to Western Boxing) to keep the game moving and more interesting for audience that may not appreciate the fine and practical aspects of grappling. Disarms must be performed quickly and cleanly to count. Because the legs are fair targets, in lighter weight divisions, complex evasion and deep lunges where players lie horizontal with the torso almost touching the floor to extend reach are often seen.


title: Arnis

text: The emphasis of the ARPI system is on player safety, as proponents are applying to become a recognized Olympic sport like judo, karate, taekwondo, wrestling, boxing, and fencing.


title: Arnis

text: Even though padded sticks are used in the sport, players regularly retain large bruises that last for weeks and sometimes minor injuries to joints and because of the sheer amount of force generated by conditioned practitioners. Sometimes the stuffing commonly comes off from the harder hitting players and one cause of injury is when a player is struck by the exposed rattan core. Still, these are relatively minor as compared to injuries sustained when practitioners spar with live sticks.


title: Arnis

text: One major problem with the ARPI system is that because the padded sticks with light rattan cores are used, they tend to flex and "lag", thus making the experience significantly different from using a live stick and in that sense, lessens the "realism" of this system. This is acceptable though as again, the emphasis is on safety.


title: Arnis

text: Like the sayaw (meaning "dance") in the WEKAF system, the ARPI system has a separate single and team choreographed division called "Anyo" (Tagalog for 'forms'). Aside from the visual appeal, practical combative applications must be clearly seen so as to avoid looking like just majorettes in marching bands who just twirl batons and dance (a concept similar to the "Floreio" ("flourish") aspect of Capoeira and to Tricking which are more for show than practicality).


title: Arnis

text: In another variation that simulates knife fights, competitors use false blades edged with lipstick to mark where an opponent has been struck. These matches are considered more similar to traditional duels than the WEKAF point-system.


title: Arnis

text: Arnis students start their instruction by learning to fight with weapons, and only advance to empty-hand training once the stick and knife techniques have been sufficiently mastered. This is in contrast to most other well-known Asian martial arts but it is justified by the principle that bare-handed moves are acquired naturally through the same exercises as the weapon techniques, making muscle memory an important aspect of the teaching. It is also based on the obvious fact that an armed person who is trained has the advantage over a trained unarmed person, and serves to condition students to fight against armed assailants. Most systems of Arnis apply a single set of techniques for the stick, knife, and empty hands, a concept sometimes referred to as motion grouping. Since the weapon is seen as simply an extension of the body, the same angles and footwork are used either with or without a weapon. The reason for this is probably historical, because tribal warriors went into battle armed and only resorted to bare-handed fighting after losing their weapons.


title: Arnis

text: Many systems begin training with two weapons, either a pair of sticks or a stick and a wooden knife. These styles emphasise keeping both hands full and never moving them in the same direction, and trains practitioners to become ambidextrous. For example, one stick may strike the head while the other hits the arm. Such training develops the ability to use both limbs independently, a valuable skill, even when working with a single weapon.


title: Arnis

text: A core concept and distinct feature of Filipino martial arts is the "Live Hand". Even when as a practitioner wields only one weapon, the extra hand is used to control, trap or disarm an opponent's weapon and to aid in blocking, joint locking and manipulation of the opponent or other simultaneous motions such as bicep destruction with the "live hand".


title: Arnis

text: The most basic and common weapon in Arnis is the "baston" or "yantok". They are typically constructed from rattan, an inexpensive stem from a type of Southeast Asian vine. Hard and durable yet lightweight, it shreds only under the worst abuse and does not splinter like wood, making it a safer training tool. This aspect makes it useful in defense against blades. Kamagong (ironwood or ebony) and "bahi" (heart of the palm) are sometimes used after being charred and hardened. These hardwoods are generally not used for sparring, however, as they are dense enough to cause serious injury, but traditional sparring does not include weapon to body contact. The participants are skilled enough to parry and counterstrike, showing respect in not intentionally hitting the training partner. In modern times, many Arnis practitioners have also come to wear head and hand protection while sparring with rattan sticks, or otherwise use padded bastons. Some modern schools also use sticks made out of aluminium or other metals, or modern high-impact plastics.


title: Arnis

text: "Baraw" is a Cebuano term used in eskrima that means knife or dagger. The term "Baraw" is more commonly used on the Cebu Island in the Visayan region whereas other islands and regions more commonly use the term "Daga" but both terms are often interchangeable within the Filipino martial arts community.


title: Arnis

text: The terms Baraw and Daga can be used either as "Solo Baraw" or "Solo Daga" associated with single knife fighting and defense systems, "Doble Baraw" or "Doble Daga" associated with the double knife fighting systems or even with a combination of long and short weapons e.g. stick and dagger fighting systems "Olisi Baraw" or sword and dagger fighting systems "Espada y Daga".


title: Arnis

text: The practitioners must conform to criteria based on the number of years of training and level of proficiency in technical skills. Practitioners are screened by the rank promotion committee to determine their rank in the grading system.


title: Arnis

text: Most systems recognize that the technical nature of combat changes drastically as the distance between opponents changes, and generally classify the ranges into at least three categories. Each range has its characteristic techniques and footwork. Of course, some systems place more emphasis on certain ranges than others, but almost all recognize that being able to work in and control any range is essential. The Balintawak style for example, uses long-, medium- and short-range fighting techniques, but focuses on the short-range.


title: Arnis

text: To control the range, and for numerous other purposes, good footwork is essential. Most eskrima systems explain their footwork in terms of triangles: normally when moving in any direction two feet occupy two corners of the triangle and the step is to the third corner such that no leg crosses the other at any time. The shape and size of the triangle must be adapted to the particular situation. The style of footwork and the standing position vary greatly from school to school and from practitioner to practitioner. For a very traditional school, conscious of battlefield necessities, stances are usually very low, often with one knee on the ground, and footwork is complex, involving many careful cross-steps to allow practitioners to cope with multiple opponents. The Villabrille and San Miguel styles are usually taught in this way. Systems that have been adapted to duels or sporting matches generally employ simpler footwork, focusing on a single opponent. North American schools tend to use much more upright stances, as this puts less stress on the legs, but there are some exceptions.


title: Arnis

text: Many Filipino systems focus on defending against and/or reacting to "angles of attack" rather than particular strikes. The theory behind this is that virtually all types of hand-to-hand attacks (barehanded or with a weapon) hit or reach a combatant via these angles of attack and the reasoning is that it is more efficient to learn to defend against different angles of attack rather than learn to defend against particular styles, particular techniques or particular weapons. For instance, the technique for defending against an attack angle that comes overhead from the right is very similar whether the attacker uses bare fists, a knife, a sword or a spear.


title: Arnis

text: Older styles gave each angle a name, but more recent systems tend to simply number them. Many systems have twelve standard angles, though some have as few as 5, and others as many as 72. Although the exact angles, the order they are numbered in (numerado), and the way the player executes moves vary from system to system, most are based upon Filipino cosmology. These standard angles describe exercises. To aid memorization, player often practise a standard series of strikes from these angles, called an abecedario (Spanish for "alphabet"). These are beginner strikes or the "ABC's" of Arnis.


title: Arnis

text: Many Arnis techniques have Spanish names, because Spanish was the lingua franca spoken during colonial times among the natives, who spoke over 170 languages across 7,600 islands.


title: Arnis

text: Arnis techniques are generally based on the assumption that both student and opponent are very highly trained and well prepared. Thus, Arnis tends to favour extreme caution, always considering the possibility of a failed technique or an unexpected knife. On the other hand, the practitioner is assumed to be capable of quick, precise strikes.


title: Arnis

text: The general principle is that an opponent's ability to attack should be destroyed rather than trying to injure and convince them to stop. Many strikes are therefore aimed at the hands and arms, hoping to break the hand holding the weapon, or cut the nerves and tendons controlling it (the concept of “defanging the snake”). Strike to the eyes and legs are also important. This is summed up in a popular mnemonic: "Stick seeks bone, blade seeks flesh".


title: Arnis

text: "Mano Mano" is the empty-hand component of Filipino martial arts, particularly Arnis. The term translates as "hands" or "hand-[to]-hand" and comes from the Spanish "mano" (“hand”). It is also known as "suntukan" or "panununtukan" in Luzon and "pangamot" in the Visayas, as well as "De Cadena", "Cadena de Mano" or "Arnis de Mano" in some FMA systems. American colonists referred to it as "combat judo" or “Filipino boxing”.


title: Arnis

text: "Mano mano" moves include kicking, punching, locking, throwing, and "dumog" (grappling). Filipino martial artists regard empty hands as another weapon, and all movements of "Mano Mano" are directly based on weapon techniques. In Arnis, weapons are seen as extensions of the body, so training with weapons naturally leads to proficiency in bare-handed combat. For this reason, "Mano Mano" is often taught in higher grades after weapons training has been mastered, as advanced students are expected to be able to apply experience with weapons to unarmed fighting. This not always the case though, as some systems of Arnis start with (and at times only consist of) empty hands fighting.


title: Arnis

text: "Paninipa", "Pagsipa", "Pananadiyak", "Pagtadiyak", and "Sikaran" (all terms for "kicking" in various regions, dialects and styles) are components of eskrima that focus on knees, tripping, low-line kicks, and stomps. "Pananjakman" is also a term used in Filipino-American-developed and Western FMA systems, usually referring to the system from the Lucky Lucaylucay, Floro Villabrille and Dan Inosanto blend lineage. Except for the distinct style of Sikaran from the Baras area of the province of Rizal, which also uses high kicks, kicking as a separate art is never taught by itself in the Philippines, and this practice is only done in the West with "Pananjakman". "Pananjakman" is usually taught together with Panantukan.


title: Arnis

text: "Paninipa" can be regarded as the study of leg muscles and bones and how they are connected, with the goal of either inflicting pain or outright breaking or dislocating the bones. Most striking techniques involve applying pressure to bend the target areas in unnatural ways so as to injure or break them. Such pressure may be delivered in the form of a heel smash, a toe kick, a stomp, or a knee. Targets include the groin, thighs, knees, shins, ankles, feet and toes. The upper body is used only for defensive maneuvers, making pananadiyak ideal for when combatants are engaged in a clinch. When used effectively, the strikes can bring an opponent to the ground or otherwise end an altercation by making them too weak to stand.


title: Arnis

text: Fundamental techniques include kicking or smashing the ankle to force it either towards or away from the opposite foot (severe supination or pronation, respectively), heel-stomping the top of the foot where it meets the lower leg so as to break or crush the numerous bones or otherwise disrupt the opponent's balance, and smashing the opponents knee from the side to break the knee (with severe supination and pronation as the desired result).


title: Arnis

text: Several classes of exercises, such as "sombrada", "contrada", "sinawali", "hubud-lubud" and "sequidas", initially presented to the public as a set of organized drills by the Inosanto school, are expressly designed to allow partners to move quickly and experiment with variations while remaining safe. For example, in a "sumbrada" drill, one partner feeds an attack, which the other counters, flowing into a counterattack, which is then countered, flowing into a counterattack, and so on. The "hubud-lubud" or "hubad-lubad" from Doce Pares is frequently used as a type of "generator" drill, where one is forced to act and think fast. Initially, students learn a specific series of attacks, counters, and counter-attacks. As they advance they can add minor variations, change the footwork, or switch to completely different attacks; eventually the exercise becomes almost completely free-form. Palakaw, from the Balintawak style, are un-choreographed and random defensive and offensive moves. Palakaw in Cebuano means a walk-through or rehearsing the different strike angles and defenses. It may be known as "corridas", or striking without any order or pattern. Disarms, take-downs, and other techniques usually break the flow of such a drill, but they are usually initiated from such a sequence of movements to force the student to adapt to a variety of situations. A common practice is to begin a drill with each student armed with two weapons. Once the drill is flowing, if a student sees an opportunity to disarm their opponent, they do, but the drill continues until both students are empty-handed. Some drills use only a single weapon per pair, and the partners take turns disarming each other. "Seguidas" drills, taken from the San Miguel system, are sets of hitting and movement patterns usually involving stick and dagger.


title: Arnis

text: Rhythm, while an essential part of eskrima drills, is emphasized more in the United States and Europe, where a regular beat serves a guide for students to follow. To ensure safety, participants perform most drills at a constant pace, which they increase as they progress. The rhythm, together with the southern Filipino attire of a vest and sashed pants, is commonly mistaken for some sort of tradition when practising eskrima in the Philippines – perhaps incorrectly derived from traditional rhythm-based dances or an attempt to add a sense of ethnicity. Eskrima is usually practised in the Philippines without a rhythm, off-beat or out of rhythm. The diversity of Filipino martial arts means that there is no officially established standard uniform in eskrima.


title: Arnis

text: The "live hand" is the opposite hand of the practitioner that does not contain the main weapon. The heavy usage of the "live hand" is an important concept and distinguishing hallmark of eskrima. Even (or especially) when empty, the "live hand" can be used as a companion weapon by eskrima practitioners. As opposed to most weapon systems like fencing where the off-hand is hidden and not used to prevent it from being hit, eskrima actively uses the "live hand" for trapping, locking, supporting weapon blocks, checking, disarming, striking and controlling the opponent.


title: Arnis

text: The usage of the "live hand" is one of the most evident examples of how Eskrima's method of starting with weapons training leads to effective empty hand techniques. Because of "Doble Baston" (double weapons) or "Espada y Daga" (sword and parrying dagger) ambidextrous weapon muscle memory conditioning, Eskrima practitioners find it easy to use the off-hand actively once they transition from using it with a weapon to an empty hand.


title: Arnis

text: "Doble baston", and less frequently "doble olisi", are common names for a group of techniques involving two sticks. The art is more commonly known around the world as "Sinawali" meaning "to weave". The term "Sinawali" is taken from a matting called "sawali" that is commonly used in the tribal Nipa Huts. It is made up of woven pieces of palm leaf and used for both flooring and walls.


title: Arnis

text: This technique requires the user to use both left and right weapons in an equal manner; many co-ordination drills are used to help the practitioner become more ambidextrous. It is the section of the art that is taught mainly at the intermediate levels and above and is considered one of the most important areas of learning in the art.


title: Arnis

text: "Sinawali" refers to the activity of "weaving", as applied Eskrima with reference to a set of two-person, two-weapon exercises. The term comes from "Sawali", the woven material that typically forms the walls of nipa huts.


title: Arnis

text: "Sinawali" exercises provide eskrima practitioners with basic skills and motions relevant to a mode of two-weapon blocking and response method called "Doblete". "Sinawali" training is often introduced to novices to help them develop certain fundamental skills – including: body positioning and distance relative to an opponent, rotation of the body and the proper turning radius, recognition of one's center of gravity, eye–hand coordination, target perception and recognition, increased ambidexterity, recognition and performance of rhythmic structures for upper body movement, and muscular developments important to the art, especially, the wrist and forearm regions. It helps teach the novice eskrimador proper positioning while swinging a weapon.


title: Arnis

text: The Chinese and Malay communities of the Philippines have practiced eskrima together with Kuntaw and Silat for centuries, so much so that many North Americans mistakenly believe silat to have originated in the Philippines.


title: Arnis

text: Some of the modern styles, particularly doce pares and Modern Arnis contain some elements of Japanese Martial Arts such as joint locks, throws, blocks, strikes, and groundwork, taken from: Jujutsu, Judo, Aikido and Karate as some of the founders obtained black belt Dan grades in some of these systems. Some eskrima styles are complementary with Chinese Wing Chun because of the nervous system conditioning and body mechanics when striking, twirling or swinging sticks.


title: Arnis

text: In Western countries, it is common to practice eskrima in conjunction with other martial arts, particularly Wing Chun, Jeet Kune Do and silat. As a result, there is some confusion between styles, systems, and lineage, because some people cross-train without giving due credit to the founders or principles of their arts. For example, American Kenpo and Kajukenbo cross-training traces back to the interactions between Chinese, Japanese and Filipino immigrants in territorial/pre-statehood Hawaii, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the United States. In the United States the cross-training between eskrima and Jeet Kune Do Concepts as headed by Dan Inosanto of the Inosanto Academy in Marina del Rey, California, goes according to the maxim "Absorb what is useful, reject what is useless".


title: Arnis

text: Proponents of such training say the arts are very similar in many aspects and complement each other well. It has become marketable to offer eskrima classes in other traditional Asian martial arts studios in America but some practitioners of other eskrima styles often dismiss these lessons as debased versions of original training methods.


title: Arnis

text: In the Philippines, Arnis is recognized as the country's national sport and martial art by virtue of Republic Act No. 9850. The legislation was approved on December 11, 2009. There were many versions of the Arnis Bill but the version chosen was drafted by Richardson Gialogo which was submitted to the Senate. Because of this law, Arnis becomes a pre-requisite for P.E. classes in most colleges in the Philippines.


title: Arnis

text: More than 4,200 students and athletes performed Arnis in the Cebu City Sports Center during the closing ceremonies of the Batang Pinoy 2015, to set a record for the largest arnis class in the world for Guinness World Records.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Anne Baxter (May 7, 1923 – December 12, 1985) was an American actress, star of Hollywood films, Broadway productions, and television series. She won an Academy Award and a Golden Globe, and was nominated for an Emmy.


title: Anne Baxter

text: A granddaughter of Frank Lloyd Wright, Baxter studied acting with Maria Ouspenskaya and had some stage experience before making her film debut in "20 Mule Team" (1940). She became a contract player of 20th Century Fox and was loaned to RKO Pictures for the role of Lucy Morgan in Orson Welles' "The Magnificent Ambersons" (1942), one of her earlier films. In 1947, she won both the Academy Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Sophie MacDonald in "The Razor's Edge" (1946). In 1951, she received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for the title role in "All About Eve" (1950). She worked with several of Hollywood's greatest directors, including Billy Wilder in "Five Graves to Cairo" (1943), Alfred Hitchcock in "I Confess" (1953), Fritz Lang in "The Blue Gardenia" (1953), and Cecil B. DeMille in "The Ten Commandments" (1956), for which she won a Laurel Award for Topliner Female Dramatic Performance.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter was born May 7, 1923, in Michigan City, Indiana, to Catherine Dorothy ( Wright; 1894–1979), whose father was architect Frank Lloyd Wright, and Kenneth Stuart Baxter (1893–1977), an executive with the Seagram Company. When Baxter was five, she appeared in a school play. When she was six, her family moved to New York, where she continued to act. She was raised in Westchester County, New York and attended Brearley.


title: Anne Baxter

text: At age 10, Baxter attended a Broadway play starring Helen Hayes, and she was so impressed that she declared to her family that she wanted to become an actress. By age 13, she had appeared on Broadway in "Seen but Not Heard". During this period, Baxter learned her acting craft as a student of actress and teacher Maria Ouspenskaya.


title: Anne Baxter

text: In 1939, she was cast as Katharine Hepburn's younger sister in the play "The Philadelphia Story", but Hepburn did not like Baxter's acting style, and Baxter was replaced during the show's pre-Broadway run. Rather than giving up, she turned to Hollywood.


title: Anne Baxter

text: At 16, Baxter screen-tested for the role of Mrs. DeWinter in "Rebecca". Director Alfred Hitchcock deemed Baxter too young for the role, but she soon secured a seven-year contract with 20th Century Fox. In 1940, she was loaned to MGM for her first film "20 Mule Team", in which she was billed fourth after Wallace Beery, Leo Carrillo, and Marjorie Rambeau. She worked with John Barrymore in her next film "The Great Profile" (1940) and appeared as the ingénue in the Jack Benny vehicle "Charley's Aunt" (1941). She received star billing in "Swamp Water" (1941) and "The Pied Piper" (1942), which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter was loaned to RKO to appear in director Orson Welles' "The Magnificent Ambersons" (1942). She was Tyrone Power's leading lady in "Crash Dive" (1943), her first Technicolor film. In 1943, she played a French maid in a North African hotel (with a French accent) in Billy Wilder's "Five Graves to Cairo", a Paramount production. She became a popular star in World War II dramas and received top billing in "The North Star" (1943), "The Sullivans" (1944), "The Eve of St. Mark" (1944), and "Sunday Dinner for a Soldier" (1944), co-starring her future husband John Hodiak. Baxter later recalled, "I was getting almost as much mail as Betty Grable. I was our boys' idealized girl next door."


title: Anne Baxter

text: She was loaned to United Artists for the leading role in the film noir "Guest in the House" (1944), and appeared in "A Royal Scandal" (1945), with Tallulah Bankhead and Charles Coburn; "Smoky" (1946), with Fred MacMurray; "Angel on My Shoulder" (1946), with Paul Muni and Claude Rains.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter co-starred with Tyrone Power and Gene Tierney in 1946's "The Razor's Edge", for which she won both the Academy Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. Baxter later recounted that "The Razor's Edge" contained her only great performance, a hospital scene where the character Sophie "loses her husband, child and everything else." She said she relived the death of her brother, who had died at age three.


title: Anne Baxter

text: She was loaned to Paramount for a top-billed role opposite William Holden in "Blaze of Noon" (1947) and to MGM for a supporting role as Clark Gable's wife in "Homecoming" (1948). Back at 20th Century Fox, she played a wide variety of roles: a lawyer in love with Cornel Wilde in "The Walls of Jericho" (1948); Tyrone Power's Irish romantic interest in "The Luck of the Irish" (1948); a tomboy in "Yellow Sky" (1948), with Gregory Peck and Richard Widmark; a 1920s flapper in "You're My Everything" (1949), with Dan Dailey; and another tomboy in "A Ticket to Tomahawk" (1950), again with Dailey.


title: Anne Baxter

text: In 1950, Baxter was chosen to co-star in "All About Eve" largely because of a resemblance to Claudette Colbert, who originally was cast but dropped out and was replaced by Bette Davis. The original idea was to have Baxter's character gradually come to mirror Colbert's over the course of the film. Baxter received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for the title role of Eve Harrington. She said she modeled the role on a bitchy understudy she had for her debut performance in the Broadway play "Seen but Not Heard" at the age of 13 and who had threatened to "finish her off."


title: Anne Baxter

text: Her next Fox film "Follow the Sun" (1951) co-starred Glenn Ford as champion golfer Ben Hogan; Baxter played Hogan's wife Valerie. She was top-billed in the western "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" (1950), with Dale Robertson, and was part of an ensemble cast in "O. Henry's Full House" (1952), her last project for Fox. The comedy "My Wife's Best Friend", with MacDonald Carey, was her second and last Fox film released in 1952. Baxter left 20th Century Fox in 1953.


title: Anne Baxter

text: In 1953, Baxter contracted a two-picture deal for Warner Brothers. Her first was opposite Montgomery Clift in Alfred Hitchcock's "I Confess"; the second was the Fritz Lang whodunit "The Blue Gardenia", in which she played a woman accused of murder.


title: Anne Baxter

text: In June 1954, Baxter won the part of the Egyptian princess and queen Nefertari in Cecil B. DeMille's award-winning "The Ten Commandments". Her scenes were shot on Paramount's sound stages in 1955, and she attended the film's New York and Los Angeles premieres in November 1956. Despite criticisms of her interpretation of Nefertari, DeMille and "The Hollywood Reporter" both thought her performance was "very good," and "The New York Daily News" described her as "remarkably effective." For her work in "The Ten Commandments", she won a Laurel Award for Topliner Female Dramatic Performance. She later remembered the film in an interview:


title: Anne Baxter

text: In 1960, Baxter received a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6741 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter worked regularly in television in the 1960s. She appeared as one of the mystery guests on "What's My Line?" She also starred as guest villain Zelda The Great in episodes 9 and 10 of the "Batman" series. She appeared as another villain, Olga, Queen of the Cossacks, opposite Vincent Price's Egghead in three episodes of the show's third season. She played an old flame of Raymond Burr on his crime series "Ironside". Baxter made a guest appearance on "My Three Sons" season 8 episode 10, aired on November 4, 1967, called "Designing Woman", portraying a glamorous female engineer who wanted Steve Douglas (Fred MacMurray) as a love interest and possible future husband.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter returned to Broadway during the 1970s in "Applause", the musical version of "All About Eve", but this time as Margo Channing (succeeding Lauren Bacall).


title: Anne Baxter

text: In the 1970s, Baxter was a frequent guest and guest host on "The Mike Douglas Show". She portrayed a murderous film star on an episode of "Columbo", titled "Requiem for a Falling Star". In 1971, she had a role in "Fools' Parade" as an aging prostitute. In 1983, Baxter starred in the television series "Hotel", ironically replacing iconic former film costar Bette Davis ("All About Eve") after Davis became ill.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter married actor John Hodiak on July 7, 1946, at her parents' home in Burlingame, California. The couple had one daughter, Katrina, born in 1951. They divorced in 1953. At the time, she said they were "basically incompatible", but in her book she blamed herself for the separation: "I had loved John as much", she wrote. "But we'd eventually congealed in the longest winter in the world. Daily estrangement. Things unsaid. Even a fight would have warmed us. To my shame, I'd picked one at last in order to unfreeze the word 'divorce'."


title: Anne Baxter

text: In the mid-1950s, Baxter began a relationship with Gambino gangster Filippo Autelitano and later, her publicist Russell Birdwell, who took control of her career and directed her in "The Come On" (1956). The couple formed Baxter-Birdwell Productions to make films on a 10-year plan; Baxter would star in the films and Birdwell would work behind the camera. Princeton University Library has a collection of 175 letters by Baxter to Birdwell.


title: Anne Baxter

text: In 1960, Baxter married her second husband Randolph Galt, an American owner of a cattle station at Gloucester near Sydney, where she was filming "Summer of the Seventeenth Doll". After the birth of their second daughter, Maginel, back in California, Galt unexpectedly announced that they were moving to a 4,452 hectare (11,000 acre) ranch south of Grants, New Mexico. They then moved to Hawaii (his home state) before settling back in Brentwood, California. Baxter and Galt were divorced in 1969. In 1976, Baxter recounted her courtship with Galt (whom she called "Ran") in a well-received book called "Intermission". Melissa Galt, Baxter's first daughter with Galt, became an interior designer and then a business coach, speaker, and seminar provider. Maginel became a cloistered Catholic nun, reportedly living in Rome.


title: Anne Baxter

text: In 1977, Baxter married David Klee, a stockbroker. It was a brief marriage; Klee died unexpectedly from illness. The newlywed couple had purchased a sprawling property in Easton, Connecticut, which they extensively remodeled; however, Klee did not live to see the renovations completed. Although she maintained a residence in West Hollywood, Baxter considered her Connecticut home to be her primary residence.


title: Anne Baxter

text: Baxter had a stroke on December 4, 1985, while hailing a taxi on Madison Avenue in New York City. Baxter remained on life support for eight days in New York's Lenox Hill Hospital, until family members agreed that brain function had ceased. She died on December 12, aged 62. Baxter is buried on the estate of Frank Lloyd Wright at the Unity Chapel cemetery in the town of Wyoming, south of Spring Green, Wisconsin. The cemetery is the private cemetery of the Lloyd Jones family, Baxter's mother's side of the family.


title: Propane

text: Propane () is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel in domestic and industrial applications and in low-emissions public transportation. Discovered in 1857 by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot, it became commercially available in the US by 1911. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane has lower volumetric energy density, but higher gravimetric energy density and burns more cleanly than gasoline and coal.


title: Propane

text: Propane gas has become a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because its low −42 °C boiling point makes it vaporise inside pressurised liquid containers (2 phases). Propane powers buses, forklifts, taxis, outboard boat motors, and ice resurfacing machines and is used for heat and cooking in recreational vehicles and campers.


title: Propane

text: Propane was discovered by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot in 1857. It was found dissolved in Pennsylvanian light crude oil by Edmund Ronalds in 1864. Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines highlighted it as a volatile component in gasoline in 1910, which was the beginning of the propane industry in the United States. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as "wild" because of the high vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, 1912, "The New York Times" reported on Snelling's work with liquefied gas, saying "a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks".


title: Propane

text: It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, and Arthur Kerr, developed ways to liquefy the LP gases during the refining of gasoline. Together, they established American Gasol Co., the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25, 1913, his method of processing and producing LP gases was issued patent #1,056,845. A separate method of producing LP gas through compression was developed by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2, 1912.


title: Propane

text: The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached , and by 1935, the annual sales of LP gas had reached . Major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons. By 1947, 62% of all U.S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking.


title: Propane

text: In 1950, 1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, and by 1958, sales in the U.S. had reached annually. In 2004, it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over of propane being used annually in the U.S.


title: Propane

text: The "prop-" root found in "propane" and names of other compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from "propionic acid", which in turn was named after the Greek words protos (meaning first) and pion (fat).


title: Propane

text: Propane is produced as a by-product of two other processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, and large amounts of ethane from the raw gas, to prevent condensation of these volatiles in natural gas pipelines. Additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil.


title: Propane

text: The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, because of the by-product nature of propane production. About 90% of U.S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline and rail. The remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport.


title: Propane

text: After it is separated from the crude oil, North American propane is stored in huge salt caverns. Examples of these are Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta; Mont Belvieu, Texas; and Conway, Kansas. These salt caverns can store of propane.


title: Propane

text: Propane is a colorless, odorless gas. Ethyl mercaptan is added as a safety precaution as an odorant, and is commonly called a "rotten egg" smell. At normal pressure it liquifies below its boiling point at −42 °C and solidifies below its melting point at −187.7 °C. Propane crystallizes in the space group P2/n. The low space-filling of 58.5% (at 90 K), due to the bad stacking properties of the molecule, is the reason for the particularly low melting point.


title: Propane

text: Propane undergoes combustion reactions in a similar fashion to other alkanes. In the presence of excess oxygen, propane burns to form water and carbon dioxide.


title: Propane

text: When insufficient oxygen is present for complete combustion, carbon monoxide, soot (carbon), or both, are formed as well:


title: Propane

text: Propane combustion is much cleaner than that of coal or unleaded gasoline. Propane's per-BTU production of CO is almost as low as that of natural gas. Propane burns hotter than home heating oil or diesel fuel because of the very high hydrogen content. The presence of C–C bonds, plus the multiple bonds of propylene and butylene, produce organic exhausts besides carbon dioxide and water vapor during typical combustion. These bonds also cause propane to burn with a visible flame.


title: Propane

text: The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where all products return to standard state, for example where water returns to its liquid state at standard temperature (known as higher heating value), is (2,219.2 ± 0.5) kJ/mol, or (50.33 ± 0.01) MJ/kg.


title: Propane

text: The enthalpy of combustion of propane gas where products do not return to standard state, for example where the hot gases including water vapor exit a chimney, (known as lower heating value) is −2043.455 kJ/mol. The lower heat value is the amount of heat available from burning the substance where the combustion products are vented to the atmosphere; for example, the heat from a fireplace when the flue is open.


title: Propane

text: The density of propane gas at 25 °C (77 °F) is 1.808 kg/m, about 1.5x the density of air at the same temperature. The density of liquid propane at 25 °C (77 °F) is 0.493 g/cm, which is equivalent to 4.11 pounds per U.S. liquid gallon or 493 g/L. Propane expands at 1.5% per 10 °F. Thus, liquid propane has a density of approximately 4.2 pounds per gallon (504 g/L) at 60 °F (15.6 °C).


title: Propane

text: As the density of propane changes with temperature, this fact must be considered every time when the application is connected with safety or custody transfer operations.


title: Propane

text: Propane is a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because the low boiling point of makes it vaporize as soon as it is released from its pressurized container. Therefore, no carburetor or other vaporizing device is required; a simple metering nozzle suffices.


title: Propane

text: Blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (R-290a) (isobutane/propane mixtures) and isobutane (R-600a) can be used as the circulating refrigerant in suitably constructed compressor-based refrigeration. Compared to fluorocarbons, propane has a negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential (having a value of only 3.3 times the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a, and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Because its global warming effect is far less than current refrigerants, propane was chosen as one of five replacement refrigerants approved by the EPA in 2015, for use in systems specially designed to handle its flammability.


title: Propane

text: Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.


title: Propane

text: Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.


title: Propane

text: Propane is also instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, as the energy source for a gas absorption refrigerator and is commonly used for camping and recreational vehicles.


title: Propane

text: Since it can be transported easily, it is a popular fuel for home heat and backup electrical generation in sparsely populated areas that do not have natural gas pipelines.


title: Propane

text: In rural areas of North America, as well as northern Australia, propane is used to heat livestock facilities, in grain dryers, and other heat-producing appliances. When used for heating or grain drying it is usually stored in a large, permanently-placed cylinder which is refilled by a propane-delivery truck. , 6.2 million American households use propane as their primary heating fuel.


title: Propane

text: In North America, local delivery trucks with an average cylinder size of , fill up large cylinders that are permanently installed on the property, or other service trucks exchange empty cylinders of propane with filled cylinders. Large tractor-trailer trucks, with an average cylinder size of , transport propane from the pipeline or refinery to the local bulk plant. The bobtail tank truck is not unique to the North American market, though the practice is not as common elsewhere, and the vehicles are generally called "tankers". In many countries, propane is delivered to end-users via small or medium-sized individual cylinders, while empty cylinders are removed for refilling at a central location.


title: Propane

text: In the U.S., over 190,000 on-road vehicles use propane, and over 450,000 forklifts use it for power. It is the third most popular vehicle fuel in the world, behind gasoline and diesel fuel. In other parts of the world, propane used in vehicles is known as autogas. In 2007, approximately 13 million vehicles worldwide use autogas.


title: Propane

text: The advantage of propane in cars is its liquid state at a moderate pressure. This allows fast refill times, affordable fuel cylinder construction, and price ranges typically just over half that of gasoline. Meanwhile, it is noticeably cleaner (both in handling, and in combustion), results in less engine wear (due to carbon deposits) without diluting engine oil (often extending oil-change intervals), and until recently was relatively low-cost in North America. The octane rating of propane is relatively high at 110. In the United States the propane fueling infrastructure is the most developed of all alternative vehicle fuels. Many converted vehicles have provisions for topping off from "barbecue bottles". Purpose-built vehicles are often in commercially owned fleets, and have private fueling facilities. A further saving for propane fuel vehicle operators, especially in fleets, is that theft is much more difficult than with gasoline or diesel fuels.


title: Propane

text: Propane is also used as fuel for small engines, especially those used indoors or in areas with insufficient fresh air and ventilation to carry away the more toxic exhaust of an engine running on gasoline or diesel fuel. More recently, there have been lawn-care products like string trimmers, lawn mowers and leaf blowers intended for outdoor use, but fueled by propane in order to reduce air pollution.


title: Propane

text: Many heavy-duty highway trucks use propane as a boost, where it is added through the turbocharger, to mix with diesel fuel droplets. Propane droplets' very high hydrogen content helps the diesel fuel to burn hotter and therefore more completely. This provides more torque, more horsepower, and a cleaner exhaust for the trucks. It is normal for a 7-liter medium-duty diesel truck engine to increase fuel economy by 20 to 33 percent when a propane boost system is used. It is cheaper because propane is much cheaper than diesel fuel. The longer distance a cross-country trucker can travel on a full load of combined diesel and propane fuel means they can maintain federal hours of work rules with two fewer fuel stops in a cross-country trip. Truckers, tractor pulling competitions, and farmers have been using a propane boost system for over forty years in North America.


title: Propane

text: International ships can reuse propane from ocean-going ships that transport liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) because as the sun evaporates the propane during the voyage, the international ship catches the evaporating propane gas and feeds it into the air intake system of the ship's diesel engines. This reduces bunker fuel consumption and the pollution produced by the ships. There is an international agreement to use either propane or compressed natural gas (CNG) as a mandatory additive to the bunker fuel for all ocean traveling ships beginning in 2020.


title: Propane

text: Propane is generally stored and transported in steel cylinders as a liquid with a vapor space above the liquid. The vapor pressure in the cylinder is a function of temperature. When gaseous propane is drawn at a high rate, the latent heat of vaporization required to produce the gas will cause the bottle to cool. (This is why water often condenses on the sides of the bottle and then freezes). Since lightweight, high-octane propane vaporizes before the heavier, low-octane propane, the ignition properties change as the cylinder empties. For these reasons, the liquid is often withdrawn using a dip tube.


title: Propane

text: The North American standard grade of automotive-use propane is rated HD-5 (Heavy Duty 5%). HD-5 grade has a maximum of 5 percent butane, but propane sold in Europe has a maximum allowable amount of butane of 30 percent, meaning it is not the same fuel as HD-5. The LPG used as auto fuel and cooking gas in Asia and Australia also has very high butane content.


title: Propane

text: Propylene (also called propene) can be a contaminant of commercial propane. Propane containing too much propene is not suited for most vehicle fuels. HD-5 is a specification that establishes a maximum concentration of 5% propene in propane. Propane and other LP gas specifications are established in ASTM D-1835. All propane fuels include an odorant, almost always ethanethiol, so that the gas can be smelled easily in case of a leak. Propane as HD-5 was originally intended for use as vehicle fuel. HD-5 is currently being used in all propane applications.


title: Propane

text: Typically in the United States and Canada, LPG is primarily propane (at least 90%), while the rest is mostly ethane, propylene, butane, and odorants including ethyl mercaptan. This is the HD-5 standard, (maximum allowable propylene content, and no more than 5% butanes and ethane) defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials by its Standard 1835 for internal combustion engines. Not all products labeled "LPG" conform to this standard, however. In Mexico, for example, gas labeled "LPG" may consist of 60% propane and 40% butane. "The exact proportion of this combination varies by country, depending on international prices, on the availability of components and, especially, on the climatic conditions that favor LPG with higher butane content in warmer regions and propane in cold areas".


title: Propane

text: Propane is bought and stored in a liquid form, LPG. It can easily be stored in a relatively small space.