title: Violet (color)

text: In the 18th century, chemists in England, France and Germany began to create the first synthetic dyes. Two synthetic purple dyes were invented at about the same time. Cudbear is a dye extracted from orchil lichens that can be used to dye wool and silk, without the use of mordant. Cudbear was developed by Dr. Cuthbert Gordon of Scotland: production began in 1758, The lichen is first boiled in a solution of ammonium carbonate. The mixture is then cooled and ammonia is added and the mixture is kept damp for 3–4 weeks. Then the lichen is dried and ground to powder. The manufacture details were carefully protected, with a ten-foot high wall built around the manufacturing facility, and staff consisting of Highlanders sworn to secrecy.


title: Violet (color)

text: French purple was developed in France at about the same time. The lichen is extracted by urine or ammonia. Then the extract is acidified, the dissolved dye precipitates and is washed. Then it is dissolved in ammonia again, the solution is heated in air until it becomes purple, then it is precipitated with calcium chloride; the resulting dye was more solid and stable than other purples.


title: Violet (color)

text: Cobalt violet is a synthetic pigment that was invented in the second half of the 19th century, and is made by a similar process as cobalt blue, cerulean blue and cobalt green. It is the violet pigment most commonly used today by artists, along with manganese violet.


title: Violet (color)

text: Mauveine, also known as aniline purple and Perkin's mauve, was the first synthetic organic chemical dye, discovered serendipitously in 1856. Its chemical name is 3-amino-2,±9-dimethyl-5-phenyl-7-(p-tolylamino) phenazinium acetate.


title: Violet (color)

text: In the 1950s, a new family of violet synthetic organic pigments called quinacridones came onto the market. They had originally been discovered in 1896, synthetized in 1936 and manufactured in the 1950s. The colors in the group range from deep red to violet in color, and have the molecular formula CHNO. They have strong resistance to sunlight and washing, and are used in oil paints, water colors and acrylics, as well as in automobile coatings and other industrial coatings.


title: Violet (color)

text: Violet is one of the oldest colors used by humans. Traces of very dark violet, made by grinding the mineral manganese, mixed with water or animal fat and then brushed on the cave wall or applied with the fingers, are found in the prehistoric cave art in Pech Merle, in France, dating back about 25,000 years. It has also been found in the cave of Altamira and Lascaux. It was sometimes used as an alternative to black charcoal. Sticks of manganese, used for drawing, have been found at sites occupied by Neanderthals in France and Israel. From the grinding tools at various sites, it appears it may also have been used to color the body and to decorate animal skins.


title: Violet (color)

text: More recently, the earliest dates on cave paintings have been pushed back farther than 35,000 years. Hand paintings on rock walls in Australia may be even older, dating back as far as 50,000 years.


title: Violet (color)

text: Berries of the genus rubus, such as blackberries, were a common source of dyes in antiquity. The ancient Egyptians made a kind of violet dye by combining the juice of the mulberry with crushed green grapes. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls used a violet dye made from bilberry to color the clothing of slaves. These dyes made a satisfactory purple, but it faded quickly in sunlight and when washed.


title: Violet (color)

text: Violet and purple retained their status as the color of emperors and princes of the church throughout the long rule of the Byzantine Empire.


title: Violet (color)

text: While violet was worn less frequently by Medieval and Renaissance kings and princes, it was worn by the professors of many of Europe's new universities. Their robes were modeled after those of the clergy, and they often wore square violet caps and violet robes, or black robes with violet trim.


title: Violet (color)

text: Violet also played an important part in the religious paintings of the Renaissance. Angels and the Virgin Mary were often portrayed wearing violet robes. The 15th-century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini advised artists: "If you want to make a lovely violet colour, take fine lacca, ultramarine blue (the same amount of the one as of the other)..." For fresco painters, he advised a less-expensive version, made of a mixture of blue indigo and red hematite.


title: Violet (color)

text: In the 18th century, purple was a color worn by royalty, aristocrats and other wealthy people. Good-quality purple fabric was too expensive for ordinary people.


title: Violet (color)

text: The first cobalt violet, the intensely red-violet cobalt arsenate, was highly toxic. Although it persisted in some paint lines into the 20th century, it was displaced by less toxic cobalt compounds such as cobalt phosphate. Cobalt violet appeared in the second half of the 19th century, broadening the palette of artists with its range of purple colors. Cobalt violet was used by Paul Signac (1863–1935), Claude Monet (1840–1926) and Georges Seurat (1859–1891). Today, cobalt ammonium phosphate, cobalt lithium phosphate and cobalt phosphate are available for use by artists. Cobalt ammonium phosphate is the most reddish of the three. Cobalt phosphate is available in two varieties — a deep less saturated blueish type and a lighter and brighter somewhat more reddish type. Cobalt lithium phosphate is a saturated lighter-valued bluish violet. A color similar to cobalt ammonium phosphate, cobalt magnesium borate, was introduced in the later 20th century but was not deemed sufficiently lightfast for artistic use. Cobalt violet is the only truly lightfast purple pigment with relatively strong color saturation. All other light-stable purple pigments are dull by comparison. The high price of the pigment and the toxicity of cobalt have limited its use.


title: Violet (color)

text: In the 1860s, the popularity of using violet colors suddenly rose among painters and other artists. For example, Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was an avid student of color theory. He used violet in many of his paintings of the 1880s, including his paintings of irises and the swirling and mysterious skies of his starry night paintings, and often combined it with its complementary color, yellow. In his painting of his bedroom in Arles (1888), he used several sets of complementary colors; violet and yellow, red and green and orange and blue. In a letter about the painting to his brother Theo, he wrote, "The color here...should be suggestive of sleep and repose in general...The walls are a pale violet. The floor is of red tiles. The wood of the bed and the chairs are fresh butter yellow, the sheet and the pillows light lemon green. The bedspread bright scarlet. The window green. The bed table orange. The bowl blue. The doors lilac...The painting should rest the head or the imagination."


title: Violet (color)

text: In 1856, a young British chemist named William Henry Perkin was trying to make a synthetic quinine. His experiments produced instead an unexpected residue, which turned out to be the first synthetic aniline dye, a deep purple color called mauveine, or abbreviated simply to mauve (the dye being named after the lighter color of the mallow [mauve] flower). Used to dye clothes, it became extremely fashionable among the nobility and upper classes in Europe, particularly after Queen Victoria wore a silk gown dyed with mauveine to the Royal Exhibition of 1862. Prior to Perkin's discovery, mauve was a color which only the aristocracy and rich could afford to wear. Perkin developed an industrial process, built a factory, and produced the dye by the ton so almost anyone could wear mauve. It was the first of a series of modern industrial dyes which completely transformed both the chemical industry and fashion.


title: Violet (color)

text: Violet or purple neckties became popular at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, particularly among political and business leaders.


title: Violet (color)

text: In a European survey, three percent of respondents said violet is their favorite color, ranking it behind blue, green, red, black and yellow (in that order), and tied with orange. Ten percent called it their least favorite color; brown, pink and gray were more unpopular.


title: Violet (color)

text: Because of its status as the color of Roman emperors, monarchs and princes, purple and violet are often associated with luxury. Certain luxury goods, such as watches and jewelry, are often placed in boxes lined with violet velvet, since violet is the complementary color of yellow and shows gold to best advantage.


title: Violet (color)

text: While violet is the color of humility in the symbolism of the Catholic Church, it has exactly the opposite meaning in general society. A European poll in 2000 showed it was the color most commonly associated with vanity. As a color that rarely exists in nature and so attracts attention, it is seen as a color of individualism and extravagance.


title: Violet (color)

text: In Japan, violet was a popular color introduced into dress during the Heian Period (794–1185). The dye was made from the root of the alkanet plant (Anchusa officinalis), known as "murasaki" in Japanese. At about the same time, Japanese painters began to use a pigment made from the same plant.


title: Violet (color)

text: The "New Age Prophetess", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the "seventh ray" of "Ceremonial Order" is represented by the color violet. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Violet Ray".


title: Violet (color)

text: In the Ascended Master Teachings, the color violet is used to represent the Ascended Master St. Germain.


title: Violet (color)

text: "The Invocation of the Violet Flame" is a system of meditation practice used in the "I AM" Activity and by the Church Universal and Triumphant (both Ascended Master Teaching religions).


title: Violet (color)

text: In the Roman Catholic church, violet is worn by bishops and archbishops, red by cardinals and white by the Pope. Ordinary priests wear black. As in many other Western churches, violet is the liturgical color of Advent and Lent, which respectively celebrate the expectant waiting and preparation for the celebration of the Crucifixion of Jesus and the time for penance and/or mourning.


title: Violet (color)

text: A stained glass window installed in the early 1920s in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles depicts God the Father wearing a violet robe.


title: Violet (color)

text: After the Vatican II Council, which modified many of the rules of the Catholic church, priests began to wear violet robes when celebrating masses for the dead. Black was no longer used, since it was the color of mourning outside the church and deemed inappropriate in a religious ceremony.


title: Violet (color)

text: In the early 20th century, violet, white and gold were the colors of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, seeking the right to vote for women. The colors were said to represent liberty and dignity. For this reason, the postage stamp issued in 1936 to honor Susan B. Anthony, a prominent leader of the suffrage movement in the United States, was colored the reddish tone of violet sometimes known as red-violet.


title: Violet (color)

text: In 1908, Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence, co-editor of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) newspaper, designed the color scheme for the suffragette movement in Britain and Ireland, with violet for loyalty and dignity, white for purity and green for hope.


title: Violet (color)

text: The pan-European movement Volt Europa and its national subsidiary parties use violet in their uniforms.


title: Violet (color)

text: A small New Age political party in Germany with about 1,150 members is called The Violet Party. It believes in direct democracy, a guaranteed minimum income and politics based on spirituality. It was founded in Dortmund in 2001.


title: Violet (color)

text: Violet flowers and their color became symbolically associated with lesbian love. It was used as a special code by lesbians and bisexual women for self-identification and also to communicate support for the sexual preference. This connection originates from the poet Sappho and fragments of her poems. In one poem, she describes a lost love wearing a garland of "violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around" her neck. In another fragment, she recalls her lover as having "put around yourself [many wreaths] of violets and roses."


title: Paul Craig

text: Paul Lindsey Craig (born 27 November 1987) is a Scottish mixed martial artist who competes in the Light heavyweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). A professional competitor since 2013, Craig formerly competed for BAMMA, where he was the BAMMA World Light Heavyweight Champion. As of December 6, 2022, he is #9 in the UFC light heavyweight rankings.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig's head coach Brian Gallagher took him from no martial arts experience to 8–0 as an amateur, with each of his wins coming via first-round stoppage. As a professional, Craig went 8–0 over four years before being signed by the UFC.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig won the BAMMA World Light heavyweight Championship at BAMMA 23 when he defeated Marcin Lazarz by submission. He was set to defend his title against Chris Fields in Dublin, although the fight was postponed following the death of Portuguese fighter Joao Carvalho. The match up was rescheduled, but failed to take place due to Craig's damaging his ankle ligaments. Craig did not end up defending the title, as he signed a 4-fight deal with the UFC.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig made his promotional debut against Luis Henrique da Silva on 17 December 2016 at . He won the fight via submission in Round 2 and was awarded a "Performance of the Night" bonus.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Magomed Ankalaev on 17 March 2018 at UFC Fight Night 127. He won the fight via submission at 4:59 in Round 3, resulting in the latest submission finish in a 3-round fight in UFC history. He was also awarded a "Performance of the Night" bonus.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced promotional newcomer Jimmy Crute on 2 December 2018 at UFC Fight Night 142. He lost the fight via kimura in the third round.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced promotional newcomer Kennedy Nzechukwu on 30 March 2019 at UFC on ESPN 2. He won the fight via submission due to a triangle choke in the third round. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Alonzo Menifield on 29 June 2019 at UFC on ESPN 3: Ngannou vs. Dos Santos. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Vinicius Moreira on 21 September 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 17. He won the fight via a rear-naked choke submission in the first round.> This win earn Craig his fourth "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig stepped in on short notice to face Maurício Rua on 16 November 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 22, replacing Sam Alvey, who had withdrawn from the bout due to a broken hand. After three rounds, the back-and-forth fight was declared a split draw.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Gadzhimurad Antigulov on 26 July 2020 at UFC on ESPN 14. He won the fight via submission in round one. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Maurício Rua in a rematch on 21 November 2020 at UFC 255. He won the fight via technical knockout in round two.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig was scheduled to face Jamahal Hill on 20 March 2021 UFC on ESPN 21. However on 10 March, Hill withdrew from the bout after testing positive for COVID-19. The match was rescheduled for 12 June 2021 at UFC 263. Craig won the bout via TKO in round one after snapping Hill's elbow with an armbar. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig was scheduled to face Alexander Gustafsson on 4 September 2021 at UFC Fight Night 191. However, a week before the event, Gustafsson withdrew due to injury.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Nikita Krylov on March 19, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 204. He won the fight via a triangle choke in round one. With this win, he received the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig faced Volkan Oezdemir on July 23, 2022, at UFC Fight Night 208. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Paul Craig

text: Craig competed in the 2015 British Pro Jiu Jitsu Championship, taking 1st place in the Purple Belt 95+ kg Division and qualifying for the Abu Dhabi World Professional Jiu-Jitsu Championship. He also took 3rd place in the Absolute Purple 75+ kg Division. After defeating Jamahal Hill in 2021, Craig was promoted to black belt.


title: Paul Craig

text: On 27/08/22, Craig defeated Sam Sweeney in a tough, back and forth sub only grappling match at Holytown Havoc 2.


title: Paul Craig

text: Paul played football before becoming an MMA fighter. He also worked as a football coach before becoming a teacher for an educational charity.


title: Topographic prominence

text: In topography, prominence (also referred to as autonomous height, relative height, and shoulder drop in US English, and drop or relative height in British English) measures the height of a mountain or hill's summit relative to the lowest contour line encircling it but containing no higher summit within it. It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peak's "key col" (the highest col surrounding the peak) is a unique point on this contour line and the "parent peak" is some higher mountain, selected according to various criteria.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The prominence of a peak may be defined as the least drop in height necessary in order to get from the summit to any higher terrain. This can be calculated for a given peak in the following way: for every path connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the path; the "key col" (or "key saddle", or "linking col", or "link") is defined as the highest of these points, along all connecting paths; the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of its key col. Mount Everest's prominence is defined by convention as its height, making it consistent with prominence of the highest peaks on other landmasses. An alternative equivalent definition is that the prominence is the height of the peak's summit above the lowest contour line encircling it, but containing no higher summit within it; see Figure 1.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua in Argentina at a distance of 17,755 km (11,032 miles), as well as the parent of the South Summit of Mount Everest at a distance of 360 m (1200 feet). The key col may also be close to the subject peak or far from it. The key col for Aconcagua, if sea level is disregarded, is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km (8,485 miles). The key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m (330 feet) distant.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is an objective measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominence are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits. Peaks with high prominence tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains. For example, the world's second-highest mountain is K2 (height 8,611 m, prominence 4,017 m). While Mount Everest's South Summit (height 8,749 m, prominence 11 m) is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a sub-summit of the main summit (which has a height and prominence of 8,848 m).


title: Topographic prominence

text: Many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or "cutoff". John and Anne Nuttall's "The Mountains of England and Wales" uses a cutoff of 15 m (about 50 ft), and Alan Dawson's list of Marilyns uses 150 m (about 500 ft). (Dawson's list and the term "Marilyn" are limited to Britain and Ireland). In the contiguous United States, the famous list of "fourteeners" (14,000 foot / 4268 m peaks) uses a cutoff of 300 ft / 91 m (with some exceptions). Also in the U.S., 2000 ft (610 m) of prominence has become an informal threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Lists with a high topographic prominence cutoff tend to favor isolated peaks or those that are the highest point of their massif; a low value, such as the Nuttalls', results in a list with many summits that may be viewed by some as insignificant.


title: Topographic prominence

text: While the use of prominence as a cutoff to form a list of peaks ranked by elevation is standard and is the most common use of the concept, it is also possible to use prominence as a mountain measure in itself. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are qualitatively different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points and stratovolcanoes. One advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak.


title: Topographic prominence

text: It is common to define a peak's "parent" as a particular peak in the higher terrain connected to the peak by the key col. If there are many higher peaks there are various ways of defining which one is the parent, not necessarily based on geological or geomorphological factors. The "parent" relationship defines a hierarchy which defines some peaks as subpeaks of others. For example, in Figure 1, the middle peak is a subpeak of the right peak, which is in turn a subpeak of the left peak, which is the highest point on its landmass. In that example, there is no controversy over the hierarchy; in practice, there are different definitions of parent. These different definitions follow.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Also called "prominence island parentage", this is defined as follows. In figure 2 the key col of peak A is at the meeting place of two closed contours, one encircling A (and no higher peaks) and the other containing at least one higher peak. The encirclement parent of A is the highest peak that is inside this other contour. In terms of the falling-sea model, the two contours together bound an island, with two pieces connected by an isthmus at the key col. The encirclement parent is the highest point on this entire island.


title: Topographic prominence

text: For example, the encirclement parent of Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps, is Mount Everest. Mont Blanc's key col is a piece of low ground near Lake Onega in northwestern Russia (at elevation), on the divide between lands draining into the Baltic and Caspian Seas. This is the meeting place of two contours, one of them encircling Mont Blanc; the other contour encircles Mount Everest. This example demonstrates that the encirclement parent can be very far away from the peak in question when the key col is low.


title: Topographic prominence

text: This means that, while simple to define, the encirclement parent often does not satisfy the intuitive requirement that the parent peak should be close to the child peak. For example, one common use of the concept of parent is to make clear the location of a peak. If we say that Peak A has Mont Blanc for a parent, we would expect to find Peak A somewhere close to Mont Blanc. This is not always the case for the various concepts of parent, and is least likely to be the case for encirclement parentage.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Figure 3 shows a schematic range of peaks with the color underlying the minor peaks indicating the encirclement parent. In this case the encirclement parent of M is H whereas an intuitive view might be that L was the parent. Indeed, if col "k" were slightly lower, L would be the true encirclement parent.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The encirclement parent is the highest possible parent for a peak; all other definitions pick out a (possibly different) peak on the combined island, a "closer" peak than the encirclement parent (if there is one), which is still "better" than the peak in question. The differences lie in what criteria are used to define "closer" and "better."


title: Topographic prominence

text: The (prominence) parent peak of peak A can be found by dividing the island or region in question into territories, by tracing the two hydrographic runoffs, one in each direction, downwards from the key col of every peak that is more prominent than peak A. The parent is the peak whose territory peak A is in.


title: Topographic prominence

text: For hills with low prominence in Britain, a definition of "parent Marilyn" is sometimes used to classify low hills ("Marilyn" being a British term for a hill with a prominence of at least 150 m). This is found by dividing the region of Britain in question into territories, "one for each Marilyn". The parent Marilyn is the Marilyn whose territory the hill's summit is in. If the hill is on an island (in Britain) whose highest point is less than 150 m, it has no parent Marilyn.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Prominence parentage is the only definition used in the British Isles because encirclement parentage breaks down when the key col approaches sea level. Using the encirclement definition, the parent of almost any small hill in a low-lying coastal area would be Ben Nevis, an unhelpful and confusing outcome. Meanwhile, "height" parentage (see below) is not used because there is no obvious choice of cutoff.


title: Topographic prominence

text: This choice of method might at first seem arbitrary, but it provides every hill with a clear and unambiguous parent peak that is taller and more prominent than the hill itself, while also being connected to it (via ridge lines). The parent of a low hill will also usually be nearby; this becomes less likely as the hill's height and prominence increase. Using prominence parentage, one may produce a "hierarchy" of peaks going back to the highest point on the island. One such chain in Britain would read:


title: Topographic prominence

text: Billinge Hill → Winter Hill → Hail Storm Hill → Boulsworth Hill → Kinder Scout → Cross Fell → Helvellyn → Scafell Pike → Snowdon → Ben Nevis.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Line parentage, also called height parentage, is similar to prominence parentage, but it requires a prominence cutoff criterion. The height parent is the closest peak to peak A (along all ridges connected to A) that has a greater height than A, and satisfies some prominence criteria.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The disadvantage of this concept is that it goes against the intuition that a parent peak should always be more significant than its child. However it can be used to build an entire lineage for a peak which contains a great deal of information about the peak's position.


title: Topographic prominence

text: To choose among possible parents, instead of choosing the closest possible parent, it is possible to choose the one which requires the least descent along the ridge.


title: Topographic prominence

text: In general, the analysis of parents and lineages is intimately linked to studying the topology of watersheds.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Alteration of the landscape by humans and presence of water features can give rise to issues in the choice of location and height of a summit or col. In Britain, extensive discussion has given rise to a protocol that has been adopted by the main sources of prominence data in Britain and Ireland. Other sources of data commonly ignore man-made alterations, but this convention is not universally agreed upon; for example, some authors discount modern structures but allow ancient ones. Another disagreement concerns mountaintop removal, though for high-prominence peaks (and for low-prominence subpeaks with intact summits), the difference in prominence values for the two conventions is typically relatively small.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The key col and parent peak are often close to the subpeak but this is not always the case, especially when the key col is relatively low. It is only with the advent of computer programs and geographical databases that thorough analysis has become possible.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The key col of Denali in Alaska (6,194 m) is a 56 m col near Lake Nicaragua (unless one accepts the Panama Canal as a key col; this is a matter of contention). Denali's encirclement parent is Aconcagua (6,960 m), in Argentina, and its prominence is 6,138 m. To further illustrate the rising-sea model of prominence, if sea level rose 56 m, North and South America would be separate continents and Denali would be 6138 m above sea level. At a slightly lower level, the continents would still be connected, and the high point of the combined landmass would be Aconcagua, the encirclement parent. Note that, for the purposes of this article, man made structures such as the Panama Canal are not taken into account. If they were, the key col would be along the 26 m Gaillard Cut and Denali would have a prominence of 6,168 m.


title: Topographic prominence

text: While it is natural for Aconcagua to be the parent of Denali, since Denali is a major peak, consider the following situation: Peak A is a small hill on the coast of Alaska, with elevation 100 m and key col 50 m. Then the encirclement parent of Peak A is also Aconcagua, even though there will be many peaks closer to Peak A which are much higher and more prominent than Peak A (for example, Denali). This illustrates the disadvantage in using the encirclement parent.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Mount Whitney (4421 m) has its key col away in New Mexico at 1347 m on the Continental Divide. Its encirclement parent is Pico de Orizaba (5,636 m), the highest mountain in Mexico. Orizaba's key col is back along the Divide, in British Columbia.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The key col for Mount Mitchell, the highest peak of the Appalachians, is in Chicago, the low point on the divide between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi River watersheds.


title: Topographic prominence

text: A hill in a low-lying area like the Netherlands will often be a direct child of Mount Everest, with its prominence about the same as its height and its key col placed at or near the foot of the hill, well below, for instance, the 113-meter-high key col of Mont Blanc.


title: Topographic prominence

text: When the key col for a peak is close to the peak itself, prominence is easily computed by hand using a topographic map. However, when the key col is far away, or when one wants to calculate the prominence of many peaks at once, software can apply Surface Network Modeling to a digital elevation model to find exact or approximate key cols.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Since topographic maps typically show elevation using contour lines, the exact elevation is typically bounded by an upper and lower contour, and not specified exactly. Prominence calculations may use the high contour, giving in a pessimistic estimate, the low contour, giving an optimistic estimate, their mean, giving a "midrange" or "rise" prominence, or an interpolated value, customary in Britain.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The choice of method depends largely on the preference of the author and historical precedent. Pessimistic prominence, and sometimes optimistic prominence, were for many years used in US and international lists, but mean prominence is becoming preferred.


title: Topographic prominence

text: There are two varieties of topographic prominence: wet prominence and dry prominence. Wet prominence is the standard topographic prominence discussed in this article. Wet prominence assumes that the surface of the earth includes all permanent water, snow, and ice features. Thus, the wet prominence of the highest summit of an ocean island or landmass is always equal to the summit's elevation.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Dry prominence, on the other hand, ignores water, snow, and ice features and assumes that the surface of the earth is defined by the solid bottom of those features. The dry prominence of a summit is equal to its wet prominence unless the summit is the highest point of a landmass or island, or its key col is covered by snow or ice. If its highest surface col is on water, snow, or ice, the dry prominence of that summit is equal to its wet prominence plus the depth of its highest submerged col.


title: Topographic prominence

text: The dry prominence of Mount Everest is, by convention, equal to its wet prominence (8848 m) plus the depth of the deepest hydrologic feature (the Challenger Deep at 10,911 m), or 19,759 m. The dry prominence of Mauna Kea is equal to its wet prominence (4205 m) plus the depth of its highest submerged col (about 5125 m), or about 9330 m, giving it the world's second greatest dry prominence after Mount Everest. The dry prominence of Aconcagua is equal to its wet prominence (6962 m) plus the depth of the highest submerged col of the Bering Strait (about 50 m), or about 7012 m.


title: Topographic prominence

text: Dry prominence is also useful for measuring submerged seamounts. Seamounts have a dry topographic prominence, a topographic isolation, and a negative topographic elevation.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Umma () is a 2022 American supernatural horror film, written and directed by Iris K. Shim. The film stars Sandra Oh, Fivel Stewart, MeeWha Alana Lee, Tom Yi, Odeya Rush, and Dermot Mulroney. Sam Raimi serves as a producer on the film. The film follows Amanda (Oh), a single mother who lives with her daughter in an isolated farm being haunted by her mother's ghost.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: "Umma" was released in the United States on March 18, 2022, by Sony Pictures Releasing. The film received mixed-to-negative reviews from critics, who praised Oh's performance and the film's themes, but criticized its formulas as clichéd, its screenplay, over-reliance on jump scares and lack of tension.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Korean immigrant Amanda and her homeschooled daughter Chrissy “Amani” live on a rural farm, raising bees, selling honey, raising chickens, and living without modern technology as Amanda has an “allergic reaction” to electronics and electricity. She's upset to learn that Chrissy wants to leave the farm in order to pursue college. When Amanda receives the cremated ashes of her recently deceased estranged mother, or "Umma", in a suitcase from her uncle visiting her from Korea, she is confronted with memories of her abusive childhood.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Umma had been left to raise Amanda alone in the United States, unable to speak English and surrounded by those who did not understand or practice her culture. It is revealed that Amanda fabricated her “allergy” to electronics after being electrically shocked multiple times by Umma as punishment. When Amanda cut ties with her mother she also cut ties with her Korean heritage as a whole, including giving up her family name. As her uncle left, he shamed Amanda for abandoning her own mother and heritage, and for not teaching Chrissy Korean language and culture.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Soon after the ashes arrive a vicious spirit appears, intent on claiming Amanda's body for itself. As the supernatural phenomena following the delivery of her mother's ashes progress, from visions of tormented Korean spirits (including Umma's spirit) to an encounter with a kumiho that was eating her chickens, Amanda suddenly becomes more paranoid and fearful that she's slowly becoming her own mother. This fear becomes realized when Umma successfully possesses her daughter when Amanda tries to bury the ashes.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Chrissy finds her mother performing the Jesa and wearing a mask and hanbok. She's attacked by Amanda, but manages to avoid being killed after pleading for her life. Amanda decides to confront her mother. She forgives her for the abuse. Amanda acknowledges that it was unfair that Umma had been expected to raise a child all alone in a country far from home and in her circumstances, but that it was not an excuse for the abuse. This compassion and understanding allows Umma to finally move on and be at peace, as she had also come to understand that what she did to Amanda was unfair. The film ends with Amanda rediscovering her family heritage and sharing it with her daughter, as well as coming to terms with Chrissy's need to live her own life.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: In January 2020, it was announced that Sandra Oh had joined the cast of the film, with Iris K. Shim directing from a screenplay she wrote and with Sam Raimi and Zainab Azizi producing under the Raimi Productions banner. Originally filming was set to begin in Vancouver in April 2020, but production was shut down because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2020, Fivel Stewart, Dermot Mulroney, Odeya Rush, MeeWha Alana Lee and Tom Yi joined the cast of the film, with Stage 6 Films set to produce and Sony Pictures Releasing distributing. Filming eventually began on October 7, 2020, in Los Angeles, California, and wrapped in January 2021.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: "Umma" was released on March 18, 2022. The film's premiere took place in Koreatown in Los Angeles on March 15, 2022.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: The film was released digitally on April 9, 2022, and was given a DVD and Blu-ray release date of May 24, 2022 by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The movie was added to Netflix in the United States on July 16, 2022.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Umma" was released alongside "Jujutsu Kaisen 0", "The Outfit", and "X", and was projected to gross $500,000–1.5 million from 805 theaters in its opening weekend. The film earned $915,290 in its opening weekend, finishing eleventh. Women made up 57% of the audience during its opening, with those in the age range of 18–34 comprising 61% of ticket sales. The ethnic breakdown of the audience showed that 42% were Caucasian, 19% Hispanic and Latino Americans, 18% African American, 17% Asian, and 4% other. The film dropped out of the box office top ten in its second weekend, finishing fourteenth with $460,068.


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Audiences polled by PostTrak gave the film a 52% positive score, which "Deadline Hollywood" described as "awful."


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Laura Sirikul from "IGN" gave a score of 4 out of 10, praising its themes and Oh's performance but criticizing its poor execution and cliches, stating, ""Umma" isn’t scary, but the themes behind it are terrifying as it deals with generational trauma and guilt. Though the cultural references run deep, it’s overstuffed with symbolic imagery that is never fully explained. Though Oh and Stewart give solid performances, the tone and tension of the story ends up being choppy and underwhelming." Andrew Baker from "Variety" wrote: "Oh aces her leading role with customary aplomb, and Stewart makes for a game scene partner, but Shim’s economical-to-a-fault screenplay rarely allows them enough downtime to fully flesh out their characters."


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: Frank Scheck at "The Hollywood Reporter" noted Oh's committed performance but found the film to be a mediocre B-movie, writing: "Writer-director Shin's labored attempts to use genre tropes to explore the complexities of domineering mother-daughter relationships never fully develops." Frank Hoepfner from "The Wrap" wrote: "The most frightening part of "Umma" is not the ghostly apparition of Amanda’s mother, but Amanda herself. Under Shim’s direction, Oh’s Amanda is haunted and taut, an unpredictable force of nature." Kate Erbland from "IndieWire" also gave a mixed review and wrote: "Despite its flaws, "Umma" is an impressive debut for Shim, the kind of outing that hints at plenty more under the hood or tucked inside a massive suitcase, just bursting with secrets."


title: Umma (2022 film)

text: In a positive review, Tracy Brown from "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "Think more classic Gothic horror than ghastly over-the-top occult. But that’s plenty to keep viewers such as me, who frighten easily, on edge as the story progresses."


title: Dominic Purcell

text: Dominic Haakon Myrtved Purcell (born 17 February 1970) is a British-Australian actor. He is best known for his portrayals of Lincoln Burrows in Fox's "Prison Break" (2005–2009; 2017) and Mick Rory / Heat Wave in The CW's "The Flash" (2014–2016) and "Legends of Tomorrow" (2016–2021), as well as Drake / Dracula in "" (2004). He is also known for his role as Lewis "Lew" Brookbank in the 2004 film "Three-Way".


title: Dominic Purcell

text: Purcell was born in Wallasey, Cheshire (now Merseyside), England. He is the son of Phil Myrtvedt and Maureen (née Clarke) Purcell. His mother was Irish and his father was of Norwegian and English descent. In 1972, he and his family moved to Bondi, New South Wales in Australia, and later to Western Sydney in Penrith. He attended St Finbars primary School and Blaxland High School, as well as St Dominic's College and McCarthy Catholic College, Emu Plains. He later attended the Australian Theatre for Young People and then enrolled at the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts, where he studied with Hugh Jackman. He holds triple British-Irish-Australian citizenship, being British by virtue of being born in the United Kingdom before the country abolished unconditional birthright citizenship in 1983 and being Irish automatically through his Irish mother.


title: Dominic Purcell

text: Purcell was married to Rebecca Williamson from 1998 until 2008, during which time the couple had four children.


title: Dominic Purcell

text: In 2011, Purcell started dating former "90210" actress AnnaLynne McCord; in 2014, the couple announced an amicable split, though they rekindled their romance a year later. McCord told "People Magazine" she came back into his life as a friend when the actor was diagnosed with skin cancer, but the relationship soon turned romantic again. In January 2018, McCord ended the relationship. However, on 25 September 2020 Purcell confirmed on Instagram that they had rekindled their relationship.


title: Dominic Purcell

text: On 1 June 2016, Purcell suffered severe injuries on set in Morocco, after a misplaced iron bar used as a "Prison Break" season 5 set piece fell on his head. He was immediately airlifted from Ouarzazate to Casablanca, where he received emergency treatment for nasal fractures and various other injuries.


title: Gelato

text: Gelato (; ) is the common word in Italian for all kinds of ice cream. In English, it specifically refers to a frozen dessert of Italian origin. Artisanal gelato in Italy generally contains 6%–9% butterfat, which is lower than other styles of frozen dessert. Gelato typically contains 35% air (substantially less than American-style ice cream) and more flavoring than other kinds of frozen desserts, giving it a density and richness that distinguishes it from other ice creams.


title: Gelato

text: In the Italian language, "gelato" is the generic word for ice cream, independent of the style, so every kind of ice cream is referred to as "gelato" in Italian. In the English language, however, the word "gelato" has come to be used to refer to a specific style of ice cream derived from the Italian artisanal tradition.


title: Gelato

text: In Florence, Cosimo Ruggeri (died 1615), is credited with creating the first gelato, "fior di latte", at the court of Catherine de' Medici, in a competition, with the theme "il piatto più singolare che si fosse mai visto".


title: Gelato

text: Since 1565, Bernardo Buontalenti (1531–1608), an innovator in ice conservation, made a sorbet, with ice, and salt, consisting of lemon, wine, milk, sugar, egg, and honey, "plus orange and bergamot flavouring". and is credited with inventing "gelato alla crema", the egg cream gelato, precursor to modern Florentine gelato.


title: Gelato

text: In 1686, Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli, a Sicilian, brought his grandfather Francesco's gelato-making machine to Paris, opened Café Procope and introduced the dessert. Procopio obtained French citizenship, and a royal license from Louis XIV, making him the sole producer of the frozen dessert in the kingdom.


title: Gelato

text: In 1945, in Bologna, Bruto Carpigiani began selling gelato-making equipment, and created Motogelatiera, the first automated gelato machine. The batch freezer made it easier to store frozen desserts. Carpigiani is a big manufacturer of gelato machinery. Italy is the only country where the market share of artisanal gelato versus mass-produced gelato is more than 55%.


title: Gelato

text: The process consists of heating the ingredients to 85 °C (185 °F) for pasteurization. Then, it is lowered to 5 °C (41 °F) and mixed to the desired texture. The cold process mixes the ingredients and is batched in the freezer. In the "sprint" process, milk or water is added to a package of ingredients which is then mixed and batched.


title: Gelato

text: As with other ice creams, the sugar in gelato prevents it from freezing solid by binding to the water and interfering with the normal formation of ice crystals. This creates smaller ice crystals and results in the smooth texture of gelato. Commercial gelati are often sweetened with inverted sugar, sucrose, dextrose, or xylitol, and may include a stabilizer such as guar gum.


title: Gelato

text: The first, ('milk flower'), is a plain, base ice cream with no flavor and no eggs added. Stracciatella, is gelato with chocolate chunks. Traditional flavors of gelato include, cream (also known as custard), vanilla, chocolate, hazelnut, almond, and pistachio. Modern flavors include raspberry, strawberry, apple, lemon, pineapple, and black raspberry.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Isabella II (; 10 October 1830 – 9 April 1904), was Queen of Spain from 29 September 1833 until 30 September 1868.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Shortly before her birth, the King Ferdinand VII of Spain issued a Pragmatic Sanction to ensure the succession of his firstborn daughter, due to his lack of a son. She came to the throne a month before her third birthday, but her succession was disputed by her uncle the Infante Carlos (founder of the Carlist movement), whose refusal to recognize a female sovereign led to the Carlist Wars. Under the regency of her mother, Spain transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy, adopting the Royal Statute of 1834 and Constitution of 1837. Her effective reign was a period marked by palace intrigues, back-stairs and antechamber influences, barracks conspiracies, and military "pronunciamientos". She was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1868, and formally abdicated in 1870. Her son, Alfonso XII, became king in 1874.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Isabella was born in the Royal Palace of Madrid in 1830, the eldest daughter of King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and of his fourth wife and niece, Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies. She was entrusted to the royal governess María del Carmen Machín y Ortiz de Zárate. Queen Maria Christina became regent on 29 September 1833, when her three-year-old daughter Isabella was proclaimed sovereign following the death of Ferdinand VII.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Isabella succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII had induced the Cortes Generales to help him set aside the Salic law, introduced by the Bourbons in the early 18th century, and to reestablish the older succession law of Spain. The first pretender to the throne, Ferdinand's brother Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, fought for seven years during Isabella's minority to dispute her title (see First Carlist War). The supporters of Carlos and his descendants were known as Carlists, and the fight over the succession was the subject of a number of Carlist Wars in the 19th century.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Isabella's reign was maintained only through the support of the army. The Cortes and the Moderate Liberals and Progressives reestablished constitutional and parliamentary government, dissolved the religious orders and confiscated their property (including that of the Jesuits), and tried to restore order to Spain's finances. After the Carlist war, the regent, Maria Christina, resigned to make way for Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara, the most successful and most popular Isabelline general. Espartero, a Progressive, remained regent for only two years.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Baldomero Espartero was deposed in 1843 by a military and political "pronunciamiento" led by Generals Leopoldo O'Donnell and Ramón María Narváez. They formed a cabinet, presided over by Joaquín María López y López. This government induced the Cortes to declare Isabella of age at 13.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Isabella was declared of age and swore the 1837 Constitution on 10 November 1843, age thirteen. Despite the alleged parliamentary supremacy, in practice, the "double trust" led to Isabella having a role in the making and toppling of governments, undermining the progressives. The uneasy alliance between moderates and progressives that had toppled Espartero in July 1843 was already disintegrating by the time of the coming of age of the queen. Following a brief government led by progressive Salustiano de Olózaga, the moderates elected their candidate, Pedro José Pidal, to the presidency of the Cortes. After the subsequent decision to dissolve the hostile Cortes by Olózaga on 28 November, rumours about an alleged forcing of the queen to sign the royal decree spread. As a result, Olózaga was prosecuted, removed from political office, and forced to exile, with the Progressive Party already being beheaded, in what was the starting point of their growing disaffection from the Isabelline monarchy.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Dominated by the figure of Marshal Narváez, the "Espadón" ("Big Sword") of Loja, the so-called "Moderate decade" began in 1844. The constitutional reforms devised by Narváez moved away from the 1837 Constitution by rejecting national sovereignty and reinforcing the power of the monarch, to the point of a "co-sovereignty" between the Cortes and the Queen.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: On 10 October 1846, the Moderate Party made their sixteen-year-old queen marry her double-first cousin Francisco de Asís, Duke of Cádiz (1822–1902), the same day that her younger sister, Infanta Luisa Fernanda, married Antoine d'Orléans, Duke of Montpensier. Disgusted by her marriage, Isabella reportedly commented later to one of her intimates: "what shall I tell you about a man whom I saw wearing more lace than I was wearing on our wedding night?".


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: The marriages suited France and Louis Philippe, King of the French, who as a result bitterly quarrelled with Britain. However, the marriages were not happy; persistent rumour had it that few if any of Isabella's children were fathered by her king-consort, rumoured to be a homosexual. The Carlist party asserted that the heir-apparent to the throne, who later became Alfonso XII, had been fathered by a captain of the guard, Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: In 1847, a major scandal took place when Isabella, age seventeen, publicly showed her love for General Serrano and her willingness to divorce from her husband Francisco de Asís; though Narváez and Isabella's mother Maria Christina solved the problem posed to the monarchical institution—Serrano was shifted away from the capital to the post of Captain General of Granada in 1848—, the deterioration of the public image of the queen increased from then on. Following the near-revolution of 1848, Narváez was authorised to rule as dictator to repress insurrectionary attempts up until 1849.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: In late 1851, Isabella II gave birth to her first daughter and heir presumptive, who was baptised on 21 December as María Isabel Francisca de Asís. Historians have attributed the Princess of Asturias' biological parenthood to José Ruiz de Arana, "Gentilhombre de cámara".


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: On 2 February 1852, Isabella and the Royal Guard were caught by surprise while the Queen was leaving the Chapel of the Royal Palace intending to go with her parade to the church of Atocha: , an ordained priest and liberal activist approached the queen giving the impression of wanting to deliver her a message, and stabbed her. The impact was reduced by the gold embroidery of her dress and by the baleen stays of her corset, and what was intended to be a stab wound to the chest only resulted in a minor incision at the right side of the belly. Merino, quickly seized by the halberdiers of the Royal Guard (with help from the dukes of Osuna and Tamames, the Marquis of Alcañices and the Count of Pinohermoso), was removed from sacerdocy and executed by "garrote".


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Under the government of the Count of San Luis (whose ascension to premiership had been solely founded on the support from the networks of the royal court), the system was in a critical state by June 1854. On 28 June 1854 a military "pronunciamiento" intending to force the queen to oust the government of the Count of San Luis, featuring Leopoldo O'Donnell (a "puritan" moderate), took place in Vicálvaro, the so-called "Vicalvarada". The military coup (rather dominated by the moderates themselves) had a mixed result and O'Donnell (advised by Ángel Fernández de los Ríos and Antonio Cánovas del Castillo) proceeded then to seek for civilian support, promising new reforms not in the initial plans in order to appeal to progressives, by bringing a "liberal regeneration", as proclaimed in the "Manifesto of Manzanares", drafted by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and issued on 7 July 1854.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Days later, the situation was followed by a full-scale people's revolution, with revolutionary juntas organised on 17 July in Madrid, and barricades erected in the streets. With the prospect of a civil war on the horizon, Isabella was advised to appoint General Espartero (who enjoyed charisma and popular support) as prime minister. This renewed ascension of Espartero marked the beginning of the "bienio progresista".


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Espartero entered the capital of Spain on 28 July, and proceeded to separate again Isabella from the influence of Maria Christina. In any case, though Isabella accepted advice from Maria Christina, she was not characterised for displaying a profound filial love towards her mother.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: By virtue of a royal decree, Iloilo in the Philippines was opened to world trade on 29 September 1855, mainly to export sugar and other products to America, Australia and Europe.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: A Liberal Constitution ("the Unborn One") was drafted in 1856, yet it was never enacted as the counter-revolutionary coup by O'Donnell seized power.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: On 28 November 1857, Isabella II gave birth to a male heir, who was baptised on 7 December 1857 as Alfonso Francisco de Asís Fernando Pío Juan María Gregorio y Pelagio. Assumed by historians to be the biological son of , the toddler, who replaced infanta Isabella as Prince of Asturias upon his birth, was known under the moniker ""el Puigmoltejo"", in reference to the rumours about his presumed biological parenthood. Isabella II showed a special affection for the child, greater than that shown to her daughters.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: The later part of her reign saw a war against Morocco (1859–1860), which ended in a treaty advantageous for Spain and cession of some Moroccan territory, the Spanish retake of Santo Domingo (1861–1865), and the fruitless Chincha Islands War (1864–1866) against Peru and Chile.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: In August 1866, exiled forces comprising both elements from the Democratic and the Progressive Party met secretly in Belgium and subscribed to the under the initiative of Marshal Prim, seeking to topple Isabella.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: On 7 July 1868, Isabella banished her sister and brother-in-law away from Spain, as they were linked to a conspiracy against the Crown in connivance with generals from the Liberal Union. Since late Summer, Isabella II was enjoying her traditional holidays in the coast in Lekeitio, Biscay. The royal entourage moved to San Sebastián to hold a concerted meeting with Napoleon III and Eugenia de Montijo, scheduled for 18 September but that never took place as the French royals did not arrive in time and the meeting was subsequently aborted.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: On that very day, a "pronunciamiento" took place in Cádiz. Led by Marshal Prim and the Admiral Topete (himself an unconditional follower of the Duke of Montpensier), it marked the beginning of the Glorious Revolution. The democratic party provided the insurrection with popular support, making it transcend the nature of a simple military "pronunciamento" into an actual revolution.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: The factors for the revolution include the weariness both moderates (alienated by the Crown) and the progressives (barely having even the chance to rule) developed vis-à-vis the Isabelline monarchy, as well as the personal behaviour of the queen, the corruption, the abortion of the possibility of political reform and the economic crisis alienating the bourgeoisie. The revolutionary subject has been however variously identified in historiographical accounts, and historians looking at social roots for the revolution highlight that peasantry, small bourgeoisie, and the proletariat formed an alternative subject to bourgeoisie, articulated through the progressive and federal republican forces.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: By September 1868 Isabella was a repudiated monarch, and, during the early stages of the revolution, instances of political iconoclasm carried out by the masses took place, leading to the destruction of many symbols and emblems of the Bourbon dynasty, a "Damnatio memoriae".


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: The defeat of the Isabelline forces commanded by Manuel Pavía y Lacy by the revolutionary forces led by Marshal Serrano at the 28 September 1868 Battle of Alcolea led to the definitive demise of Isabella II's 35-year reign. In the light of the news, Isabella and her entourage left San Sebastián and went to exile taking a train to Biarritz (France) on 30 September. Prim (leader of the liberal progressives) was received by the Madrilenian people at his arrival to the capital in early October in a festive mood. He pronounced his famous speech of the "three nevers" directed against the Bourbons, and delivered a highly symbolic hug to Serrano (leader of the revolutionary forces triumphant in the bridge of Alcolea) in the Puerta del Sol.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Following the crossing of the French–Spanish border by train on 30 September, Isabella and Francisco de Asís spent 5 weeks in the Château de Pau organising their Parisian future, arriving to the French capital on 8 November, settling in the Rue de Rivoli 172. Isabella was forced to renounce to her dynastic rights in Paris in favour of her son, Alfonso on 25 June 1870, officially "freely and spontaneously". Involving an economic settling, the formal separation between Isabella and Francisco de Asís had pended on the passing of the former queen's dynastic rights to her son.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Following the election to the Spanish throne of Amadeo of Savoy (second son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy) in November 1870, Isabella reconciled in 1871 with her brother-in-law, the Duke of Montpensier, who assumed the political management of the family.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: The First Spanish Republic that followed Amadeo's short reign was overthrown by a military coup started in Sagunto by General Arsenio Martínez Campos on 29 December 1874 that proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy and the Bourbon dynasty in the person of Isabella's son Alfonso XII, who landed in Barcelona on 9 January 1875.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: After 1875 she lived in a relationship with Ramiro de la Puente y González Nandín, her secretary and chief of staff.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Cánovas del Castillo, the dominant figure of the new regime, became convinced that the figure of Isabella had become an issue for the Crown and wrote her a letter bluntly stating "Your Majesty is not a person, it is a reign, it is a historical time, and what the country needs is another reign, a different time", hellbent on avoiding the former queen stepping onto the Spanish capital before the proclamation of the new constitution in June 1876.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: She returned to Spain in July 1876, stayed in Santander and El Escorial and was only allowed to visit Madrid for barely hours on 13 October. She moved to Seville, where she stood longer and left for France in 1877. Isabella's son would marry Mercedes of Orléans (first cousin of Alfonso and daughter of the Dukes of Montpensier) in 1878, only for the latter to die five months after the wedding.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: Isabella mostly lived in Paris for the rest of her life, based at the Palacio Castilla. She paid some visits to Seville.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: She wrote her testament in Paris in June 1901, making her will to be entombed in El Escorial. Less than a month after passing through a cold categorised as "flu" by the physicians, she died on 9 April 1904, at 8:45 AM. Her corpse was moved from the Palacio Castilla to the Gare d'Orsay, and arrived to El Escorial on 15 April. The funeral took place on the next day at San Francisco el Grande.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: There has been considerable speculation that some or all of Isabella's children were not fathered by Francisco de Asís; this has been bolstered by rumours that Francisco de Asís was either homosexual or impotent. Francisco de Asís recognised all of them: he played the offended, proceeding to blackmail the queen to receive money in exchange for keeping his mouth shut. The extortion by her husband would continue and intensify during Isabella's exile.


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: She came to be known by the sobriquets of "the Traditional Queen" (Spanish: "la Reina Castiza"), and "the Queen of Sad Mischance" (Spanish: "la de los Tristes Destinos").


title: Isabella II of Spain

text: In the 1997 film "Amistad", she was played by Anna Paquin, and is depicted as a spoiled 11-year-old girl.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: Gilberto José Rodríguez Orejuela (30 January 1939 – 31 May 2022) was a Colombian drug lord, who was one of the leaders of the Cali Cartel, based in the city of Cali.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela, along with his brother Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela and José Santacruz Londoño, formed the Cali Cartel in 1975. They were initially primarily involved in marijuana trafficking. In the 1980s, they branched out into cocaine trafficking. For a time, the Cali Cartel supplied 80% of the United States through Rodriguez's son, Jorge Alberto Rodriguez, and 90% of the European cocaine market.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On 15 November 1984, Gilberto was captured in Spain. At the time of his arrest, he was accompanied by Jorge Luis Ochoa Vásquez. Gilberto would be in Spain to hold meetings with the aim of expanding the cartel business on the European continent. From that moment on, the cartel began to work with traffickers in Galicia, but mainly established strategic alliances with the powerful Camorra, which would be in charge of the distribution of Cali cocaine throughout Europe.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: The Cali Cartel was less violent than its rival, the Medellín Cartel. While the Medellín Cartel was involved in a brutal campaign of violence against the Colombian government, the Cali Cartel grew.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: After the demise of Pablo Escobar, the Colombian authorities turned their attention to the Cali Cartel. The police campaign against the cartel began in the summer of 1995. President Ernesto Samper dispatched a "joint task force" code named "Search Bloc", formed by top police and elite commandos headed by Police General Rosso José Serrano, declaring an all-out war against the drug cartels.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On 9 June 1995, Rodríguez Orejuela was arrested by the Colombian National Police (PNC) during a house raid in Cali. When the police had searched the home several days earlier, he had escaped detection by hiding in a hollowed-out bathroom cabinet with an oxygen tank.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: He was sentenced to 15 years in prison but was temporarily freed in early November 2002, due to a controversial judicial order issued by deputy judge Pedro José Suárez. In March 2003, Rodríguez Orejuela was recaptured by Colombian authorities in Cali.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela was extradited to the United States on 3 December 2004. His brother Miguel was also arrested.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On 26 September 2006, both Gilberto and Miguel were sentenced to 30 years in prison, after pleading guilty to charges of conspiring to import cocaine to the U.S. They took this deal in exchange for the United States agreeing not to bring charges against their family members. Their lawyers, David Oscar Markus and Roy Kahn, were able to obtain immunity for 29 family members.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On 16 November 2006, the brothers pleaded guilty to one count of conspiring to engage in money laundering. Both were sentenced to an additional 87 months in prison. The two prison terms were set to run concurrently.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: At the time of his death, Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela was serving a 30-year sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution, Butner, a medium-security facility in North Carolina. He was inmate number 14023-059 with a release date of 15 July 2029, at an age of 90 years old.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On 5 March 2018, a Colombian court sentenced eight relatives of the Rodríguez brothers to nine years in prison for laundering money that had been obtained during the Rodriguez brothers' time as heads of the Cali Cartel.


title: Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela

text: On 6 February 2020, Rodríguez Orejuela submitted an application to a Miami federal judge seeking compassionate early release pursuant to the First Step Act. The application was made despite having served only half of his 30 year term. On 28 April 2020, Federal District Judge Federico Moreno rejected the application stating that there were no "extraordinary and compelling" grounds to support the application. The judge stated that "the court is totally unwilling to undermine and undo such public respect for the law, as well as the gravity of the offenses committed" and that while Rodríguez Orejuela has endured a litany of chronic illnesses including cancer, his criminal record is so repugnant that there is no way he could effectively cut his sentence in half.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Bianca Jagger (born Blanca Pérez-Mora Macías; 2 May 1945) is a Nicaraguan social and human rights advocate and a former actress. Jagger currently serves as a Council of Europe goodwill ambassador, founder and chair of the Bianca Jagger Human Rights Foundation, member of the Executive Director's Leadership Council of Amnesty International USA, and a trustee of the Amazon Charitable Trust.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Jagger was born in Managua, Nicaragua. Her father was a successful import-export merchant and her mother a housewife. They divorced when Bianca was ten and she stayed with her mother, who had to take care of three children on a small income. At the age of 16, she changed her name from Blanca to Bianca. She received a scholarship to study political science in France at the Paris Institute of Political Studies. She was also influenced by Gandhi's non-violent success and Eastern philosophy at large. She travelled extensively in India.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Bianca met Mick Jagger at a party after a Rolling Stones concert in France in September 1970. On 12 May 1971, while she was four months pregnant, the couple married in a Roman Catholic ceremony in Saint-Tropez, France, and she became his first and only wife, legally. The couple's only child, a daughter named Jade, was born on 21 October 1971, in Paris, France. In May 1978, she filed for divorce on the grounds of his adultery with model Jerry Hall. Bianca later said "My marriage ended on my wedding day."


title: Bianca Jagger

text: In addition to her extensive charitable works, Jagger had a public reputation as a jet-setter and party-goer in the 1970s and early 1980s, being closely associated in the public mind with New York City's nightclub Studio 54. She also became known particularly as a friend of pop artist Andy Warhol.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Jagger has two granddaughters from her daughter Jade, Assisi Lola (born in 1992) and Amba Isis (born in 1996) and a grandson born in 2014. She became a great-grandmother in 2014 through her granddaughter Assisi.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Jagger caused a minor controversy in May 2012 when she took flash photographs during a performance of Philip Glass' "Einstein on the Beach" at the Barbican in London.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: In 1981, Jagger was part of a US congressional delegation stationed at a UN refugee camp in Honduras. At one point during her official visit, the entire staff saw about 40 captured refugees marched away at gunpoint towards El Salvador by a death squad. Armed with nothing but cameras to document the raid, Jagger and the delegation trailed the squad along a river towards the Honduran-Salvadoran border. When both groups were within auditory range of each other, Jagger and the staff shouted at the M16 rifle equipped raiders, "You will have to kill us all!" The squad considered the situation, approached the group, relieved them of their cameras, and released the cache of captives. A transformation had thus begun for Jagger. In subsequent interviews, Jagger has recounted this incident as "a turning point in my life."


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Bianca Jagger founded the Bianca Jagger Human Rights Foundation, which she chairs. She returned to Nicaragua to look for her parents after the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake, which destroyed Managua, the capital, leaving a toll of more than 10,000 deaths and tens of thousands homeless.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: In early 1979, Jagger visited Nicaragua with an International Red Cross delegation and was shocked by the brutality and oppression that the Somoza regime carried out there. This persuaded her to commit herself to the issues of justice and human rights.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: In the 1980s, she worked to oppose US government intervention in Nicaragua after the Sandinista revolution. She has also opposed the death penalty and defended the rights of women and of indigenous peoples in Latin America, notably the Yanomami tribe in Brazil against the invasion of gold miners. She spoke up for victims of the conflicts in Bosnia and Serbia. Her writings were published in several newspapers (including "The New York Times" and the "Sunday Express"). From the late 1970s, she collaborated with many humanitarian organisations including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: She was also a member of the Twentieth Century Task Force to Apprehend War Criminals, and a trustee of the Amazon Charitable Trust. She gave a reading at the start of the memorial service in London's Westminster Cathedral, which was timed to coincide with the funeral in Brazil of Brazilian Jean Charles de Menezes, who was shot eight times on a tube-train after being mistaken for a suicide bomber in London. In March 2007, she became involved with Sarah Teather and the campaign to close Guantanamo Bay.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: In March 2002, Jagger travelled to Afghanistan with a delegation of fourteen women, organised by Global Exchange to support Afghan women's projects. On 16 December 2003, Jagger was nominated Council of Europe Goodwill Ambassador.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: From 2007 to 2009, she was chair of the World Future Council. On 7 July 2007, Jagger presented at the German leg of Live Earth in Hamburg. In July 2008, she was a signatory to a petition to the Catholic bishops of England and Wales to allow the wider celebration of the traditional Latin Mass. In January 2009, Jagger addressed some 12,000 people who rallied in Trafalgar Square in protest against an Israeli offensive in the Gaza several days earlier.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: She has served as IUCN's Global Ambassador for the Bonn Challenge a global effort to restore 150 million hectares of the world's degraded and deforested lands by 2020.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: On 8 October 2010, she spoke at the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas (ASPO) 2010 world conference on moving beyond petroleum and "Crimes against Present and Future Generations".


title: Bianca Jagger

text: In June 2012, Jagger, along with the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Airbus launched an online campaign called Plant a Pledge initiative, which aims to restore 150 million hectares of forest around the world by 2020.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: On 21 November 2013, Jagger delivered the prestigious 12th annual Longford Lecture titled "Ending Violence Against Women and Girls, and the Culture of Impunity: achieving the missing Millennium Development Goal target", chaired by Jon Snow.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: Prior to the 2015 UK general election, she was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party's Caroline Lucas.


title: Bianca Jagger

text: For her international work on behalf of humanitarian causes, Jagger has earned numerous awards, including:


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: A decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), sometimes called a decentralized autonomous corporation (DAC), is an organization constructed by rules encoded as a computer program that is often transparent, controlled by the organization's members and not influenced by a central government. In general terms, DAOs are member-owned communities without centralized leadership. A DAO's financial transaction records and program rules are maintained on a blockchain. The precise legal status of this type of business organization is unclear.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: A well-known example, intended for venture capital funding, was The DAO, which amassed 3.6 million ether (ETH)—Ethereum's mining reward—then worth more than US$70 million in May 2016, and was hacked and drained of in cryptocurrency weeks later. The hack was reversed in the following weeks, and the money restored, via a hard fork of the Ethereum blockchain. Most Ethereum miners and clients switched to the new fork while the original chain became Ethereum Classic.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: Decentralized autonomous organizations are typified by the use of blockchain technology to provide a secure digital ledger to track digital interactions across the internet, hardened against forgery by trusted timestamping and dissemination of a distributed database. This approach eliminates the need to involve a mutually acceptable trusted third party in any decentralized digital interaction or cryptocurrency transaction. The costs of a blockchain-enabled transaction and of the associated data reporting may be substantially offset by the elimination of both the trusted third party and of the need for repetitive recording of contract exchanges in different records. For example, the blockchain data could, in principle and if regulatory structures permit it, replace public documents such as deeds and titles. In theory, a blockchain approach allows multiple cloud computing users to enter a loosely coupled peer-to-peer smart contract collaboration.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: Vitalik Buterin proposed that after a DAO is launched, it might be organized to run without human managerial interactivity, provided the smart contracts are supported by a Turing-complete platform. Ethereum, built on a blockchain and launched in 2015, has been described as meeting that Turing threshold, thus enabling such DAOs. Decentralized autonomous organizations aim to be open platforms through which individuals control their identities and their personal data.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: DAO governance is coordinated using tokens or NFTs that grant voting powers. Admission to a DAO is limited to people who have a confirmed ownership of these governance tokens in a cryptocurrency wallet, and membership may be exchanged. Governance is conducted through a series of proposals that members vote on through the blockchain, and the possession of more governance tokens often translates to greater voting power. Contributions from members towards the organizational goals of a DAO can sometimes be tracked and internally compensated. Inactive holders of governance tokens can be a major obstacle for DAO governance, which has led to implementations of allowing voting power to be delegated to other parties.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: The precise legal status of this type of business organization is generally unclear, and may vary by jurisdiction. On July 1, 2021, Wyoming became the first US state to recognize DAOs as a legal entity. American CryptoFed DAO became the first business entity so recognized. Some previous approaches to blockchain based companies have been regarded by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission as illegal offers of unregistered securities. Although often of uncertain legal standing, a DAO may functionally be a corporation without legal status as a corporation: a general partnership. Known participants, or those at the interface between a DAO and regulated financial systems, may be targets of regulatory enforcement or civil actions if they are out of compliance with the law.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: In June 2022, the venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz published an "Entity selection framework" describing organizational alternatives for DAOs with substantial presence in the United States


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: A DAO's code is difficult to alter once the system is up and running, including bug fixes that would be otherwise trivial in centralized code. Corrections to a DAO require writing new code and agreement to migrate all the funds. Although the code is visible to all, it is hard to repair, thus leaving known security holes open to exploitation unless a moratorium is called to enable bug fixing.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: In 2016, a specific DAO, "The DAO", set a record for the largest crowdfunding campaign to date. Researchers pointed out multiple problems with The DAO's code. The DAO's operational procedure allowed investors to withdraw at will any money that had not yet been committed to a project; the funds could thus deplete quickly. Although safeguards aimed to prevent gaming shareholders' votes to win investments, there were a "number of security vulnerabilities". These enabled an attempted large withdrawal of funds from The DAO to be initiated in mid-June 2016. On July 20, 2016, the Ethereum blockchain was forked to bail out the original contract.


title: Decentralized autonomous organization

text: DAOs can be subject to coups or hostile takeovers that upend its voting structures especially if the voting power is based upon the number of tokens one owns. An example of this occurred in 2022, when one individual collected enough tokens to give themselves voting control over Build Finance DAO, which they then used to drain the DAO of all its money.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: An epicanthic fold or epicanthus is a skin fold of the upper eyelid that covers the inner corner (medial canthus) of the eye. However, variation occurs in the nature of this feature and the possession of "partial epicanthic folds" or "slight epicanthic folds" is noted in the relevant literature. Various factors influence whether epicanthic folds form, including ancestry, age, and certain medical conditions.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: "Epicanthus" means 'above the canthus', with epi-canthus being the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek : 'corner of the eye'.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: The highest frequency of occurrence of epicanthic folds is found in specific populations or ethnicities: East Asians, Southeast Asians, Central Asians, North Asians, Polynesians, Micronesians, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Mestizos, and some African peoples (especially among Khoisan and Nilotic peoples). Among South Asians, they occur at very high frequencies among the Bhutanese, Northeast Indians, Kirati people and certain Adivasi tribes of eastern India.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: In some of these populations the trait is almost universal, specifically in East Asians and Southeast Asians, where a majority, up to 90% in some estimations, of adults have this feature.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: Epicanthic folds also occur, at a considerably lower frequency, in other populations: Europeans (e.g., Scandinavians, English, Irish, Hungarians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Finns, Estonians and Samis), South Asians (Bengalis, Sinhalese, among other groups in eastern and southern South Asia), Nilotes, Cushites and Amazigh people.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: The degree of development of the fold between individuals varies greatly, and attribution of its presence or absence is often subjective, being to a degree relative to the occurrence of the trait within the community of the specific observer. Also, its frequency varies clinally across Eurasia. Its use, therefore, as a phenotypic marker to define biological populations is debatable.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: The epicanthic fold is often associated with greater levels of fat deposition around the eyeball. The adipose tissue is thought to provide greater insulation for the eye and sinuses from the effects of cold, especially from freezing winds, and to represent an adaptation to cold climates. It has also been postulated that the fold itself may provide a level of protection from snow blindness. Though its appearance in peoples of Southeast Asia can be linked to possible descent from cold-adapted ancestors, its occurrence in various African peoples is not open to this explanation. The epicanthic fold found in many African people has been tentatively linked to protection for the eye from the high levels of ultraviolet light found in desert and semi-desert areas.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: The exact evolutionary function and origin of epicanthic folds remains unknown. Scientific explanations include either random variation and selection (presumably sexual selection), or possible adaption to desert environment and/or high levels of ultraviolet light found in high-altitude environments, such as the Himalayas.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: A cold-adaptive explanation for the epicanthic fold is today seen as outdated by some, as epicanthic folds appear in some African populations. Dr. Frank Poirier, a physical anthropologist at Ohio State University, concluded that the epicanthic fold in fact may be an adaptation for tropical regions, protecting the eyes from overexposure to ultraviolet radiation, and was already part of the natural diversity found among early modern humans.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: Many fetuses lose their epicanthic folds after three to six months of gestation. Epicanthic folds may be visible in the development stages of young children of any ethnicity, especially before the nose bridge fully develops.


title: Epicanthic fold

text: Epicanthic fold prevalence can sometimes be found as a sign of congenital abnormality, such as in Noonan syndrome and Zellweger syndrome. Medical conditions that cause the nasal bridge not to develop and project are also associated with epicanthic fold. About 60% of individuals with Down syndrome (also known as trisomy 21) have prominent epicanthic folds. In 1862, John Langdon Down classified what is now called Down syndrome. He used the term "mongoloid" for the condition. This was derived from then-prevailing ethnic theory and from his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities (epicanthic folds) with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race. While the term "mongoloid" (also "mongol" or "mongoloid idiot") continued to be used until the early 1970s, it is now considered pejorative and inaccurate and is no longer in common use since the 1970s about such medical conditions. In Zellweger syndrome, epicanthic folds are also prominent.


title: Kauai

text: Kauai, () anglicized as Kauai ( ), is geologically the second-oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands (after Niʻihau). With an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4 km), it is the fourth-largest of these islands and the 21st largest island in the United States. Nicknamed the Garden Isle, Kauai lies 73 miles (117 km) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Oahu. This island is the site of Waimea Canyon State Park and the Na Pali Coast State Park.


title: Kauai

text: The United States Census Bureau defines Kauai as census tracts 401 through 409 of Kauai County, Hawaii, which comprises all of the county except the islands of Kaʻula, Lehua and Niihau. The 2020 United States census population of the island was 73,298. The most populous town is Kapaa.


title: Kauai

text: Hawaiian narrative locates the name's origin in the legend of Hawaiiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates how he named the island of Kauai after a favorite son; a possible translation of Kauai is "place around the neck", describing how a father would carry a favorite child. Another possible translation is "food season".


title: Kauai

text: Kauai was known for its distinct dialect of the Hawaiian language; this survives on Niihau. While the standard language today adopts the dialect of Hawaii island, which has the sound , the Kauai dialect was known for pronouncing this as . In effect, Kauai dialect retained the old pan-Polynesian , while "standard" Hawaii dialect has changed it to the . Therefore, the native name for Kauai was said as Tauai, and the major settlement of Kapaa would have been pronounced as "Tapaa."


title: Kauai

text: Polynesian inhabitants settled on the island hundreds of years before the arrival of Europeans, as shown by excavations dating back to as early as 200 A.D. to 600 A.D. These first inhabitants, originally from the Marquesas Islands, lived undisturbed for around five centuries until a second wave of seafarers arrived by sea-canoe from Tahiti. Many Hawaiian traditions and belief structures are rooted in the religion and practices that arrived with these Tahitians.


title: Kauai

text: In 1778, Captain James Cook arrived at Waimea Bay, the first European known to have reached the Hawaiian islands. He named the archipelago the "Sandwich Isles" after his patron, the 6th Earl of Sandwich, George Montagu.


title: Kauai

text: During the reign of King Kamehameha, the islands of Kauai and Niihau were the last Hawaiian Islands to join his Kingdom of Hawaii. Their ruler, Kaumualii, resisted Kamehameha for years. King Kamehameha twice prepared a huge armada of ships and canoes to take the islands by force, and twice failed, once because of a storm, and once because of an epidemic. But in the face of the threat of a further invasion, Kaumualii decided to join the kingdom without bloodshed, and became Kamehameha's vassal in 1810. He ceded the island to the Kingdom of Hawaii upon his death in 1824.


title: Kauai

text: In 1815, a ship from the Russian-American Company was wrecked on the island. In 1816, Kaumualiʻi signed an agreement to allow the Russians to build Fort Elizabeth, in an attempt to gain support from the Russians against Kamehameha I. Construction was begun in 1817, but in July of that year, under mounting resistance of Native Hawaiians and American traders, the Russians were expelled. The settlement on Kauaʻi was an instance of a Pacific outpost of the Russian Empire.


title: Kauai

text: In 1835, Old Koloa Town opened a sugar mill. From 1906 to 1934 the office of County Clerk was held by John Mahiʻai Kāneakua, who had been active in attempts to restore Queen Liliuokalani to the throne after the U.S. takeover of Hawaii in 1893.


title: Kauai

text: Valdemar Emil Knudsen was a Norwegian plantation pioneer who arrived on Kauai in 1857. Knudsen, or "Kanuka", originally arrived in Koloa, where he managed Grove Farm, but later sought a warmer land and purchased the leases to Mana and Kekaha, where he became a successful sugarcane plantation owner. He settled in Waiawa, between Mana and Kekaha, immediately across the channel from Niʻihau Island. His son, Eric Alfred Knudsen, was born in Waiawa.


title: Kauai

text: Knudsen was appointed land administrator by King Kamehameha for an area covering 400 km, and was given the title "konohiki" as well as a position as a nobility under the king. Knudsen, who spoke fluent Hawaiian, later became an elected representative and an influential politician on the island.


title: Kauai

text: Knudsen lends his name to the Knudsen Gap, a narrow pass between Hã’upu Ridge and the Kahili Ridge. Its primary function was as a sugar farm planted by the Knudsen family.


title: Kauai

text: Kauai's origins are volcanic, the island having been formed by the passage of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaii hotspot. At approximately five million years old, it is the oldest of the main islands. It consists of a large eroded shield volcano with a diameter summit caldera and two flank calderas. Rejuvenation of the volcano 1.40–0.6 million years ago resulted in the eruption of lavas and cones over the eastern two-thirds of the island.


title: Kauai

text: Kauai's highest peak is Kawaikini, at . The second-highest is Mount Waialeale, near the center of the island, above sea level. One of the wettest spots on earth, with an annual average rainfall of , is on the east side of Mount Waialeale. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, carving out canyons with many scenic waterfalls. On the west side of the island, Waimea town is at the mouth of the Waimea River, whose flow formed Waimea Canyon, one of the world's most scenic canyons, which is part of Waimea Canyon State Park. At deep, Waimea Canyon is often called "The Grand Canyon of the Pacific". Kokeo Point lies on the island's south side. The Na Pali Coast is a center for recreation in a wild setting, including kayaking past the beaches, or hiking on the trail along the coastal cliffs. The headlands Kamala Point, Kawelikoa Point, Kuahonu Point, and Molehu Point are on the southeast of the island, and Makaokahaʻi Point is at the south.


title: Kauai

text: Kauai's climate is tropical, with generally humid and stable conditions year-round, although weather phenomena and infrequent storms have caused instances of extreme weather. At the lower elevations, the annual precipitation varies from an average of about on the windward (northeastern) shore to less than on the (southwestern) leeward side of the island. The average temperature in Lihu'e, the county seat, ranges from in February to in August and September. Kauai's mountainous regions offer cooler temperatures and provide a pleasant contrast to the warm coastal areas. At the Kōkeʻe state park, ASL, day temperatures vary from an average of in January to in July. In the winter, temperatures have been known to drop down to the 30s and 40s at Kōkeʻe state park, which holds an unofficial record low of recorded in February 1986 at Kanaloahuluhulu Meadow.


title: Kauai

text: Precipitation in Kauai's mountainous regions averages annually. Situated about southeast of Kōkeʻe state park at an elevation of , is the Mt. Waialeale rain gauge. Mt. Waialeale is often cited in literature as being the wettest spot on earth, although this has been disputed. Based on data for the period from 1931 through 1960, the average yearly precipitation was (U.S. Environmental Science Services Administration, 1968). Between 1949 and 2004, the average yearly precipitation at Mt. Waialeale was .


title: Kauai

text: Not only does Kauai hold a record in average yearly precipitation, it also holds a record in hourly precipitation. During a storm on January 24–25, 1956, a rain gauge at Kauai's former Kilauea Sugar Plantation recorded a record of precipitation in just 60 minutes. The value for one hour is an underestimate, since the rain gauge overflowed, which may have resulted in an error by as much as . An accurate measurement may have exceeded Holt, Missouri's world-record rainfall of in 42 minutes on June 22, 1947.


title: Kauai

text: Hawaii Standard Time () is observed on Kauai year-round. When most states are on daylight saving time, for example, the time on Kauai is three hours behind the West Coast of the United States and six hours behind the East Coast.


title: Kauai

text: Tourism is Kauai's largest industry. In 2007, 1,271,000 people visited Kauai. The two largest groups were from the continental United States (84% of all visitors) and Japan (3%). As of 2003, there were a total of approximately 27,000 jobs on Kauai, of which the largest sector was accommodation/food services (26%, 6,800 jobs) followed by government (15%) and retail (14.5%), with agriculture accounting for 2.9% (780 jobs) and educational services providing 0.7% (183 jobs). In terms of income, the various sectors that constitute the visitors' industry accounted for one third of Kauai's income. Employment is dominated by small businesses, with 87% of all non-farm businesses having fewer than 20 employees. As of 2003, Kauai's unemployment rate was 3.9%, compared to 3.0% for the entire state and 5.7% for the U.S. as a whole. Kauai's poverty rate was 10.5%, compared to the contiguous 48 states at 10.7%.


title: Kauai

text: As of mid-2004, the median price of a single-family home was $528,000, a 40% increase over 2003. As of 2003, Kauai's percentage of home ownership, 48%, was significantly lower than the State's 64%, and vacation homes were a far larger part of the housing stock than the statewide percentage (Kauai 15%, state 5%). The housing prices decreased significantly in 2008. As of spring 2014 the median price had risen to about $400,000.


title: Kauai

text: From the 1830s through the mid-20th century, sugarcane plantations were Kauai's most important industry. In 1835 the first sugarcane plantation was founded on Kauai, and for the next century the industry would dominate the economy of Hawaii. Most of that land is now used for ranching. Kauai's sole remaining sugarcane operation, the 118-year-old Gay & Robinson Plantation, plans to convert its operation to cultivating and processing sugarcane ethanol.


title: Kauai

text: Kauai is home to the U.S. Navy's "Barking Sands" Pacific Missile Range Facility, on the sunny and dry western shore. MF and HF ("shortwave") radio station WWVH, sister station to WWV and low frequency WWVB in Fort Collins, Colorado, is on the west coast of Kauai, about south of Barking Sands. WWVH, WWV and WWVB are operated by the US National Institute of Standards and Technology, broadcasting standard time and frequency information to the public.


title: Kauai

text: Land in Kauaʻi is very fertile; farmers raise many varieties of fruit and other crops. Guava, coffee, sugarcane, mango, banana, papaya, avocado, star fruit, kava, noni and pineapple are all cultivated on the island.


title: Kauai

text: Kauaʻi Island Utility Cooperative (KIUC) is a not-for-profit electric cooperative headquartered in Līhue, which provides electricity for the island. With 24,000 member-owners who elect a 9-member Board of Directors, it is the only electric cooperative in the state of Hawaii.


title: Kauai

text: By 2008, transition of energy sources and growth in generating capacity had occurred, with the majority of the Kauaʻi's electricity now produced by importing liquid petroleum. In 2006 and 2007, the cost of the inputs cost $69.3 million and $83 million, respectively. By 2011, 92% of KIUC's power came from diesel.


title: Kauai

text: By early 2017, KIUC's fuel mix was 56% fossil fuels, 9% hydroelectric, 12% biomass and 23% solar. KIUC had successfully integrated large-scale solar into its grid so that, during daylight hours on most sunny days, 97 percent or more of its generation comes from renewable sources. KIUC offers $1,000 rebates to residential customers who have solar water heating systems installed on their homes by Energy Wise Participating Contractors.


title: Kauai

text: In March 2017, KIUC opened a Tesla Energy 13 MW / 52 MWh battery next to the 12 MW Kapaia solar plant for 13.9¢/kWh. In December 2018, KIUC opened an AES Distributed Energy project for 20 MW solar with 20 MW / 100 MWh batteries priced at 11.1¢/kWh.


title: Kauai

text: Līhue, on the island's southeastern coast, is the seat of Kauai County and the island's second-largest town. Kapaa, on the "Coconut Coast" (site of an old coconut plantation) about north of Līhue, has a population of over 10,000, or about 50% greater than Līhue. Princeville, on the island's north side, was once the capital of Kauai.


title: Kauai

text: Communities on Kauai range in population from the roughly 10,000 people in Kapaa to tiny hamlets. Below are the larger or more notable of those from the northernmost end of Hawaii Route 560 to the western terminus of Hawaii Route 50: