title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Phi Beta Kappa has chapters in only about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and only about 10% of these schools' Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected in their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year, generally less than 2% of the class. Each chapter sets its own academic standards, but all inductees must have studied the liberal arts and sciences, demonstrated "good moral character", and, usually, earned grades placing them in the top tenth of their class. (However, at least one school, Princeton University, includes Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE) students in Phi Beta Kappa.) There is a mandatory initiation fee (between US$50 and US$95, as of 2005), which is sometimes covered by the inductee's university.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Membership in Phi Beta Kappa is limited to undergraduates with very high GPAs, typically at least 3.8 out of a 4.0 scale. In 2001, a quorum of PBK alumni voted to raise the GPA cutoff: though all chapters set their standards for induction, they were now instructed to be much more selective in terms of GPA.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Phi Beta Kappa Society had its first meeting on December 5, 1776, at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia by five students, with John Heath as its first President. The society established the precedent for naming American college societies after the initial letters of a secret Greek motto.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The group consisted of students who frequented the Raleigh Tavern as a common meeting area off the college campus. A persistent story maintains that a Masonic lodge also met at this tavern, but the Freemasons actually gathered at a different building in Williamsburg. (Some of the original members of Phi Beta Kappa did become Freemasons, but later in life).


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Whether the students organized to meet more freely and discuss non-academic topics, or to discuss politics in a Revolutionary society is unknown. The earliest records indicate only that the students met to debate and engage in oratory, and on topics that would have been not far removed from the curriculum. In the Phi Beta Kappa Initiation of 1779, the new member was informed, "here then you may for a while disengage yourself from scholastic cares and communicate without reserve whatever reflections you have made upon various objects; remembering that every thing transacted within this room is transacted "sub rosa", ...here, too, you are to indulge in matters of speculation that freedom of enquiry which ever dispels the clouds of falsehood by the radiant sunshine of truth...".


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: There had been an earlier fraternal society established at William & Mary, the F.H.C. Society (nicknamed "the Flat Hat Club"), which was founded in 1750. The F.H.C. Society is the first recorded collegiate secret society in North America, but unlike Phi Beta Kappa, it was a Latin-letter society. Its name was taken from letters of a secret Latin motto with acronym F.H.C.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: A second Latin-letter fraternity at William & Mary was the P.D.A. Society (publicly known as "Please Don't Ask"). John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P.D.A., though he may instead have disdained to join it. Heath's friend and fellow student William Short later wrote that the P.D.A. "had lost all reputation for letters, and was noted only for the dissipation & conviviality of its members".


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The new society was intended to be "purely of domestic manufacture, without any connection whatever with anything European, either English or German." The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to promote good fellowship, with "friendship as its basis and benevolence and literature as its pillars."


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society. To protect its members and to instill a sense of solidarity, each had the essential attributes of most modern fraternities: an oath of secrecy, a badge (or token) and a diploma (or certificate) of membership, mottoes (in the case of the Phi Beta Kappa, in Greek rather than in Latin), a ritual of initiation, a handclasp of recognition; to these, the Phi Beta Kappa would soon add another attribute, branches or "chapters" at other colleges. The new society was given the motto, or in Latin letters "", which means in English "Love of learning is the guide of life". Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Later, in May 1777, a new sign of recognition was devised: "a salutation of the clasp of the hands, together with an immediate stroke across the mouth with the back of the same hand, and a return with the hand used by the saluted". This new complex of gestures was created to allow the mutual recognition of members "in any foreign country or place."


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Before the British attempt at reclamation of the sovereign American colonies, including Virginia, there was a temporary closure of the College of William and Mary and disbandment of Phi Beta Kappa in early 1781. Elisha Parmelee, an alumnus of Yale College and Harvard College, passed through Williamsburg and took charters from the Phi Beta Kappa to establish branches of the society at these schools. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780; a third, at Harvard College in 1781; and a fourth, at Dartmouth College in 1787.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, and Brown University in 1830. The original chapter at William & Mary was re-established. In 1831, the Harvard chapter publicly disclosed the fraternity's secrets during a period of strong anti-Masonic sentiment. The first chapter established after the Phi Beta Kappa became an "open" society was that at Trinity College (Connecticut), in 1845.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: In the pre-Civil War period, Society chapters frequently sponsored addresses by distinguished speakers. Ralph Waldo Emerson's 1837 address at Harvard, "The American Scholar" is the best-known of those addresses, but there were dozens of others at schools such as Bowdoin, Brown, Harvard, Union, and Yale.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: As the first collegiate organization of its type to adopt a Greek-letter name, the Phi Beta Kappa is generally considered a forerunner of modern college fraternities as well as the model for later collegiate honorary societies. Ironically, it was partly the rise of true "social" fraternities modelled after Phi Beta Kappa later in the nineteenth century which obviated the social aspects of membership in the organization, transforming it into the honorary society it is today.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: By 1883, when the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa was established, there were 25 chapters. The first women were elected to the Society at the University of Vermont in 1875, and the first African-American member, George Washington Henderson, was elected at the same institution two years later. In 1885, however, Phi Beta Kappa eliminated those majoring in engineering from eligibility. This practice continues today.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Each chapter is designated by its state and a Greek letter indicating its position in the order in which that state's chapters were founded. For example, Alpha of Pennsylvania refers to the chapter at Dickinson College, founded in 1887; Beta of Pennsylvania, the chapter at Lehigh University (founded later that same year); Gamma of Pennsylvania, the chapter at Lafayette College (1890); and Delta of Pennsylvania, the chapter at the University of Pennsylvania (1892).


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Phi Beta Kappa was one of six honor societies that co-founded the ACHS on . Its participation was short lived, with the decision to withdraw and operate again as an independent society made just over a decade later, effective .


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: In the 1960s, Vanderbilt University professor Donald Davidson claimed that Phi Beta Kappa was under the influence of Communists.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: In 1988, the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa officially changed its name to "The Phi Beta Kappa Society", recalling the name under which the organization had been established in 1776.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Today, Phi Beta Kappa participates in a more loosely coordinated lobbying association of four of the nation's oldest and most prestigious honor societies, called the Honor Society Caucus. Its members include Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Kappa Phi, Sigma Xi, and Omicron Delta Kappa.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The symbol of the Phi Beta Kappa Society is a golden key engraved on the obverse with the image of a pointing finger, three stars, and the Greek letters from which the society takes its name. On the reverse are found the initials "SP" in script. One official historian of the society, William T. Hastings, and some others believe that the "S" and "P", which stood for "Societas Philosophiae", "Philosophical Society", was the original name of the Society and that "Phi Beta Kappa" came only over time to be taken as the name of the society. The heading on the original list of members states, "A List of the members, who have been initiated into the S.P. alias Phi Beta Kappa Society."


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The "key" of Phi Beta Kappa did not begin as a copy of a watchkey. The first insignia was in fact a larger, cut-and-engraved silver medallion, essentially a square of metal with a loop cut integrally with the body of the square from the same sheet of silver, in order to allow for suspension from one or two ribbons worn around the member's neck in the manner in which the older fraternities (and the Masonic bodies on which the collegiate societies were in part patterned) wore their own insignia. Later, the size of the medallion was reduced and men took to wearing the insignia on their watch chains as fobs.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Though several stylistic details have survived since the earliest days—the use of the stars, pointing hand, and Greek letters on the obverse, for example—notable differences exist between older keys and current examples. The name of the recipient was not engraved on the earliest fobs or keys, and was not until the first decade of the nineteenth century. The name of the school from which the fob or key came was also not routinely included on the earliest models, and sometimes the only way to trace a key to a particular school's chapter is by researching the name of the recipient against surviving class records. The number of stars on the obverse has also changed over the years, with never fewer than three, but on some known examples with as many as a dozen (the explanation as to the meaning of the stars in these early cases varies from chapter to chapter). Also, the date of the awarding of the honor is only seen on keys from the second quarter of the nineteenth century onward (some people mistake the date that appears on the fob or key—December 5, 1776—as the date that a particular fob or key was awarded, when in fact it is merely the date of the founding of the society). Only in 1912 was the key made to a uniform standard of size, golden appearance (some are plated), and engraving with the school's name, recipient's name, and date of the award.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Phi Beta Kappa Society publishes "The Key Reporter", a newsletter distributed quarterly to all contributing members and biannually to all other members, and "The American Scholar", a quarterly subscription-based journal that accepts essays on literature, history, science, public affairs, and culture.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Phi Beta Kappa Book Awards are the Ralph Waldo Emerson Award, the Christian Gauss Award (named for Christian Gauss), and the Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science. The Book Awards are given annually to outstanding scholarly books published in the United States. Winning works, which are drawn from the fields of the humanities, the social sciences, the natural sciences and mathematics, must be of broad interest and accessible to the general reader. Each award carries a $10,000 prize. The winners were selected from five short listed titles in each category.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Mary Isabel Sibley Fellowship is awarded annually, alternating in the fields of Greek and French. The award may be used for the study of Greek language, literature, history, or archaeology, or the study of French language or literature. Established in 1934 by Isabelle Stone (ΦΒΚ, Wellesley College) in honor of her mother, Mary Isabel Sibley, the fellowship was designed to reward the women in these two fields of study with the experience of studying and living abroad, which Miss Stone did in Greece during her studies. The fellowship carries a stipend of $20,000.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Walter J. Jensen Fellowship for French Language, Literature, and Culture aims to help educators and researchers improve education in standard French language, literature and culture and in the study of standard French in the United States. Established in 2001 by Professor Walter J. Jensen (ΦΒΚ, UCLA), the fellowship is awarded for at least six continuous months of study in France and carries a stipend originally set in 1995 at $10,000, to be adjusted for inflation. The stipend for 2016 was $15,500.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Dr. Martin R. Lebowitz and Eve Lewellis Lebowitz Prize for Philosophical Achievement and Contribution is awarded by the Phi Beta Kappa Society in conjunction with the American Philosophical Association. The associated Lebowitz Symposium is presented annually at a divisional meeting of the American Philosophical Association. The prize was established in 2013 by Eve Lewellis Lebowitz in honor of her late husband, Martin R. Lebowitz, to provide a significant, tangible recognition for excellence in philosophical thought. The Symposium program consists of a pair of lectures to be delivered at an annual APA division meeting and a Phi Beta Kappa event. The topic of the lectures should be an important philosophical issue of current interest, and the lectures should offer contrasting (not necessarily opposing) views on that topic. Honoraria for the symposiasts are funded at an adjusted rate based on the current size of the endowment. Previous winners have won as much as $25,000 each.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: The Romanell-Phi Beta Kappa Professorship is awarded annually to scholars in the field of philosophy, without restriction to any one school of philosophical thought. The professorship recognizes not only distinguished achievement but also the recipient's contribution or potential contribution to public understanding of philosophy.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Since 1956, the Phi Beta Kappa Visiting Scholar Program has offered undergraduates the opportunity to spend time with some of America's most distinguished scholars. The purpose of the program is to contribute to the intellectual life of the campus by making possible an exchange of ideas between the Visiting Scholars and the resident faculty and students.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Phi Beta Kappa also sponsors a National Arts & Sciences Initiative, which taps into its cross-country network of members, chapters, and associations to connect with leaders, shares the value of the arts and sciences through all of life, and advocates for policies that strengthen an arts and sciences education.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: Since its inception, 17 U.S. Presidents, 42 U.S. Supreme Court Justices, and more than 150 Nobel Laureates have been inducted members.


title: Phi Beta Kappa

text: In 2008, the Phi Beta Kappa Society was awarded the Arts and Sciences Advocacy Award from the Council of Colleges of Arts and Sciences (CCAS). CCAS bestows this award upon an individual or organization demonstrating exemplary advocacy for the arts and sciences, flowing from a deep commitment to the intrinsic worth of liberal arts education.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Lee Ann Meriwether (born May 27, 1935) is an American actress, former model, and the winner of the Miss America 1955 pageant. She has appeared in many films and television shows, notably as Betty Jones, the title character's secretary and daughter-in-law in the 1970s crime drama "Barnaby Jones" starring Buddy Ebsen. The role earned her two Golden Globe Award nominations in 1975 and 1976, and an Emmy Award nomination in 1977. She is also known for her portrayal of Catwoman, replacing Julie Newmar in the film version of "Batman" (1966), and for a co-starring role on the science fiction series "The Time Tunnel". Meriwether had a recurring role as Ruth Martin on the daytime soap opera "All My Children" until the end of the series in September 2011.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Meriwether was born in Los Angeles, California, to Claudius Gregg Meriwether and Ethel Eve Mulligan. She has one brother, Don Brett Meriwether. She grew up in San Francisco after the family moved there from Phoenix, Arizona. She attended George Washington High School, where one of her classmates was Johnny Mathis. She later attended City College of San Francisco, where one of her classmates was fellow actor Bill Bixby.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: After winning Miss San Francisco, Meriwether won Miss California 1954, then was crowned Miss America in 1955 with her recital of a John Millington Synge monologue. She then appeared that Sunday on "What's My Line?", hosted by John Charles Daly (who also emceed the pageant that year). Following her reign as Miss America, she joined the "Today" show.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: An August 1, 1956, international news wirephoto of Meriwether and Joe DiMaggio announced their engagement. According to DiMaggio biographer Richard Ben Cramer, however, it was a rumor started by Walter Winchell.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Meriwether was a "Today Girl" on NBC's "The Today Show" from 1955 to 1956. Her feature film debut came in 1959 as Linda Davis in "4D Man", starring Robert Lansing. She appears in "The Phil Silvers Show" episode, "Cyrano de Bilko".


title: Lee Meriwether

text: In 1961, Meriwether guest starred once as Gloria in the episode "Buddy and the Amazon" on her first husband's (Frank Aletter) one-season CBS sitcom, "Bringing Up Buddy". She also appeared in "Leave It To Beaver" episode "Community Chest" in season four. In 1962, she was cast as Martha Elweiss in the episode "My Child Is Yet a Stranger" on the CBS anthology series, "The Lloyd Bridges Show". She played Nurse Dickens in a 1962 episode of the ABC sitcom, "I'm Dickens, He's Fenster". From 1963 to 1965, she was cast in different roles in eight episodes of the NBC medical drama, "Dr. Kildare". In 1964, she played the character Jeanelle in "This Is Going to Hurt Me More Than It Hurts You" on the CBS adventure series, "Route 66". In 1965, she appeared in an episode on "The Jack Benny Program" as The Secretary. In a 1965 episode of "12 O'Clock High", "Mutiny at Ten Thousand Feet", she played Lieutenant Amy Patterson, and in the episodes "The Idolator" (also 1965) and "The Outsider" (1966), she played Captain Phyllis Vincent. She also guest starred in the season 2 episode "Big Brother". She was a regular on the single season science fiction television series "The Time Tunnel" with James Darren and Robert Colbert in 1966–67.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Meriwether appeared as Dr. Egret on the NBC series, "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." ("The Mad, Mad Tea Party", 1965) and in an episode of "Hazel" ("How to Lose 30 Pounds in 30 Minutes", also 1965) she played Miss Wilson, the owner of an exercise studio. Meriwether portrayed The Catwoman for the "Batman" movie (1966), and also appeared in two episodes of the "Batman" TV series in 1967 as Lisa Carson, a love interest to Bruce Wayne in the episodes "King Tut's Coup" and "Batman's Waterloo". In the late 1960s and early 1970s, she had guest starring roles in numerous TV series, including "The Fugitive", "Mannix", "" episode "That Which Survives" (1969), "Perry Mason" episode #245 "The Case of the Cheating Chancellor" 1965 and Perry Mason episode "The Case of the Frustrated Folksinger" 1965, and the "F Troop" episode "O'Rourke vs. O'Reilly".


title: Lee Meriwether

text: In films, she joined John Wayne and Rock Hudson for "The Undefeated", and Andy Griffith in "Angel in My Pocket" (both 1969). In the same year as those two films, she played IMF spy Tracey in six "" episodes during season four after Barbara Bain's departure.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Meriwether began her award-nominated role as secretary and daughter-in-law Betty Jones in the 1973–1980 CBS series "Barnaby Jones", opposite Buddy Ebsen. During the series' eight-year run she enjoyed an on- and off-screen chemistry with the elder Ebsen. During the series' run, she was reunited with her former classmate and best friend Bill Bixby during one episode. After her stint on "Barnaby Jones", Meriwether became best friends with Ebsen, keeping in touch for many years until his death on July 6, 2003. She starred in the 1978 television movies "" with Warren Oates as Rooster Cogburn and "Cruise Into Terror" with an all-star ensemble cast, appeared on "Circus of the Stars" four times, and was a regular panelist on the game show "Match Game".


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Meriwether portrayed Lily Munster in the 1988–1991 revival of the 1960s television sitcom "The Munsters", titled "The Munsters Today", in which she starred alongside Jason Marsden, John Schuck, Howard Morton and Hilary Van Dyke. She also made several guest appearances on "The Love Boat" and "Fantasy Island".


title: Lee Meriwether

text: In the 1990s, she appeared as herself on an episode of "Space Ghost Coast to Coast". In 1993, she guest starred on "Murder, She Wrote", episode "Ship of Thieves". In 1996, Meriwether took over for Mary Fickett in the role of Ruth Martin on the soap opera "All My Children", Fickett having played the role since its inception in 1970. After twenty-six years, Fickett wanted to go into semi-retirement as a recurring cast member. Negotiations with the network broke down and Meriwether was cast as Ruth Martin. In 1998, ABC deemed that they were at an impasse with Meriwether's agents and Mary Fickett was brought back as a recurring cast member. Fickett retired again, this time for good in December 2000. ABC decided to bring back the character of Ruth Martin in 2002, but Fickett remained in retirement. Meriwether was hence brought back and remained a featured recurring performer on the show until it ended.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: In 2002, she appeared in the documentary film "Miss America". In 2003, Meriwether appeared in the TV-Movie "". She also appeared off-Broadway in the interactive comedy, "Grandma Sylvia's Funeral". She voiced Big Mama in the video game "" for the PlayStation 3. She also appears in one of the game's opening videos as a talkshow host having an interview with David Hayter, who voices Solid Snake in the game. In 2006, she joined James Garner, Abigail Breslin, Bill Cobbs and others in "The Ultimate Gift". In 2008, Meriwether had a brief cameo as comic book character Battle Diva in the episode "Harper Knows" of the Disney Channel original series "Wizards of Waverly Place". In 2010, she was once again reunited on screen with Hollywood veteran Bill Cobbs in "". She voices President Winters in the video game "Vanquish" by PlatinumGames.


title: Lee Meriwether

text: Meriwether continued to work on stage, television, game voice-overs, and feature films. She has made guest appearances on "Desperate Housewives", "Hawaii Five-0", "The League", and "Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23". Most recently, she revisited her role as Miss Hastings in the sequel/prequel to "The Ultimate Gift", "The Ultimate Life "(2013), directed by Michael Landon Jr. She is also starring in the short film "Kitty".


title: Lee Meriwether

text: She also makes appearances at Comic Cons where she speaks about her roles in "Batman", "Star Trek", and "Time Tunnel".


title: Lee Meriwether

text: On April 20, 1958, Meriwether married Frank Aletter. They had two daughters, actresses Kyle Aletter-Oldham and Lesley A. Aletter, and divorced in 1974. On September 21, 1986, Meriwether married Marshall Borden.


title: Candice King

text: Candice René King ( Accola; born May 13, 1987) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her role as Caroline Forbes in The CW supernatural drama series "The Vampire Diaries" and her recurring role as the same character on the spin-off series "The Originals" and "Legacies"


title: Candice King

text: Candice René Accola was born in Houston, Texas, the daughter of Carolyn (née Clark), who was an environmental engineer before becoming a homemaker, and Kevin Accola, a cardiothoracic surgeon. She grew up in Edgewood, Florida and attended Lake Highland Preparatory School. Both her parents are active members of the local Republican political party. She has one younger brother, Kree Thomas Accola.


title: Candice King

text: In December 2006, King released her debut album, "It's Always the Innocent Ones", independently in the United States. She co-wrote 12 of the 14 tracks on the record. The remaining tracks were a cover of 'Til Tuesday's hit "Voices Carry (song)" and American Hi-Fi's "The Breakup Song" rewritten in a female version as "Our Breakup Song".


title: Candice King

text: In 2008, the album was re-released in Japan and achieved greater success. King toured as a backing singer for Miley Cyrus's Best of Both Worlds Tour. She appeared as herself in the 2008 3D concert film "".


title: Candice King

text: King had guest appearances in a number of television series such as "How I Met Your Mother", "Supernatural", and "Drop Dead Diva". In July 2009, she starred in the horror film "Deadgirl" which centers on two high-school boys who discover an immortal woman in an abandoned asylum. That same year King had a bit-role in "The Hannah Montana Movie".


title: Candice King

text: In 2009, she was cast in the CW television series "The Vampire Diaries" as Caroline Forbes, one of the main characters of the show. In June 2012, she joined the second season of the web series "Dating Rules From My Future Self," as Chloe Cunningham, a 26-year-old woman who believes love does not exist. The series centers on a girl receiving romance advice from herself ten years in the future by text message. She played Kimberly in the 2020 romance sequel "After We Collided".


title: Candice King

text: King began dating musician Joe King of The Fray after they met at a Super Bowl event in February 2012. Her costar Nina Dobrev introduced them. They became engaged in May 2013, and married on October 18, 2014, in New Orleans, Louisiana. She is stepmother to King's two daughters from his first marriage.


title: Candice King

text: In January 2016, King gave birth to a daughter. In December 2020, King gave birth to their second daughter. In May 2022, it was announced that Accola had filed for divorce.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: V. A. Shiva Ayyadurai (born Vellayappa Ayyadurai Shiva, December 2, 1963) is an Indian-American engineer, politician, entrepreneur, and anti-vaccine activist. He has become known for promoting conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, and unfounded medical claims. Ayyadurai holds four degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), including a Ph.D. in biological engineering, and is a Fulbright grant recipient.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In a 2011 article published by "Time", Ayyadurai claimed to have invented email, as a teenager; in August 1982, he registered the copyright on an email application he had written. Historians strongly dispute this account because email was already in use in the early 1970s. Ayyadurai sued Gawker Media and Techdirt for defamation for disputing his account of inventing email; both lawsuits were settled out of court. Ayyadurai and Techdirt agreed to Techdirt's articles remaining online with a link to Ayyadurai's rebuttal on his own website. Ayyadurai also attracted attention for two reports: the first questioning the working conditions of India's largest scientific agency; the second questioning the safety of genetically modified food, such as soybeans. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Ayyadurai became known for a social media COVID-19 disinformation campaign, spreading conspiracy theories about the cause of COVID-19, promoting unfounded COVID-19 treatments, and campaigning to fire Anthony Fauci for allegedly being a deep state actor.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai garnered 3.39% of the vote as an independent candidate in the 2018 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts, and ran for the Republican Party in the 2020 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts but lost to Kevin O'Connor in the primary. After the election, he promoted claims of election fraud that were shown to be false by fact checkers. In December 2021, he announced his run for the 2022 Massachusetts gubernatorial election.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Shiva Ayyadurai was born Vellayappa Ayyadurai Shiva in 1963, in Bombay (now Mumbai), India. He grew up in the Muhavur village in Rajapalayam, Tamil Nadu. At the age of seven, he left with his family to live in the United States.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In 1978, as a 14-year-old high school student, Ayyadurai attended a summer program at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University (NYU) to study computer programming. While a student at Livingston High School in New Jersey, Ayyadurai volunteered at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ) where his mother worked. While there, he set up an electronic messaging system for 100 users at the medical school. In 1982, he registered the copyright for the source code of the FORTRAN program he called EMAIL, making it illegal to copy the code without permission, and for the program's user documentation.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai's undergraduate degree from MIT was in electrical engineering and computer science; he took a master's degree in visual studies from the MIT Media Laboratory on scientific visualization; concurrently, he completed another master's degree in mechanical engineering, also from MIT; and in 2007, he obtained a Ph.D. in biological engineering from MIT in systems biology, with his thesis focusing on modeling the whole cell by integrating molecular pathway models. In 2007, he was awarded a Fulbright U.S. Student Program grant to study the integration of Siddha, a system of traditional medicine developed in South India, with modern systems biology.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In 1994, Ayyadurai founded a company called Millennium Cybernetics, which produces email management software originally called Xiva and now called EchoMail. The software analyzes incoming email messages to organizations before either replying automatically or forwarding it to the most relevant department. By 2001, customers included Kmart, American Express, and Calvin Klein, as well as more than thirty U.S. senators to help handle constituent email. EchoMail competed with more established customer relationship management software that had an email component.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In 2009, Ayyadurai was hired by India's Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India's largest science agency, by its director general, Samir K. Brahmachari. CSIR was mandated to create a new company, CSIR Tech, that would establish businesses using the research conducted by the country's many publicly owned laboratories. Ayyadurai reported that he had spent months trying to create a business plan for CSIR Tech, but received no response from Brahmachari. Ayyadurai then distributed a draft plan, which was not authorized by CSIR, to the agency's scientists that requested feedback and criticized management. His job offer was subsequently withdrawn five months after the position was offered.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Brahmachari said that "the offer was withdrawn as [Ayyadurai] did not accept the terms and conditions and demanded unreasonable compensation." In its report, "The New York Times" said that "going public with such accusations is highly unusual. Mr. Ayyadurai circulated his paper not just to the agency's scientists but to journalists, and wrote about his situation to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh." In that letter, Ayyadurai said his report was intended to explore institutional barriers to CSIR's entrepreneurial mandate. He said that CSIR scientists reported that "they work in a medieval, feudal environment" that required a "major overhaul". The letter was co-authored by a colleague, Deepak Sardana. Pushpa Bhargava, founding director of the CSIR's Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in Hyderabad, endorsed the letter, calling Ayyadurai's sacking the worst of many cases he had seen of "vindictiveness in the CSIR" and accused CSIR administration of being "impervious to healthy and fair criticism". The incident was seen as an example of the difficulty some Indian expatriate professionals may encounter returning home after growing accustomed to the more direct management style of the U.S.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In 2015, Ayyadurai published a paper that applied systems biology, which uses mathematical modeling, to predict the chemical composition of genetically modified (GM) soybeans, and whether or not they were substantially equivalent to unmodified soybeans. The paper claimed that GM soybeans have lower levels of the antioxidant glutathione and higher levels of carcinogenic formaldehyde, making the modified soybean substantially different, contrary to previous safety assessments. Shortly after publication, Ayyadurai embarked on a speaking tour of the U.S. At the National Press Club, he said that genetic modification had "fundamentally modified the metabolic system of the soy", disrupting the "beautiful way of detoxifying [formaldehyde]" present in non-GM soy.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: The European Food Safety Agency evaluated the paper and determined that "the author's conclusions are not supported" due to the lack of information on the input into the model, the fact that the model was not validated and because no measurements of soybeans were made to establish whether GM soy actually contained elevated levels of formaldehyde. Plant scientist Kevin Folta noted that there was "no evidence ever published ... that shows a difference in formaldehyde between GM and non-GM varieties". Ayyadurai later cited the study as evidence of a lack of safety standards for GM foods and bet Monsanto a $10 million building if they could prove that they were safe. Monsanto did not take up the challenge but stated that GM food did indeed undergo safety assessments that "are more rigorous and thorough than assessments of any other food crop in history". In 2016, Ayyadurai promised to donate $10 million to Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign if she could disprove his research.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: On March 17, 2017, Ayyadurai filed as a Republican candidate in the 2018 United States Senate election in Massachusetts, running against incumbent Elizabeth Warren. He ran as an independent and placed third with 3.4% of the votes.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai said that Senator Warren was at the top of a U.S. "neo–caste system" composed of "academics, career politicians and lawyer/lobbyists", a "spineless clan" who never expect to be challenged. He said he would take a science and engineering perspective on problem solving, focusing on immigration, education and innovation. He called for secure borders and an end to sanctuary cities, support for more choices in public education, and for more scrutiny of "pay-to-play" science research. Ayyadurai has accused Warren of voting in favor of the Farmer Assurance Provision and against a GM labeling bill sponsored by Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont. However, the Act was reportedly passed to avoid a government shutdown, and Warren petitioned the Food and Drug Administration for "regulations to ensure that the labeling of GMO products is fair, standardized and transparent."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In August 2017, Ayyadurai spoke at the Boston Free Speech rally, a gathering which drew large counter-protests and whose speaker line-up included right-wing extremists. Ayyadurai later disputed how the event was characterized, tweeting that the "establishment" wanted to block attendance and media coverage and sought a "Race War to divide us". In April 2018, the city of Cambridge threatened Ayyadurai with daily fines for an alleged zoning code violation if he did not remove a banner on his campaign bus. The banner featured his campaign slogan, "Only a real Indian can defeat a fake Indian", together with a digitally altered image depicting Warren in a Native American headdress, a reference to her claim to be of part Cherokee descent. The city reversed its position the following month and Ayyadurai, in turn, dropped a lawsuit alleging that his free speech rights had been violated. During the campaign, Ayyadurai appeared on a livestream with Matthew Colligan, a white supremacist known for his participation in the 2017 Unite the Right rally. Colligan requested that Ayyadurai bless a small statue of Kek, the green frog that came to prominence as a symbol of the alt-right during the 2016 United States presidential election. Ayyadurai obliged and described Colligan as "one of our greatest supporters". Ayyadurai also sold pins promoting his campaign that featured a brown-skinned variant of the "Groyper", the namesake and mascot for white nationalist group Groypers which Colligan is affiliated with. Ayyadurai also tweeted on one occasion (and separately retweeted another tweet including) the hashtag "#WWG1WGA", a slogan associated with the QAnon conspiracy theory.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination in the 2020 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts. By August 2020, Ayyadurai's campaign had spent $1.4 million, including $1.05 million of Ayyadurai's own funds. After Kevin J. O'Conner won 158,590 votes to Ayyadurai's 104,782, Ayyadurai alleged that over one million ballots had been destroyed and that the state had committed election fraud. He alleged that ballot images had to be preserved for 22 months and were now missing. However, MIT political science professor Charles Stewart stated that federal law only requires that physical ballots be stored. Harvard law professor Nicholas Stephanopoulos disputed Ayyadurai's allegation of fraud and a spokesperson for the state accused him of spreading misinformation. Fact checkers at Reuters and the Associated Press labelled the allegations as false. On February 1, 2021, Ayyadurai was suspended from Twitter. On February 3, he filed a lawsuit against Massachusetts politician William Galvin and other Massachusetts election officials, alleging that they were responsible for Twitter's suspending him. On August 10, Ayyadurai dropped the lawsuit along with an October 2020 suit against Galvin.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai has continued to spread misinformation since about the 2020 presidential election. At Mike Lindell's Cyber Symposium in August 2021, he claimed there were "serious issues" in the election process involving voting machines able to "multiply a vote by a factor" and that states were illegally not "saving ballot images." In fact, not all states are legally required to store ballot images. In August 2021, he was hired by the Arizona Senate—as part of the controversial 2021 Maricopa County presidential ballot audit—to "review signatures on the envelopes of 1.9 million early ballots sent to [Maricopa] county" . In late September, he remotely attended the Arizona state senate presentation of the review's findings where he questioned the validity of some signatures on mail ballot envelopes, and criticized and gave a presentation filled with misrepresentations about the county's signature verification process.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Ayyadurai used social media to spread various conspiracy theories and misinformation about the pandemic. In January 2020, he claimed that COVID-19 was patented by the Pirbright Institute, but the patent he referenced relates to "avian coronavirus", which infects birds, not SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the pandemic. Ayyadurai defined COVID-19 as "an overactive dysfunctional immune system that overreacts and that's what causes damage to the body", and claimed that vitamin C could be used to treat it.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: He alleged that COVID-19 was spread by the "deep state" and accused Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, of being a "Deep State Plant". Ayyadurai called for Fauci to be fired and his supporters lobbied for Fauci to be replaced by Ayyadurai.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In March 2020, Ayyadurai published an open letter to then-U.S. President Donald Trump, writing that a national lockdown was unnecessary and advocated that large doses of vitamins could prevent and cure COVID-19. In April 2020, "Politico" and "Vanity Fair" reported that QAnon supporter DeAnna Lorraine recommended that Ayyadurai be included in COVID-19 discussions at Donald Trump's White House.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai is notable for his widely disputed claim of being the "inventor of email". His claim is based on an electronic mail software called EMAIL, an implementation of interoffice email system, which he wrote as a 14-year-old student at Livingston High School, New Jersey in 1979. Initial reports that repeated Ayyadurai's assertion—from organizations such as "The Washington Post" and the Smithsonian Institution—were followed by public retractions. These corrections were triggered by objections from historians and ARPANET pioneers who cited the fact the history of email dated back to the early 1970s. Ayyadurai started a campaign in 2011 in which he rebranded himself as the "Inventor of Email"; according to a paper published in "Information & Culture", he "provoked a dramatic succession of exaggerated claims, credulous reporters, retractions, and accusations that a cabal of industry insiders and corrupt Wikipedia editors are colluding to hide the truth."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: A November 2011 "Time" Techland interview by Doug Aamoth, entitled "The Man Who Invented Email", argued that EMAIL represented the birth of email "as we currently know it". In that interview, Ayyadurai recalled that Les Michelson, the former particle scientist at Brookhaven National Labs who assigned Ayyadurai the project, had the idea of creating an electronic mail system that uses the header conventions of a hardcopy memorandum. Ayyadurai recalled Michelson as saying: "Your job is to convert that into an electronic format. Nobody's done that before."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In February 2012, the Smithsonian National Museum of American History announced that Ayyadurai had donated "a trove of documents and code" related to EMAIL. Initially, the museum—inaccurately—cited the program as one of the first to include the now common "subject and body fields, inboxes, outboxes, cc, bcc, attachments, and others. He based these elements directly off of the interoffice mail memos the doctors had been using for years, in hopes of convincing people to actually use the newfangled technology."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai's claims drew editorial clarifications and corrections, as well as criticism from industry observers. In a followup to its acquisition announcement, the Smithsonian stated that it was not claiming that Ayyadurai had invented email, but rather that the materials were historically notable for other reasons related to trends in computer education and the role of computers in medicine. The Smithsonian statement distinguished Ayyadurai's achievement by noting that historians in the field, "have largely focused on the use of large networked computers, especially those linked to the ARPANET in the early 1970s". The statement observed that Ayyadurai's approach instead "focused on communications between linked computer terminals in an ordinary office situation". "The Washington Post" also followed up with a correction of errors in its earlier report on the Smithsonian acquisition, stating that it incorrectly referred to Ayyadurai as the inventor of electronic messaging; the 'bcc', 'cc', 'to' and 'from' fields existed previously; Ayyadurai had not been honored as the "inventor of email".


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Writing for "Gizmodo", Sam Biddle argued that email was developed a decade before EMAIL, beginning with Ray Tomlinson's sending the first text letter between two ARPANET-connected computers in 1971. Biddle quoted Tomlinson: "[We] had most of the headers needed to deliver the message (to:, cc:, etc.) as well as identifying the sender (from:) and when the message was sent (date:) and what the message was about." Biddle allowed for the possibility that Ayyadurai may have coined the term "EMAIL" and used the header terms without being aware of earlier work, but maintained that the historical record isn't definitive on either point. Biddle wrote that "laying claim to the name of a product that's the generic term for a universal technology gives you acres of weasel room. But creating a type of airplane named AIRPLANE doesn't make you Wilbur Wright."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Thomas Haigh, a historian of information technology at the University of Wisconsin, wrote that "Ayyadurai is, to the best of my knowledge, the only person to have claimed for him or herself the title 'inventor of email'." Haigh argued that while EMAIL was impressive for a teenager's work, it contained no features that were not present on previous electronic mail systems and had no obvious influence on later systems. "The most striking thing about Ayyadurai's claim to have invented electronic mail is how late it comes. Somehow it took him thirty years to alert the world to [his] greatest achievement". Haigh wrote that by 1980, "electronic mail had been in use at MIT for 15 years, Xerox had built a modern, mouse-driven graphical email system for office communication, Compuserve was selling email access to the public, and email had for many years been the most popular application on what was soon to become the Internet." Haigh wrote that Ayyadurai had created "infographic" outlines for his view of history and published the assembled documents under various domain names that he had registered to support his claim. Through his infographics, wrote Haigh, Ayyadurai presented his claims that he "designed and deployed the first version of electronic [mail] system" in 1980, although electronic mail as an executable program was used under the name "Electronic Mail System" before.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: David Crocker, a member of the ARPANET research community, writing in the "Post", said, "The reports incorrectly credited [EMAIL's] author, a 14-year-old in the late 1970s, as the 'inventor' of email, long after it had become an established service on the ARPANET." Another computer historian, Marc Weber, a curator at the Computer History Museum, said that by 1978, "nearly all the features we're familiar with today had appeared on one system or another over the previous dozen years", including emoticons, mailing lists, flame wars, and spam mail.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: After the controversy unfolded, MIT disassociated itself from Ayyadurai's EMAIL Lab and funding was dropped. MIT also revoked Ayyadurai's contract to lecture at the bioengineering department.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Ayyadurai characterized the earlier work of Tomlinson, Tom Van Vleck and others as text messaging, rather than an electronic version of an interoffice mail system. Responding to his critics on his personal website, Ayyadurai described EMAIL as "the first of its kind—a fully integrated, database-driven, electronic translation of the interoffice paper mail system derived from the ordinary office situation." He maintained that EMAIL was the first electronic mail system to integrate an easy-to-use user interface, a word processor, a relational database, and a modular inter-communications protocol "integrated together in one single and holistic platform to ensure high-reliability and user-friendliness network-wide." Ayyadurai presented a press release on his webpage asserting that his undergraduate professor Noam Chomsky, of MIT's Department of Linguistics and Philosophy, also supported his claims.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: According to various historians, Ayyadurai honed his claims appeal to those with particular political leanings by arguing that his achievements are overlooked due to "racism, anti-immigrant prejudice, historians in the pay of big business, and a belief that only elite and well-funded institutions can create innovations." In March 2016, Ayyadurai complained about Raytheon, where Tomlinson worked on ARPANET. After Tomlinson's death, Ayyadurai told "The Hindu" that he believed that news outlets retracted their stories about him because, "Raytheon advertises in publications like the "Huffington Post" and CNN" and that if he were "a white guy and had a copyright for email, I would have my photo on every stamp in the world." The day after Tomlinson's death, Ayyadurai tweeted: "I'm the low-caste, dark-skinned, Indian, who DID invent #email. Not Raytheon, who profits for war & death. Their mascot Tomlinson dies a liar".


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In May 2016, Ayyadurai filed suit against Gawker Media for $35 million, alleging that their website "Gawker" published "false and defamatory statements", causing "substantial damage to Dr. Ayyadurai's personal and professional reputation and career." The filing also named writer Sam Biddle, executive editor John Cook, and Gawker founder and CEO Nick Denton. Gawker Media responded that, "These claims to have invented email have been repeatedly debunked by the Smithsonian Institute, Gizmodo, the "Washington Post" and others."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In November 2016, the by-then-bankrupt Gawker Media settled the lawsuit with Ayyadurai for $750,000 as part of a broader settlement with wrestler Hulk Hogan and journalist Ashley Terrill, all of whom were represented by attorney Charles Harder. In a statement, Ayyadurai said that "history will reflect that this settlement is a victory for truth". Biddle denounced the settlement and said he fully stood by his reporting. Denton wrote that "we expected to prevail" in the Ayyadurai and Terrill lawsuits, "but all-out legal war with" billionaire Peter Thiel, who financially backed Harder, was untenable in terms of cost, time and human toll.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Katie Hafner, the author of several books on Internet history—including one on the development of ARPANET email—said, "This situation is both bizarre and appalling in that here we are simply trying to get the record straight, and [Ayyadurai has] managed to make money off claims that appear to be misleading."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In January 2017, Ayyadurai, again represented by Harder, filed a $15 million libel lawsuit on similar grounds against Techdirt founder Mike Masnick and two other parties for a series of articles published beginning in September 2014. In February, Masnick, represented by the firm Prince Lobel, filed two motions to dismiss. One motion argued that the articles were constitutionally protected opinion and written about a public figure without actual malice. The second motion asked for dismissal under California's anti-SLAPP law that compensates defendants for some legal expenses.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In September 2017, United States District Judge F. Dennis Saylor dismissed the defamation claims against Techdirt, but declined to strike the complaint under the anti-SLAPP law. In his ruling, Saylor wrote that definitions of "email" vary widely. Therefore, "whether plaintiff's claim to have invented e-mail is 'fake' depends upon the operative definition of 'e-mail.' Because the definition does not have a single, objectively correct answer, the claim is incapable of being proved true or false."


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: The two parties filed cross-appeals with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit but settled out of court in May 2019, with each side agreeing to pay their own legal costs and Techdirt's articles to remain online with an added link to a rebuttal on Ayyadurai's website.


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: In January 2017, Harder threatened the Diaspora Foundation with legal action unless it removed three posts by Roy Schestowitz that Harder alleged were "defamatory" towards Ayyadurai. (The Diaspora Foundation is part of the Free Software Support Network, which is in turn run by Eben Moglen and the Software Freedom Law Center.)


title: Shiva Ayyadurai

text: Beginning in 2014, Ayyadurai was romantically connected with the actress Fran Drescher. On September 7, 2014, Ayyadurai and Drescher participated in a ceremony at Drescher's beach house. Both tweeted that they had gotten married, and the event was widely reported as such. Ayyadurai later said it was not "a formal wedding or marriage", but a celebration of their "friendship in a spiritual ceremony with close friends and her family". The couple split up in September 2016.


title: Dark Winds

text: Dark Winds is an American psychological thriller television series created by Graham Roland based on the "Leaphorn & Chee" novel series by Tony Hillerman. It premiered on AMC and AMC+ on June 12, 2022, with the first season consisting of six episodes. After its premiere, the series was renewed for a six-episode second season, which will premiere in 2023.


title: Dark Winds

text: The series follows two Navajo police officers, Joe Leaphorn and Jim Chee, in the 1970s Southwest. The first season is primarily based on "Listening Woman" (1978) and parts of "People of Darkness" (1980).


title: Dark Winds

text: In July 2021, it was announced that AMC had greenlighted "Dark Winds" for a six-episode order. The series is created by Graham Roland, who executive produces with Zahn McClarnon, George R. R. Martin, Robert Redford, Tina Elmo, Vince Gerardis, Vince Calandra, and Chris Eyre. Redford previously produced four other adaptions of the "Leaphorn & Chee" series: "The Dark Wind" (1991), "Skinwalkers" (2002), "Coyote Waits" (2003), and "A Thief of Time" (2004). Calandra serves as showrunner, and Eyre directed the pilot. The series is produced by AMC Networks and Dark Winds Productions. In May 2022, Sanford Bookstaver was announced as an additional director.


title: Dark Winds

text: In June 2022, AMC renewed the series for a six-episode second season. Billy Luther, who wrote for season 1, will direct an episode of season 2.


title: Dark Winds

text: The writers' room is all Native American. In addition to Roland, writers on the series include Anthony Florez, Maya Rose Dittloff, Razelle Benally, Billy Luther, and Erica Tremblay.


title: Dark Winds

text: Alongside the series announcement, Zahn McClarnon and Kiowa Gordon were cast as Joe Leaphorn and Jim Chee. In August 2021, Noah Emmerich was cast as Whitover. Jessica Matten was cast as Bernadette Manuelito. Rainn Wilson was cast as Devoted Dan in early September. In February 2022, it was revealed that Deanna Allison would make her television acting debut on the show as Leaphorn's wife, Emma.


title: Dark Winds

text: Filming began on August 23, 2021, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Location shoots also occurred in Española, Tesuque Pueblo, Cochiti Pueblo, and the Navajo Nation. In mid-October, the series filmed in Mexican Hat, Monument Valley and Kayenta. Filming was expected to wrap on November 11, 2021.


title: Dark Winds

text: The second season began filming in November 2022 in Santa Fe and Tesuque Pueblo. The season is set to wrap in March 2023.


title: Dark Winds

text: For the first season of "Dark Winds", review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 8.1/10, based on 30 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Zahn McClarnon is riveting as a coiled cop in "Dark Winds", a solid procedural that derives much of its texture from an underrepresented cultural milieu." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 80 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Dark Winds

text: The "Navajo Times" criticized the series for lacking authenticity in its representation of Navajo people and language.


title: Chippendales

text: Chippendales is a touring dance troupe best known for its male striptease performances and for its dancers' distinctive upper body costume of a bow tie, collar, and shirt cuffs worn on an otherwise bare torso.


title: Chippendales

text: Established in 1979, Chippendales was the first all-male stripping troupe to make a business performing for mostly female audiences. Through the quality of its staging and choreography, Chippendales also helped legitimize stripping as a form of popular entertainment.


title: Chippendales

text: The company produces Broadway-style burlesque shows worldwide and licenses its intellectual property for select consumer products ranging from apparel and accessories to slot machines and video games. The Chippendales perform in a ten-million-dollar theater and lounge built specifically for them at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. Annually, the men of Chippendales are seen by almost two million people worldwide, performing in more than 25 cities in the U.S., 23 cities in Central and South America, 60 European cities, four Asian countries, and eight South African cities.


title: Chippendales

text: Chippendales was founded by India-born Somen "Steve" Banerjee. In 1975, Banerjee bought a failing West Los Angeles bar named Destiny II. In 1979, Banerjee renamed the bar "Chippendales" and began hosting exotic dance nights for women, which became a major hit.


title: Chippendales

text: Banarjee opened clubs in New York, Dallas, and Denver, and three touring troupes toured around the US and Europe.


title: Chippendales

text: Similar nightclubs soon followed. Banerjee was worried about the competition and attempted to burn down at least three of them.


title: Chippendales

text: In 1987, Banerjee hired his close associate Ray Colon to murder his business partner Nick De Noia. Colon later hired Gilbert Rivera Lopez to perform the hit on De Noia. He also plotted to have two other former associates killed. Banerjee was arrested in 1993 for murder for hire, racketeering, and attempted arson, for which he was sentenced to 26 years on a plea bargain. He hanged himself in his cell a year later.


title: Chippendales

text: In 2020, the troupe turned their show into workout videos as an alternative form of entertainment/exercise to people in lockdown and quarantine due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Chippendales

text: The company continues to battle similar male revues in the courts. In 1980, Chippendales successfully registered its "Cuffs and Collar" uniform as a trademark in 2003, following an agreement between Hugh Hefner and Nahin that was brokered by Playboy model Dorothy Stratten. However, because this registration was based on "acquired distinctiveness", Chippendales filed a subsequent application for the same mark in an effort to have the mark recognized as being inherently distinctive. The Trademark Trial and Appeal Board affirmed the decision of the examiner that the mark was not inherently distinctive with one member of the panel dissenting. The Trademark Trial and Appeal Board noted that its decision in no way detracted from the rights flowing from the registration in 2003: "However, the fact that the applicant already owns an incontestable registration for the Cuffs & Collar Mark should serve as no small consolation in spite of our decision here."


title: Chippendales

text: On October 1, 2010, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit affirmed the decision of the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board. Nothing in that decision affected the validity of the 2003 registration. One of the reasons for upholding the decision was the testimony of Chippendales' own expert, who admitted the male dancers' outfits were "inspired" by those of the Playboy Bunny, who also feature a bow-tie and shirt cuffs. In April 2011, St. Joseph, Missouri, police shut down a show by a Chippendales impostor group, alleging that it violated Missouri's adult entertainment laws.


title: Chippendales

text: Former "The Bachelor" fiancée Vienna Girardi hosted the Chippendales' "Ultimate Girls Night Out" in November 2010. Karina Smirnoff of "Dancing with the Stars" hosted the following month. Ronnie Magro of "Jersey Shore" guest hosted an event in February 2011. It was reported that Jeff Timmons would be performing with the group through the summer. In 2012, Joey Lawrence was a dancer for a special engagement in June at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. Former dancers from the inception of the 1980s Chippendales choreographed show include Michael Rapp, John Bernard Richardson, Dean Mammales, Scott Marlowe, and Jonathan Hagan.


title: Chippendales

text: The 1990 "Saturday Night Live" sketch "Chippendales Audition" featured guest host Patrick Swayze and Chris Farley competing in an audition to become a Chippendales dancer.


title: Chippendales

text: In the 1997 English comedy film, "The Full Monty", the characters' plan to form a striptease group is inspired by the Chippendales.


title: Chippendales

text: Films and TV series based on the real story of Chippendales and its founder Somen Banerjee include the 2000 TV movie "The Chippendales Murder", directed by Eric Bross; the 2001 direct-to-video film "Just Can't Get Enough", and the 2022 Hulu miniseries "Welcome to Chippendales". Others who have attempted to make a film about the Chippendales story include Tony Scott in 2009, producer Alan Ball in 2014, Salman Khan in 2016, and Craig Gillespie in 2017, in a film that would have starred Dev Patel.


title: Chippendales

text: The true story of Chippendales has also been the subject of several episodes of true crime series, as well as the 2021 Amazon Prime and Discovery+ four-part documentary series "Curse of the Chippendales", written and directed by Jesse Vile.


title: Clef

text: A clef (from French: 'key') is a musical symbol used to indicate which notes are represented by the lines and spaces on a musical stave. Placing a clef on a stave assigns a particular pitch to one of the five lines, which defines the pitches on the remaining lines and spaces.


title: Clef

text: The three clef symbols used in modern music notation are the G-clef, F-clef, and C-clef. Placing these clefs on a line fixes a reference note to that line—an F-clef fixes the F below middle C, a C-clef fixes middle C, and a G-clef fixes the G above middle C. In modern music notation, the G-clef is most frequently seen as treble clef (placing G on the second line of the stave), and the F-clef as bass clef (placing F on the fourth line). The C-clef is mostly encountered as alto clef (placing middle C on the third line) or tenor clef (middle C on the fourth line). A clef may be placed on a space instead of a line, but this is rare.


title: Clef

text: The use of different clefs makes it possible to write music for all instruments and voices, regardless of differences in range. Using different clefs for different instruments and voices allows each part to be written comfortably on a stave with a minimum of ledger lines. To this end, the G-clef is used for high parts, the C-clef for middle parts, and the F-clef for low parts. Transposing instruments can be an exception to this—the same clef is generally used for all instruments in a family, regardless of their sounding pitch. For example, even the low saxophones read in treble clef.


title: Clef

text: A symmetry exists surrounding middle C regarding the F-, C- and G-clefs. C-clef defines middle C whereas treble clef and bass clef define the note at the interval of a fifth above middle C and below middle C, respectively.


title: Clef

text: Theoretically, any clef may be placed on any line. With five lines on the stave and three clefs, there are fifteen possibilities for clef placement. Six of these are redundant because they result in an identical assignment of the notes to the lines (and spaces)—for example, a G-clef on the third line yields the same note placement as a C-clef on the bottom line. Thus, there are nine possible distinct clefs, all of which have been used historically: the G-clef on the two bottom lines, the F-clef on the three top lines, and the C-clef on any line except the topmost. The C-clef on the topmost line is equivalent to the F-clef on the third line but both options have been used.


title: Clef

text: In modern music, only four clefs are used regularly: treble clef, bass clef, alto clef, and tenor clef. Of these, the treble and bass clefs are by far the most common. The tenor clef is used for the upper register of several instruments that usually use bass clef (including cello, bassoon, and trombone), while the alto is mostly only used by the viola. Instruments with ranges too low (such as the double bass) or too high (such as the piccolo) to use a standard clef can be notated with an octave clef, which transposes the entire stave up or down by one or more octaves.


title: Clef

text: This section shows a complete list of the clefs, along with a list of instruments and voice parts notated with them. A dagger (†) after the name of a clef indicates that the clef is no longer in common use.


title: Clef

text: The only G-clef still in use is the treble clef, with the G-clef placed on the second line. This is the most common clef in use and is generally the first clef learned by music students. For this reason, the terms "G-clef" and "treble clef" are often seen as synonymous. The treble clef was historically used to mark a treble, or pre-pubescent, voice part.


title: Clef

text: Instruments that use the treble clef include violin, flute, oboe, cor anglais, all clarinets, all saxophones, horn, trumpet, cornet, vibraphone, xylophone, mandolin, recorder, bagpipe and guitar. Euphonium and baritone horn are sometimes treated as transposing instruments, using the treble clef and sounding a major ninth lower, and are sometimes treated as concert-pitch instruments, using bass clef. The treble clef is also the upper stave of the grand stave used for harp and keyboard instruments. Most high parts for bass-clef instruments (e.g. cello, double bass, bassoon, and trombone) are written in the tenor clef, but very high pitches may be notated in the treble clef. The viola also may use the treble clef for very high notes. The treble clef is used for the soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, contralto and tenor voices. Tenor voice parts sound an octave lower and are often written using an octave clef (see below) or a double-treble clef.


title: Clef

text: A G-clef placed on the first line is called the French clef, or French violin clef. This clef was used in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in France for violin music and flute music.


title: Clef

text: When the F-clef is placed on the third line, it is called the baritone clef. Baritone clef was used for the left hand of keyboard music (particularly in France; see Bauyn manuscript) and for baritone parts in vocal music. A C-clef on the fifth line creates a staff with identical notes to the baritone clef but this variant is rare. (see below).


title: Clef

text: The only F-clef still in use is the bass clef, with the clef placed on the fourth line. Since it is the only F-clef commonly encountered, the terms "F-clef" and "bass clef" are often regarded as synonymous.


title: Clef

text: Bass clef is used for the cello, double bass and bass guitar, bassoon and contrabassoon, bass recorder, trombone, tuba, and timpani. It is used for baritone horn or euphonium when their parts are written at concert pitch, and sometimes for the lowest notes of the horn. Baritone and bass voices also use bass clef, and the tenor voice is notated in bass clef if the tenor and bass are written on the same stave. Bass clef is the bottom clef in the grand stave for harp and keyboard instruments. Double bass, bass guitar, and contrabassoon sound an octave lower than the written pitch; some scores show an "8" beneath the clef for these instruments to differentiate from instruments that sound at the actual written pitch. (see "Octave clefs" below).


title: Clef

text: When the F-clef is placed on the fifth line, it is called the sub-bass clef. It was used by Johannes Ockeghem and Heinrich Schütz to write low bass parts, by Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe for low notes on the bass viol, and by J. S. Bach in his "Musical Offering".


title: Clef

text: A C-clef on the third line of the stave is called the alto or viola clef. It is currently used for viola, viola d'amore, alto trombone, viola da gamba, and mandola. It is also associated with the countertenor voice and sometimes called the countertenor clef. A vestige of this survives in Sergei Prokofiev's use of the clef for the cor anglais in his symphonies. It occasionally appears in keyboard music (for example, in Brahms's Organ Chorales and John Cage's "Dream" for piano).


title: Clef

text: A C-clef on the fourth line of the stave is called tenor clef. It is used for the viola da gamba and for upper ranges of bass-clef instruments such as the bassoon, cello, euphonium, double bass, and tenor trombone. Treble clef may also be used for the upper extremes of these bass-clef instruments. Tenor violin parts were also written in this clef (see e.g. Giovanni Battista Vitali's Op. 11). It was used by the tenor part in vocal music but its use has been largely supplanted either with an octave version of the treble clef or with bass clef when tenor and bass parts are written on a single stave.


title: Clef

text: A C-clef on the second line of the stave is called the mezzo-soprano clef, rarely used in modern Western classical music. It was used in 17th century French orchestral music for the second viola or first tenor part ('taille') by such composers as Lully, and for mezzo-soprano voices in operatic roles, notably by Claudio Monteverdi. Mezzo-soprano clef was also used for certain flute parts during renaissance, especially when doubling vocal lines. In Azerbaijani music, the tar uses this clef.


title: Clef

text: A C-clef on the first line of the stave is called the soprano clef. It was used for the right hand of keyboard music (particularly in France – see Bauyn manuscript), in vocal music for sopranos, and sometimes in high viola da gamba parts along with the alto clef. It was used for the second violin part ('haute-contre') in 17th century French music.


title: Clef

text: Starting in the 18th century, music for some instruments (such as guitar) and for the tenor voice have used treble clef, although they sound an octave lower. To avoid ambiguity, modified clefs are sometimes used, especially in choral writing. Using a C-clef on the third space places the notes identically, but this notation is much less common as it is easily confused with the alto and tenor clefs.


title: Clef

text: Such a modified treble clef is most often found in tenor parts in SATB settings, using a treble clef with the numeral "8" below it. This indicates that the pitches sound an octave lower. As the true tenor clef has fallen into disuse in vocal writings, this "octave-dropped" treble clef is often called the tenor clef. The same clef is sometimes used for the octave mandolin. This can also be indicated with two overlapping G-clefs.


title: Clef

text: Tenor banjo is commonly notated in treble clef. However, notation varies between the written pitch sounding an octave lower (as in guitar music and called octave pitch in most tenor banjo methods) and music sounding at the written pitch (called actual pitch). An attempt has been made to use a treble clef with a diagonal line through the upper half of the clef to indicate octave pitch, but this is not always used.


title: Clef

text: To indicate that notes sound an octave higher than written, a treble clef with an "8" positioned above the clef may be used for penny whistle, soprano and sopranino recorder, and other high woodwind parts. A treble clef with a "15" above (sounding two octaves above the standard treble clef) is used for the garklein (sopranissimo) recorder.


title: Clef

text: An F-clef can also be notated with an octave marker. While the F-clef notated to sound an octave lower can be used for contrabass instruments such as the double bass and contrabassoon, and the F-clef notated to sound an octave higher can be used for the bass recorder, these uses are extremely rare. In Italian scores up to Gioachino Rossini's Overture to "William Tell", the cor anglais was written in bass clef an octave lower than sounding. The unmodified bass clef is so common that performers of instruments whose ranges lie below the stave simply learn to read ledger lines.


title: Clef

text: Octave-marked clefs are useful in music notation software to keep the score readable while having the notes play back at their correct pitch.


title: Clef

text: The "neutral" or "percussion" clef is not a true clef like the F, C, and G clefs. Rather, it assigns different unpitched percussion instruments to the lines and spaces of the stave. With the exception of some common drum-kit and marching percussion layouts, the assignment of lines and spaces to instruments is not standardised, so a legend is required to show which instrument each line or space represents. Pitched percussion instruments do not use this clef — timpani are notated in bass clef and mallet percussion instruments are noted in treble clef or on a grand stave.


title: Clef

text: If the neutral clef is used for a single percussion instrument the stave may only have one line, although other configurations are used.


title: Clef

text: The neutral clef is sometimes used where non-percussion instruments play non-pitched extended techniques, such as hitting the body of a string instrument, or having a vocal choir clap, stamp, or snap. However, it is more common to write the rhythms using × noteheads on the instrument's normal stave, with a comment to indicate the appropriate rhythmic action.


title: Clef

text: For guitars and other fretted instruments, it is possible to notate tablature in place of ordinary notes. This TAB sign is not a clef — it does not indicate the placement of notes on a stave. The lines shown are not a music stave but rather represent the strings of the instrument (six lines would be used for guitar, four lines for the bass guitar, etc.), with numbers on the lines showing which fret should be used.


title: Clef

text: Before the advent of clefs, the reference line of a stave was simply labeled with the name of the note it was intended to bear: "F", "C", or sometimes "G". These were the most common 'clefs', or (key-letters), in Gregorian chant notation. Over time the shapes of these letters became stylised, leading to their current versions.


title: Clef

text: Many other clefs were used, particularly in the early period of chant notation, keyed to many different notes, from the low "Γ" ("gamma", the G on the bottom line of the bass clef) to the G above middle C (written with a small letter "g"). These included two different lowercase "b" symbols for the note just below middle C: round for B, and square for B. In order of frequency of use, these clefs were: "F", "c", "f", "C", "D", "a", "g", "e", "Γ", "B", and the round and square "b". In later medieval music, the round "b" was often written in addition to another clef letter to indicate that B rather than B was to be used throughout a piece; this is the origin of the key signature.


title: Clef

text: In the polyphonic period up to 1600, unusual clefs were occasionally used for parts with extremely high or low tessituras. For very low bass parts, the Γ clef is found on the middle, fourth, or fifth lines of the stave (e.g., in Pierre de La Rue’s Requiem and in a mid-16th-century dance book published by the Hessen brothers); for very high parts, the high-D clef ("d"), and the even higher "ff" clef (e.g., in the "Mulliner Book") were used to represent the notes written on the fourth and top lines of the treble clef, respectively.


title: Clef

text: The practice of using different shapes for the same clef persisted until very recent times. The F-clef was, until as late as the 1980s in some cases (such as hymnals), or in British and French publications, written like this:


title: Clef

text: In printed music from the 16th and 17th centuries, the C clef often assumed a ladder-like form, in which the two horizontal rungs surround the stave line indicated as C: ; this form survived in some printed editions (, written in four-part men's harmony and positioned to make it equivalent to an octave G clef) into the 20th century.


title: Clef

text: The C-clef was formerly written in a more angular way, sometimes still used, or, more often, as a simplified "K"-shape when writing the clef by hand:


title: Clef

text: In modern Gregorian chant notation the C clef is written (on a four-line stave) in the form and the F clef as


title: Clef

text: The flourish at the top of the G-clef probably derives from a cursive "S" for "sol", the name for "G" in solfege.


title: Clef

text: C clefs (along with G, F, Γ, D, and A clefs) were formerly used to notate vocal music. Nominally, the soprano voice parts were written in first- or second-line C clef ("soprano clef" or "mezzo-soprano clef") or second-line G clef ("treble clef"), the alto or tenor voices in third-line C clef ("alto clef"), the tenor voice in fourth-line C clef ("tenor clef") and the bass voice in third-, fourth- or fifth-line F clef ("baritone", "bass", or "sub-bass clef").


title: Clef

text: This may be reduced to two staves, the soprano and alto sharing a stave with a treble clef, and the tenor and bass sharing a stave marked with the bass clef.


title: Clef

text: Clef combinations played a role in the modal system toward the end of the 16th century, and it has been suggested certain clef combinations in the polyphonic music of 16th-century vocal polyphony are reserved for authentic (odd-numbered) modes, and others for plagal (even-numbered) modes, but the precise implications have been the subject of much scholarly debate.


title: Clef

text: Reading music as if it were in a different clef from the one indicated can be an aid in transposing music at sight since it will move the pitches roughly in parallel to the written part. Key signatures and accidentals need to be accounted for when this is done.


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: Tom Glynn-Carney (born 7 February 1995) is an English actor and singer. He has appeared in Christopher Nolan's war film "Dunkirk" (2017), "Tolkien", "The King", and "Rialto" (2019), and as King Aegon II Targaryen in "House of the Dragon" (2022).


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: Glynn-Carney studied at Canon Slade School in Bolton, and went on to study Musical Theatre in Pendleton College of Performing Arts, receiving a triple distinction star in performing arts, the highest possible grade for a vocational qualification. He then attended the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, where he studied acting. While studying, he participated in professional stage adaptations of "Peter Pan" and "Macbeth".


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: His first experience on television was in 2013 when he had a role in two episodes of "Casualty". He secured a lead role in the BBC military drama "The Last Post", launched as part of the new season Autumn 2017 content on BBC1. He plays Lance Corporal Tony Armstrong.


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: From April 2017, Glynn-Carney starred as Shane Corcoran in the Jez Butterworth play "The Ferryman", which opened at the Royal Court Theatre. He later transferred with the production to the west end at the Gielgud Theatre, leaving the production in October 2017. Glynn-Carney won the Emerging Talent Award at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards for his performance.


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: Glynn-Carney's first feature film was in the war drama "Dunkirk", directed by Christopher Nolan and released in July 2017. He plays Peter, the son of the small boat captain who sailed to rescue British soldiers from the surrounded city Dunkirk. In 2018, Glynn-Carney was named as Screen International's Stars of Tomorrow, along with Naomi Ackie, Jessie Buckley, and Connor Swindells amongst others.


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: In 2019, he starred as Henry "Hotspur" Percy in the David Michôd diected film "The King" in a cast which included Robert Pattinson, Sean Harris, Timothée Chalamet and Lily-Rose Depp.


title: Tom Glynn-Carney

text: In March 2022, Glynn-Carney joined the cast of "House of the Dragon", where he played Prince Aegon Targaryen, first born son of King Viserys, played by Paddy Considine, and Alicent Hightower played by Olivia Cooke. He is also due to appear in the BBC miniseries "", due out in October 2022. In December 2022, he was cast in "The Book of Clarence".


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) () are the military forces of the Philippines. It consists of three main service branches; the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy (including the Marine Corps). The President of the Philippines is the Commander-in-Chief of the AFP and forms military policy with the Department of National Defense, an executive department acting as the principal organ by which military policy is carried out, while the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines serves as the overall commander and the highest-ranking officer in the AFP.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Founded under the National Defense Act of 1935, while tracing its roots to the Philippine Revolutionary Army, the AFP has played an integral part in the country's history. The AFP has also been involved in various conflicts, such as combatting rebellion against the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and it's attached organizations, the New People's Army (NPA) and the National Democratic Front of the Philippines (NDF), and operations against local islamic terrorists in Mindanao. The AFP has also been part of various peacekeeping operations around the world, as part of its contribution to the United Nations. At present, military service is entirely voluntary.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Pre-colonial Philippines maintained local militia groups under the barangay system. Reporting to the datu, these groups, aside from maintaining order in their communities, also served as their defense forces. With the arrival of Islam, the system of defense forces in the Mindanao region's sultanates under Muslim control mirrored those other existing sultanates in the region. These local warriors who were in the service of the Sultan were also responsible to qualified male citizens appointed by him.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: During the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish Army was responsible for the defense and general order of the archipelago in the land, while the Spanish Navy conducts maritime policing in the seas as well as providing naval logistics to the Army. The Guardia Civil took police duties and maintaining public order in villages and towns. In the early years of Spanish colonial era, most of the formations of the army were composed of conquistadors backed with native auxiliaries. By the 18th and 19th centuries, line infantry and cavalry formations were created composed of mixed Spanish and Filipino personnel, as well as volunteer battalions composed of all-Filipino volunteers during the later half of the 19th Century. Units from other colonies were also levied to augment the existing formations in the Philippines. Almost all of the formations of the Spanish Army in the archipelago participated in the local religious uprisings between 17th and 19th centuries, and in the Philippine Revolution in 1896 fighting against the revolutionary forces. At the peak of the revolution, some Filipinos and a few Spaniards in the Spanish Army, Guardia Civil, and Navy defected to the Philippine Revolutionary Army.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Spanish cession of the Philippines in the 1898 Treaty of Paris put the independence of the newly declared Southeast Asian republic in grave danger. The revolutionaries were fighting desperately as the American forces already landed in other islands and had taken over towns and villages. The Americans established the Philippine Constabulary in 1901 manned by Filipino fighters and used against Gen. Aguinaldo who was later captured.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Since the beginning of American rule in the Philippines, the United States Army had taken the responsibility for the defense of the country in the land, and the United States Navy in the seas until the passage of the National Defense Act of 1935 which called for a separate defense force for the Philippines.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In accordance with the National Defense Act of 1935, the "Armed Forces of the Philippines" was officially established on December 21, 1935, when the act entered into force. Retired U.S. General Douglas MacArthur was asked to supervise its foundation and training. MacArthur accepted the offer and became a Field Marshal of the Philippines, a rank no other person has since held. Jean MacArthur, his wife, found the situation amusing and remarked that her husband had gone from holding the highest rank in the United States Army to holding the highest rank in a non-existent army. President Quezon officially conferred the title of Field Marshal on MacArthur in a ceremony at Malacañan Palace on August 24, 1936, when he appeared with a gold marshal's baton and a unique uniform.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Army of the Philippines included naval and air assets directly reporting to Army headquarters, and the Philippine Constabulary, later part of the ground forces proper as a division. In 1938 the Constabulary Division was separated from the army and reorganized into a national police force.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: MacArthur expanded the Army of the Philippines with the revival of the Navy in 1940 and the formation of the Philippine Army Air Corps (formerly the Philippine Constabulary Air Corps), but they were not ready for combat at the start of the Pacific War in December 1941 and unable to defeat the 1941–42 Japanese invasion of the Philippines.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In 1940–41, most soldiers of the Philippine military were incorporated in the U.S. Army Forces Far East (USAFFE), with MacArthur appointed as its commander. USAFFE made its last stand on Corregidor Island, after which Japanese forces were able to force all remaining Filipino and American troops to surrender. The establishment of the general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army are military station went to the province during the occupation. Those who survived the invasion but escaped from the Japanese formed the basis of recognized guerrilla units and ongoing local military force of the Philippine Commonwealth Army that continued the fighting against the enemy all over the islands. The Philippine Constabulary went on active service under the Armed Forces of the Philippines during liberation.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: After Japan was defeated in World War II, the Philippines gained its independence in 1946. (This was its second independence after the Philippine Declaration of Independence in 1898).


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The pre-war military districts briefly continued to be used for administrating the military, until they were reorganized into Military Area Commands in 1946. In 1947 the modern AFP first emerged with the upgrade of the PAAC to the Philippine Air Force.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: 1950 saw the creation of the Philippine Marine Corps, a naval infantry force under the command of the Philippine Navy, after then-Defense Secretary Ramon Magsaysay ordered Commodore Ramon Alcaraz to go to study the organization of the U.S. Marines. Alcaraz recommended the creation of the new service, earning him the distinction of being the "Father" of the Philippine Marine Corps.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: During the Korean War from 1951 to 1953, the Philippines sent various AFP battalions, known as the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea (PEFTOK) to fight as part of the US-led United Nations Command in liberating South Korea from the invading North Korean troops.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Throughout this time, the AFP had been in conflict with various elements of the Hukbalahap which, still known as the "huks", were reconstituted as the "Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan" ("Peoples' Liberation Army")the armed wing of the Marxist-Leninist Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas of 1930 (PKP-1930). This conflict effectively ended in 1954, with the huks becoming a spent force during the presidency of Ramon Magsaysay.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: In 1966, an AFP battalion was also sent into South Vietnam during the Vietnam War to ameliorate the economic and social conditions of its people there. AFP units were also sent at the same time to the Spratly Islands.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: 1963 would see the first women join the ranks of the armed forces with the raising of the Women's Auxiliary Corps.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: President Ferdinand Marcos sought to have a strong personal influence over the Armed Forces as soon as he became president in 1965, holding on to the portfolio of defense secretary in the first thirteen months of his presidency to develop what scholars have noted to be "a patronage system within the defense establishment." The portfolio afforded him direct interaction with the AFP's leadership, and to have a hand in the AFP's day-to-day operationalization.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Upon the declaration of martial law in 1972, Marcos used the AFP as what the Davide Commission Report would later call his "martial law implementor," and "one of the vital supports of the regime." Upon the announcement of Martial Law in 1972, one of their earliest tasks was that of quickly arresting and containing Marcos' political opponents, and Marcos' hold on power was effectively broken once enough of the Military withdrew their support from him in February 1986. Antonio Parlade notes that to get the military to ensure their cooperation, Marcos "had to expand the military organization and patronize the generals to buy their loyalty."


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Marcos oversaw a significant expansion of the AFP, which grew from a force of 57,100 in 1971 to a 97.89 percent increase of 113,000 personnel in 1976 - a significant increase of over a five-year period. He also increased the military budget from P880 million in 1972 to P4 billion in 1976. Marcos also instituted the AFP Self Reliance Defense Posture (SRDP) program, which was supposed to enable the AFP to construct its own weapons, tanks, armored vehicles, ships, gunboats, and aircraft locally instead of buying from foreign sources. This included "Project Santa Barbara" under the Philippine Navy, which saw the testing of the Bongbong II MLRS - named after Marcos' son - in 1972. However, the project was discontinued before the Marcos administration ended.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The military was given many functions aside from its task of national defense, including assisting in the implementation of price controls imposed on key products like corn and rice, enforcing the rules of the national corn procurement program, assisting in the collection of rural and government bank loans, implementing the agrarian reform law, and various police functions such as collecting unlicensed firearms and enforcing curfews, and suppressing strikes, rallies, and other demonstrations.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Marcos carried out the "largest reshuffle in the history of the armed forces" when he forcibly retired fourteen of the AFP's twenty-five flag officers, including the AFP Chief of Staff, the AFP Vice Chief of Staff, the commanding general of the Philippine Army, the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary, the commanders of all four Constabulary Zones, and one third of all Provincial Commanders of the PC. Other key officers critical of Marcos, such as Commodore Ramon Alcaraz, were compelled to leave the service. In their place, Marcos appointed officers from his home region, the Ilocos, the most significant of whom had familial connections to Marcos – ensuring their familial and regionalistic loyalties to him.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Among the most prominent such appointments were that of General Fabian Ver as commander of the Presidential Security Command in 1965, and AFP chief of staff in 1981; Juan Ponce Enrile as Secretary of Defense from 1970 to 1986; and General Fidel Ramos as chief for the Philippine Constabulary, and later as Armed Forces Vice Chief from 1981 to 1986.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Generals loyal to Marcos were allowed to stay in their positions past their supposed retirement age, or were rewarded with civilian government posts. This led to a loss of morale among the middle-ranks of the AFP, because it meant a significant slowdown in promotions and caused many officers to retire with ranks much lower than they would otherwise have earned.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Several cabals of dissatisfied officers eventually formed among the middle-ranks of the AFP, most notably the Reform the Armed Forces Movement in the early 1980s.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Marcos administration is thus considered to have marked a decline for AFP in terms of its traditional values of civilian supremacy and professionalism, leading to a need for security sector reform during later administrations, as per the recommendations of the Davide Commission in 1990 and the Feliciano Commission in 2003.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Civilian and military historians alike agree that "human rights abuses by the troops became rampant" during the Marcos administration, as documented by international monitoring entities such as Amnesty International. Units often specifically cited in these reported incidents include the Metrocom Intelligence and Security Group (MISG), and the 5th Constabulary Security Unit (5CSU) of the Philippine Constabulary, as well as the Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP). The Presidential Security Unit and the National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA) were also accused of aiding these activities. Aside from human rights abuses, these units were also accused of hounding media entities, corporate management, and opposition groups with threats, intimidation, and violence.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Marcos administration also marked the beginnings of at least two long-running conflicts that continued to plague later administrations: the Moro conflict and the New People's Army conflict.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: The Moro conflict, began in earnest in 1968 when short-lived organizations such as the Muslim Independence Movement and the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization formed in reaction to news about the Jabidah Massacre, with many of their forces eventually coalescing as the Moro National Liberation Front was formed in 1972.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Meanwhile, the Communist Party of the Philippines was formed in 1968, while the New People's Army, founded in 1969, grew nationwide to a 200,000 strong force.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Due to what was popularly believed to be electoral fraud during the 1986 Philippine presidential election, February 1986 saw a period of uncertainty. A boycott movement and plans for massive civilian protests were in place.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: During the chaos, the Reform the Armed Forces Movement headed by then Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile decided to stage a military coup against Marcos. The plot was uncovered, however, and the forces involved became trapped in Camp Aguinaldo in Quezon City. They then sought and received the support of Philippine Constabulary chief and AFP vice-chief of staff Lt. General Fidel V. Ramos in the neighboring Camp Crame, but even with Ramos' defection, their forces were trapped in the two neighboring camps.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Manila's Catholic Archbishop, Jaime Sin, went on Radio Veritas and called for people to go to the section of Epifanio de los Santos Avenue in between the two camps and help protect the rebel forces. Since civilian groups were already planning massive protests in relation to the election results, a large crowd was able to gather and prevent Marcos' forces from attacking camps Aguinaldo and Crame. This civilian uprising, which would come to be known as the People Power Revolution, led to various units of the AFP refusing orders to fire on the camps and the civilians protecting them, and led to the removal Marcos from power. Corazon Aquino was then installed as the new president of the Philippines.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: Shortly after midnight on February 26, five army trucks of troops under the command of Fidel Ramos arrived in Malacañang Palace to secure it after Ferdinand Marcos had left, and various individuals had entered it, marking the end of Marcos' reign, and placing the palace under the control of the Provisional Government of the Philippines until a new constitution could be enacted a year later, in 1987.


title: Armed Forces of the Philippines

text: During Corazon Aquino's administration, most of the military units remained loyal to her as she dealt with various coup attempts against her, either by military factions that remained loyal to the former dictator, or by the Reform the Armed Forces Movement. The 1989 coup attempt, the bloodiest of all coup attempts against her, was crushed with US help.