title: Isle of Man TT

text: The TT Access Road runs parallel to a section of the A1 Peel Road, which is part of the Snaefell Mountain Course, and operates during practice and race periods to enable vehicles to pass from inside of the race course to the outside. It runs along a section of former railway line on the historic Douglas to Peel route, from the junction of the A5 "New Castletown Road" at the Quarter Bridge, passing under the course at Braddan Bridge, to an exit at Braddan School Road in Douglas outskirts, near the former Braddan Railway Halt and the A23/Ballafletcher Road junction. The access road is a narrow, single-track width with passing places and is restricted to cars and light vans below a weight limit of . When used for vehicular traffic, pedestrian access is prohibited, but at other times it is part of a system of nature trails.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: Between 1907 and 2022, there have been 155 fatalities during official practices or races on the Snaefell Mountain Course, and 265 total fatalities (this number includes the riders killed during the Manx Grand Prix, and Clubman TT race series of the late 1940s/1950s). In 2016, 5 riders died on the course during official practices or races. There were six fatalities among competitors in the 1970 Isle of Man TT, making it the deadliest year in the history of the event.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: On 30 May 2018, an experienced TT rider, Steve Mercer, was seriously injured during a head-on collision with an official Course Car at Ballacrye. The car, being driven at high speed, was conveying police officers to officiate at the scene of a fatality involving Dan Kneen. Mercer was unconscious for five days and hospitalised for five months due to multiple injuries. He was one of seven riders who had been halted on the course and turned back by marshals, being instructed to proceed back to the TT Grandstand area in the reverse direction after the red flag stoppage. Immediately after the accident the organisers changed their protocols, requiring that returning riders must be controlled by motorcycle-mounted travelling marshals to the front and rear. An independent inquiry into the circumstances was arranged by ACU Events, the event organisers.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: The Auto-Cycle Union, the Isle of Man Department for Enterprise, and the inquiry report author, lawyer Rob Jones, a former chief executive of the Motor Sports Association, all refused to release the report as it was confidential and privately owned by the ACU.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: The ACU admitted liability for the accident, but instructed that any legal claim for compensation by Mercer must be filed in the Isle of Man. The ACU stated that Mercer was receiving financial assistance through its "extensive insurance arrangements".


title: Isle of Man TT

text: In 2019, it was reported that the driver of the car in the collision had quit after criticism that he exceeded a newly introduced speed limit recorded by a GPS tracking device when he drove to attend a fatality involving Chris Swallow at Ballaugh in August's Senior Classic TT. Gary Thompson, Clerk of the Course and an ACU employee, had been criticised in 2018 for also fulfilling the role of Safety Officer; consequently a new incumbent was in place for 2019.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: From 1915 to 1919, and 1940 to 1946, no TT events took place, due to the outbreak of World Wars I and II. Events continued from 1920 to 1939 and 1947 to 2000.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: Since TT 1947, the Isle of Man TT has only been cancelled three times; 2001, 2020 and 2021, all of which were due to viral outbreaks.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: The 2001 Isle of Man TT races were cancelled because of the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the UK in the spring and summer of 2001. Disinfecting 40,000 spectators and competitors (and their motorcycles) to ensure the disease was kept off the island proved difficult.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: In March 2020, the Isle of Man Government announced the cancellation of the 2020 TT due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The Classic TT was subsequently cancelled in May, and in December 2020, it was announced that 2021's TT races would also not go ahead, due to the continued worldwide spread of the virus. In 2020, the Isle of Man Government lost an estimated £4.8 million of its annual projected revenue due to the cancellation of the TT races.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: The Isle of Man TT was part of the FIM Motorcycle Grand Prix World Championship (now MotoGP) between 1949 and 1976. During this period the Isle of Man TT Races counted as the United Kingdom round including the Sidecar TT, 50 cc Ultra-Lightweight TT, 125 cc Lightweight TT, 250 cc Lightweight TT, 350 cc Junior TT and 500 cc Senior TT races counted towards the FIM Motor-Cycle Grand Prix World Championship. After the 1972 races, multiple world champion and dominant motorcycle racer of his time Giacomo Agostini announced he would never race again at the Isle of Man, declaring it too dangerous for international competition and that it was outrageous that such a race should ever be part of a scenario professional riders were forced into; at this point the Isle of Man TT was not suited to the growing professionalism and business aspects of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. More and more riders joined his boycott, and after 1976 the race was stricken from the championship and replaced by the British Grand Prix.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: There have been numerous videogames based on the Isle of Man TT, the first being the 1995 Sega arcade game Manx TT Super Bike, which was later ported to the Sega Saturn in 1997. Several other games have followed since, including Suzuki TT Superbikes (2005), TT Superbikes: Real Road Racing Championship and TT Superbikes Legends (both 2008), all of which were released exclusively for the PlayStation 2, and developed by Jester Interactive.


title: Isle of Man TT

text: Bigben Interactive has since revived the TT game license, releasing TT Isle Of Man: Ride on the Edge in 2018 and TT Isle Of Man: Ride on the Edge 2 in 2020.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: The Rainmaker is a 1997 American legal drama film written and directed by Francis Ford Coppola based on John Grisham's 1995 novel of the same name. It stars Matt Damon, Claire Danes, Jon Voight, Mary Kay Place, Mickey Rourke, Danny DeVito, Danny Glover, Roy Scheider, Virginia Madsen, and Teresa Wright in her final film role.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Unlike most of his fellow graduates of the University of Memphis Law School, Rudy Baylor has no high-paying job lined up and has to apply for part-time positions while serving drinks at a Memphis bar. Desperate for a job, he meets the bar's owner, J. Lyman "Bruiser" Stone, who is also a ruthless but successful ambulance chaser, who hires Rudy as an associate.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: To get paid by Bruiser, associates pay their way by finding cases and working them up for trial. Rudy responds saying he has cases, including an insurance bad faith matter he boasts could be worth several million in damages. Interested in the case, Bruiser introduces Rudy to office paralegal Deck Shifflet, a former insurance adjuster of questionable ethics.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: While showing Rudy around the office Deck tells him he failed the bar exam six times. However, Bruiser employs him because he is resourceful, finds cases, is adept at gathering information, and because his prior work experience in the insurance industry means he knows how to go after them.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Though Rudy has passed the Tennessee bar exam, he still has not been properly licensed to stand as an attorney. He tries to do so after Bruiser fails to show up before Judge Harvey Hale to argue the case, but Hale scolds Rudy and tells him to get his license and then come back. Defense attorney Leo F. Drummond offers to stand for Rudy as Rudy is sworn in before the judge. Afterwards, Rudy discovers that the FBI has raided Stone's office, and Stone is nowhere to be found.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Using $5,500 that Bruiser had given each of them shortly before fleeing, Rudy and Deck pool their money together and set up a practice themselves. They file suit for middle-aged couple Dot and Buddy Black, whose 22-year-old son, Donny Ray, is dying of leukemia, but could have been saved with a bone marrow transplant, denied by their insurance carrier Great Benefit.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Rudy, having never argued a case before a judge and jury, now faces a group of experienced lawyers led by Drummond, from the prestigious firm Tinley Britt. In chambers, Hale tells Rudy and Drummond that he is set to dismiss the case because he sees it as a "lottery" case that slows down the judicial process. However, Hale dies of a heart attack before he grants the petition for dismissal. The more sympathetic Tyrone Kipler, a former civil rights attorney, is appointed to replace Hale. Kipler, known by Deck as not liking Tinley Britt, immediately denies Great Benefit's petition for dismissal. He instead agrees to fast-track the case in order to record Donny Ray Black's testimony before he dies.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: While seeking new clients, Rudy meets Kelly Riker, a battered wife whose husband Cliff has beaten her numerous times, repeatedly putting her in the hospital. Rudy strikes up a friendship with her and persuades her to file for divorce. This leads to a bloody confrontation with Cliff, resulting in Rudy nearly beating him to death. To keep Rudy from being implicated, Kelly tells Rudy to leave. She then kills Cliff herself, then tells the police it was self-defense. The district attorney declines to prosecute.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Donny Ray dies days after giving a video deposition at his home. The case goes to trial, where Drummond gets the vital testimony of Rudy's key witness, Jackie Lemanczyk, stricken from the record as it is based on a stolen manual used as evidence. Nevertheless, thanks to Rudy's determination and some clandestine reference help from now Caribbean-based fugitive Bruiser (with whom Deck is connected by intermediaries), Jackie's testimony and the Great Benefit Employee Manual are finally admitted into evidence, to Drummond's dismay.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Rudy skillfully cross-examines Great Benefit's CEO, Wilfred Keeley, leading to the jury finding for Donny Ray's family for both actual damages and enormous punitive damages that Great Benefit cannot pay. It is a great triumph for Rudy and Deck, with Keeley being arrested by the FBI and investigation proceedings into Great Benefit launched in multiple jurisdictions. The insurance company declares bankruptcy, allowing it to avoid paying punitive damages. There is no payout for the grieving parents and no fee for Rudy.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: As this success will create unrealistic expectations for future clients, Rudy decides to abandon his new practice and teach law. He and Kelly leave town together, heading out for an uncertain, but bright, future together.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: On its opening weekend, the film ranked third behind "Anastasia" and "", earning $10,626,507. The film grossed $45,916,769 in the domestic box office, exceeding its estimated production budget of $40 million, but still was considered a disappointment for a film adaptation of a Grisham novel, particularly in comparison to "The Firm", which was made for roughly the same amount but grossed more than six times its budget.


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: The film received generally positive reviews from critics, earning an 83% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 53 reviews, with an average rating of 6.80/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Invigorated by its talented cast and Francis Ford Coppola's strong direction, "The Rainmaker" is a satisfying legal drama — and arguably the best of Hollywood's many John Grisham adaptations." On Metacritic, the film has a 72 out of 100 rating based on 19 critics, indicating "generally positive reviews".


title: The Rainmaker (1997 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave "The Rainmaker" three stars out of four, remarking: "I have enjoyed several of the movies based on Grisham novels ... but I've usually seen the storyteller's craft rather than the novelist's art being reflected. ... By keeping all of the little people in focus, Coppola shows the variety of a young lawyer's life, where every client is necessary and most of them need a lot more than a lawyer." James Berardinelli also gave the film three stars out of four, saying that "the intelligence and subtlety of "The Rainmaker" took me by surprise" and that the film "stands above any other filmed Grisham adaptation".


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturinghence the term "field-programmable". The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware description language (HDL), similar to that used for an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Circuit diagrams were previously used to specify the configuration, but this is increasingly rare due to the advent of electronic design automation tools.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: FPGAs contain an array of programmable logic blocks, and a hierarchy of reconfigurable interconnects allowing blocks to be wired together. Logic blocks can be configured to perform complex combinational functions, or act as simple logic gates like AND and XOR. In most FPGAs, logic blocks also include memory elements, which may be simple flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory. Many FPGAs can be reprogrammed to implement different logic functions, allowing flexible reconfigurable computing as performed in computer software.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: FPGAs have a remarkable role in embedded system development due to their capability to start system software development simultaneously with hardware, enable system performance simulations at a very early phase of the development, and allow various system trials and design iterations before finalizing the system architecture.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The FPGA industry sprouted from programmable read-only memory (PROM) and programmable logic devices (PLDs). PROMs and PLDs both had the option of being programmed in batches in a factory or in the field (field-programmable).


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Altera was founded in 1983 and delivered the industry's first reprogrammable logic device in 1984 – the EP300 – which featured a quartz window in the package that allowed users to shine an ultra-violet lamp on the die to erase the EPROM cells that held the device configuration.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Xilinx produced the first commercially viable field-programmable gate array in 1985the XC2064. The XC2064 had programmable gates and programmable interconnects between gates, the beginnings of a new technology and market. The XC2064 had 64 configurable logic blocks (CLBs), with two three-input lookup tables (LUTs).


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In 1987, the Naval Surface Warfare Center funded an experiment proposed by Steve Casselman to develop a computer that would implement 600,000 reprogrammable gates. Casselman was successful and a patent related to the system was issued in 1992.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Altera and Xilinx continued unchallenged and quickly grew from 1985 to the mid-1990s when competitors sprouted up, eroding a significant portion of their market share. By 1993, Actel (now Microsemi) was serving about 18 percent of the market.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The 1990s were a period of rapid growth for FPGAs, both in circuit sophistication and the volume of production. In the early 1990s, FPGAs were primarily used in telecommunications and networking. By the end of the decade, FPGAs found their way into consumer, automotive, and industrial applications.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: By 2013, Altera (31 percent), Actel (10 percent) and Xilinx (36 percent) together represented approximately 77 percent of the FPGA market.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Companies like Microsoft have started to use FPGAs to accelerate high-performance, computationally intensive systems (like the data centers that operate their Bing search engine), due to the performance per watt advantage FPGAs deliver. Microsoft began using FPGAs to accelerate Bing in 2014, and in 2018 began deploying FPGAs across other data center workloads for their Azure cloud computing platform.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Contemporary FPGAs have ample logic gates and RAM blocks to implement complex digital computations. FPGAs can be used to implement any logical function that an ASIC can perform. The ability to update the functionality after shipping, partial re-configuration of a portion of the design and the low non-recurring engineering costs relative to an ASIC design (notwithstanding the generally higher unit cost), offer advantages for many applications.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: As FPGA designs employ very fast I/O rates and bidirectional data buses, it becomes a challenge to verify correct timing of valid data within setup time and hold time. Floor planning helps resource allocation within FPGAs to meet these timing constraints.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Some FPGAs have analog features in addition to digital functions. The most common analog feature is a programmable slew rate on each output pin, allowing the engineer to set low rates on lightly loaded pins that would otherwise ring or couple unacceptably, and to set higher rates on heavily loaded high-speed channels that would otherwise run too slowly. Also common are quartz-crystal oscillators, on-chip resistance-capacitance oscillators, and phase-locked loops with embedded voltage-controlled oscillators used for clock generation and management as well as for high-speed serializer-deserializer (SERDES) transmit clocks and receiver clock recovery. Fairly common are differential comparators on input pins designed to be connected to differential signaling channels. A few "mixed signal FPGAs" have integrated peripheral analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) with analog signal conditioning blocks allowing them to operate as a system-on-a-chip (SoC). Such devices blur the line between an FPGA, which carries digital ones and zeros on its internal programmable interconnect fabric, and field-programmable analog array (FPAA), which carries analog values on its internal programmable interconnect fabric.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The most common FPGA architecture consists of an array of logic blocks (called configurable logic blocks, CLBs, or logic array blocks, LABs, depending on vendor), I/O pads, and routing channels. Generally, all the routing channels have the same width (number of wires). Multiple I/O pads may fit into the height of one row or the width of one column in the array.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: "An application circuit must be mapped into an FPGA with adequate resources. While the number of CLBs/LABs and I/Os required is easily determined from the design, the number of routing tracks needed may vary considerably even among designs with the same amount of logic. (For example, a crossbar switch requires much more routing than a systolic array with the same gate count. Since unused routing tracks increase the cost (and decrease the performance) of the part without providing any benefit, FPGA manufacturers try to provide just enough tracks so that most designs that will fit in terms of lookup tables (LUTs) and I/Os can be routed. This is determined by estimates such as those derived from Rent's rule or by experiments with existing designs."


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In general, a logic block consists of a few logical cells (called ALM, LE, slice etc.). A typical cell consists of a 4-input LUT, a full adder (FA) and a D-type flip-flop. These might be split into two 3-input LUTs. In "normal mode" those are combined into a 4-input LUT through the first multiplexer (mux). In "arithmetic" mode, their outputs are fed to the adder. The selection of mode is programmed into the second mux. The output can be either synchronous or asynchronous, depending on the programming of the third mux. In practice, entire or parts of the adder are stored as functions into the LUTs in order to save space.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Modern FPGA families expand upon the above capabilities to include higher level functionality fixed in silicon. Having these common functions embedded in the circuit reduces the area required and gives those functions increased speed compared to building them from logical primitives. Examples of these include multipliers, generic DSP blocks, embedded processors, high-speed I/O logic and embedded memories.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Higher-end FPGAs can contain high speed multi-gigabit transceivers and "hard IP cores" such as processor cores, Ethernet medium access control units, PCI/PCI Express controllers, and external memory controllers. These cores exist alongside the programmable fabric, but they are built out of transistors instead of LUTs so they have ASIC-level performance and power consumption without consuming a significant amount of fabric resources, leaving more of the fabric free for the application-specific logic. The multi-gigabit transceivers also contain high performance analog input and output circuitry along with high-speed serializers and deserializers, components which cannot be built out of LUTs. Higher-level physical layer (PHY) functionality such as line coding may or may not be implemented alongside the serializers and deserializers in hard logic, depending on the FPGA.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: An alternate approach to using hard-macro processors is to make use of soft processor IP cores that are implemented within the FPGA logic. Nios II, MicroBlaze and Mico32 are examples of popular softcore processors. Many modern FPGAs are programmed at "run time", which has led to the idea of reconfigurable computing or reconfigurable systems – CPUs that reconfigure themselves to suit the task at hand. Additionally, new, non-FPGA architectures are beginning to emerge. Software-configurable microprocessors such as the Stretch S5000 adopt a hybrid approach by providing an array of processor cores and FPGA-like programmable cores on the same chip.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In 2012 the coarse-grained architectural approach was taken a step further by combining the logic blocks and interconnects of traditional FPGAs with embedded microprocessors and related peripherals to form a complete "system on a programmable chip". This work mirrors the architecture created by Ron Perloff and Hanan Potash of Burroughs Advanced Systems Group in 1982 which combined a reconfigurable CPU architecture on a single chip called the SB24. Examples of such hybrid technologies can be found in the Xilinx Zynq-7000 all Programmable SoC, which includes a 1.0 GHz dual-core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore processor embedded within the FPGA's logic fabric or in the Altera Arria V FPGA, which includes an 800 MHz dual-core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore. The Atmel FPSLIC is another such device, which uses an AVR processor in combination with Atmel's programmable logic architecture. The Microsemi SmartFusion devices incorporate an ARM Cortex-M3 hard processor core (with up to 512 kB of flash and 64 kB of RAM) and analog peripherals such as a multi-channel analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-analog converters to their flash memory-based FPGA fabric.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Most of the circuitry built inside of an FPGA is synchronous circuitry that requires a clock signal. FPGAs contain dedicated global and regional routing networks for clock and reset so they can be delivered with minimal skew. Also, FPGAs generally contain analog phase-locked loop and/or delay-locked loop components to synthesize new clock frequencies as well as attenuate jitter. Complex designs can use multiple clocks with different frequency and phase relationships, each forming separate clock domains. These clock signals can be generated locally by an oscillator or they can be recovered from a high speed serial data stream. Care must be taken when building clock domain crossing circuitry to avoid metastability. FPGAs generally contain blocks of RAMs that are capable of working as dual port RAMs with different clocks, aiding in the construction of building FIFOs and dual port buffers that connect differing clock domains.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: To shrink the size and power consumption of FPGAs, vendors such as Tabula and Xilinx have introduced 3D or stacked architectures. Following the introduction of its 28 nm 7-series FPGAs, Xilinx said that several of the highest-density parts in those FPGA product lines will be constructed using multiple dies in one package, employing technology developed for 3D construction and stacked-die assemblies.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Xilinx's approach stacks several (three or four) active FPGA dies side by side on a silicon interposer – a single piece of silicon that carries passive interconnect. The multi-die construction also allows different parts of the FPGA to be created with different process technologies, as the process requirements are different between the FPGA fabric itself and the very high speed 28 Gbit/s serial transceivers. An FPGA built in this way is called a "heterogeneous FPGA".


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Altera's heterogeneous approach involves using a single monolithic FPGA die and connecting other die/technologies to the FPGA using Intel's embedded multi-die interconnect bridge (EMIB) technology.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: To define the behavior of the FPGA, the user provides a design in a hardware description language (HDL) or as a schematic design. The HDL form is more suited to work with large structures because it's possible to specify high-level functional behavior rather than drawing every piece by hand. However, schematic entry can allow for easier visualization of a design and its component modules.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Using an electronic design automation tool, a technology-mapped netlist is generated. The netlist can then be fit to the actual FPGA architecture using a process called place-and-route, usually performed by the FPGA company's proprietary place-and-route software. The user will validate the map, place and route results via timing analysis, simulation, and other verification and validation methodologies. Once the design and validation process is complete, the binary file generated, typically using the FPGA vendor's proprietary software, is used to (re-)configure the FPGA. This file is transferred to the FPGA/CPLD via a serial interface (JTAG) or to an external memory device like an EEPROM.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The most common HDLs are VHDL and Verilog as well as extensions such as SystemVerilog. However, in an attempt to reduce the complexity of designing in HDLs, which have been compared to the equivalent of assembly languages, there are moves to raise the abstraction level through the introduction of alternative languages. National Instruments' LabVIEW graphical programming language (sometimes referred to as "G") has an FPGA add-in module available to target and program FPGA hardware. Verilog was created to simplify the process making HDL more robust and flexible. Verilog is currently the most popular. Verilog creates a level of abstraction to hide away the details of its implementation. Verilog has a C-like syntax, unlike VHDL.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: To simplify the design of complex systems in FPGAs, there exist libraries of predefined complex functions and circuits that have been tested and optimized to speed up the design process. These predefined circuits are commonly called "intellectual property (IP) cores", and are available from FPGA vendors and third-party IP suppliers. They are rarely free, and typically released under proprietary licenses. Other predefined circuits are available from developer communities such as OpenCores (typically released under free and open source licenses such as the GPL, BSD or similar license), and other sources. Such designs are known as "open-source hardware."


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In a typical design flow, an FPGA application developer will simulate the design at multiple stages throughout the design process. Initially the RTL description in VHDL or Verilog is simulated by creating test benches to simulate the system and observe results. Then, after the synthesis engine has mapped the design to a netlist, the netlist is translated to a gate-level description where simulation is repeated to confirm the synthesis proceeded without errors. Finally the design is laid out in the FPGA at which point propagation delays can be added and the simulation run again with these values back-annotated onto the netlist.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: More recently, OpenCL (Open Computing Language) is being used by programmers to take advantage of the performance and power efficiencies that FPGAs provide. OpenCL allows programmers to develop code in the C programming language and target FPGA functions as OpenCL kernels using OpenCL constructs. For further information, see high-level synthesis and C to HDL.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Most FPGAs rely on an SRAM-based approach to be programmed. These FPGAs are in-system programmable and re-programmable, but require external boot devices. For example, flash memory or EEPROM devices may often load contents into internal SRAM that controls routing and logic. The SRAM approach is based on CMOS.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In 2016, long-time industry rivals Xilinx (now part of AMD) and Altera (now an Intel subsidiary) were the FPGA market leaders. At that time, they controlled nearly 90 percent of the market.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Both Xilinx (now AMD) and Altera (now Intel) provide proprietary electronic design automation software for Windows and Linux (ISE/Vivado and Quartus) which enables engineers to design, analyze, simulate, and synthesize (compile) their designs.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In March 2010, Tabula announced their FPGA technology that uses time-multiplexed logic and interconnect that claims potential cost savings for high-density applications. On March 24, 2015, Tabula officially shut down.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: On June 1, 2015, Intel announced it would acquire Altera for approximately $16.7 billion and completed the acquisition on December 30, 2015.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: On October 27, 2020, AMD announced it would acquire Xilinx and completed the acquisition valued at about $50 billion in February 2022.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: An FPGA can be used to solve any problem which is computable. This is trivially proven by the fact that FPGAs can be used to implement a soft microprocessor, such as the Xilinx MicroBlaze or Altera Nios II. Their advantage lies in that they are significantly faster for some applications because of their parallel nature and optimality in terms of the number of gates used for certain processes.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: FPGAs originally began as competitors to CPLDs to implement glue logic for printed circuit boards. As their size, capabilities, and speed increased, FPGAs took over additional functions to the point where some are now marketed as full systems on chips (SoCs). Particularly with the introduction of dedicated multipliers into FPGA architectures in the late 1990s, applications which had traditionally been the sole reserve of digital signal processor hardware (DSPs) began to incorporate FPGAs instead.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The evolution of FPGAs has motivated an increase in the use of these devices, whose architecture allows the development of hardware solutions optimized for complex tasks, such as 3D MRI image segmentation, 3D discrete wavelet transform, tomographic image reconstruction, or PET/MRI systems. The developed solutions can perform intensive computation tasks with parallel processing, are dynamically reprogrammable, and have a low cost, all while meeting the hard real-time requirements associated with medical imaging.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Another trend in the use of FPGAs is hardware acceleration, where one can use the FPGA to accelerate certain parts of an algorithm and share part of the computation between the FPGA and a generic processor. The search engine Bing is noted for adopting FPGA acceleration for its search algorithm in 2014. , FPGAs are seeing increased use as AI accelerators including Microsoft's so-termed "Project Catapult" and for accelerating artificial neural networks for machine learning applications.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Traditionally, FPGAs have been reserved for specific vertical applications where the volume of production is small. For these low-volume applications, the premium that companies pay in hardware cost per unit for a programmable chip is more affordable than the development resources spent on creating an ASIC. , new cost and performance dynamics have broadened the range of viable applications.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The company Gigabyte Technology created an i-RAM card which used a Xilinx FPGA although a custom made chip would be cheaper if made in large quantities. The FPGA was chosen to bring it quickly to market and the initial run was only to be 1000 units making an FPGA the best choice. This device allows people to use computer RAM as a hard drive.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: FPGAs have both advantages and disadvantages as compared to ASICs or secure microprocessors, concerning hardware security. FPGAs' flexibility makes malicious modifications during fabrication a lower risk. Previously, for many FPGAs, the design bitstream was exposed while the FPGA loads it from external memory (typically on every power-on). All major FPGA vendors now offer a spectrum of security solutions to designers such as bitstream encryption and authentication. For example, Altera and Xilinx offer AES encryption (up to 256-bit) for bitstreams stored in an external flash memory.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: FPGAs that store their configuration internally in nonvolatile flash memory, such as Microsemi's ProAsic 3 or Lattice's XP2 programmable devices, do not expose the bitstream and do not need encryption. In addition, flash memory for a lookup table provides single event upset protection for space applications. Customers wanting a higher guarantee of tamper resistance can use write-once, antifuse FPGAs from vendors such as Microsemi.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: With its Stratix 10 FPGAs and SoCs, Altera introduced a Secure Device Manager and physical unclonable functions to provide high levels of protection against physical attacks.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: In 2012 researchers Sergei Skorobogatov and Christopher Woods demonstrated that some FPGAs can be vulnerable to hostile intent. They discovered a critical backdoor vulnerability had been manufactured in silicon as part of the Actel/Microsemi ProAsic 3 making it vulnerable on many levels such as reprogramming crypto and access keys, accessing unencrypted bitstream, modifying low-level silicon features, and extracting configuration data.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: Historically, FPGAs have been slower, less energy efficient and generally achieved less functionality than their fixed ASIC counterparts. A study from 2006 showed that designs implemented on FPGAs need on average 40 times as much area, draw 12 times as much dynamic power, and run at one third the speed of corresponding ASIC implementations. More recently, FPGAs such as the Xilinx Virtex-7 or the Altera Stratix 5 have come to rival corresponding ASIC and ASSP ("Application-specific standard part", such as a standalone USB interface chip) solutions by providing significantly reduced power usage, increased speed, lower materials cost, minimal implementation real-estate, and increased possibilities for re-configuration 'on-the-fly'. A design that included 6 to 10 ASICs can now be achieved using only one FPGA. Advantages of FPGAs include the ability to re-program when already deployed (i.e. "in the field") to fix bugs, and often include shorter time to market and lower non-recurring engineering costs. Vendors can also take a middle road via FPGA prototyping: developing their prototype hardware on FPGAs, but manufacture their final version as an ASIC so that it can no longer be modified after the design has been committed. This is often also the case with new processor designs. Some FPGAs have the capability of partial re-configuration that lets one portion of the device be re-programmed while other portions continue running.


title: Field-programmable gate array

text: The primary differences between complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) and FPGAs are architectural. A CPLD has a comparatively restrictive structure consisting of one or more programmable sum-of-products logic arrays feeding a relatively small number of clocked registers. As a result, CPLDs are less flexible, but have the advantage of more predictable timing delays and FPGA architectures, on the other hand, are dominated by interconnect. This makes them far more flexible (in terms of the range of designs that are practical for implementation on them) but also far more complex to design for, or at least requiring more complex electronic design automation (EDA) software. In practice, the distinction between FPGAs and CPLDs is often one of size as FPGAs are usually much larger in terms of resources than CPLDs. Typically only FPGAs contain more complex embedded functions such as adders, multipliers, memory, and serializer/deserializers. Another common distinction is that CPLDs contain embedded flash memory to store their configuration while FPGAs usually require external non-volatile memory (but not always). When a design requires simple instant-on (logic is already configured at power-up) CPLDs are generally preferred. For most other applications FPGAs are generally preferred. Sometimes both CPLDs and FPGAs are used in a single system design. In those designs, CPLDs generally perform glue logic functions, and are responsible for "booting" the FPGA as well as controlling reset and boot sequence of the complete circuit board. Therefore, depending on the application it may be judicious to use both FPGAs and CPLDs in a single design.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: Herbert Maxwell Sobel Sr. (26 January 1912 – 30 September 1987) was an American commissioned officer with Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, in the 101st Airborne Division during World War II. Sobel was portrayed in the HBO miniseries "Band of Brothers" by David Schwimmer.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: Sobel was born in Chicago, Illinois, to a Jewish family. He attended the Culver Military Academy in Indiana. He was a clothing salesman. He graduated from the University of Illinois, majoring in architecture.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: Sobel enlisted in the United States Army on 7 March 1941 and volunteered for the paratroopers. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant. Promoted to first lieutenant, Sobel commanded Company E for all of their basic training at Camp Toccoa, Georgia. He trained his men intensively, and was eventually promoted to the rank of captain in recognition of his ability as a trainer. However, Sobel was despised by his soldiers for being petty and vindictive.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: After a period of training in the United Kingdom before the Normandy invasion, Sobel was reassigned from command of Easy Company to command the jump school at Chilton Foliat. First Lieutenant Thomas Meehan replaced Sobel, and was one of several officers (including Richard Winters) to succeed him in that post before the end of the war.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: Sobel returned to the United States in 1945, and was honorably discharged from the Army on 18 March 1946. He worked as an accountant before being recalled to active duty during the Korean War. He remained in the Army National Guard, eventually retiring at the rank of lieutenant colonel. He later married and had three children.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: In 1970, Sobel shot himself in the head with a small-caliber pistol in an attempted suicide. The bullet entered his left temple, passed behind his eyes, and exited the other side of his head. Both of his optic nerves were severed by the shot, leaving him blind. Soon afterward, he began living at a VA assisted-living facility in Waukegan, Illinois. He died there of malnutrition on 30 September 1987. No memorial services were held for him.


title: Herbert Sobel

text: Sobel was portrayed as a petty and capricious disciplinarian in the television series "Band of Brothers", generating much debate. Stephen Ambrose gives numerous examples of this in his book. Since the series, his son Michael Sobel has spoken out on his behalf.


title: Anders Holm

text: Anders Christian Holm (born May 29, 1981) is an American actor, comedian, writer, and producer. He is one of the stars and creators of the Comedy Central show "Workaholics" and starred in the short-lived NBC series "Champions". He, along with fellow "Workaholics" creators Blake Anderson, Adam Devine, and Kyle Newacheck, formed the sketch group Mail Order Comedy.


title: Anders Holm

text: Holm was born the youngest of three boys on May 29, 1981, in Evanston, Illinois, His brothers are Olen (born 1975) and Erik (born 1976). He graduated from Evanston Township High School. In 2003, he graduated from the University of Wisconsin-Madison with a bachelor's degree in history. He was a member of the university's swim team and is of Danish descent. Holm studied at the Second City Conservatory in Los Angeles.


title: Anders Holm

text: Holm, along with fellow "Workaholics" creators Blake Anderson, Adam DeVine and Kyle Newacheck, formed the sketch comedy group Mail Order Comedy. He played a hip pastor who became the title character's fiancé in "The Mindy Project". He also made a guest appearance in the fourth season of "Modern Family" in the episode "Flip Flop".


title: Anders Holm

text: Holm made a guest appearance with fellow "Workaholics" actors Anderson, DeVine and Erik Griffin on the first episode of the fourth season of "Arrested Development". He has also served as production and head writer's assistant for "Real Time with Bill Maher" before his work on "Workaholics".


title: Anders Holm

text: In 2014, Holm appeared in the Chris Rock-directed comedy film "Top Five". Holm has also appeared in other films by Rogen, such as a cameo in "Neighbors", "The Interview" (both 2014), and "Sausage Party" (2016).


title: Anders Holm

text: In 2018, he wrote, produced and acted in "Game Over, Man!" with Seth Rogen as co-producer. The film was released on Netflix. Also that year, Holm also co-produced "The Package", a Netflix original film comedy that premiered on August 10.


title: Anders Holm

text: Holm married his college sweetheart, Emma Nesper Holm, in September 2011. Their first child was born on December 19, 2013.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; or "") are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States.


title: Navajo

text: With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United States; additionally, the Navajo Nation has the largest reservation in the country. The reservation straddles the Four Corners region and covers more than 27,325 square miles (70,000 square km) of land in Arizona, Utah and New Mexico. The Navajo Reservation is slightly larger than the state of West Virginia. The Navajo language is spoken throughout the region, and most Navajos also speak English.


title: Navajo

text: The states with the largest Navajo populations are Arizona (140,263) and New Mexico (108,306). More than three-fourths of the enrolled Navajo population resides in these two states.


title: Navajo

text: Besides the Navajo Nation proper, a small group of Navajos are members of the federally recognized Colorado River Indian Tribes.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajos are speakers of a Na-Dené Southern Athabaskan language which they call "Diné bizaad" (lit. 'People's language'). The term "Navajo" comes from Spanish missionaries and historians who referred to the Pueblo Indians through this term, although they referred to themselves as the "Diné," is a compound word meaning up where there is no surface, and then down to where we are on the surface of Mother Earth. The language comprises two geographic, mutually intelligible dialects. The Apache language is closely related to the Navajo Language; the Navajos and Apaches are believed to have migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska, where the majority of Athabaskan speakers reside. Speakers of various other Athabaskan languages located in Canada may still comprehend the Navajo language despite the geographic and linguistic deviation of the languages. Additionally, some Navajos speak Navajo Sign Language, which is either a dialect or daughter of Plains Sign Talk. Some also speak Plains Sign Talk itself.


title: Navajo

text: Archaeological and historical evidence suggests the Athabaskan ancestors of the Navajos and Apaches entered the Southwest around 1400 AD. The Navajo oral tradition is transcribed to retain references to this migration.


title: Navajo

text: Initially, the Navajos were largely hunters and gatherers. Later, they adopted farming from Pueblo peoples, growing mainly the traditional "Three Sisters" of corn, beans, and squash. They adopted herding sheep and goats from the Spanish as a main source of trade and food. Meat became essential in the Navajo diet. Sheep became a form of currency and family status. Women began to spin and weave wool into blankets and clothing; they created items of highly valued artistic expression, which were also traded and sold.


title: Navajo

text: Oral history indicates a long relationship with Pueblo people and a willingness to incorporate Puebloan ideas and linguistic variance. There were long-established trading practices between the groups. Mid-16th century Spanish records recount that the Pueblo exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, hides, and stone from Athabaskans traveling to the pueblos or living nearby. In the 18th century, the Spanish reported that the Navajos' maintained large herds of livestock and cultivated large crop areas.


title: Navajo

text: Western historians believe that the Spanish before 1600 referred to the Navajos as "Apaches" or "Quechos". Fray Geronimo de Zarate-Salmeron, who was in Jemez in 1622, used "Apachu de Nabajo" in the 1620s to refer to the people in the Chama Valley region, east of the San Juan River and northwest of present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico. "Navahu" comes from the Tewa language, meaning a large area of cultivated lands. By the 1640s, the Spanish began using the term "Navajo" to refer to the Diné.


title: Navajo

text: During the 1670s, the Spanish wrote that the Diné lived in a region known as "", about west of the Rio Chama valley region. In the 1770s, the Spanish sent military expeditions against the Navajos in the Mount Taylor and Chuska Mountain regions of New Mexico. The Spanish, Navajos and Hopis continued to trade with each other and formed a loose alliance to fight Apache and Comanche bands for the next 20 years. During this time there were relatively minor raids by Navajo bands and Spanish citizens against each other.


title: Navajo

text: In 1800 Governor Chacon led 500 men to the Tunicha Mountains against the Navajo. Twenty Navajo chiefs asked for peace. In 1804 and 1805 the Navajos and Spanish mounted major expeditions against each other's settlements. In May 1805 another peace was established. Similar patterns of peace-making, raiding, and trading among the Navajo, Spanish, Apache, Comanche, and Hopi continued until the arrival of Americans in 1846.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajos encountered the United States Army in 1846, when General Stephen W. Kearny invaded Santa Fe with 1,600 men during the Mexican–American War. On November 21, 1846, following an invitation from a small party of American soldiers under the command of Captain John Reid, who journeyed deep into Navajo country and contacted him, Narbona and other Navajos negotiated a treaty of peace with Colonel Alexander Doniphan at Bear Springs, Ojo del Oso (later the site of Fort Wingate). This agreement was not honored by some Navajo, nor by some New Mexicans. The Navajos raided New Mexican livestock, New Mexicans took women, children, and livestock from the Navajo.


title: Navajo

text: In 1849, the military governor of New Mexico, Colonel John MacRae Washington—accompanied by John S. Calhoun, an Indian agent—led 400 soldiers into Navajo country, penetrating Canyon de Chelly. He signed a treaty with two Navajo leaders: Mariano Martinez as Head Chief and Chapitone as Second Chief. The treaty acknowledged the transfer of jurisdiction from the United Mexican States to the United States. The treaty allowed forts and trading posts to be built on Navajo land. In exchange, the United States, promised "such donations [and] such other liberal and humane measures, as [it] may deem meet and proper." While en route to sign this treaty, the prominent Navajo peace leader Narbona, was killed, causing hostility between the treaty parties.


title: Navajo

text: During the next 10 years, the U.S. established forts on traditional Navajo territory. Military records cite this development as a precautionary measure to protect citizens and the Navajos from each other. However, the Spanish/Mexican-Navajo pattern of raids and expeditions continued. Over 400 New Mexican militia conducted a campaign against the Navajo, against the wishes of the Territorial Governor, in 1860–61. They killed Navajo warriors, captured women and children for slaves, and destroyed crops and dwellings. The Navajos call this period "Naahondzood", "the fearing time."


title: Navajo

text: In 1861, Brigadier-General James H. Carleton, Commander of the Federal District of New Mexico, initiated a series of military actions against the Navajos and Apaches. Colonel Kit Carson was at the new Fort Wingate with Army troops and volunteer New Mexico militia. Carleton ordered Carson to kill Mescalero Apache men and destroy any Mescalero property he could find. Carleton believed these harsh tactics would bring any Indian Tribe under control. The Mescalero surrendered and were sent to the new reservation called Bosque Redondo.


title: Navajo

text: In 1863, Carleton ordered Carson to use the same tactics on the Navajo. Carson and his force swept through Navajo land, killing Navajos and destroying crops and dwellings, fouling wells, and capturing livestock. Facing starvation and death, Navajo groups came in to Fort Defiance for relief. On July 20, 1863, the first of many groups departed to join the Mescalero at Bosque Redondo. Other groups continued to come in though 1864.


title: Navajo

text: However, not all the Navajos came in or were found. Some lived near the San Juan River, some beyond the Hopi villages, and others lived with Apache bands.


title: Navajo

text: Beginning in the spring of 1864, the Army forced around 9,000 Navajo men, women, and children to walk over to Fort Sumner, New Mexico, for internment at Bosque Redondo. The internment was disastrous for the Navajo, as the government failed to provide enough water, wood, provisions, and livestock for the 4,000–5,000 people. Large-scale crop failure and disease were also endemic during this time, as were raids by other tribes and civilians. Some Navajos froze in the winter because they could make only poor shelters from the few materials they were given. This period is known among the Navajos as "The Fearing Time". In addition, a small group of Mescalero Apache, longtime enemies of the Navajos had been relocated to the area, which resulted in conflicts.


title: Navajo

text: In 1868, the Treaty of Bosque Redondo was negotiated between Navajo leaders and the federal government allowing the surviving Navajos to return to a reservation on a portion of their former homeland.


title: Navajo

text: The United States military continued to maintain forts on the Navajo reservation in the years after the Long Walk. From 1873 to 1895, the military employed Navajos as "Indian Scouts" at Fort Wingate to help their regular units. During this period, Chief Manuelito founded the Navajo Tribal Police. It operated from 1872 to 1875 as an anti-raid task force working to maintain the peaceful terms of the 1868 Navajo treaty.


title: Navajo

text: By treaty, the Navajos were allowed to leave the reservation for trade, with permission from the military or local Indian agent. Eventually, the arrangement led to a gradual end in Navajo raids, as the tribe was able to increase their livestock and crops. Also, the tribe gained an increase in the size of the Navajo reservation from to the as it stands today. But economic conflicts with non-Navajos continued for many years as civilians and companies exploited resources assigned to the Navajo. The US government made leases for livestock grazing, took land for railroad development, and permitted mining on Navajo land without consulting the tribe.


title: Navajo

text: In 1883, Lt. Parker, accompanied by 10 enlisted men and two scouts, went up the San Juan River to separate the Navajos and citizens who had encroached on Navajo land. In the same year, Lt. Lockett, with the aid of 42 enlisted soldiers, was joined by Lt. Holomon at Navajo Springs. Evidently, citizens of the surnames Houck and/or Owens had murdered a Navajo chief's son, and 100 armed Navajo warriors were looking for them.


title: Navajo

text: In 1887, citizens Palmer, Lockhart, and King fabricated a charge of horse stealing and randomly attacked a dwelling on the reservation. Two Navajo men and all three whites died as a result, but a woman and a child survived. Capt. Kerr (with two Navajo scouts) examined the ground and then met with several hundred Navajos at Houcks Tank. Rancher Bennett, whose horse was allegedly stolen, told Kerr that his horses were stolen by the three whites to catch a horse thief. In the same year, Lt. Scott went to the San Juan River with two scouts and 21 enlisted men. The Navajos believed Scott was there to drive off the whites who had settled on the reservation and had fenced off the river from the Navajo. Scott found evidence of many non-Navajo ranches. Only three were active, and the owners wanted payment for their improvements before leaving. Scott ejected them.


title: Navajo

text: In 1890, a local rancher refused to pay the Navajos a fine of livestock. The Navajos tried to collect it, and whites in southern Colorado and Utah claimed that 9,000 of the Navajos were on a warpath. A small military detachment out of Fort Wingate restored white citizens to order.


title: Navajo

text: In 1913, an Indian agent ordered a Navajo and his three wives to come in, and then arrested them for having a plural marriage. A small group of Navajos used force to free the women and retreated to Beautiful Mountain with 30 or 40 sympathizers. They refused to surrender to the agent, and local law enforcement and military refused the agent's request for an armed engagement. General Scott arrived, and with the help of Henry Chee Dodge, a leader among the Navajo, defused the situation.


title: Navajo

text: During the time on the reservation, the Navajo tribe was forced to assimilate to white society. Navajo children were sent to boarding schools within the reservation and off the reservation. The first Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school opened at Fort Defiance in 1870 and led the way for eight others to be established. Many older Navajos were against this education and would hide their children to keep them from being taken.


title: Navajo

text: Once the children arrived at the boarding school, their lives changed dramatically. European Americans taught the classes under an English-only curriculum and punished any student caught speaking Navajo. The children were under militaristic discipline, run by the "Siláo". In multiple interviews, subjects recalled being captured and disciplined by the "Siláo" if they tried to run away. Other conditions included inadequate food, overcrowding, required manual labor in kitchens, fields, and boiler rooms; and military-style uniforms and haircuts.


title: Navajo

text: Change did not occur in these boarding schools until after the Meriam Report was published in 1929 by the Secretary of Interior, Hubert Work. This report discussed Indian boarding schools as being inadequate in terms of diet, medical services, dormitory overcrowding, undereducated teachers, restrictive discipline, and manual labor by the students to keep the school running.


title: Navajo

text: This report was the precursor to education reforms initiated under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, under which two new schools were built on the Navajo reservation. But Rough Rock Day School was run in the same militaristic style as Fort Defiance and did not implement the educational reforms. The Evangelical Missionary School was opened next to Rough Rock Day School. Navajo accounts of this school portray it as having a family-like atmosphere with home-cooked meals, new or gently used clothing, humane treatment, and a Navajo-based curriculum. Educators found the Evangelical Missionary School curriculum to be much more beneficial for the Navajo children.


title: Navajo

text: In 1937, Boston heiress Mary Cabot Wheelright and Navajo singer and medicine man Hastiin Klah founded the Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian in Santa Fe. It is a repository for sound recordings, manuscripts, paintings, and sandpainting tapestries of the Navajos. It also featured exhibits to express the beauty, dignity, and logic of Navajo religion. When Klah met Cabot in 1921, he had witnessed decades of efforts by the US government and missionaries to assimilate the Navajos into mainstream society. The museum was founded to preserve the religion and traditions of the Navajo, which Klah was sure would otherwise soon be lost forever.


title: Navajo

text: The result of these boarding schools led to much language loss within the Navajo Nation. After the Second World War, the Meriam Report funded more children to attend these schools with six times as many children attending boarding school than before the War. English as the primary language spoken at these schools as well as the local towns surrounding the Navajo reservations contributed to residents becoming bilingual; however Navajo was the still the primary language spoken at home.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajo Livestock Reduction was imposed upon the Navajo Nation by the federal government starting in the 1933, during the Great Depression. Under various forms it continued into the 1950s. Worried about large herds in the arid climate, at a time when the Dust Bowl was endangering the Great Plains, the government decided that the land of the Navajo Nation could support only a fixed number of sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. The Federal government believed that land erosion was worsening in the area and the only solution was to reduce the number of livestock.


title: Navajo

text: In 1933, John Collier was appointed commissioner of the BIA. In many ways, he worked to reform government relations with the Native American tribes, but the reduction program was devastating for the Navajo, for whom their livestock was so important. The government set land capacity in terms of "sheep units". In 1930 the Navajos grazed 1,100,000 mature sheep units. These sheep provided half the cash income for the individual Navajo.


title: Navajo

text: Collier's solution was to first launch a voluntary reduction program, which was made mandatory two years later in 1935. The government paid for part of the value of each animal, but it did nothing to compensate for the loss of future yearly income for so many Navajo. In the matrilineal and matrilocal world of the Navajo, women were especially hurt, as many lost their only source of income with the reduction of livestock herds.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajos did not understand why their centuries-old practices of raising livestock should change. They were united in opposition but they were unable to stop it. Historian Brian Dippie notes that the Indian Rights Association denounced Collier as a 'dictator' and accused him of a "near reign of terror" on the Navajo reservation. Dippie adds that, "He became an object of 'burning hatred' among the very people whose problems so preoccupied him." The long-term result was strong Navajo opposition to Collier's Indian New Deal.


title: Navajo

text: Many Navajo young people moved to cities to work in urban factories in World War II. Many Navajo men volunteered for military service in keeping with their warrior culture, and they served in integrated units. The War Department in 1940 rejected a proposal by the BIA that segregated units be created for the Indians. The Navajos gained firsthand experience with how they could assimilate into the modern world, and many did not return to the overcrowded reservation, which had few jobs.


title: Navajo

text: Four hundred Navajo code talkers played a famous role during World War II by relaying radio messages using their own language. The Japanese were unable to understand or decode it.


title: Navajo

text: In the 1940s, large quantities of uranium were discovered in Navajo land. From then into the early 21st century, the U.S. allowed mining without sufficient environmental protection for workers, waterways, and land. The Navajos have claimed high rates of death and illness from lung disease and cancer resulting from environmental contamination. Since the 1970s, legislation has helped to regulate the industry and reduce the toll, but the government has not yet offered holistic and comprehensive compensation.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajo Code Talkers played a significant role in USMC history. Using their own language they utilized a military code; for example, the Navajo word "turtle" represented a tank. In 1942, Marine staff officers composed several combat simulations and the Navajo translated it and transmitted it in their dialect to another Navajo on the other line. This Navajo then translated it back in English faster than any other cryptographic facilities, which demonstrated their efficacy. As a result, General Vogel recommended their recruitment into the USMC code talker program.


title: Navajo

text: Each Navajo went through basic bootcamp at Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego before being assigned to Field Signal Battalion training at Camp Pendleton. Once the code talkers completed training in the States, they were sent to the Pacific for assignment to the Marine combat divisions. With that said, there was never a crack in the Navajo language, it was never deciphered. It is known that many more Navajos volunteered to become code talkers than could be accepted; however, an undetermined number of other Navajos served as Marines in the war, but not as code talkers.


title: Navajo

text: These achievements of the Navajo Code Talkers have resulted in an honorable chapter in USMC history. Their patriotism and honor inevitably earned them the respect of all Americans.


title: Navajo

text: The name "Navajo" comes from the late 18th century via the Spanish "(Apaches de) Navajó" "(Apaches of) Navajó", which was derived from the Tewa "navahū" "farm fields adjoining a valley". The Navajos call themselves "".


title: Navajo

text: Like other Apacheans, the Navajos were semi-nomadic from the 16th through the 20th centuries. Their extended kinship groups had seasonal dwelling areas to accommodate livestock, agriculture, and gathering practices. As part of their traditional economy, Navajo groups may have formed trading or raiding parties, traveling relatively long distances.


title: Navajo

text: There is a system of clans which defines relationships between individuals and families. The clan system is exogamous: people can only marry (and date) partners outside their own clans, which for this purpose include the clans of their four grandparents. Some Navajos favor their


title: Navajo

text: children to marry into their father's clan. While clans are associated with a geographical area, the area is not for the exclusive use of any one clan. Members of a clan may live hundreds of miles apart but still have a clan bond.


title: Navajo

text: Historically, the structure of the Navajo society is largely a matrilineal system, in which the family of the women owned livestock, dwellings, planting areas and livestock grazing areas. Once married, a Navajo man would follow a matrilocal residence and live with his bride in her dwelling and near her mother's family. Daughters (or, if necessary, other female relatives) were traditionally the ones who received the generational property inheritance. In cases of marital separation, women would maintain the property and children. Children are "born to" and belong to the mother's clan, and are "born for" the father's clan. The mother's eldest brother has a strong role in her children's lives. As adults, men represent their mother's clan in tribal politics.


title: Navajo

text: Neither sex can live without the other in the Navajo culture. Men and women are seen as contemporary equals as both a male and female are needed to reproduce. Although women may carry a bigger burden, fertility is so highly valued that males are expected to provide economic resources (known as bride wealth). Corn is a symbol of fertility in Navajo culture as they eat white corn in the wedding ceremonies. It is considered to be immoral and/or stealing if one does not provide for the other in that premarital or marital relationship.


title: Navajo

text: A hogan, the traditional Navajo home, is built as a shelter for either a man or for a woman. Male hogans are square or conical with a distinct rectangular entrance, while a female hogan is an eight-sided house. Hogans are made of logs and covered in mud, with the door always facing east to welcome the sun each morning. Navajos also have several types of hogans for lodging and ceremonial use. Ceremonies, such as healing ceremonies or the "kinaaldá", take place inside a hogan. According to Kehoe, this style of housing is distinctive to the Navajos. She writes, "even today, a solidly constructed, log-walled Hogan is preferred by many Navajo families." Most Navajo members today live in apartments and houses in urban areas.


title: Navajo

text: Those who practice the Navajo religion regard the hogan as sacred. The religious song "The Blessingway" ("") describes the first hogan as being built by Coyote with help from Beavers to be a house for First Man, First Woman, and Talking God. The Beaver People gave Coyote logs and instructions on how to build the first hogan. Navajos made their hogans in the traditional fashion until the 1900s, when they started to make them in hexagonal and octagonal shapes. Hogans continue to be used as dwellings, especially by older Navajos, although they tend to be made with modern construction materials and techniques. Some are maintained specifically for ceremonial purposes.


title: Navajo

text: Navajo spiritual practice is about restoring balance and harmony to a person's life to produce health and is based on the ideas of "Hózhóójí". The Diné believed in two classes of people: Earth People and Holy People. The Navajo people believe they passed through three worlds before arriving in this world, the Fourth World or the Glittering World. As Earth People, the Diné must do everything within their power to maintain the balance between Mother Earth and man. The Diné also had the expectation of keeping a positive relationship between them and the Diyin Diné. In the Diné Bahane' (Navajo beliefs about creation), the First, or Dark World is where the four Diyin Diné lived and where First Woman and First Man came into existence. Because the world was so dark, life could not thrive there and they had to move on. The Second, or Blue World, was inhabited by a few of the mammals Earth People know today as well as the Swallow Chief, or Táshchózhii. The First World beings had offended him and were asked to leave. From there, they headed south and arrived in the Third World, or Yellow World. The four sacred mountains were found here, but due to a great flood, First Woman, First Man, and the Holy People were forced to find another world to live in. This time, when they arrived, they stayed in the Fourth World. In the Glittering World, true death came into existence, as well as the creations of the seasons, the moon, stars, and the sun.


title: Navajo

text: The Holy People, or Diyin Diné, had instructed the Earth People to view the four sacred mountains as the boundaries of the homeland () they should never leave: Blanca Peak ( — Dawn or White Shell Mountain) in Colorado; Mount Taylor ( — Blue Bead or Turquoise Mountain) in New Mexico; the San Francisco Peaks ( — Abalone Shell Mountain) in Arizona; and Hesperus Mountain ( — Big Mountain Sheep) in Colorado. Times of day, as well as colors, are used to represent the four sacred mountains. Throughout religions, the importance of a specific number is emphasized and in the Navajo religion, the number four appears to be sacred to their practices. For example, there were four original clans of Diné, four colors and times of day, four Diyin Diné, and for the most part, four songs sung for a ritual.


title: Navajo

text: Navajos have many different ceremonies. For the most part, their ceremonies are to prevent or cure diseases. Corn pollen is used as a blessing and as an offering during prayer. One half of major Navajo song ceremonial complex is the Blessing Way ("Hózhǫ́ǫ́jí)" and other half is the Enemy Way ("Anaʼí Ndááʼ"). The Blessing Way ceremonies are based on establishing "peace, harmony, and good things exclusively" within the Dine. The Enemy Way, or Evil Way ceremonies are concerned with counteracting influences that come from outside the Dine. Spiritual healing ceremonies are rooted in Navajo traditional stories. One of them, the Night Chant ceremony, is conducted over several days and involves up to 24 dancers. The ceremony requires the dancers to wear buckskin masks, as do many of the other Navajo ceremonies, and they all represent specific gods. The purpose of the Night Chant is to purify the patients and heal them through prayers to the spirit-beings. Each day of the ceremony entails the performance of certain rites and the creation of detailed sand paintings. One of the songs describes the home of the thunderbirds:


title: Navajo

text: The ceremonial leader proceeds by asking the Holy People to be present at the beginning of the ceremony, then identifying the patient with the power of the spirit-being, and describing the patient's transformation to renewed health with lines such as, "Happily I recover."


title: Navajo

text: Ceremonies are used to correct curses that cause some illnesses or misfortunes. People may complain of witches who do harm to the minds, bodies, and families of innocent people, though these matters are rarely discussed in detail with those outside of the community.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajo Tribe relied on oral tradition to maintain beliefs and stories. Examples would include the traditional creation story "Diné Bahane'". There are also some Navajo Indian legends that are staples in literature, including The First Man and First Woman as well as The Sun, Moon and Stars. The First Man and Woman is a myth about the creation of the world, and The Sun, Moon and Stars is a legend about the origin of heavenly bodies.


title: Navajo

text: Silversmithing is an important art form among Navajos. Atsidi Sani (c. 1830–c. 1918) is considered to be the first Navajo silversmith. He learned silversmithing from a Mexican man called "Nakai Tsosi" ("Thin Mexican") around 1878 and began teaching other Navajos how to work with silver. By 1880, Navajo silversmiths were creating handmade jewelry including bracelets, tobacco flasks, necklaces and bracers. Later, they added silver earrings, buckles, bolos, hair ornaments, pins and squash blossom necklaces for tribal use, and to sell to tourists as a way to supplement their income.


title: Navajo

text: The Navajos' hallmark jewelry piece called the "squash blossom" necklace first appeared in the 1880s. The term "squash blossom" was apparently attached to the name of the Navajo necklace at an early date, although its bud-shaped beads are thought to derive from Spanish-Mexican pomegranate designs. The Navajo silversmiths also borrowed the "naja" ("najahe" in Navajo) symbol to shape the silver pendant that hangs from the "squash blossom" necklace.


title: Navajo

text: Turquoise has been part of jewelry for centuries, but Navajo artists did not use inlay techniques to insert turquoise into silver designs until the late 19th century.


title: Navajo

text: Navajos came to the southwest with their own weaving traditions; however, they learned to weave cotton on upright looms from Pueblo peoples. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeing Navajo blankets. By the 18th century, the Navajos had begun to import Bayeta red yarn to supplement local black, grey, and white wool, as well as wool dyed with indigo. Using an upright loom, the Navajos made extremely fine utilitarian blankets that were collected by Ute and Plains Indians. These Chief's Blankets, so called because only chiefs or very wealthy individuals could afford them, were characterized by horizontal stripes and minimal patterning in red. First Phase Chief's Blankets have only horizontal stripes, Second Phase feature red rectangular designs, and Third Phase features red diamonds and partial diamond patterns.


title: Navajo

text: The completion of the railroads dramatically changed Navajo weaving. Cheap blankets were imported, so Navajo weavers shifted their focus to weaving rugs for an increasingly non-Native audience. Rail service also brought in Germantown wool from Philadelphia, commercially dyed wool which greatly expanded the weavers' color palettes.


title: Navajo

text: Some early European-American settlers moved in and set up trading posts, often buying Navajo rugs by the pound and selling them back east by the bale. The traders encouraged the locals to weave blankets and rugs into distinct styles. These included "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns); "Teec Nos Pos" (colorful, with very extensive patterns); "Ganado" (founded by Don Lorenzo Hubbell), red-dominated patterns with black and white; "Crystal" (founded by J. B. Moore); oriental and Persian styles (almost always with natural dyes); "Wide Ruins", "Chinlee", banded geometric patterns; "Klagetoh", diamond-type patterns; "Red Mesa" and bold diamond patterns. Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony or "hózhǫ́".


title: Navajo

text: In 2000 the documentary "The Return of Navajo Boy" was shown at the Sundance Film Festival. It was written in response to an earlier film, "The Navajo Boy" which was somewhat exploitative of those Navajos involved. "The Return of Navajo Boy" allowed the Navajos to be more involved in the depictions of themselves.


title: Navajo

text: In the final episode of the third season of the FX reality TV show "30 Days", the show's producer Morgan Spurlock spends thirty days living with a Navajo family on their reservation in New Mexico. The July 2008 show called "Life on an Indian Reservation", depicts the dire conditions that many Native Americans experience living on reservations in the United States.


title: Navajo

text: Tony Hillerman wrote a series of detective novels whose detective characters were members of the Navajo Tribal Police. The novels are noted for incorporating details about Navajo culture, and in some cases expand the focus to include nearby Hopi and Zuni characters and cultures, as well. Four of the novels have been adapted for film/TV. His daughter has continued the novel series after his death.


title: Navajo

text: In 1997, Welsh author Eirug Wyn published the Welsh-language novel "I Ble'r Aeth Haul y Bore?" ("Where did the Morning Sun go?" in English) which tells the story of Carson's misdoings against the Navajo people from the point of view of a fictional young Navajo woman called "Haul y Bore" ("Morning Sun" in English).


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The Sukhoi Superjet 100 () or SSJ100 is a regional jet designed by Russian aircraft company Sukhoi Civil Aircraft, a division of the United Aircraft Corporation (now: Regional Aircraft – Branch of the Irkut Corporation). With development starting in 2000, it made its maiden flight on 19 May 2008 and its first commercial flight on 21 April 2011 with Armavia.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The MTOW plane typically seats 87 to 98 passengers and is powered by two PowerJet SaM146 turbofans developed by a joint venture between French Safran and Russian NPO Saturn. By May 2018, 127 were in service and by September the fleet had logged 300,000 revenue flights and 460,000 hours. By November 2021 fleet had logged at least 2,000,000 hours. The plane has recorded three hull loss accidents and 86 deaths . In 2022, Sukhoi plans a Russified version of the body and electronic, without most of the Western components, the engine will also be replaced, using Aviadvigatel PD-8. Aeroflot has ordered 89 Irkut SSJ-Russified aircraft.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: JSC Sukhoi was incorporated in May 2000 to develop the first all-new commercial aircraft in post-Soviet Russia.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Studies of the Russian Regional Jet (RRJ) began in 2001. After analysing the Russian market, Sukhoi identified a need for an aircraft with a range of between , greater than typical regional jets. Three variants were initially envisaged: the RRJ60, RRJ75 and RRJ95, with 60, 78 and 98 seats respectively; a five-abreast layout was chosen as being optimal for this size range. Sukhoi estimated the targeted market to be around 800 aircraft, including 250–300 from Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 15 October 2001, the Russian government allocated $46.6 million to the development of a new 70–80 seat regional jet, targeting first flight in 2006 and entry into service in 2007.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Sukhoi's RRJ was competing against Myasishchev's M-60-70 and Tupolev's Tu-414 projects. Boeing provided advice to Sukhoi and its partners on programme management, engineering, marketing, product development, certification, supplier management and customer support. The Sukhoi RRJ was selected by Rosaviakosmos, the government's aviation and space agency, in March 2003.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The RRJ programme allocated $63.5 million to the development of a engine between 2003 and 2015. Four engines were initially envisaged: the Pratt & Whitney PW800, the Rolls-Royce BR710, the General Electric CF34-8, and the Snecma/NPO Saturn SaM146.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The BR710 and the CF34-8 were eliminated by July 2002, and the PW800 was subsequently rejected due to a perceived technical risk associated with its geared fan.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: A formal memorandum of understanding was signed with Snecma on 29 April 2003, confirming the selection of the SaM146,


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: to be developed in a joint venture with NPO Saturn, based on the Snecma SPW14 and combining a Snecma DEM21 gas generator with an Aviadvigatel "cold section".


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Key suppliers were selected in October 2003, including Thales for avionics, Messier-Bugatti-Dowty for landing gear, Honeywell for the auxiliary power unit, Liebherr for flight controls, Intertechnique for fuel systems, Parker Hannifin for hydraulic systems, B/E Aerospace for interiors.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: At this time, Sukhoi anticipated a market for 600 aircraft by 2020representing 10% of global demand for regional jetsfor a total sales volume of $11 billion.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Discussions were held with Air France and the SkyTeam alliance to ensure that the aircraft would meet western requirements.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: An application for EASA certification was made in 2004 and was expected to be granted six months after the Russian approval.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The Komsomolsk-on-Amur plant was selected in February 2005 for final assembly, implementing jig-less assembly, automatic component alignment and automatic riveting.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The RRJ60 and RRJ75 were deemed to be less cost-effective, and development was focused on the largest model, the 98-seat RRJ95. The 78-seater RRJ75 remained under consideration, and a future stretch was also envisaged.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In June 2007, Boeing expanded its assistance to cover flight and maintenance crew training and manuals, and spare parts management and supply. On 22 August, Sukhoi and Alenia Aeronautica established the SuperJet International joint venture for customer support outside Russia and Asia. Alenia Aeronautica took a 25% stake in Sukhoi Civil Aircraft Corporation (SCAC) for $250 million, valuing it at $1 billion.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Development costs were expected to total $1 billion, with another $1 billion needed to develop the powerplant and for customer support.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The first SSJ was transported in an Antonov 124 from Komsomolsk-on-Amur to Zhukovsky, Moscow Oblast on 28 January 2007, for ground tests conducted by the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI). The SuperJet was officially unveiled on 26 September 2007 at Dzyomgi Airport in Komsomolsk-on-Amur. By October 2007, initial deliveries were scheduled for 2009; plans called for the 95–98-seat model to be followed by a 75–78-seat shrink and a 110-seat stretch.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The SaM146 engine was first run on 21 February 2008. Tests were conducted by the Gromov Flight Research Institute, using an Ilyushin Il-76LL as a flying test bed. The SuperJet 100 made its maiden flight on 19 May 2008, taking off from Komsomolsk-on-Amur. By July, certification was expected for the third quarter of 2009, pushing back deliveries to later the same quarter.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By January 2009, the first two aircraft had completed over 80 flights, and the engines had accumulated 2,300 hours of tests. In April 2009, the two prototypes were flown from Novosibirsk to Moscow, and EASA pilots conducted a number of familiarisation flights. A third prototype joined the test campaign in July 2009.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The SSJ made its international debut at the 2009 Paris Air Show; during the show, Malév Hungarian Airlines placed a $1 billion order for 30 aircraft.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: As of June 2009, 13 aircraft were under construction, with the first four scheduled to be handed over to clients from December. Armenian Armavia was to receive the first two, followed by Aeroflot, having ordered 30 with an option for 15 more. Other customers include Russian Avialeasing, Swiss AMA Asset Management Advisor, and Indonesian Kartika Airlines. Sukhoi expected production to reach a rate of 70 aircraft per year by 2012.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In December 2009, engine availability issues resulted in deliveries being delayed indefinitely. On 4 February 2010, the fourth prototype made its maiden flight using engines removed from the first prototype, as a result of continuing delays in engine production, including NPO Saturn quality problems.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By June 2010, certification was 90% complete but was delayed due to SaM146 engine problems that were not encountered during testing.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In September 2010, certification was expected for November. In October 2010, noise was tested for certification authorities, Russian IAC and European EASA. On 4 November 2010, the first production aircraft, intended for Armavia, was first flown.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 14 March 2022, EASA revoked the Superjet's airworthiness certificate as part of the EU's sanctions against Russia following the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In summer 2017, the business jet variant's additional fuel tanks were certified to carry 3,100 kg (6,800 lb) more fuel, increasing range from to .


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: London City Airport is a major destination for Irish airline CityJet, which was to receive 15 SSJ100s, but its steep 5.5° approach required new control laws, wing flap setting and modified brakes: test flights were to begin in December 2017, with certification planned for 2018, and the modified aircraft to be available in 2019.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: A new "sabrelet" winglet, helping takeoff and landing performance and delivering 3% better fuel burn, will be standard and available for retrofit.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Designed with CFD tools by Sukhoi and TsAGI, the "saberlets" debuted flight tests on 21 December 2017.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: They should reduce fuel costs by 4%, flight-testing was completed after over 140 flights by October 2019.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The first aircraft with the composite winglets was delivered to Russian carrier Severstal Aircompany in December 2019.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By November 2018, the TsAGI carried out wind tunnel tests on two modified wing designs to save structural weight: one with less wing sweep and the other with more relative thickness, also enhancing aerodynamics and load capabilities, and improving fuel efficiency by nearly 10%.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: To resist the Airbus–Boeing duopoly pressure on regional jets through the Embraer E-Jet E2 and the Airbus A220, Sukhoi would upgrade the SSJ100 to the SSJ100B and the "Russianised" SSJ100R. Western content accounts for 55–60% of the original SSJ100's cost but sanctions against Russia are tightening. As of December 2018, the US authorities did not send any feedback to Sukhoi over exports to Iran. The SSJ100B would feature more powerful SaM146-1S18 engines, improved avionics software, enhanced high-lift devices controls and retrofittable "sabrelet" blended wingtip devices. After 2021 the SSJ100R would replace western components by Russian ones for government customers and countries subject to Western sanctions such as Iran Air Tours and Iran Aseman.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: SSJ100R could include a smaller variant of the Aviadvigatel PD-14 engine (Aviadvigatel PD-8); KRET electronic units to replace the Thales avionics; a Russian inertial navigation system and APU to replace Honeywell's; and the landing gear to replace one produced by Safran. Fuel burn would be reduced by 5–8% with a new composite wing. Russian content should double to 30% as US restrictions limit its export potential. Sukhoi forecasts 345 sales from 2018 to 2030, mostly in post-Soviet states and some in south-east Asia and Latin America, including an improved range business jet version. The seating capacity is to be raised to 110, and hot and high operations to 4000 m and 50 °C. A freighter variant is also being studied. Russian government has earmarked ₽3.2 billion ($51 million) toward the variant of the SSJ with indigenous propulsion and avionics, introduced at the Eurasia Airshow 2018 in Antalya alongside the SSJ75.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In May 2021, Rostec announced the completion of the first experimental core 'hot section' of the PD-8 engine. The 'Russified' variant of the SSJ with the composite wing, indigenous avionics and the PD-8 engine later became known as the SSJ-New. In July 2021, UEC exhibited the new engine at the 2021 Moscow Air Show and aimed to secure type certification by 2023. In January 2022, a new control system, developed by UEC for the PD-8 engine, was being tested prior to integration with the engine.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Under a plan announced in June 2022 to bring the proportion of domestically produced aircraft to 80% of the Russian fleet by the end of the decade following the international sanctions brought in after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, serial production of the SSJ-New was expected to begin in 2023. In July 2022, a prototype SSJ-New fuselage was transported to test facilities near Moscow to undergo life cycle testing.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: At the end of November 2018, United Aircraft Corporation transferred from Sukhoi to the Irkut Corporation, to become UAC's airliner division, as Leonardo S.p.A. pulled out in early 2017 because of Superjet's poor financial performance. Irkut will manage the Superjet 100, the MC-21 and the Russo-Chinese CR929 widebody, but the Il-114 passenger turboprop and modernized Ilyushin Il-96-400 widebody will stay with Ilyushin. The new commercial division will also include the Yakovlev Design Bureau, avionics specialist UAC—Integration Center and composite manufacturer AeroComposit. The aircraft is to be known simply as the Superjet 100, dropping the Sukhoi name.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The five-abreast cross-section is more optimised beyond 70 seats than the four-abreast Bombardier CRJs and Embraer E-Jets but smaller than the six-abreast Airbus A320 and Boeing 737.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The SSJ100 typically seats 87 to 98 passengers. In Russia, it replaces the aging Tupolev Tu-134 and Yakovlev Yak-42 aircraft. It competes with the Antonov An-148, Embraer E190 and the Bombardier CRJ1000. Sukhoi claims cash operational costs are lower than competitors by 8-10%, with reduced fuel burn per seat and longer maintenance intervals.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The design meets CIS AP-25, US FAR-25 and EU JAR-25 aviation rules, and conforms to ICAO Chapter 4 and FAR 36 Section 4 noise standards from 2006.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The Russian Ministry of Industry and Trade supports it as a priority project. In 2010, development costs were $1.4 billion excluding the SaM146 engine, with 25% funded from the federal budget, rising to US$ 1.5 billion by 2013. Unit cost was US$31–35 million in 2012, rising to a US$50.1 million base price in 2018.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Over 30 foreign partnerships are involved. The SaM146 engines are developed, manufactured and marketed by PowerJet, a joint-venture between the French Snecma and Russia's NPO Saturn. A joint venture between Alenia (later part of Leonardo S.p.A.) and Sukhoi, SuperJet International, was responsible for marketing in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Japan and Oceania, though Leonardo pulled out in early 2017 because of Superjet's poor financial performance and Sukhoi regained a 100% share in . Assembly is performed at the Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Plant in the Russian Far East, while the Novosibirsk Aircraft Production Association produces components; both are upgrading their facilities and were expecting to produce 70 airframes by 2012.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 19 April 2011, the first production aircraft was handed over to Armavia at Zvartnots Airport in Yerevan, to be operated to Moscow and Sochi, as well as Ukrainian cities. The aircraft was named after Yuri Gagarin.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 21 April, the first commercial flight landed at Moscow Sheremetyevo, lasting 2 h 55 min; Armavia used the Airbus A319 on this route before switching to the Superjet 100.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 1 May, it made its first commercial flight to Venice Airport in around 4 hours, it had accumulated 50 hours in 24 flights by then.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By March 2012, the six aircraft operated by Aeroflot were flying 3.9 hours/day instead of the standard 8–9 hours due to failures and parts delivery delays, and the airline asked for compensation.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: The SSJ entered service with Mexican Interjet on 18 September 2013; in their first four weeks, the first two aircraft operated were flown 580 times over 600 hours with a daily utilisation of 9.74 hours and a dispatch reliability of 99.03%.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By June 2014, Interjet had received seven SSJ100s and the dispatch reliability had increased to 99.7%.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 12 September 2014, Interjet started regular passenger flights to the US, on the Monterrey, Mexico, – San Antonio, Texas, route.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 3 June 2016, the Irish carrier CityJet was the first western European airline to take delivery of an SSJ100.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 24 December 2016, the Russian Federal Air Transport Agency grounded seven jets after a tail component of an IrAero SSJ100 showed metal fatigue, leading Sukhoi to inspect the entire fleet. By 27 December, all aircraft had been inspected and it had been shown that the defect was not systemic as it featured multiple redundancies and a safety margin doubling the normal loads. Interjet grounded half of its fleet of SSJ100s during this period, but all of its aircraft were returned to service by the first week of January 2017 after Sukhoi sent 22 technicians to repair the grounded aircraft.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In June 2017, dispatch reliability increased to 97.85% from 96.94% a year earlier, while there were 89.6 malfunctions per 1,000 flight-hours, down by 40%.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 21 July 2017, following the discovery of horizontal stabiliser rear spar cracks, the EASA mandated compulsory inspections. Sukhoi recognises it needs to improve customer support with more responsiveness and availability for flight training, engineering and spare parts supply. In early November 2017, the Russian Federal Air Transport Agency and Italian Civil Aviation Authority (ENAC) amended their bilateral airworthiness agreement, hitting SSJ export sales. Interjet claimed its capital cost for 10 Superjets was equivalent to the pre-delivery payment for one Airbus A320.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In January 2018, "Bloomberg" reported that four of Interjet's 22 SSJ100s were being cannibalised for parts to keep others running after having been grounded for at least five months because of SaM146 maintenance delays. This was later refuted by Interjet. One grounded SSJ100 was due to be back in service on 19 January 2018 and the remaining three in March. In August 2018, Russian regional carrier Yakutia Airlines considered withdrawing their SSJs, after two were grounded because their engines were removed after 1,500-3,000 cycles, below the 7,000 specified, and no replacements were available.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: PowerJet was expanding its repair capacity and lease pool as engine maturity improved, noting that the SaM146 engine achieved 99.9% dependability since its 2011 introduction.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In September 2018, Interjet was reported to be considering replacing its SSJ100s with Airbus A320neos, to make better use of its slots, with the SSJ technical problems possibly also a factor.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: It was later reported that Interjet intends to phase out some of its Superjets and take 20 more A320neos, maybe alongside newer Superjet deliveries; it will have access to an enhanced SSJ spares inventory in Mexico City and is installing a flight simulator in Toluca.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: Sukhoi has also proposed to increase the cabin density from 93 to 108 seats by reducing the pitch from .


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: While the airline was attracted by its low introductory price, Sukhoi was forced to reimburse Interjet in 2018 after its fleet of 30 suffered persistent faults.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: In October 2018, Sukhoi and engine contractor UEC agreed on a plan, backed by the Russian government, to focus on customer support rather than deliveries in order to improve dispatch reliability.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: At the end of November 2018, United Aircraft Corporation transferred from Sukhoi Holding to the Irkut Corporation, to become UAC's airliner division. By then, Brussels Airlines was seeking alternatives for its four SSJ100s wet-leased from CityJet, as teething problems affected their reliability.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By February 2019, CityJet's remaining five SSJ100s stood idle and were expected to be transferred to Slovenia's Adria Airways, which committed for 15 in late 2018, though Adria subsequently cancelled its order in April 2019. Neither CityJet nor Brussels Airlines have commented as to why they dropped the SSJ, though low reliability, difficult maintenance and spare parts availability are suspected to have contributed.


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: By the end of the first quarter of 2019, 15 of Interjet's 22 SSJs were out of service. Further talks with Sukhoi were deadlocked, with Interjet reportedly unwilling to pay for repairs to the PowerJet SaM146 engines.Interjet's reliability issues are compounded by the lack of service facilities in the Americas for the SSJ, a factor which also contributed to the poor reliability recorded by CityJet,


title: Sukhoi Superjet 100

text: On 15 May 2019, Interjet announced that it is to sell its 20 SSJs, of which only five are operational, as it is no longer profitable to operate aircraft of this size in Mexico. Therefore, , Sukhoi has had trouble selling the Superjet and renewing leasing contracts outside of Russia because of reliability and service network issues, resulting in an average of 109 flight hours per month for Russian airlines, approximately half the Embraer EMB 170 productivity, and just a third of a Boeing or Airbus jet. Unease with the SSJ's low reliability also spread to Russian operators.