title: Exoplanet

text: Temperatures of gas giants reduce over time and with distance from their star. Lowering the temperature increases optical albedo even without clouds. At a sufficiently low temperature, water clouds form, which further increase optical albedo. At even lower temperatures ammonia clouds form, resulting in the highest albedos at most optical and near-infrared wavelengths.


title: Exoplanet

text: In 2014, a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet. It is the first (indirect) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet. The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter's.


title: Exoplanet

text: The magnetic fields of exoplanets may be detectable by their auroral radio emissions with sensitive enough radio telescopes such as LOFAR. The radio emissions could enable determination of the rotation rate of the interior of an exoplanet, and may yield a more accurate way to measure exoplanet rotation than by examining the motion of clouds.


title: Exoplanet

text: Earth's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core, but in massive super-Earths with high pressure, different compounds may form which do not match those created under terrestrial conditions. Compounds may form with greater viscosities and high melting temperatures which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless mantles. Forms of magnesium oxide such as MgSiO could be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super-Earths.


title: Exoplanet

text: Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected. This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up (Joule heating) causing it to expand. The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet. This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii.


title: Exoplanet

text: In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic hydrogen form. This may help researchers better understand giant gas planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and related exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields.


title: Exoplanet

text: Although scientists previously announced that the magnetic fields of close-in exoplanets may cause increased stellar flares and starspots on their host stars, in 2019 this claim was demonstrated to be false in the HD 189733 system. The failure to detect "star-planet interactions" in the well-studied HD 189733 system calls other related claims of the effect into question.


title: Exoplanet

text: In 2019 the strength of the surface magnetic fields of 4 hot Jupiters were estimated and ranged between 20 and 120 gauss compared to Jupiter's surface magnetic field of 4.3 gauss.


title: Exoplanet

text: In 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.


title: Exoplanet

text: If super-Earths have more than 80 times as much water as Earth then they become ocean planets with all land completely submerged. However, if there is less water than this limit, then the deep water cycle will move enough water between the oceans and mantle to allow continents to exist.


title: Exoplanet

text: Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block thermal emissions.


title: Exoplanet

text: The star 1SWASP J140747.93-394542.6 is orbited by an object that is circled by a ring system much larger than Saturn's rings. However, the mass of the object is not known; it could be a brown dwarf or low-mass star instead of a planet.


title: Exoplanet

text: The brightness of optical images of Fomalhaut b could be due to starlight reflecting off a circumplanetary ring system with a radius between 20 and 40 times that of Jupiter's radius, about the size of the orbits of the Galilean moons.


title: Exoplanet

text: The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star. A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.


title: Exoplanet

text: In December 2013 a candidate exomoon of a rogue planet was announced. On 3 October 2018, evidence suggesting a large exomoon orbiting Kepler-1625b was reported.


title: Exoplanet

text: Atmospheres have been detected around several exoplanets. The first to be observed was HD 209458 b in 2001.


title: Exoplanet

text: As of February 2014, more than fifty transiting and five directly imaged exoplanet atmospheres have been observed, resulting in detection of molecular spectral features; observation of day–night temperature gradients; and constraints on vertical atmospheric structure. Also, an atmosphere has been detected on the non-transiting hot Jupiter Tau Boötis b.


title: Exoplanet

text: In May 2017, glints of light from Earth, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere. The technology used to determine this may be useful in studying the atmospheres of distant worlds, including those of exoplanets.


title: Exoplanet

text: KIC 12557548 b is a small rocky planet, very close to its star, that is evaporating and leaving a trailing tail of cloud and dust like a comet. The dust could be ash erupting from volcanos and escaping due to the small planet's low surface-gravity, or it could be from metals that are vaporized by the high temperatures of being so close to the star with the metal vapor then condensing into dust.


title: Exoplanet

text: In June 2015, scientists reported that the atmosphere of GJ 436 b was evaporating, resulting in a giant cloud around the planet and, due to radiation from the host star, a long trailing tail long.


title: Exoplanet

text: Tidally locked planets in a 1:1 spin-orbit resonance would have their star always shining directly overhead on one spot which would be hot with the opposite hemisphere receiving no light and being freezing cold. Such a planet could resemble an eyeball with the hotspot being the pupil. Planets with an eccentric orbit could be locked in other resonances. 3:2 and 5:2 resonances would result in a double-eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern and western hemispheres. Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns.


title: Exoplanet

text: Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy. Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.


title: Exoplanet

text: The temperature of an exoplanet can be estimated by measuring the intensity of the light it receives from its parent star. For example, the planet OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb is estimated to have a surface temperature of roughly −220 °C (50 K). However, such estimates may be substantially in error because they depend on the planet's usually unknown albedo, and because factors such as the greenhouse effect may introduce unknown complications. A few planets have had their temperature measured by observing the variation in infrared radiation as the planet moves around in its orbit and is eclipsed by its parent star. For example, the planet HD 189733b has been estimated to have an average temperature of 1,205 K (932 °C) on its dayside and 973 K (700 °C) on its nightside.


title: Exoplanet

text: As more planets are discovered, the field of exoplanetology continues to grow into a deeper study of extrasolar worlds, and will ultimately tackle the prospect of life on planets beyond the Solar System. At cosmic distances, life can only be detected if it is developed at a planetary scale and strongly modified the planetary environment, in such a way that the modifications cannot be explained by classical physico-chemical processes (out of equilibrium processes). For example, molecular oxygen () in the atmosphere of Earth is a result of photosynthesis by living plants and many kinds of microorganisms, so it can be used as an indication of life on exoplanets, although small amounts of oxygen could also be produced by non-biological means. Furthermore, a potentially habitable planet must orbit a stable star at a distance within which planetary-mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure can support liquid water at their surfaces.


title: Exoplanet

text: The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on the surface of planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.


title: Exoplanet

text: Planetary rotation rate is one of the major factors determining the circulation of the atmosphere and hence the pattern of clouds: slowly rotating planets create thick clouds that reflect more and so can be habitable much closer to their star. Earth with its current atmosphere would be habitable in Venus's orbit, if it had Venus's slow rotation. If Venus lost its water ocean due to a runaway greenhouse effect, it is likely to have had a higher rotation rate in the past. Alternatively, Venus never had an ocean because water vapor was lost to space during its formation and could have had its slow rotation throughout its history.


title: Exoplanet

text: Tidally locked planets (a.k.a. "eyeball" planets) can be habitable closer to their star than previously thought due to the effect of clouds: at high stellar flux, strong convection produces thick water clouds near the substellar point that greatly increase the planetary albedo and reduce surface temperatures.


title: Exoplanet

text: Habitable zones have usually been defined in terms of surface temperature, however over half of Earth's biomass is from subsurface microbes, and the temperature increases with depth, so the subsurface can be conducive for microbial life when the surface is frozen and if this is considered, the habitable zone extends much further from the star, even rogue planets could have liquid water at sufficient depths underground. In an earlier era of the universe the temperature of the cosmic microwave background would have allowed any rocky planets that existed to have liquid water on their surface regardless of their distance from a star. Jupiter-like planets might not be habitable, but they could have habitable moons.


title: Exoplanet

text: The outer edge of the habitable zone is where planets are completely frozen, but planets well inside the habitable zone can periodically become frozen. If orbital fluctuations or other causes produce cooling then this creates more ice, but ice reflects sunlight causing even more cooling, creating a feedback loop until the planet is completely or nearly completely frozen. When the surface is frozen, this stops carbon dioxide weathering, resulting in a build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from volcanic emissions. This creates a greenhouse effect which thaws the planet again. Planets with a large axial tilt are less likely to enter snowball states and can retain liquid water further from their star. Large fluctuations of axial tilt can have even more of a warming effect than a fixed large tilt. Paradoxically, planets orbiting cooler stars, such as red dwarfs, are less likely to enter snowball states because the infrared radiation emitted by cooler stars is mostly at wavelengths that are absorbed by ice which heats it up.


title: Exoplanet

text: If a planet has an eccentric orbit, then tidal heating can provide another source of energy besides stellar radiation. This means that eccentric planets in the radiative habitable zone can be too hot for liquid water. Tides also circularize orbits over time so there could be planets in the habitable zone with circular orbits that have no water because they used to have eccentric orbits. Eccentric planets further out than the habitable zone would still have frozen surfaces but the tidal heating could create a subsurface ocean similar to Europa's. In some planetary systems, such as in the Upsilon Andromedae system, the eccentricity of orbits is maintained or even periodically varied by perturbations from other planets in the system. Tidal heating can cause outgassing from the mantle, contributing to the formation and replenishment of an atmosphere.


title: Exoplanet

text: A review in 2015 identified exoplanets Kepler-62f, Kepler-186f and Kepler-442b as the best candidates for being potentially habitable. These are at a distance of 1200, 490 and 1,120 light-years away, respectively. Of these, Kepler-186f is in similar size to Earth with its 1.2-Earth-radius measure, and it is located towards the outer edge of the habitable zone around its red dwarf star.


title: Exoplanet

text: When looking at the nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates, Proxima Centauri b is about 4.2 light-years away. Its equilibrium temperature is estimated to be .


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) or Modern Written Arabic (MWA), terms used mostly by linguists, is the variety of standardized, literary Arabic that developed in the Arab world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; occasionally, it also refers to spoken Arabic that approximates this written standard. MSA is the language used in literature, academia, print and mass media, law and legislation, though it is generally not spoken as a first language, similar to Contemporary Latin. It is a pluricentric standard language taught throughout the Arab world in formal education, differing significantly from many vernacular varieties of Arabic that are commonly spoken as mother tongues in the area; these are only partially mutually intelligible with both MSA and with each other depending on their proximity in the Arabic dialect continuum.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Many linguists consider MSA to be distinct from Classical Arabic (CA; ) – the written language prior to the mid-19th century – although there is no agreed moment at which CA turned into MSA. There are also no agreed set of linguistic criteria which distinguish CA from MSA, however MSA differs most markedly in that it either synthesizes words from Arabic roots (such as "car" or "steamship") or adapts words from foreign languages (such as "workshop" or "Internet") to describe industrial and post-industrial life.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Native speakers of Arabic generally do not distinguish between "Modern Standard Arabic" and "Classical Arabic" as separate languages; they refer to both as () meaning "the eloquent Arabic". They consider the two forms to be two historical periods of one language. When the distinction is made, they are referred to as ' (MSA) and ' (CA).


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Classical Arabic, also known as Quranic Arabic (although the term is not entirely accurate), is the language used in the Quran as well as in numerous literary texts from Umayyad and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). Many Muslims study Classical Arabic in order to read the Quran in its original language. It is important to note that written Classical Arabic underwent fundamental changes during the early Islamic era, adding dots to distinguish similarly written letters, and adding the "tashkīl" (diacritical markings that guide pronunciation) by Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali, Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, and other scholars. It was the lingua franca across the Middle East, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa during classic times and in Andalusia before classic times.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Napoleon's campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) is generally considered to be the starting point of the modern period of the Arabic language, when the intensity of contacts between the Western world and Arabic culture increased. Napoleon introduced the first Arabic printing press in Egypt in 1798; it briefly disappeared after the French departure in 1801, but Muhammad Ali Pasha, who also sent students to Italy, France and England to study military and applied sciences in 1809, reintroduced it a few years later in Boulaq, Cairo. (Previously, Arabic-language presses had been introduced locally in Lebanon in 1610, and in Aleppo, Syria in 1702). The first Arabic printed newspaper was established in 1828: the bilingual Turkish-Arabic "Al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya" had great influence in the formation of Modern Standard Arabic. It was followed by "Al-Ahram" (1875) and "al-Muqattam" (1889). The Western–Arabic contacts and technological developments in especially the newspaper industry indirectly caused the revival of Arabic literature, or Nahda, in the late 19th and early 20th century. Another important development was the establishment of Arabic-only schools in reaction against the Turkification of Arabic-majority areas under Ottoman rule.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the literary standard across the Middle East, North Africa and Horn of Africa, and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Most printed material by the Arab League—including most books, newspapers, magazines, official documents, and reading primers for small children—is written in MSA. "Colloquial" Arabic refers to the many regional dialects derived from Classical Arabic spoken daily across the region and learned as a first language, and as second language if people speak other languages native to their particular country. They are not normally written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry, including songs) exists in many of them.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Literary Arabic (MSA) is the official language of all Arab League countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages. Additionally, some members of religious minorities recite prayers in it, as it is considered the literary language. Translated versions of the Bible which are used in Arabic-speaking countries are mostly written in MSA, aside from Classical Arabic. Muslims recite prayers in it; revised editions of numerous literary texts from Umayyad and Abbasid times are also written in MSA.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossiathe use of two distinct varieties of the same language, usually in different social contexts. This diglossic situation facilitates code-switching in which a speaker switches back and forth between the two dialects of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. People speak MSA as a third language if they speak other languages native to a country as their first language and colloquial Arabic dialects as their second language. Modern Standard Arabic is also spoken by people of Arab descent outside the Arab world when people of Arab descent speaking different dialects communicate to each other. As there is a prestige or standard dialect of vernacular Arabic, speakers of standard colloquial dialects code-switch between these particular dialects and MSA.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Classical Arabic is considered normative; a few contemporary authors attempt (with varying degrees of success) to follow the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh) and to use the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the "Lisan al-Arab", ).


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: However, the exigencies of modernity have led to the adoption of numerous terms which would have been mysterious to a classical author, whether taken from other languages (e. g. "film") or coined from existing lexical resources (e. g. "hātif"  "caller" > "telephone"). Structural influence from foreign languages or from the vernaculars has also affected Modern Standard Arabic: for example, MSA texts sometimes use the format "A, B, C and D" when listing things, whereas Classical Arabic prefers "A and B and C and D", and subject-initial sentences may be more common in MSA than in Classical Arabic. For these reasons, Modern Standard Arabic is generally treated separately in non-Arab sources. Speakers of Modern Standard Arabic do not always observe the intricate rules of Classical Arabic grammar. Modern Standard Arabic principally differs from Classical Arabic in three areas: lexicon, stylistics, and certain innovations on the periphery that are not strictly regulated by the classical authorities. On the whole, Modern Standard Arabic is not homogeneous; there are authors who write in a style very close to the classical models and others who try to create new stylistic patterns. Add to this regional differences in vocabulary depending upon the influence of the local Arabic varieties and the influences of foreign languages, such as French in Africa and Lebanon or English in Egypt, Jordan, and other countries.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: As MSA is a revised and simplified form of Classical Arabic, MSA in terms of lexicon omitted the obsolete words used in Classical Arabic. As diglossia is involved, various Arabic dialects freely borrow words from MSA. This situation is similar to Romance languages, wherein scores of words were borrowed directly from formal Latin (most literate Romance speakers were also literate in Latin); educated speakers of standard colloquial dialects speak in this kind of communication.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Reading out loud in MSA for various reasons is becoming increasingly simpler, using less strict rules compared to CA, notably the inflection is omitted, making it closer to spoken varieties of Arabic. It depends on the speaker's knowledge and attitude to the grammar of Classical Arabic, as well as the region and the intended audience.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Pronunciation of native words, loanwords, and foreign names in MSA is loose. Names can be pronounced or even spelled differently in different regions and by different speakers. Pronunciation also depends on the person's education, linguistic knowledge, and abilities. There may be sounds used which are missing in Classical Arabic but exist in colloquial varieties. For example, the consonants , , (often realized as +) (which may or may not be written with special letters) and the vowels , (both short and long). There are no special letters in Arabic to distinguish between and pairs but the sounds o and e (short and long) exist in the colloquial varieties of Arabic and some foreign words in MSA.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Modern Standard Arabic, like Classical Arabic before it, has three pairs of long and short vowels: , , and :


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: "*" "Footnote:" although not part of Standard Arabic phonology the vowels and are perceived as separate phonemes in most of modern Arabic dialects and they are used when speaking Modern Standard Arabic as part of foreign words or when speaking it with a colloquial tone.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: While there are differences between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, Arabic speakers tend to find these differences unimportant, and generally refer to both by the same name: "al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā" ('the eloquent Arabic').


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: MSA tends to use simplified sentence structures and drop more complicated ones commonly used in Classical Arabic. Some examples include reliance on verb sentences instead of noun phrases and semi-sentences, as well as avoiding phrasal adjectives and accommodating feminine forms of ranks and job titles.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Because MSA speech occurs in fields with novel concepts, including technical literature and scientific domains, the need for terms that did not exist in the time of CA has led to coining new terms. Arabic Language Academies had attempted to fulfill this role during the second half of the 20th century with neologisms with Arab roots, but MSA typically borrows terms from other languages to coin new terminology.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: MSA includes two sounds not present in CA, particularly and , which occur in loanwords. In addition, MSA normally does not use diacritics (tashkīl) unless there is a need for disambiguation or instruction, unlike the CA found in Quran and Hadith scriptures, which are texts that demand strict adherence to exact wording. MSA also has taken on some punctuation marking from other languages.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: MSA is loosely uniform across the Middle East as it is based on the convention of Arabic speakers rather than being a regulated language which rules are followed (that is despite the number of academies regulating Arabic). It can be thought of as being in a continuum between CA (the regulated language described in grammar books) and the spoken vernaculars while leaning much more to CA in its written form than its spoken form.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Regional variations exist due to influence from the spoken vernaculars. TV hosts who read prepared MSA scripts, for example in Al Jazeera, are ordered to give up national or ethnic pronunciations by changing their pronunciation of certain phonemes (e.g. the realization of the Classical "" as by Egyptians), though other traits may show the speaker's region, such as the stress and the exact value of vowels and the pronunciation of other consonants. People who speak MSA also mix vernacular and Classical in pronunciation, words, and grammatical forms. Classical/vernacular mixing in formal writing can also be found (e.g., in some Egyptian newspaper editorials); others are written in Modern Standard/vernacular mixing, including entertainment news.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: The Egyptian writer and journalist, Cherif Choubachy wrote in a critical book, that more than half of the Arabic speaking world are not Arabs and that more than 50% of Arabs in the Arabic speaking world use Literary Arabic.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: According to Ethnologue there are no native speakers of Modern Standard Arabic, but a total of 273,989,700 second language speakers in the world. They add that: "In most Arab countries only the well-educated have adequate proficiency in Modern Standard Arabic." In Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, French is the language of higher education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), while in the Gulf region it's English.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: Several reports mentioned that the use of Modern Standard Arabic was on the decline in the Arab world, especially in Gulf countries such as the United Arab Emirates where foreign workers make up more than 80% of the population and where English has become the lingua franca of commerce, media, and education. Content in Modern Standard Arabic is also under-represented online and in literature.


title: Modern Standard Arabic

text: According to the 2017 Arab Youth Survey done by polling firm PSB Insights, 54% of respondents (young urban Arabs aged 18 to 24) agreed with the statement: "On a daily basis, I use English more than Arabic." They were 68% in GCC countries. The "New York Times" reported that most Arab students of Northwestern University in Qatar and Georgetown University in Qatar did not have "professional proficiency" in Modern Standard Arabic.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley (1546 – 10 February 1567), was an English nobleman who was the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the father of James VI of Scotland and I of England. Through his parents, he had claims to both the Scottish and English thrones, and from his marriage in 1565 he was king consort of Scotland. Less than a year after the birth of his son, Darnley was murdered at Kirk o' Field in 1567. Many contemporary narratives describing his life and death refer to him as simply Lord Darnley, his title as heir apparent to the Earldom of Lennox.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: He was the second but eldest surviving son of Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, by his wife Lady Margaret Douglas which supported her claim to the English succession. Darnley's maternal grandparents were Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus, and Queen Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England and widow of King James IV of Scotland.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley was born at Temple Newsam, Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, in 1546. It was initially believed that Henry was born on 5 December 1545, but more recent research suggests he was born in 1546, as his mother had given birth in late February 1545 and in a letter from March 1566, his age was given as nineteen. As a descendant of both James II of Scotland and Henry VII of England, Darnley had potential claims to both the Scottish and English thrones.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: In 1545, his father, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, was found guilty of treason in Scotland for siding with the English in the War of the Rough Wooing, in opposing Mary of Guise and Regent Arran. The family's Scottish estates were forfeited and his father went into exile in England for 22 years, returning to Scotland in 1564. The Countess of Lennox Margaret Douglas, his mother, had left Scotland in 1528.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: The young Henry was conscious of his status and inheritance. Well-versed in Latin and familiar with Gaelic, English and French, he received an education befitting his royal lineage, and he excelled in singing, lute playing, and dancing. The Scottish scholar John Elder was among his tutors. Elder advocated Anglo-Scottish union through the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Prince Edward. His advice to Henry VIII in 1543, was termed the "Advice of a Redshank". Another schoolmaster to the young heir was Arthur Lallart, who would later be interrogated in London for having gone to Scotland in 1562.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Henry was said to be strong, athletic, skilled in horsemanship and weaponry, and passionate about hunting and hawking. His youthful character is captured somewhat in a letter of March 1554 to Mary I of England from Temple Newsam, where he writes about making a map, the "Utopia Nova", and his wish that "every haire in my heade for to be a wourthy souldiour".


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: There was a political dilemma in England arising from the dynastic ambition of the Lennoxes: Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, was third in line to the Scottish throne, and his wife Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox, was a niece of Henry VIII, making her a potential successor to the English throne if Elizabeth should die. As Roman Catholics, they posed a threat to English Protestants, Although Elizabeth was bright, witty, and well-educated for her position, as a female she had to prove herself. As she was a Protestant, many Roman Catholics would have liked to see the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, take the throne. They regarded Elizabeth as illegitimate, her parents' marriage not having been recognised by the Catholic Church. Darnley, as a male descended from Henry VII, was also a contender for the English throne. All of these interrelationships made for complex intrigues, spying, strategising and manoeuvering for power at the various courts.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: When Henry II of France died in July 1559, Lennox's brother John, 5th Sieur d'Aubigny, was elevated in the French court as kinsman of the new French queen, Mary, already Queen of Scots. Aubigny arranged for Darnley to be dispatched to the French court to congratulate Mary and Francis II of France on Francis's accession and seek restoration for Lennox. Mary did not restore Lennox to his Scottish earldom, but she did give 1,000 crowns to Darnley and invited him to her coronation. Lennox's plan was to appeal directly to the Queen of Scots via her ambassador, over the heads of Elizabeth and the Guise. The mission of Lennox's agent, one Nesbit, appears to have been a desperate one; not only was Lennox willing to hand over Darnley and his brother Charles as hostages for his restoration, but he supplied pedigrees of Darnley, indicating his right to the inheritance of England and Scotland and the houses of Hamilton and Douglas. Aubigny was also later accused of supporting Mary's title to the throne of England and hinting that even his nephew had a stronger claim than Elizabeth.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Lennox set Nesbit to watch Mary, Darnley and Darnley's tutor, John Elder. In 1559 Nicholas Throckmorton, the English ambassador in Paris, warned Elizabeth that Elder was "as dangerous for the matters of England as any he knew." Lord Paget in March 1560 wrote of the 'well founded' fear that Catholics would raise Darnley to the throne on Elizabeth's death.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Francis Yaxley was a Catholic spy discovered in 1562 whose activities led to the arrest of the Lennox family. He had been a clerk of the Signet and from 1549 was employed by William Cecil travelling in France. Yaxley was employed by the Countess of Lennox. He placed Mabel Fortescue and other ladies as servants in the Lennox household at Settrington in November 1560. His interrogation at the Tower of London in February 1562 revealed that he had obtained intelligence about the English Court from the Spanish ambassador, and the ambassador had entrusted him and Hugh Allen with messages and tokens for the Lennoxes and Darnley. Yaxley admitted that his missions were intended to arrange the marriage of the Queen of Scots with Darnley, that Darnley's religion guaranteed him greater success in his suit than the Earl of Arran, and that the countess had many friends in the north. Although the Lennox threat never died out, Elizabeth did not convict the family of treason in 1562 after their arrest nor did she encourage efforts to annul the countess's claim to her throne. Perhaps Elizabeth feared that these investigations could also be directed at herself, or her inaction was intended to ensure the survival of the monarchy by not reducing the number of potential heirs. The Lennox family were released in February 1563, and within a few months, Darnley and his mother were conspicuous by their presence at Court and the favour they received there, although Elizabeth would not accommodate the earl at Court.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Sarah Macauley notes three outcomes of the court's decision in the Lennox trial:"Their elevation at Court was, as it turned out in 1563, a useful complication in the succession issue. First, it presented a public statement that the preferences of Parliament (the claim of Catherine Grey in the succession crisis) could not dictate her own policy. Secondly, favouring the Lennoxes could serve as some kind of appeasement of the English Roman Catholics, who, like the Spanish ambassador, might foresee Elizabeth naming Darnley as her successor ... Such speculation would also distract them from favouring the more alarming claim of the Queen of Scots ... Thirdly, and most significantly, the elevation of the Lennoxes presented an obstacle between the Queen of Scots and the English throne. Thus was Darnley's uniquely 'British' inheritance put to use at last ... The subsequent release of Darnley into Scotland and the restoration of his father at the Scottish Court were part of this policy: the political disaster of the Darnley marriage as yet unforeseen."


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: In September 1564, the Scottish Parliament restored Matthew Stewart's rights and titles as Earl of Lennox, and listened to a lengthy speech from the Queen's secretary William Maitland, who offered;"[I]t may be affirmid Scotland in na manis age that presentlie levis wes in gritter tranquillitie."


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: On 3 February 1565, Darnley left London and by 12 February, he was in Edinburgh. On 17 February, he presented himself to Mary at Wemyss Castle in Fife. James Melville of Halhill reported that "Her Majesty took well with him, and said that he was the lustiest and best proportioned long man that she had seen." After a brief visit to his father at Dunkeld, Darnley returned with Mary and the court to Holyrood on 24 February. The next day, he heard John Knox preach, and he danced a galliard with Mary at night. From then on, he was constantly in Mary's company.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Darnley was his wife's half-first cousin through two different marriages of their grandmother, Margaret Tudor, putting both Mary and Darnley high in the line of succession for the English throne. Darnley was also a descendant of a daughter of James II of Scotland, and so also in line for the throne of Scotland.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: As a preliminary to the marriage, Darnley was made Lord of Ardmanoch and Earl of Ross at Stirling Castle on 15 May 1565. An entourage of 15 men were made knights, including one of Mary's half brothers, Robert Stewart of Strathdon, Robert Drummond of Carnock, James Stewart of Doune Castle, and William Murray of Tullibardine. In England, a concerned Privy council debated the perils of the intended marriage on 4 June. One of their resolutions was to relax the displeasure shown to Lady Catherine Grey, another rival to Mary Stuart for the English throne. Mary sent John Hay, Commendator of Balmerino, to speak to Elizabeth; Elizabeth demanded Darnley's return, and gave John Hay plainly to understand her small satisfaction.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: On 22 July, Darnley was made Duke of Albany in Holyrood Abbey, and the banns of marriage were called in the parish of Canongate. A proclamation was made at the Cross of Edinburgh on 28 July 1565 that government would be in the joint names of the king and queen of Scots, thus giving Darnley equality with, and precedence over, Mary. This was confirmed in the circulation of a silver ryal in the names of Henry and Mary.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: On 29 July 1565, the marriage took place by Roman Catholic rites in Mary's private chapel at Holyrood, but Darnley (whose religious beliefs were unfixed – he was raised as a Catholic, but was later influenced by Protestantism) refused to accompany Mary to the nuptial Mass after the wedding itself.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Soon after Mary married Darnley, she became aware of his vain, arrogant and unreliable qualities, which threatened the wellbeing of the state. Darnley was unpopular with the other nobles and had a violent streak, aggravated by his drinking. Mary refused to grant Darnley the Crown Matrimonial, which would have made him the successor to the throne if she died childless. By August 1565, less than a month after the marriage, William Cecil heard that Darnley's insolence had driven Lennox from the Scottish court. On 28 August 1565 a pair of diplomatic letters were sent from the Scottish court to the King of Denmark, one signed by Mary, the other by Darnley. This seems to have been an effort to confirm his royal status. Mary soon became pregnant.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Mary's private secretary, David Rizzio, was stabbed 56 times on 9 March 1566 by Darnley and his confederates, Protestant Scottish nobles, in the presence of the queen, who was six months pregnant. According to English diplomats Thomas Randolph and the Earl of Bedford, the murder of Rizzio (who was rumoured to be the father of Mary's unborn child) was part of Darnley's bid to force Mary to cede the Crown Matrimonial. Darnley also made a bargain with his allies to advance his claim to the Crown Matrimonial in the Parliament of Scotland in return for restoring their lands and titles.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: When the Spanish Ambassador in Paris heard this news, the headlines were that Darnley "had murdered his wife, admitted the exiled heretics, and seized the kingdom." However, on 20 March, Darnley posted a declaration denying all knowledge of or complicity in the Rizzio murder.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Mary no longer trusted her husband, and he was disgraced by the kingdom. On 27 March, the Earl of Morton and Lord Ruthven, who were both present at Rizzio's murder and had fled to England, wrote to Cecil claiming that Darnley had initiated the murder plot and recruited them, because of his "heich quarrel" and "deadly hatred" of Rizzio.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Mary and Darnley's son James (the future King James VI of Scotland and I of England) was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Following the birth of James, the succession was more secure, but Darnley and Mary's marriage continued to struggle, despite a hunting trip together to Cramalt Tower in the Ettrick Forest in August 1566. Darnley alienated many who would otherwise have been his supporters through his erratic behavior. His insistence that he be awarded the Crown Matrimonial was still a source of marital frustration.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Their son was baptised Charles James on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England and Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy. Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom. In the entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, men danced dressed as satyrs and sporting tails; the English guests took offence, thinking the satyrs "done against them". The French ambassador described how Darnley was lodged in the castle but stayed in his rooms, and sensing he was out of favour, the ambassador refused to meet with him.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Darnley was murdered eight months after James's birth. On the night of 9–10 February 1567, his body and that of his valet were discovered in the orchard of Kirk o' Field, in Edinburgh, where they had been staying.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: During the weeks leading up to his death, Darnley was recovering from a bout of smallpox (or, it has been speculated, syphilis). He was described as having deformed pocks upon his face and body. He stayed with his family in Glasgow, until Mary brought him to recuperate at Old Provost's lodging at Kirk o' Field, a two-storey house within the church quadrangle, a short walk from Holyrood, with the intention of incorporating him into the court again. Darnley stayed at Kirk o' Field while Mary attended the wedding of Bastian Pagez, one of her closest servants, at Holyrood. Around 2am on the night of 9–10 February 1567, while Mary was away, two explosions rocked the foundation of Kirk o' Field. These explosions were later attributed to two barrels of gunpowder that had been placed in the small room under Darnley's sleeping quarters. Darnley's body and the body of his valet William Taylor were found outside, surrounded by a cloak, a dagger, a chair, and a coat. Darnley was dressed only in his nightshirt, suggesting he had fled in some haste from his bedchamber.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Darnley was apparently smothered. There were no visible marks of strangulation or violence on the body. A post-mortem revealed internal injuries, thought to have been caused by the explosion. John Knox claimed the surgeons who examined the body were lying, and that Darnley had been strangled, but all the sources agree there were no marks on the body and there was no reason for the surgeons to lie as Darnley was murdered either way.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Suspicion quickly fell on James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, and his supporters, notably Archibald Douglas, Parson of Douglas, whose shoes were found at the scene, and on Mary herself. Bothwell had long been suspected of having designs on the throne, and his close relationship with the queen gave rise to rumours they were sexually intimate. This was viewed as a motive for Bothwell to have Darnley murdered, with help from some of the nobility and seemingly with royal approval. Mary had been looking at options for removing Darnley, and had discussed ideas at Craigmillar Castle in November 1566, though her ideas were for divorce. The problem was the risk of making her son illegitimate.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Soon after Darnley's death, Bothwell and Mary left Edinburgh together. There are two points of view about the circumstances: in the first, Bothwell kidnapped the queen, took her to Dunbar Castle, and raped her. In the second, Mary was a willing participant in the kidnapping, and the story of rape was a fabrication, so her honour and reputation were not ruined by her marriage to a man widely suspected of murder. Mary later miscarried twins by Bothwell while a prisoner at Lochleven Castle.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: A soldier under the pay of Bothwell, Captain William Blackadder of the Clan Blackadder, was one of the first non-participants to happen upon the scene, and for that reason was treated as a suspect. He was convicted and executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered before each of his limbs was nailed to the gates of a different Scottish town.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Bothwell was put on trial in Edinburgh and found not guilty. Suspicions that Mary colluded with conspirators in her husband's death or that she took no action to prevent his death led to the loss of her supporters and the loss of the Scottish crown. Bothwell escaped to Shetland and Norway. Mary was captured by her enemies at the battle of Carberry Hill. In 1568 Mary's involvement in the murder was discussed in England in conferences at York and Westminster which ended with no definitive findings. The Casket letters were produced as evidence against her, alleged to have been written by Mary, they seemed to indicate her support for the killing. The letters were purportedly found by James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, in Edinburgh in a silver box engraved with an "F" (for Francis II), along with others documents, including the Mary-Bothwell marriage certificate. Before Morton's execution in 1581, he admitted having knowledge of the murder plot, and that Bothwell and Archibald Douglas were "chief actors" in Darnley's murder.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Mary was kept in captivity until she was implicated in the Babington plot against Elizabeth, after which she was convicted of treason and executed.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Darnley was buried in the Royal Vault at Holyrood Abbey in 1567 alongside the bodies of several royals: King David II, King James II, Arthur, Duke of Rothesay, Madeleine of Valois, James, Duke of Rothesay, Arthur, Duke of Albany and King James V. In 1668, the vault was opened by mobs, and sometime later (between 1776 and 1778), the vault was raided and the skull of Lord Darnley was stolen.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: In 1928, a paper was published by Karl Pearson, detailing his vast research into the skull of Lord Darnley. In his paper, Pearson discussed the possibility of Darnley's skull residing in the Royal College of Surgeons’ museum. In 2016, at the request of the University of Edinburgh, research was undertaken to identify whether a skull in the university's collection could be Darnley's stolen remains. The Royal College of Surgeons' skull and the Edinburgh one were examined and compared to portraits of Darnley by Emma Price at the University of Dundee. The conclusion was that the Edinburgh skull could not be Darnley's, but the Royal College of Surgeons' one (which had been destroyed in the Blitz) was a good match. A historical facial reconstruction was then produced.


title: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley

text: Darnley was the author of 'Darnley's Ballet', 'Gife langour makis men licht', and potentially 'Quhair luve is kendlit confortless' [attribution uncertain] printed in the Bannatyne manuscript (1570 ca.).


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: The 2022 G20 Bali summit () was the seventeenth meeting of Group of Twenty (G20), which was held in Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia on 15–16 November 2022. Indonesia's presidency began on 1 December 2021, leading up to the summit in the fourth quarter of 2022. The presidency handover ceremony was held as an intimate event, in which the G20 presidency gavel was transferred from Italian Prime Minister Mario Draghi to Indonesian president Joko Widodo at the close of the Rome summit.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: Initially, Indonesia was slated to host the G20 Summit in 2023. However, as Indonesia will also hold the Chairmanship of ASEAN in 2023, India which was slated to hold the summit in 2022 agreed to exchange presidency timings with Indonesia. “Indonesia will hold the G20 Presidency in DEC 2022 while India will hold the Presidency a year after,” said Retno. Indonesia's presidency commenced on 1 December 2021, following the transfer of presidency from Italian Prime Minister Mario Draghi to Indonesian president Joko Widodo at the closing of the Rome summit.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: The Indonesian government budgeted Rp 674 billion (~USD 45 million) for the G20 events. For the event's security, the Indonesian government deployed around 10,000 police officers and 18,000 soldiers, including 6,000 soldiers from Kodam IX/Udayana headquartered in Bali. Shortly before, during, and after the summit, flights to Bali's I Gusti Ngurah Rai International Airport became restricted, with limited operating hours for commercial aircraft and a ban against commercial aircraft staying overnight. Some flights are redirected to nearby airports in Surabaya, Lombok, and Makassar.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the economy of the tourism-dependent Bali had been devastated, with the G20 summit event being seen as an opportunity to boost tourism to the island to pre-pandemic levels. The main venue of the summit is at The Apurva Kempinski Hotel of Nusa Dua, in Badung Regency. Other venues that also took part of the G20 summit were Bali International Convention Center for the media center, Sofitel Bali Nusa Dua Beach Resort for the Spouse Program, Ngurah Rai Grand Forest Park for a mangrove planting session and Garuda Wisnu Kencana Cultural Park for the gala dinner as well as the traditional performances.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, some countries called for Russian president Vladimir Putin to be excluded from the G20. In March 2022, Polish economic development minister Piotr Nowak said that he had presented a proposal to exclude Russia in meetings with the United States, which United States president Joe Biden subsequently indicated support for. China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Wang Wenbin rejected these calls, saying that no member had the right to remove another country as member. Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said the group should "re-evaluate" Russia's participation. The Indonesian government initially attempted to keep the Russian invasion of Ukraine off of the meeting's agenda. Foreign Minister Retno Marsudi said her country's government would consider the views and suggestions of other members but that summit is meant to focus on pandemic and economic recovery.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: In April 2022, United States Secretary of the Treasury Janet Yellen said she will not participate in sessions at the Bali summit which include Russian delegates. At the 2nd Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governor Meeting several weeks later, various finance officials including Yellen, President of the European Central Bank Christine Lagarde, Canadian Deputy Prime Minister Chrystia Freeland, and Ukrainian Finance Minister Serhiy Marchenko walked out when a Russian delegate began to speak at the event. At a press conference several days later, Freeland said that Canada wanted Russia removed from G20, and that Canadian delegates would not take part in meetings that included Russia. She said the removal of Russia was a significant topic of conversation among the delegates at the meetings, though there was not unanimity that Russia should be removed.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: Indonesia's President Joko Widodo in April invited President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, to the conference, while Putin confirmed in a phone call with Widodo that he would also attend the conference. Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese indicated that he would attend the conference regardless of Russia's presence. Trudeau also stated that Canada would still attend the conference if Putin were to attend. Following the 2022 G7 summit, German chancellor Olaf Scholz noted that the G7 leaders "did not want to drive G20 apart", and European Commission head Ursula von der Leyen noted that she would not oppose attending the conference with Putin. Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni claimed she would be attending.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: On 10 November 2022, the Russian embassy in Jakarta confirmed that Putin would skip the G20 summit, with Foreign Affairs Minister Sergey Lavrov instead attending in his place.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: During the summit, US President Joe Biden said that he and Chinese leader Xi Jinping jointly agreed that Russia should not use nuclear weapons in Ukraine while Chinese state media outlet Xinhua said that Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi told his Russian counterpart Sergei Lavrov that Moscow's position of eschewing nuclear warfare showed the country’s "rational" and "responsible" attitude. Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy addressed the meeting virtually, referring to it as the "G19" in a snub against Russia. The Washington Post reported that China along with Russia opposed the usage of the word “war” to describe Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and its inclusion into the text of the G20’s final communiqué. The joint declaration eventually included a statement that "most members" condemned Russia's invasion, although also acknowledging "that there were other views and different assessments of the situation".


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: Due to the 2022 missile explosion in Poland, the summit's schedule was briefly interrupted on the second day as G7 and NATO leaders in the summit held an emergency meeting. Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov had left the summit late in the first day, prior to the incident. Many of the G20 leaders also declined to be photographed along with Lavrov or a Russian delegation, resulting in the lack of a G20 "family photo" in 2022.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: In the leadup to the conference, US officials had contacted their Chinese counterparts in order to arrange a meeting between Biden and Xi, and the meeting between the two occurred on 14 November, taking three hours. The meeting was designated to help restore relations and communication between the two countries, which had deteriorated following the 2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan. Biden later declared that there would not be a "new Cold War" between the US and China. although the two leaders did not declare an agreement on the Taiwan question.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: The G7 countries, EU, Denmark and Norway announced a 20 billion US-dollar deal to decarbonise Indonesia's coal-powered economy, the so-called Indonesia Just Energy Transition Partnership.


title: 2022 G20 Bali summit

text: Prime Minister of Cambodia, as well as 2022 Chairperson of Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Hun Sen cancelled his attendance and returned back to Cambodia before the start of the summit because he was tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao I (18 August 1700 – 28 April 1740), born as Visaji, also known as Bajirao Ballal (Pronunciation: ]), was the 7th Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. During his 20-year tenure as a Peshwa, he defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk at several battles like the Battle of Delhi and Battle of Bhopal. Baji Rao's contributed for Maratha supremacy in southern India and northern India. Thus, he was partly responsible for establishing Maratha power in Gujarat, Malwa, Rajputana and Bundelkhand and liberating Konkan (western coast of India) from the Siddis of Janjira and Portuguese rule.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao's relationship with his Muslim wife, a controversial subject, has been adapted in Indian novels and cinema.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao was born into a Bhat Family in Sinnar, near Nashik. His biological father was Balaji Vishwanath the "Peshwa" of Shahu Maharaj I and his mother was Radhabai Barve. Baji Rao had a younger brother, Chimaji Appa, and two younger sisters, Anubai and Bhiubai. Anubai was married to Venkatrao Ghorpade of Ichalkaranji and Bhiubai was married to Abaji Naik Joshi of Baramati.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao spent his childhood in his father's newly acquired fiefdom of Saswad. He and Chimaji were very close. Baji Rao was inspired by the lives of Shivaji Maharaj, Ramchandra Pant Amatya and Santaji Ghorpade.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Being born in a Brahmin family, his education included reading, writing and learning Sanskrit however, he did not remain confined to his books. Baji Rao displayed a passion for the military at an early age and often accompanied his father on military campaigns. He was with his father when his father was imprisoned by Damaji Thorat before being released for a ransom. Baji Rao had been on the expedition to Delhi in 1719 with his father and was convinced that the Mughal Empire was disintegrating and unable to resist northward Maratha expansion. When Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720, Shahu Maharaj appointed the 20-year-old Baji Rao as Peshwa despite opposition from other chieftains.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao's first wife was Kashibai, the daughter of Mahadji Krishna Joshi and Bhawanibai of Chas (a wealthy banking family). Baji Rao always treated his wife Kashibai with love and respect. Their relationship was a happy one. They had four sons Balaji Baji Rao (also called Nanasaheb), Ramchandra Rao, Raghunath Rao and Janardhan Rao, who died at an early age. Nanasaheb was appointed Peshwa by Shahu Maharaj in 1740, succeeding his father.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao took Mastani as his wife, the daughter of Rajput king Chhatrasal, born from his Muslim concubine. The relationship was a political one, arranged to please Chhatrasal. Mastani had a son, Krishna Rao, in 1734. Since his mother was Muslim, the Hindu priests refused to conduct upanayana ceremony and he became known as Shamsher Bahadur. After the deaths of Baji Rao and Mastani in 1740, Kashibai raised six-year-old Shamsher Bahadur as her own. Shamsher received a portion of his father's dominion of Banda and Kalpi. In 1761, he and his army fought alongside the Peshwa in the Third Battle of Panipat between the Marathas and the Afghans. Wounded in the battle, Shamsher died several days later in Deeg.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao moved his base of operations from Saswad to Pune in 1728, laying the foundation for the transformation of a kasba into a large city. He began the construction of Shaniwar Wada in 1730. It was completed in 1732, beginning the era of Peshwa control of the city.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao was appointed Peshwa, succeeding his father, by Shahu Maharaj on 17 April 1720. By the time of his appointment, the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah had upheld Maratha claims to the territories held by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at his death. A treaty gave the Marathas the right to collect taxes (chauth) in the Deccan's six provinces. Baji Rao convinced Shahu Maharaj that the Maratha Empire had to go on the offensive against its enemies to defend itself. He believed that the Mughal Empire was in decline, and wanted to take advantage of the situation with aggressive expansion into North India. Baji Rao compared the Mughals' declining fortune to a tree which, if attacked at its roots, would collapse. He is reported to have said:


title: Baji Rao I

text: As a new Peshwa, however, he faced several challenges. His appointment at a young age had evoked jealousy from senior officials such as Naro Ram Mantri, Anant Ram Sumant, Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi, Khanderao Dabhade and Kanhoji Bhosle. Baji Rao promoted young men like himself, such as Malhar Rao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, the Pawar brothers and Fateh Singh Bhosle, as commanders; these men did not belong to families who were hereditary Deshmukhs in the Deccan sultanates. Also the Purandare family who were the close associates of the Bhat Peshwa family, largely contributed in Baji Rao's success.


title: Baji Rao I

text: The Mughal viceroy of the Deccan, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, had created a "de facto" autonomous kingdom in the region. He challenged Shahu Maharaj's right to collect taxes on the pretext that he did not know whether Shahu Maharaj or his cousin, Sambhaji Maharaj II of Kolhapur, was the rightful heir to the Maratha throne. The Marathas needed to assert their rights over the nobles of newly acquired territories in Malwa and Gujarat. Several nominally-Maratha areas were not actually under the Peshwa's control; for example, the Siddis controlled the Janjira fort.


title: Baji Rao I

text: On 4 January 1721, Baji Rao met Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I at Chikhalthana to resolve their disputes. However, the Nizam refused to recognize the Maratha right to collect taxes from the Deccan provinces. He was made vizier of the Mughal Empire in 1721 by emperor Muhammad Shah, alarmed at his increasing power, transferred him from the Deccan to Awadh in 1723. The Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as vizier and marched towards the Deccan. The emperor sent an army against him, which the Nizam defeated at the Battle of Sakhar-kheda; this forced the emperor to recognise him as viceroy of the Deccan. The Marathas, led by Baji Rao, helped the Nizam win this battle. For his valor, Baji Rao was honored with a robe, a 7,000-man mansabdari, an elephant, and a jewel. After the battle, the Nizam tried to appease the Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj and the Mughal emperor; in reality, however, he wanted to carve out a sovereign kingdom and considered the Marathas his rivals in the Deccan.


title: Baji Rao I

text: In 1725, the Nizam sent an army to clear Maratha revenue collectors from the Carnatic region. The Marathas dispatched a force under Fateh Singh Bhosle to counter him; Baji Rao accompanied Bhosle, but did not command the army. The Marathas were forced to retreat; they launched a second campaign after the monsoon season, but again were unable to prevent the Nizam from ousting the Maratha collectors.


title: Baji Rao I

text: In the Deccan, Sambhaji Maharaj II of Kolhapur State had become a rival claimant to the title of Maratha King. The Nizam took advantage of the internal dispute, refusing to pay the chauth because it was unclear who was the real Chhatrapati (Shahu Maharaj or Sambhaji Maharaj II) and offering to arbitrate. Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi advised Shahu Maharaj to begin negotiations and agree to arbitration. Sambhaji Maharaj II was supported by Chandrasen Jadhav, who had fought Baji Rao's father a decade earlier. Baji Rao convinced Shahu Maharaj to refuse the Nizam's offer and launch an assault.


title: Baji Rao I

text: The Nizam invaded Pune, where he installed Sambhaji Maharaj II as the King. He then marched out of the city, leaving behind a contingent headed by Fazal Beg. The Nizam plundered Loni, Pargaon, Patas, Supa and Baramati, using his artillery. On 27 August 1727, Baji Rao began a retaliatory guerilla attack on the Nizam with his trusted lieutenants Malhar Rao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde and the Pawar brothers. He began to destroy the towns held by the Nizam; leaving Pune, he crossed the Godavari River near Puntamba and plundered Jalna and Sindkhed. Baji Rao destroyed Berar, Mahur, Mangrulpir and Washim before turning north-west to Khandesh. He crossed the Tapi River at Kokarmunda and entered eastern Gujarat, reaching Chota Udaipur in January 1728. After hearing that the Nizam had returned to Pune, Baji Rao feinted toward Burhanpur; he thought that after hearing about the threat to the strategically-important Burhanpur, the Nizam would try to save it. Baji Rao did not enter Burhanpur, however, arriving at Betawad in Khandesh on 14 February 1728. When the Nizam heard that his northern territories had been devastated by Baji Rao, he left Pune and marched towards the Godavari to meet Baji Rao on an open plain where his artillery would be effective. The Nizam went on ahead of his artillery; on 25 February 1728, the armies of Baji Rao and the Nizam faced each other at Palkhed, a town about west of Aurangabad. The Nizam was quickly surrounded by Maratha forces and trapped, his lines of supply and communication were cut. He was forced to make peace; he signed the Treaty of Mungi Shevgaon on 6 March, recognising Shahu Maharaj as the King and the Maratha right to collect taxes in the Deccan.


title: Baji Rao I

text: "This campaign gives a classic example of what the predatory horse, when led by a genius, could achieve in the age of light artillery."


title: Baji Rao I

text: In 1723, Baji Rao organised an expedition to southern Malwa. Maratha chiefs, including Ranoji Shinde, Malhar Rao Holkar, Udaji Rao Pawar, Tukoji Rao Pawar and Jivaji Rao Pawar, had collected chauth from several parts of the province. (Later, these chiefs carved out their own kingdoms: Gwalior, Indore, Dhar and Dewas State – Junior and Senior, respectively). To counter Maratha influence, the Mughal emperor had appointed Girdhar Bahadur governor of Malwa.


title: Baji Rao I

text: After defeating the Nizam, Baji Rao again turned his attention to Malwa. He consigned a large army in October 1728 to his younger brother, Chimaji Appa, and aided by his trusted generals Udaji Pawar and Malhar Rao Holkar. The Maratha force reached the southern bank of the Narmada River on 24 November 1728. The following day, they crossed the river and encamped near Dharampuri. Marching rapidly northwards, they crossed the ghat near Mandu and halted at Nalchha on 27 November. The Mughal forces, led by Girdhar Bahadur and his cousin Daya Bahadur, hastily prepared to oppose them on hearing that the Maratha army had begun to climb the ghats. Girdhar Bahadur believed that the Marathas, thinking that the pass near the Mandu fort was well guarded, would climb the ghat near Amjhera; he and his army marched to Amjhera and took up a strong position there. Since the Marathas did not appear there, he suspected that they climbed near the Mandu fort and set out for Dhar on 29 November 1728. Girdhar Bahadur found Maratha horsemen coming towards him. In the 29 November Battle of Amjhera, Chimaji's army defeated the Mughals; Girdhar Bahadur and Daya Bahadur were killed. The Mughal forces fled, and their camp was plundered; eighteen elephants, horses, drums and other loot were taken by the Marathas. News of the victory reached the ears of Peshwa, who was visiting Chhatrasal. Chimaji marched towards Ujjain, but had to retreat due to lack of supplies. By February 1729, Maratha forces had reached present-day Rajasthan.


title: Baji Rao I

text: In Bundelkhand, Chhatrasal rebelled against the Mughal Empire and established an independent kingdom. In December 1728, a Mughal force led by Muhammad Khan Bangash attacked him and besieged his fort and family. Although Chhatrasal repeatedly sought Baji Rao's assistance, he was busy in Malwa at the time. He compared his dire situation to that of Gajendra Moksha. In his letter to Baji Rao, Chhatrasal wrote the following words:


title: Baji Rao I

text: After consolidating Maratha influence in central India, Baji Rao decided to assert the Maratha right to collect taxes from the wealthy province of Gujarat and sent a Maratha force under Chimaji Appa there in 1730. Sarbuland Khan, the province's Mughal governor, ceded the right to collect chauth to the Marathas. He was soon replaced by Abhay Singh, who also recognized the Maratha right to collect taxes. This irked Shahu Maharaj's senapati (commander-in-chief), Trimbak Rao Dabhade, whose ancestors had raided Gujarat several times and asserted their right to collect taxes from the province. Annoyed at Baji Rao's control of what he considered his family's sphere of influence, he rebelled against the Peshwa. Two other Maratha nobles from Gujarat, Damaji Rao Gaekwad and Kadam Bande, also sided with Dabhade.


title: Baji Rao I

text: After Girdhar Bahadur's defeat in 1728, the Mughal emperor had appointed Jai Singh II to subdue the Marathas. Jai Singh recommended a peaceful agreement; the emperor disagreed, replacing him with Muhammad Khan Bangash. Bangash formed an alliance with the Nizam, Trimbak Rao and Sambhaji Maharaj II. Baji Rao learned that Dabhade and Gaikwad had made preparations for an open fight on the plain of Dabhoi with a force of 40 thousand, while Baji Rao's numbers hardly reached 25 thousand in all. Baji Rao repeatedly sent messages to Dabhade to solve the dispute amicably in the presence of Chatrapati Shahu Maharaj. But Dabhade was stiff and stubborn, disagreeing Baji Rao's proposition, therefore on 1 April 1731, Baji Rao struck at the allied forces of Dabhade, Gaekwad and Kadam Bande. The Dabhade was seated on elephant and Baji Rao was on horseback. But during the battle, a bullet pierced Trimbakrao's head and he died on the spot. Later it was discovered that the shot that killed Dabhade was fired by Dabhade's maternal uncle Bhau Singh Thoke. Baji Rao resolved the dispute with Sambhaji Maharaj II on 13 April by signing the Treaty of Warna, which demarcated the territories of Shahu Maharaj and Sambhaji Maharaj II. The Nizam met Baji Rao at Rohe-Rameshwar on 27 December 1732, and promised not to interfere with Maratha expeditions.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Shahu Maharaj and Baji Rao avoided a rivalry with the powerful Dabhade clan after subduing Trimbak Rao; Trimbak's son, Yashwant Rao, was appointed as Shahu Maharaj's senapati. The Dabhade clan were allowed to continue collecting chauth from Gujarat if they deposited half the revenue in Shahu Maharaj's treasury.


title: Baji Rao I

text: The Siddis of Janjira controlled a small, strategically-important territory on India's west coast. Although they originally held only the Janjira fort, after Shivaji Maharaj's death they expanded their rule to a large part of central and northern Konkan. After the death of Siddi chief Yakut Khan in 1733, a war of succession broke out among his sons; one, Abdul Rehman, asked Baji Rao for help. Baji Rao sent a Maratha force led by Sekhoji Angre, son of Kanhoji Angre. The Marathas regained control of several portions of Konkan, and besieged Janjira. Their strength was diverted after Peshwa's rival, Pant Pratinidhi, occupied Raigad Fort (near Janjira) in June 1733. Sekhoji Angre died in August (further weakening the Maratha position), and Baji Rao signed a peace treaty with the Siddis. He allowed the Siddis to retain control of Janjira if they accepted Abdul Rehman as the ruler; they were also allowed to retain control of Anjanvel, Gowalkot and Underi. The Marathas retained Raigad, Rewas, Thal and Chaul.


title: Baji Rao I

text: The Siddis launched an offensive to regain their lost territories soon after the Peshwa returned to Satara, and Baji Rao dispatched a force to prevent them from taking over Raigad Fort in June 1734. Chimnaji made a surprise attack on a Siddi camp near Rewas on 19 April 1736, killing about 1,500 (including their leader, Siddi Sat). On 25 September of that year, the Siddis signed a peace treaty which confined them to Janjira, Gowalkot and Anjanvel.


title: Baji Rao I

text: With Shahu Maharaj's consent, Baji Rao began a northward journey on 9 October 1735. Accompanied by his wife, Kashibai, he intended to visit Rajput courts and persuade them to pay chauth. Baji Rao arrived at Mewar's southern frontier in January 1736, where Rana Jagat Singh II had made arrangements for his visit.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Diplomatic talks got underway. Baji Rao also visited Jagmandir Palace, in the centre of Pichola Lake (at Rana Jagat Singh's invitation), and Nath-Dwara. After resolving matters in Mewar, Baji Rao advanced towards Jaipur. Jai Singh hastened south with his forces, and they met in Bhambholao (near Kishangarh).


title: Baji Rao I

text: Their meeting lasted for several days, with talks about chauth and the cession of Malwa from the Mughal Emperor. Baji Rao then returned to the Deccan. The emperor did not agree to his demands, however, and he planned to march on Delhi to force him to agree.


title: Baji Rao I

text: After the death of Trimbak Rao, Bangash's alliance against the Marathas fell apart. The Mughal emperor recalled him from Malwa, and re-appointed Jai Singh II as governor of Malwa. However, the Maratha chief Holkar defeated Jai Singh in the 1733 Battle of Mandsaur. After two more battles, the Mughals decided to offer the Marathas the right to collect the equivalent of 22 lakh in chauth from Malwa. On 4 March 1736, Baji Rao and Jai Singh reached an agreement at Kishangad. Jai Singh convinced the emperor to agree to the plan, and Baji Rao was appointed deputy governor of the region. Jai Singh is believed to have secretly informed Baji Rao that it was a good time to subdue the weakening Mughal emperor.


title: Baji Rao I

text: The Peshwa began to march on the Mughal capital, Delhi, from Pune on 12 November 1736 with a force of 50,000 cavalry troops. Learning of the advancing Maratha army, the Mughal emperor asked Saadat Ali Khan I to march from Agra and check the advance. The Maratha chiefs Malhar Rao Holkar, Vithoji Bule and Pilaji Jadhav crossed Yamuna and plundered the Mughal territories in the Doab. Saadat Khan led a force of 150,000, defeated them, and retired to Mathura. Malhar Rao Holkar rejoined Baji Rao's army near Gwalior. Samsam-ud-Daulah, Mir Bakshi and Muhammad Khan Bangash invited Saadat Ali Khan to a banquet in Samsam-ud-Daulah's tent in Mathura, thinking that the Marathas had retreated to the Deccan. During the feast, they learnt that Baji Rao had slipped along the Jat and Mewati hill route (avoiding the direct Agra-Delhi route) and was at Delhi. The Mughal commanders left the feast and began a hasty return to capital. The Mughal emperor dispatched a force, led by Mir Hasan Khan Koka, to check Baji Rao's advance. The Marathas defeated his force in the 28 March 1737 Battle of Delhi. Baji Rao then retreated from the capital, concerned about the approach of a larger Mughal force from Mathura.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao's dash on Delhi was executed with such daring and audacity that neither the Mughal generals nor the Mughal intelligence could comprehend or predict his moves.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah sought help from the Nizam after Baji Rao's march to Delhi; the Nizam set out from the Deccan, met Baji Rao's returning force at Sironj, and told the Peshwa that he was going to Delhi to repair his relationship with the Mughal emperor. The Nizam was joined by other Mughal chiefs, and a 30,000-man Mughal army (reinforced by artillery), was dispatched against Baji Rao. The Peshwa assembled an 80,000-man force. To counter aid to the Nizam from the Deccan, Baji Rao stationed a force of 10,000 (under Chimaji Appa) on the Tapti River with instructions to prevent Nasir Jung from advancing beyond Burhanpur. He and his forces crossed the Narmada in early December 1737, communicating with agents and spies posted to observe enemy moves. The Nizam sheltered in Bhopal, a fortified town with a lake at his rear, to keep his army and artillery secure.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao besieged the Nizam, cutting off outside provisions. Because of the Nizam's artillery, the Marathas kept their distance and harassed their lines; no food could come in from outside, and the men and their animals were starving. The Nizam, unable to hold out any longer, signed a peace agreement at Doraha on 7 January 1738. Malwa was ceded to the Marathas; the Mughals agreed to pay the equivalent of 5,000,000 in reparations, with the Nizam swearing on the Quran to abide by the treaty.


title: Baji Rao I

text: The Portuguese had colonised several regions of India's west coast. They violated an agreement to give the Marathas a site on Salsette Island for a factory, and were intolerant of Hindus in their territory. In March 1737, the Peshwa dispatched a Maratha force (led by Chimaji) against them. Although the Marathas captured Ghodbunder Fort and nearly all of Vasai in the Battle of Vasai and gained control of Salsette on 16 May 1739 after a long siege, Nader Shah's invasion of India then diverted their attention from the Portuguese. The war trophies from Vasai included several Church bells which are found in many prominent Hindu temples in Maharashtra.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao was known for rapid tactical movements in battle, using cavalry inherited from Maratha generals such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav. Two examples are the Battle of Palkhed in 1728, when he outmaneuvered the Mughal governor of the Deccan, and in the battle at Delhi in 1737. His skill was in moving large numbers of cavalry at a great speed. British field marshal Bernard Montgomery studied Baji Rao's tactics in the Palkhed campaign, particularly his rapid movements and his troops' ability to live off the land (with little concern about supply and communication lines) while conducting "maneuver warfare" against the enemy. In his book, "A Concise History of Warfare", Montgomery wrote the following about Baji Rao's victory at Palkhed:


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao used local terrain to cut enemy supply lines. Leading from the front, he used the traditional Maratha tactics of encircling the enemy quickly, appearing from the rear, attacking from an unexpected direction, distracting the enemy's attention, keeping them off-balance, and defining the battlefield on his own terms. Baji Rao kept detailed information about enemy forces to himself, attacking where least expected and thus inspiring fear.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao is considered one of celebrated personality in the history of Maratha Empire by many historians.


title: Baji Rao I

text: Jadunath Sarkar called Baji Rao, "a heavenly-born cavalry leader". Also describing his twenty years military career, Jadunath Sarkar wrote:


title: Baji Rao I

text: Chatrapati Shahu Maharaj also had an implicit faith on Baji Rao. He had issued orders that, "all should obey Baji Rao faithfully and should do nothing to offend his temper". On the other occasion he has called Baji Rao as "the man with iron nerves".


title: Baji Rao I

text: Baji Rao's body was exhausted due to ceaseless wars and military campaigns. He caught a virulent fever while being encamped in Raverkhedi and died on 28 April 1740. He was cremated the same day on the bank of Narmada River. Balaji Baji Rao ordered Ranoji Shinde to build a chhatri as a memorial. The memorial is enclosed by a dharmashala. The compound has two temples, dedicated to Nilkantheshwar Mahadev (Shiva) and Rameshwar (Rama).


title: Vicky Krieps

text: Vicky Krieps (born 4 October 1983) is a Luxembourgish-German actress. She has appeared in a number of American, Luxembourgish, French and German productions, such as "Hanna", "Two Lives", "A Most Wanted Man", "The Chambermaid Lynn", "Colonia", "Gutland", "The Girl in the Spider's Web", "The Last Vermeer", "Old" and " Corsage". Krieps had a leading role in the Academy Award-winning film "Phantom Thread". She received a German Television Award for the series "Das Boot".


title: Vicky Krieps

text: Krieps was born in Luxembourg City, the daughter of a Luxembourgish father, who managed a film distribution company, and of a German mother. Her father, Bob Krieps, is the director general of the Ministry of Culture of Luxembourg, the former director of Sacem Luxembourg, and the former president of the Luxembourg Film Fund. Several of her films have been funded by the Luxembourg Film Fund, which is supervised by the Ministry of Culture, which then decides which films will be funded by state subsidies. Her paternal grandfather, Robert Krieps, was a politician, war-time member of the Luxembourg Resistance, and Luxembourg's Minister of Justice, National Education and Culture in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Vicky Krieps

text: Krieps had her first acting experiences at the Lycée de Garçons secondary school in Luxembourg, receiving training at the Conservatoire of Luxembourg City. In 2004, she was far from convinced that her career would be her future. Rather than enrolling in one of the drama schools, she participated in a social project at the primary school of a South African township near Knysna. This confirmed her resolve to study acting, with the goal of performing on theatre stages. She attended Zurich University of the Arts, while gathering acting experience at Schauspielhaus Zürich.


title: Vicky Krieps

text: She had numerous roles in Luxembourgish films and television series, before starring in foreign productions, such as "Hanna", "Rommel", "Before the Winter Chill" and "", a biopic about the German aviation pioneer Elly Beinhorn. She starred opposite Daniel Day-Lewis in the period film "Phantom Thread". Receiving critical acclaim for her role, Dan Jolin of "Empire" stated that Krieps "can hold her own opposite a titan like Day-Lewis," while David Edelstein of "Vulture" wrote that she is "bewitchingly lucent, her face just masklike enough to make our sudden awareness of all her dark thoughts a shock." Krieps played the magazine publisher in "The Girl in the Spider's Web". She played the morally compromised Alsatian interpreter in the television series "Das Boot" and subsequently in the second series. In 2021, Krieps starred in M. Night Shyamalan's thriller mystery film "Old", and in the drama film "Bergman Island".


title: Vicky Krieps

text: Krieps moved to Berlin, Germany in her early 20s. She resides in Berlin with her two children, daughter Elisa (born 2011) and son Jan-Noah (born 2015), and her partner, the German actor .


title: Vicky Krieps

text: When asked about the #MeToo movement, Krieps said: "Maybe it's very European, but I always see both sides. I feel very sorry for the people who have been harassed, but I also feel very sorry for the people who have lived a life where they have been harassing people. You cannot tell me any of these people are really happy, it's more like a disease. So I really think it's important for everyone to wake up. That would be my hashtag: #WakeUp."


title: Vicky Krieps

text: In April 2021, Krieps was part of the controversial campaign "#allesdichtmachen" ("close everything down"), which featured 50 German-speaking actors making fun of Germany's protective measures against COVID-19. In her video, Krieps says, among other things, that acting helped her to deal with her fear of people. "During this time, we all learned how good it is to finally get away from it all. To alienate, not always having to let others get close to you. Above all, you don't know if the people you meet are washed." The campaign, released when Germany had more than 80,000 deaths related to COVID, was highly criticized as being "tasteless" and "cringe-worthy", but it also received support from members of the far-right and COVID-deniers, who were rejoicing to find material supporting their own criticism of the authorities' handling of the pandemic.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: The 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, often referred to as the 1MDB scandal or just 1MDB, describes a corruption, bribery and money laundering conspiracy in which the Malaysian sovereign wealth fund 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) was systematically embezzled, with assets diverted globally by the perpetrators of the scheme. International in scope, it implicated political, banking and entertainment figures and institutions and led to criminal investigations in several countries. The 1MDB scandal has been described as "one of the world's greatest financial scandals" and declared by the United States Department of Justice as the "largest kleptocracy case to date" in 2016.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: In 2015, a document leak reported in "The Edge", "Sarawak Report", and "The Wall Street Journal" showed that Malaysia's then-Prime Minister Najib Razak had channeled over RM  (approximately US$) into his personal bank accounts from 1MDB, a government-run strategic development company. The alleged mastermind of the scheme, Jho Low, was central in the movement of 1MDB funds internationally through shell companies and offshore bank accounts. The U.S. Department of Justice later found that more than US$4.5 billion was diverted from 1MDB by Low and other conspirators including officials from Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. These were used to purchase luxury items and properties, including superyacht "Equanimity", and finance the American film company Red Granite Pictures and its production of "The Wolf of Wall Street". 1MDB funds supported lavish lifestyles for Low, Najib and his wife Rosmah Mansor, and established Najib's stepson Riza Aziz in Hollywood. Attempts were also made for embezzled funds to be put towards political donations and lobbying in the United States.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: The revelations became a major political scandal in Malaysia, triggering protests and backlash. After several Malaysian investigations were opened, Najib responded by dismissing several of his critics from government positions, including his deputy Muhyiddin Yassin and attorney-general Abdul Gani Patail. Charges against Najib were subsequently dismissed. Among Najib's critics was former ally and Malaysia's fourth Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, who chaired the Malaysian Citizens' Declaration, bringing together political figures and other organisations in calling for Najib Razak's resignation or removal. The Malaysian Conference of Rulers called for prompt investigation of the scandal, saying that it was causing a crisis of confidence in Malaysia.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: Outside of Malaysia, investigations into financial and criminal activity relating to 1MDB opened in at least six countries. According to its publicly filed accounts, 1MDB had nearly RM 42 billion (US$11.73 billion) in debt by 2015. Some of this debt resulted from a $3 billion state-guaranteed 2013 bond issue led by the American investment bank Goldman Sachs, which had been reported to have received fees of up to $300 million for the deal, although the bank disputes this figure. Nevertheless, Goldman Sachs was charged under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and agreed to pay over $2.9 billion in a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). American rapper Pras, former Goldman Sachs chairman Tim Leissner and fundraiser Elliott Broidy were among those charged in the United States in connection with 1MDB.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: After the 2018 election, the newly elected prime minister, Mahathir Mohamad, reopened Malaysian investigations into the scandal. The Malaysian Immigration Department barred Najib and 11 others from leaving the country, while the police seized more than 500 handbags and 12,000 pieces of jewellery estimated to be worth US$270 million from property linked to Najib, the largest seizure of goods in Malaysian history. Najib was later charged with criminal breach of trust, money laundering and abuse of power, while alleged mastermind Jho Low, by then an international fugitive, was charged with money laundering. Najib was subsequently found guilty of seven charges connected to SRC International, a 1MDB subsidiary, and was sentenced to twelve years imprisonment.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: In September 2020, the alleged amount stolen from 1MDB was estimated to be US$4.5 billion and a Malaysian government report listed 1MDB's outstanding debts to be at US$7.8 billion. The government has assumed 1MDB's debts, which includes 30-year bonds due in 2039. In August 2021, the United States had recovered and returned a total of US$1.2 billion of 1MDB funds misappropriated within its jurisdiction, joining countries such as Singapore and several others which have also initiated recovery or that have already repatriated smaller recovered amounts.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: Najib Razak became Prime Minister of Malaysia in 2009. In his first year in office, he established 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), a sovereign wealth fund, which sought out to make strategic investments and alleviate poverty, as part of his economic liberalisation policy and trademark 1Malaysia program. The fund had a budget of $1bn to invest, with Najib having the sole authority to sign off investments and manage the personnel on its board and management team. His wife is Rosmah Mansor, whose son is Riza Aziz from a previous relationship.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: Jho Low is a Malaysian businessman and financier from Penang. Despite not having a formal position at 1MDB, Low supported its establishment and was given extensive access to the fund due to high-profile political connections in Malaysia and the Middle East, and entertainment connections in the United States. Low joined high-level meetings and facilitated numerous deals.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: Tim Leissner is a German banker who was chairman of American investment bank Goldman Sachs in its Southeast Asia ventures. Leissner was credited with making lucrative deals for Goldman in the region in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The head of Goldman Sachs in Malaysia, Roger Ng, introduced Leissner to Jho Low. Leissner and Ng worked with Low and used his political connections to establish deals and orchestrate the scheme.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: The US DOJ described the scheme as involving three phases. In August 2009, Najib and Low met with representatives of private oil company PetroSaudi on a yacht in Monaco to discuss 1MDB's first investment. This included Saudi royal Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud and Saudi national Tarek Obaid. During a subsequent visit to Saudi Arabia, Najib signed a $2.5bn joint venture between PetroSaudi and 1MDB. The DOJ later said this was used as a "pretence" to move $1bn into a Swiss bank account.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: An additional $1.4bn was then raised by Goldman Sachs in a bond issue and misappropriated into a bank account in Switzerland. An additional $1.3bn from Goldman Sachs was also diverted into a bank account in Singapore. US authorities say that Goldman Sachs, particularly Roger Ng, were central with orchestrating the scheme, particularly the laundering of money from the fund, some of which was used to pay bribes to officials in Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: More than $4bn was stolen from the 1MDB fund and spent by perpetrators on art, diamonds and property.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: Low allegedly used 1MDB funds to support a lavish lifestyle in the United States. The DOJ traced $100m from the PetroSaudi deal to the purchase of properties in Hollywood and $40m to apartments in New York. He established friendships with musicians Swizz Beats, Alicia Keys and Pras, was pictured partying with socialite Paris Hilton, and used funds to purchase luxury items for model Miranda Kerr and singer Elva Hsiao, with whom he was romantically involved.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: Hollywood film production company Red Granite Pictures, co-founded by Riza Aziz and Joey McFarland in 2010, also reportedly received misappropriated funds. The DOJ suggested these were put towards the production of "The Wolf of Wall Street", "Daddy's Home" and "Dumb and Dumber To", and by 2017 had seized royalties from all three films. Jho Low was personally thanked in the credits of "The Wolf of Wall Street".


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: The RM 425 million profit declared between 25 September 2009 and 31 March 2010 raised many criticisms and controversies about the lack of transparency in 1MDB's published accounts. Tony Pua, DAP Member of Parliament for Petaling Jaya Utara, questioned Najib, 1MDB's advisory board chairman, as to whether the figures were the result of an asset injection into 1MDB by the government such as the transfer of land rights to the company.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: During the October 2010 parliamentary session, 1MDB explained that its accounts had been fully audited and signed off by KPMG, and closed as of 31 March 2010. Deloitte was involved in the valuation and analysis of the portfolio, while Ernst & Young provided tax advice for 1MDB.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: 1MDB eventually rang alarm bells by asking for a six-month extension on the filing of its annual report with the Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM) due by 30 September 2013. At the same time, the change of three auditors since its inception in 2009 was considered suspicious. Responding to earlier criticism, CCM said that 1MDB had responded and lodged the necessary information, including registering an address, as required by law.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: The Sungai Besi airport land transfer took place in June 2011 as a precedent for the development known as Bandar Malaysia, a mixed integrated project of commercial, residential, and hi-tech green environment. Prior to this, there had been questions in parliament by the opposition regarding the lack of progress on Bandar Malaysia even though 1MDB had already raised RM 3.5 billion in loans and Islamic bonds to fund the project and take ownership of the land. In April 2013, 1MDB finally awarded a RM 2.1 billion contract to Perbadanan Perwira Harta Malaysia (PPHM), a subsidiary of Lembaga Tabung Angkatan Tentera (LTAT) to develop eight sites for the relocation of Pangkalan Udara Kuala Lumpur, the military base on the Sungai Besi land that was to be developed. The construction of Bandar Malaysia was set to commence following the completion of this relocation. As part of its debt rationalisation plan, on 31 December 2015, 1MDB inked an agreement with a consortium comprising Iskandar Waterfront Holdings and China Railway Engineering Corporation to sell 60% of its stake in Bandar Malaysia Sdn Bhd. However, this deal eventually fell through.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: On 7 September 2015, a member of the board of advisors to 1MDB, Abdul Samad Alias, resigned stating that he did so after many of his requests for information on 1MDB affairs were ignored. 1MDB subsequently denied receiving repeated requests from Abdul Samad, stating that its president, Arul Kanda, had personally met Abdul Samad in January and March that year to "discuss the company's affairs".


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: 1MDB had not had a proper external accounts audit since 2013, partly as a result of Deloitte Malaysia, their auditors at the start of that period, issuing a statement in July 2016 saying that their audit reports of 1MDB financial statements, dated 28 March 2014 and 5 November 2014 covering financial years 2013 and 2014 respectively, should no longer be relied upon. By early March 2015, with public discontent growing at the perceived lack of financial transparency at 1MDB, the Prime Minister, who was also the Chairman of 1MDB's Board of Advisors, ordered the Auditor General of Malaysia to carry out an audit of 1MDB. However, on completion of the audit, the final report was classified as an Official Secret and only made available to the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) tasked to investigate improprieties at 1MDB. Purported copies of the report however surfaced on the internet. After Najib's ouster in the 2018 general election, the much-leaked audit report was declassified by the new government on 12 May 2018.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: In May 2018, after the formation of the new Cabinet following Pakatan Harapan's victory in the General Elections, Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng ordered the appointment of PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) to conduct a special position audit and review of 1MDB.


title: 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal

text: It was reported that by early 2015, 1MDB has accumulated debts of nearly RM 42 billion. Further alleged financial challenges caused 1MDB bonds to trade at a record low. Additionally, the Malaysian cabinet rejected a requested RM 3 billion cash injection by 1MDB, narrowing its options to pay off its debts on time.