title: Barbarian

text: The native "Berbers" of North Africa were among the many peoples called "Barbarian" by the early Romans. The term continued to be used by medieval Arabs (see Berber etymology) before being replaced by "Amazigh". In English, the term "Berber" continues to be used as an exonym. The geographical term Barbary or Barbary Coast, and the name of the Barbary pirates based on that coast (and who were not necessarily Berbers) were also derived from it.


title: Barbarian

text: The term has also been used to refer to people from Barbary, a region encompassing most of North Africa. The name of the region, "Barbary," comes from the Arabic word "Barbar," possibly from the Latin word "barbaricum," meaning "land of the barbarians."


title: Barbarian

text: Many languages define the "Other" as those who do not speak one's language; Greek "barbaroi" was paralleled by Arabic "ajam" "non-Arabic speakers; non-Arabs; (especially) Persians."


title: Barbarian

text: In the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata, the Sanskrit onomatopoeic word "barbara-" referred to the incomprehensible, unfamiliar speech (perceived as "babbling", "incoherent stammering") of non-Vedic peoples ("wretch, foreigner, sinful people, low and barbarous".)


title: Barbarian

text: The term "Barbarian" in traditional Chinese culture had several aspects. For one thing, Chinese has more than one historical "barbarian" exonym. Several historical Chinese characters for non-Chinese peoples were graphic pejoratives. The character for the Yao people, for instance, was changed from "yao" 猺 "jackal" to "yao" 瑤 "precious jade" in the modern period. The original Hua–Yi distinction between Hua ("Chinese") and Yi (commonly translated as "barbarian") was based on culture and power but not on race.


title: Barbarian

text: Historically, the Chinese used various words for foreign ethnic groups. They include terms like 夷 "Yi", which is often translated as "barbarians." Despite this conventional translation, there are also other ways of translating "Yi" into English. Some of the examples include "foreigners," "ordinary others," "wild tribes," "uncivilized tribes," and so forth.


title: Barbarian

text: Chinese historical records mention what may now perhaps be termed "barbarian" peoples for over four millennia, although this considerably predates the Greek language origin of the term "barbarian", at least as is known from the thirty-four centuries of written records in the Greek language. The sinologist Herrlee Glessner Creel said, "Throughout Chinese history "the barbarians" have been a constant motif, sometimes minor, sometimes very major indeed. They figure prominently in the Shang oracle inscriptions, and the dynasty that came to an end only in 1912 was, from the Chinese point of view, barbarian."


title: Barbarian

text: Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) oracles and bronze inscriptions first recorded specific Chinese exonyms for foreigners, often in contexts of warfare or tribute. King Wu Ding (r. 1250–1192 BC), for instance, fought with the Guifang 鬼方, Di 氐, and Qiang 羌 "barbarians."


title: Barbarian

text: During the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC), the meanings of four exonyms were expanded. "These included Rong, Yi, Man, and Di—all general designations referring to the barbarian tribes." These "Siyi" 四夷 "Four Barbarians", most "probably the names of ethnic groups originally," were the Yi or Dongyi 東夷 "eastern barbarians," Man or Nanman 南蠻 "southern barbarians," Rong or Xirong 西戎 "western barbarians," and Di or Beidi 北狄 "northern barbarians." The Russian anthropologist Mikhail Kryukov concluded.


title: Barbarian

text: The Chinese classics use compounds of these four generic names in localized "barbarian tribes" exonyms such as "west and north" "Rongdi", "south and east" "Manyi", "Nanyibeidi" "barbarian tribes in the south and the north," and "Manyirongdi" "all kinds of barbarians." Creel says the Chinese evidently came to use "Rongdi" and "Manyi" "as generalized terms denoting 'non-Chinese,' 'foreigners,' 'barbarians'," and a statement such as "the Rong and Di are wolves" ("Zuozhuan", Min 1) is "very much like the assertion that many people in many lands will make today, that 'no foreigner can be trusted'."


title: Barbarian

text: This word "Yi" has both specific references, such as to "Huaiyi" 淮夷 peoples in the Huai River region, and generalized references to "barbarian; foreigner; non-Chinese." "Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage" translates "Yi" as "Anc[ient] barbarian tribe on east border, any border or foreign tribe." The sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank says the name "Yi" "furnished the primary Chinese term for 'barbarian'," but "Paradoxically the Yi were considered the most civilized of the non-Chinese peoples.


title: Barbarian

text: Some Chinese classics romanticize or idealize barbarians, comparable to the western noble savage construct. For instance, the Confucian "Analects" records:


title: Barbarian

text: The translator Arthur Waley noted that, "A certain idealization of the 'noble savage' is to be found fairly often in early Chinese literature", citing the "Zuo Zhuan" maxim, "When the Emperor no longer functions, learning must be sought among the 'Four Barbarians,' north, west, east, and south." Professor Creel said,


title: Barbarian

text: From ancient to modern times the Chinese attitude toward people not Chinese in culture—"barbarians"—has commonly been one of contempt, sometimes tinged with fear ... It must be noted that, while the Chinese have disparaged barbarians, they have been singularly hospitable both to individuals and to groups that have adopted Chinese culture. And at times they seem to have had a certain admiration, perhaps unwilling, for the rude force of these peoples or simpler customs.


title: Barbarian

text: In a somewhat related example, Mencius believed that Confucian practices were universal and timeless, and thus followed by both Hua and Yi, "Shun was an Eastern barbarian; he was born in Chu Feng, moved to Fu Hsia, and died in Ming T'iao. King Wen was a Western barbarian; he was born in Ch'i Chou and died in Pi Ying. Their native places were over a thousand "li" apart, and there were a thousand years between them. Yet when they had their way in the Central Kingdoms, their actions matched like the two halves of a tally. The standards of the two sages, one earlier and one later, were identical."


title: Barbarian

text: The prominent (121 CE) "Shuowen Jiezi" character dictionary, defines "yi" 夷 as "men of the east" 東方之人也. The dictionary also informs that "Yi" is not dissimilar from the "Xia" 夏, which means Chinese. Elsewhere in the "Shuowen Jiezi", under the entry of "qiang" 羌, the term "yi" is associated with benevolence and human longevity. "Yi" countries are therefore virtuous places where people live long lives. This is why Confucius wanted to go to "yi" countries when the "dao" could not be realized in the central states.


title: Barbarian

text: Some Chinese characters used to transcribe non-Chinese peoples were graphically pejorative ethnic slurs, in which the insult derived not from the Chinese word but from the character used to write it. For instance, the Written Chinese transcription of "Yao" "the Yao people", who primarily live in the mountains of southwest China and Vietnam. When 11th-century Song Dynasty authors first transcribed the exonym "Yao", they insultingly chose "yao" 猺 "jackal" from a lexical selection of over 100 characters pronounced "yao" (e.g., 腰 "waist", 遙 "distant", 搖 "shake"). During a series of 20th-century Chinese language reforms, this graphic pejorative 猺 (written with the 犭"dog/beast radical") "jackal; the Yao" was replaced twice; first with the invented character "yao" 傜 (亻"human radical") "the Yao", then with "yao" 瑤 (玉 "jade radical") "precious jade; the Yao." Chinese orthography (symbols used to write a language) can provide unique opportunities to write ethnic insults logographically that do not exist alphabetically. For the Yao ethnic group, there is a difference between the transcriptions "Yao" 猺 "jackal" and "Yao" 瑤 "jade" but none between the romanizations "Yao" and "Yau".


title: Barbarian

text: According to the archeologist William Meacham, it was only by the time of the late Shang dynasty that one can speak of "Chinese," "Chinese culture," or "Chinese civilization." "There is a sense in which the traditional view of ancient Chinese history is correct (and perhaps it originated ultimately in the first appearance of dynastic civilization): those on the fringes and outside this esoteric event were "barbarians" in that they did not enjoy (or suffer from) the fruit of civilization until they were brought into close contact with it by an imperial expansion of the civilization itself."


title: Barbarian

text: The fundamental criterion of "Chinese-ness," anciently and throughout history, has been cultural. The Chinese have had a particular way of life, a particular complex of usages, sometimes characterized as "li". Groups that conformed to this way of life were, generally speaking, considered Chinese. Those that turned away from it were considered to cease to be Chinese. ... It was the process of acculturation, transforming barbarians into Chinese, that created the great bulk of the Chinese people. The barbarians of Western Chou times were, for the most part, future Chinese, or the ancestors of future Chinese. This is a fact of great importance. ... It is significant, however, that we almost never find any references in the early literature to physical differences between Chinese and barbarians. Insofar as we can tell, the distinction was purely cultural.


title: Barbarian

text: Thought in ancient China was oriented towards the world, or "tianxia", "all under heaven." The world was perceived as one homogenous unity named "great community" ("datong") The Middle Kingdom [China], dominated by the assumption of its cultural superiority, measured outgroups according to a yardstick by which those who did not follow the "Chinese ways" were considered "barbarians." A Theory of "using the Chinese ways to transform the barbarian" as strongly advocated. It was believed that the barbarian could be culturally assimilated. In the Age of Great Peace, the barbarians would flow in and be transformed: the world would be one.


title: Barbarian

text: According to the Pakistani academic M. Shahid Alam, "The centrality of culture, rather than race, in the Chinese world view had an important corollary. Nearly always, this translated into a civilizing mission rooted in the premise that 'the barbarians could be culturally assimilated'"; namely "laihua" 來化 "come and be transformed" or "Hanhua" 漢化 "become Chinese; be sinicized."


title: Barbarian

text: Two millennia before the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss wrote "The Raw and the Cooked", the Chinese differentiated "raw" and "cooked" categories of barbarian peoples who lived in China. The "shufan" 熟番 "cooked [food eating] barbarians" are sometimes interpreted as Sinicized, and the "shengfan" 生番 "raw [food eating] barbarians" as not Sinicized.


title: Barbarian

text: The people of those five regions – the Middle states, and the [Rong], [Yi] (and other wild tribes around them) – had all their several natures, which they could not be made to alter. The tribes on the east were called [Yi]. They had their hair unbound, and tattooed their bodies. Some of them ate their food without its being cooked with fire. Those on the south were called Man. They tattooed their foreheads, and had their feet turned toward each other. Some of them ate their food without its being cooked with fire. Those on the west were called [Rong]. They had their hair unbound, and wore skins. Some of them did not eat grain-food. Those on the north were called [Di]. They wore skins of animals and birds, and dwelt in caves. Some of them did not eat grain-food.


title: Barbarian

text: Dikötter explains the close association between nature and nurture. "The "shengfan", literally 'raw barbarians', were considered savage and resisting. The "shufan", or 'cooked barbarians', were tame and submissive. The consumption of raw food was regarded as an infallible sign of savagery that affected the physiological state of the barbarian."


title: Barbarian

text: Some Warring States period texts record a belief that the respective natures of the Chinese and the barbarian were incompatible. Mencius, for instance, once stated: "I have heard of the Chinese converting barbarians to their ways, but not of their being converted to barbarian ways." Dikötter says, "The nature of the Chinese was regarded as impermeable to the evil influences of the barbarian; no retrogression was possible. Only the barbarian might eventually change by adopting Chinese ways."


title: Barbarian

text: However, different thinkers and texts convey different opinions on this issue. The prominent Tang Confucian Han Yu, for example, wrote in his essay "Yuan Dao" the following: "When Confucius wrote the "Chunqiu", he said that if the feudal lords use Yi ritual, then they should be called Yi; If they use Chinese rituals, then they should be called Chinese." Han Yu went on to lament in the same essay that the Chinese of his time might all become Yi because the Tang court wanted to put Yi laws above the teachings of the former kings. Therefore, Han Yu's essay shows the possibility that the Chinese can lose their culture and become the uncivilized outsiders, and that the uncivilized outsiders have the potential to become Chinese.


title: Barbarian

text: After the Song Dynasty, many of China's rulers in the north were of Inner Asia ethnicities, such as the Khitans, Juchens, and Mongols of the Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties, the latter ended up ruling over the entire China. Hence, the historian John King Fairbank wrote, "the influence on China of the great fact of alien conquest under the Liao-Jin-Yuan dynasties is just beginning to be explored." During the Qing Dynasty, the rulers of China adopted Confucian philosophy and Han Chinese institutions to show that the Manchu rulers had received the Mandate of Heaven to rule China. At the same time, they also tried to retain their own indigenous culture. Due to the Manchus' adoption of Han Chinese culture, most Han Chinese (though not all) did accept the Manchus as the legitimate rulers of China. Similarly, according to Fudan University historian Yao Dali, even the supposedly "patriotic" hero Wen Tianxiang of the late Song and early Yuan period did not believe the Mongol rule to be illegitimate. In fact, Wen was willing to live under Mongol rule as long as he was not forced to be a Yuan dynasty official, out of his loyalty to the Song dynasty. Yao explains that Wen chose to die in the end because he was forced to become a Yuan official. So, Wen chose death due to his loyalty to his dynasty, not because he viewed the Yuan court as a non-Chinese, illegitimate regime and therefore refused to live under their rule. Yao also says that many Chinese who were living in the Yuan-Ming transition period also shared Wen's beliefs of identifying with and putting loyalty towards one's dynasty above racial/ethnic differences. Many Han Chinese writers did not celebrate the collapse of the Mongols and the return of the Han Chinese rule in the form of the Ming dynasty government at that time. Many Han Chinese actually chose not to serve in the new Ming court at all due to their loyalty to the Yuan. Some Han Chinese also committed suicide on behalf of the Mongols as a proof of their loyalty. The founder of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, also indicated that he was happy to be born in the Yuan period and that the Yuan did legitimately receive the Mandate of Heaven to rule over China. On a side note, one of his key advisors, Liu Ji, generally supported the idea that while the Chinese and the non-Chinese are different, they are actually equal. Liu was therefore arguing against the idea that the Chinese were and are superior to the "Yi."


title: Barbarian

text: These things show that many times, pre-modern Chinese did view culture (and sometimes politics) rather than race and ethnicity as the dividing line between the Chinese and the non-Chinese. In many cases, the non-Chinese could and did become the Chinese and vice versa, especially when there was a change in culture.


title: Barbarian

text: According to the historian Frank Dikötter, "The delusive myth of a Chinese antiquity that abandoned racial standards in favour of a concept of cultural universalism in which all barbarians could ultimately participate has understandably attracted some modern scholars. Living in an unequal and often hostile world, it is tempting to project the utopian image of a racially harmonious world into a distant and obscure past."


title: Barbarian

text: The politician, historian, and diplomat K. C. Wu analyzes the origin of the characters for the "Yi", "Man", "Rong", "Di", and "Xia" peoples and concludes that the "ancients formed these characters with only one purpose in mind—to describe the different ways of living each of these people pursued." Despite the well-known examples of pejorative exonymic characters (such as the "dog radical" in Di), he claims there is no hidden racial bias in the meanings of the characters used to describe these different peoples, but rather the differences were "in occupation or in custom, not in race or origin." K. C. Wu says the modern character 夷 designating the historical "Yi peoples," composed of the characters for 大 "big (person)" and 弓 "bow", implies a big person carrying a bow, someone to perhaps be feared or respected, but not to be despised. However, differing from K. C. Wu, the scholar Wu Qichang believes that the earliest oracle bone script for "yi" 夷 was used interchangeably with "shi" 尸 "corpse". The historian John Hill explains that "Yi" "was used rather loosely for non-Chinese populations of the east. It carried the connotation of people ignorant of Chinese culture and, therefore, 'barbarians'."


title: Barbarian

text: Christopher I. Beckwith makes the extraordinary claim that the name "barbarian" should only be used for Greek historical contexts, and is inapplicable for all other "peoples to whom it has been applied either historically or in modern times." Beckwith notes that most specialists in East Asian history, including him, have translated Chinese exonyms as English ""barbarian"." He believes that after academics read his published explanation of the problems, except for direct quotations of "earlier scholars who use the word, it should no longer be used as a term by any writer."


title: Barbarian

text: The first problem is that, "it is impossible to translate the word "barbarian" into Chinese because the concept does not exist in Chinese," meaning a single "completely generic" loanword from Greek "barbar-". "Until the Chinese borrow the word "barbarian" or one of its relatives, or make up a new word that explicitly includes the same basic ideas, they cannot express the idea of the 'barbarian' in Chinese.". The usual Standard Chinese translation of English "barbarian" is "yemanren" (), which Beckwith claims, "actually means 'wild man, savage'. That is very definitely not the same thing as 'barbarian'." Despite this semantic hypothesis, Chinese-English dictionaries regularly translate "yemanren" as "barbarian" or "barbarians." Beckwith concedes that the early Chinese "apparently disliked foreigners in general and looked down on them as having an inferior culture," and pejoratively wrote some exonyms. However, he purports, "The fact that the Chinese did not "like" foreigner Y and occasionally picked a transcriptional character with negative meaning (in Chinese) to write the sound of his ethnonym, is irrelevant."


title: Barbarian

text: Beckwith's second problem is with linguists and lexicographers of Chinese. "If one looks up in a Chinese-English dictionary the two dozen or so partly generic words used for various foreign peoples throughout Chinese history, one will find most of them defined in English as, in effect, 'a kind of barbarian'. Even the works of well-known lexicographers such as Karlgren do this."


title: Barbarian

text: Although Beckwith does not cite any examples, the Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgren edited two dictionaries: "Analytic Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese" (1923) and "Grammata Serica Recensa" (1957). Compare Karlgrlen's translations of the "siyi" "four barbarians":


title: Barbarian

text: The "Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus" Project includes Karlgren's "GSR" definitions. Searching the STEDT Database finds various "a kind of" definitions for plant and animal names (e.g., "you" 狖 "a kind of monkey," but not one "a kind of barbarian" definition. Besides faulting Chinese for lacking a general "barbarian" term, Beckwith also faults English, which "has no words for the many foreign peoples referred to by one or another Classical Chinese word, such as 胡 "hú", 夷 "yí", 蠻 "mán", and so on."


title: Barbarian

text: The third problem involves Tang Dynasty usages of "fan" "foreigner" and "lu" "prisoner", neither of which meant "barbarian." Beckwith says Tang texts used "fan" 番 or 蕃 "foreigner" (see "shengfan" and "shufan" above) as "perhaps the only true generic at any time in Chinese literature, was practically the opposite of the word "barbarian". It meant simply 'foreign, foreigner' without any pejorative meaning." In modern usage, "fan" 番 means "foreigner; barbarian; aborigine". The linguist Robert Ramsey illustrates the pejorative connotations of "fan".


title: Barbarian

text: The word ""Fān"" was formerly used by the Chinese almost innocently in the sense of 'aborigines' to refer to ethnic groups in South China, and Mao Zedong himself once used it in 1938 in a speech advocating equal rights for the various minority peoples. But that term has now been so systematically purged from the language that it is not to be found (at least in that meaning) even in large dictionaries, and all references to Mao's 1938 speech have excised the offending word and replaced it with a more elaborate locution, "Yao, Yi, and Yu."


title: Barbarian

text: The Tang Dynasty Chinese also had a derogatory term for foreigners, "lu" () "prisoner, slave, captive". Beckwith says it means something like "those miscreants who should be locked up," therefore, "The word does not even mean 'foreigner' at all, let alone 'barbarian'."


title: Barbarian

text: Christopher I. Beckwith's 2009 "The Barbarians" epilogue provides many references, but overlooks H. G. Creel's 1970 "The Barbarians" chapter. Creel descriptively wrote, "Who, in fact, were the barbarians? The Chinese have no single term for them. But they were all the non-Chinese, just as for the Greeks the barbarians were all the non-Greeks." Beckwith prescriptively wrote, "The Chinese, however, have still not yet borrowed Greek "barbar"-. There is also no single native Chinese word for 'foreigner', no matter how pejorative," which meets his strict definition of "barbarian.".


title: Barbarian

text: In the Tang Dynasty houses of pleasure, where drinking games were common, small puppets in the aspect of Westerners, in a ridiculous state of drunkenness, were used in one popular permutation of the drinking game; so, in the form of blue-eyed, pointy nosed, and peak-capped barbarians, these puppets were manipulated in such a way as to occasionally fall down: then, whichever guest to whom the puppet pointed after falling was then obliged by honor to empty his cup of Chinese wine.


title: Barbarian

text: When Europeans came to Japan, they were called , literally "Barbarians from the South", because the Portuguese ships appeared to sail from the South. The Dutch, who arrived later, were also called either "nanban" or , literally meaning "Red Hair."


title: Barbarian

text: In Mesoamerica the Aztec civilization used the word "Chichimeca" to denominate a group of nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes that lived on the outskirts of the Triple Alliance's Empire, in the north of Modern Mexico, and whom the Aztec people saw as primitive and uncivilized. One of the meanings attributed to the word "Chichimeca" is "dog people".


title: Barbarian

text: The Incas of South America used the term "purum awqa" for all peoples living outside the rule of their empire (see Promaucaes).


title: Barbarian

text: The entry of "barbarians" into mercenary service in a metropole repeatedly occurred in history as a standard way in which peripheral peoples from and beyond frontier regions interact with imperial powers as part of a (semi-)foreign militarised proletariat.


title: Barbarian

text: Italians in the Renaissance often called anyone who lived outside of their country a barbarian. As an example, there is the last chapter of The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli, "Exhortatio ad Capesendam Italiam in Libertatemque a Barbaris Vinsicandam" (in English: Exhortation to take Italy and free her from the barbarians) in which he appeals to Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino to unite Italy and stop the "barbarian invasions" led by other European rulers, such as Charles VIII and Louis XII, both of France, and Ferdinand II of Aragon.


title: Barbarian

text: Spanish sea captain Francisco de Cuellar, who sailed with the Spanish Armada in 1588, used the term 'savage' ('salvaje') to describe the Irish people.


title: Barbarian

text: In her 1916 anti-war pamphlet "The Crisis of German Social Democracy", Marxist theorist Rosa Luxemburg writes: Bourgeois society stands at the crossroads, either transition to Socialism or regression into Barbarism.Luxemburg attributed it to Friedrich Engels, though – as shown by Michael Löwy – Engels had not used the term "Barbarism" but a less resounding formulation: "If the whole of modern society is not to perish, a revolution in the mode of production and distribution must take place." The case has been made that Luxemburg had remembered a passage from "The Erfurt Program", written in 1892 by Karl Kautsky, and mistakenly attributed it to Engels:As things stand today capitalist civilization cannot continue; we must either move forward into socialism or fall back into barbarism.Luxemburg went on to explain what she meant by "Regression into Barbarism": "A look around us at this moment [i.e., 1916 Europe] shows what the regression of bourgeois society into Barbarism means. This World War is a regression into Barbarism. The triumph of Imperialism leads to the annihilation of civilization. At first, this happens sporadically for the duration of a modern war, but then when the period of unlimited wars begins it progresses toward its inevitable consequences. Today, we face the choice exactly as Friedrich Engels foresaw it a generation ago: either the triumph of Imperialism and the collapse of all civilization as in ancient Rome, depopulation, desolation, degeneration – a great cemetery. Or the victory of Socialism, that means the conscious active struggle of the International Proletariat against Imperialism and its method of war."


title: Barbarian

text: Modern popular culture contains such fantasy barbarians as Conan the Barbarian. In such fantasy, the negative connotations traditionally associated with "Barbarian" are often inverted. For example, "The Phoenix on the Sword" (1932), the first of Robert E. Howard's "Conan" series, is set soon after the "Barbarian" protagonist had forcibly seized the turbulent kingdom of Aquilonia from King Numedides, whom he strangled upon his throne. The story is clearly slanted to imply that the kingdom greatly benefited by power passing from a decadent and tyrannical hereditary monarch to a strong and vigorous Barbarian usurper.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: Chesapeake Shores is a drama television series, based on the novel series of the same name by Sherryl Woods, produced by Chesapeake Shores Productions Inc in association with Borderline Distribution. The series had a two-hour premiere on the Hallmark Channel on August 14, 2016. Jesse Metcalfe, Meghan Ory, Barbara Niven, Laci J. Mailey, Emilie Ullerup, Brendan Penny, Andrew Francis, Diane Ladd and Treat Williams star in the series. John Tinker was showrunner and executive producer for the first two seasons. Phoef Sutton became the showrunner and principal writer for season five.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: In March 2021, it was announced that Metcalfe would be exiting the series. His character's storyline concluded early in the fifth season. Actor Robert Buckley joined the main cast in season five. The show's fifth season aired from August 15 to October 17, 2021. The series' sixth and final season premiered on August 14, 2022, with the series finale airing on October 16.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: Abby O'Brien Winters returns from New York to her hometown of Chesapeake Shores, Maryland, after receiving a panicked phone call from her youngest sister Jess, who is renovating the Inn at Eagle Point. Abby's demanding career, divorce, and young daughters have kept her too busy to even think about the town her father built. Saving her sister's inn from foreclosure means dealing not only with her fractured family but also with Trace Riley, her first love whom she abruptly left sixteen years ago. He initially is an obstacle but becomes an unexpected ally and a second chance at finding love. The troubled family dynamic is intensified when Abby's estranged mother comes back to town.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: "Chesapeake Shores" is filmed on Vancouver Island's Qualicum Beach and its neighboring town of Parksville, British Columbia. The first season was filmed there from May through July 2016.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: In addition to playing the character Trace, Jesse Metcalfe performs some of the songs used in the series' episodes. A songwriter for more than a decade, Metcalfe also composed two of the songs himself.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: Production for the second season started in spring 2017. It premiered on August 6, 2017. On January 13, 2018, Hallmark announced that the show was renewed for a 10-episode third season, which premiered on August 5, 2018.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: At the Television Critics Association winter press tour in February 2019, it was announced that the series would return for a fourth summer season, consisting of only six episodes; a spinoff television film was simultaneously announced. The fourth season premiered on August 25, 2019.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: On February 28, 2020, it was announced that the series would return for a fifth season. Season five premiered on August 15, 2021.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: On March 29, 2022, it was announced that the series was renewed for a sixth and final season, expected to premiere in its usual August slot.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: The series premiered on the Hallmark Channel on August 14, 2016. It premiered on Canada's W Network on August 25, 2016.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: Netflix holds the international streaming rights to "Chesapeake Shores" and releases episodes on a weekly basis. Sony Pictures Television handles the show's international rights.


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: Neil Genzlinger of "The New York Times" said "Chesapeake Shores" is "as well scrubbed and predictable as they come — in other words, perfectly suited to Hallmark's target audience." He added, "fans of [Sherryl Woods's series of novels], at least, will probably enjoy seeing this annoyingly pristine world brought to life."


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: Gwen Ihnat of "The A.V. Club" gave the two-hour series premiere a B grade, praising the "ethereally gorgeous" Meghan Ory and the "acting powerhouses" of Treat Williams and Diane Ladd. She added that they "may make the show worth watching, and the giddy chemistry of the romantic leads certainly doesn't hurt."


title: Chesapeake Shores

text: "Chesapeake Shores" two-hour premiere on Sunday, August 14, 2016, was seen by 1.942 million viewers. Its largest ratings demographic were people over the age of 50, with a 1.42 share, followed by a 0.45 share among women aged 18 to 49. Over the course of the first season, the series was Hallmark's "most-watched in the network's history" by women and adults in the 25–54 age demographic in its live plus three days (L+3) of DVR viewing, leading to its second-season renewal.


title: Car classification

text: Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for various purposes including regulation, description, and categorization of cars.


title: Car classification

text: The International Standard ISO 3833-1977 "Road vehicles – Types – Terms and definitions" also defines terms for classifying cars.


title: Car classification

text: Microcars straddle the boundary between car and motorbike, and are often covered by separate regulations to normal cars, resulting in relaxed requirements for registration and licensing. Engine size is often or less, and microcars have three or four wheels.


title: Car classification

text: Microcars are most popular in Europe, where they originated following World War II. The predecessors to micro cars are voiturettes and cycle cars. Kei cars have been used in Japan since 1949.


title: Car classification

text: The smallest category of vehicles that are registered as normal cars is called A-segment in Europe, or "city car" in Europe and the United States. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines this category as "minicompact." However, this term is not widely used.


title: Car classification

text: The equivalents of A-segment cars have been produced since the early 1920s. However, the category increased in popularity in the late 1950s when the original Fiat 500 and BMC Mini were released.


title: Car classification

text: The next larger category small cars is called B-segment Europe, supermini in the United Kingdom and subcompact in the United States.


title: Car classification

text: The size of a subcompact car is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as having a combined interior and cargo volume of between . Since the EPA's smaller minicompact category is not as commonly used by the general public, A-segment cars are sometimes called subcompacts in the United States. In Europe and Great Britain, the B-segment and supermini categories do not have any formal definitions based on size.


title: Car classification

text: In the United States, the first locally-built subcompact cars were the 1970 AMC Gremlin, Chevrolet Vega, and Ford Pinto.


title: Car classification

text: The largest category of small cars is called "C-segment" or "small family car" in Europe, and "compact car" in the United States.


title: Car classification

text: The size of a compact car is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as having a combined interior and cargo volume of .


title: Car classification

text: In Europe, the third-largest category for passenger cars is called "D-segment" or "large family car".


title: Car classification

text: In the United States, the equivalent term is "mid-size" or "intermediate" cars. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a mid-size car as having a combined passenger and cargo volume of .


title: Car classification

text: In Europe, the second-largest category for passenger cars is E-segment / executive car, which are usually luxury cars.


title: Car classification

text: In other countries, the equivalent terms are "full-size car" or "large car", which are also used for relatively affordable large cars that are not considered luxury cars.


title: Car classification

text: Minivan is an American car classification for vehicles that are designed to transport passengers in the rear seating rows, have reconfigurable seats in two or three rows. The equivalent terms in British English are multi-purpose vehicle (MPV), people carrier, and people mover. Minivans are often of the "one-box" or "two-box" body configuration, high roofs, flat floors, sliding doors for rear passengers, and high H-point seating.


title: Car classification

text: Mini MPV is the smallest size of MPVs and the vehicles are often built on the platforms of B-segment hatchback models.


title: Car classification

text: Compact MPV is the middle size of MPVs. The compact MPV size class sits between the mini MPV and large MPV (minivan) size classes.


title: Car classification

text: Compact MPVs remain predominantly a European phenomenon, although they are also built and sold in many Latin American and Asian markets.


title: Car classification

text: The largest size of minivans is also referred to as "large MPV" and became popular following the introduction of the 1984 Renault Espace and Dodge Caravan. Since the 1990s, the smaller compact MPV and mini MPV sizes of minivans have also become popular. If the term "minivan" is used without specifying a size, it usually refers to a large MPV.


title: Car classification

text: The premium compact class (also called subcompact executive) is the smallest category of luxury cars. It became popular in the mid-2000s, when European manufacturers — such as Audi, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz — introduced new entry-level models that were smaller and cheaper than their compact executive models.


title: Car classification

text: A compact executive car or a compact luxury car is a premium car larger than a "premium compact" and smaller than an "executive car". Compact executive cars are equivalent size to mid-size cars and are part of the D-segment in the European car classification.


title: Car classification

text: In North American terms, close equivalents are "luxury compact" and "entry-level luxury car", although the latter is also used for the smaller "premium compact cars".


title: Car classification

text: An executive car is a premium car larger than a "compact executive" and smaller than an "full-size luxury" car. Executive cars are classified as E-segment cars in the European car classification.


title: Car classification

text: In the United States and several other countries, the equivalent categories are full-size car (not to be confused with the European category of "full-size luxury car") or "mid-size luxury" car.


title: Car classification

text: The largest size of a luxury car is known as a "luxury saloon" in the United Kingdom and a "full-size luxury car" in the United States. These cars are classified as F-segment cars in the European car classification.


title: Car classification

text: Cars that prioritize handling or straight-line acceleration are called sports cars or performance cars. However the term "sports car" is also sometimes used specifically for lightweight two-seat cars. Sports/performance cars can either be built on unique platforms or be upgraded versions of regular cars.


title: Car classification

text: The definitions for these categories are often blurred and a car may be a member of multiple categories.


title: Car classification

text: Sports cars are designed to emphasize handling, performance, or the thrill of driving. Sports cars originated in Europe in the early 1900s, with one of the first recorded usages of the term "sports car" being in "The Times" newspaper in the United Kingdom in 1919. Sports cars started to become popular during the 1920s. The term was originally used for two-seat roadsters (cars without fixed roofs). However, since the 1970s the term has also been used for cars with fixed roofs (which were previously considered grand tourers).


title: Car classification

text: A "sports sedan" — also known as "sports saloon" — is a subjective term for a sedan/saloon car which is designed to have sporting performance or handling characteristics.


title: Car classification

text: A supercar – also called an exotic car – is a loosely-defined description of certain high-performance sportscars. Since the 1990s or 2000s, the term "hypercar" has come into use for the highest performing supercars.


title: Car classification

text: Passenger vehicles with off-road capability or styling features are often categorized as either off-road vehicles, sports utility vehicles, or crossover SUVs. There are no commonly agreed boundaries between these categories, and usage of the terms varies between countries.


title: Car classification

text: The earliest type of passenger vehicle is called an "off-roader", "four-by-four" or "four-wheel drive". Off-road vehicles usually more focussed on off-road capability than SUVs and crossover SUVs (often compromising their on-road ride quality or handling). Common features of off-road vehicles are four-wheel drive, high ground clearance, a body-on-frame (separate chassis) construction and low-range gearing.


title: Car classification

text: A sports utility vehicle (SUV) combines elements of road-going passenger cars with features from off-road vehicles, such as raised ground clearance and four-wheel drive.


title: Car classification

text: There is no commonly agreed definition of an SUV, and usage varies between countries. Some definitions claim that an SUV must be built on a light-truck chassis. However, a broader definition considers any vehicle with off-road design features as an SUV. In some countries — such as the United States — SUVs have been classified as "light trucks", resulting in more lenient regulations compared to passenger cars.


title: Car classification

text: The predecessors to SUVs date back to military and low-volume models from the late 1930s, and the four-wheel drive station wagons / carryalls that began to be introduced in 1949. The 1984 Jeep Cherokee (XJ) is considered to be the first SUV in the modern style. Most SUVs produced today use unibody construction (as per passenger cars). However, in the past, many SUVs used body-on-frame construction.


title: Car classification

text: A crossover SUV— also called crossover or CUV— is a type of sports utility vehicle (SUV) that uses a unibody construction. Crossovers are often based on a platform shared with a passenger car, as a result, they typically have better comfort and fuel economy, but less off-road capability (many crossovers are sold without all-wheel drive) than truck-based SUVs, though more so than passenger cars.


title: Car classification

text: There are various inconsistencies about whether vehicles are considered crossovers or SUVs, therefore the term SUV is often used as a catch-all for both crossovers and SUVs.


title: Car classification

text: These classifications can be based on body style (e.g. sedan, coupe or hatchback), number of doors or seating capacity.


title: Car classification

text: Government departments often create classification schemes for the purposes of taxation or regulating vehicle usage (e.g. vehicles that require a specific licence or are restricted to certain roads). Some jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle.


title: Car classification

text: A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA. The Canadian National Collision Database (NCDB) system defines "passenger car" as a unique class, but also identifies two other categories involving passenger vehicles—the "passenger van" and "light utility vehicle"—and these categories are inconsistently handled across the country with the boundaries between the vehicles increasingly blurred.


title: Car classification

text: In the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicle's construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used.


title: Car classification

text: In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both vehicle footprint (length times width) and weight.


title: Car classification

text: The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) separates vehicles into classes by the curb weight of the vehicle with standard equipment including the maximum capacity of fuel, oil, coolant, and air conditioning, if so equipped.


title: Car classification

text: The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a classification scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two broad categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, including both power and trailer units.


title: Car classification

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a vehicle's total interior passenger and cargo volumes. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). Heavy-duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme.


title: Car classification

text: Certain cities in the United States in the 1920s chose to exempt electric-powered vehicles because officials believed those vehicles did not cause "substantial wear upon the pavements".


title: Car classification

text: Several other segment descriptions, listed below, are used in North America. Cars from these segments may also be sold in other countries. However, usage of the terms is mostly specific to within North America.


title: Car classification

text: Muscle car is an American term for high-performance cars, usually rear-wheel drive and fitted with a large and powerful V8 engine. The term originated for the 1960s and early 1970s special editions of mass-production cars which were designed for drag racing.


title: Car classification

text: Pony car is an American class of automobile launched and inspired by the Ford Mustang in 1964. It broke all post-World War II automobile sales records, "creating the 'pony car' craze soon adopted by competitors." The term describes an affordable, compact, highly styled car with a sporty or performance-oriented image


title: Car classification

text: A personal luxury car is a North American market segment for premium coupé or convertible produced from 1952–2007. These two door cars prioritized comfort, styling and a high level of interior features. Not prioritizing maximum interior space, interior volumes are equivalent size to mid-size cars and are part of the D-segment in the European car classification, and exterior dimensions can exceed F-segment.


title: Car classification

text: The segment rose to popularity following the success of the 1958-60 Ford Thunderbird, which sold 200,000 units. Personal luxury cars from General Motors and Chrysler respectively include the Buick Riviera and Chrysler Cordoba.


title: Car classification

text: A sporting version of an affordable compact car or a subcompact car. There is no precise definition and the description is applied for marketing purposes to a wide variety of models.


title: Car classification

text: Cars began to be marketed as sport compacts in the mid-1980s when it was used for option packages on American-built coupes. Since then, it has also been used for standalone sports car models and cars imported from Europe and Asia.


title: Car classification

text: The European equivalent is a hot hatch. However, sport compacts are not restricted to just hatchback body styles.


title: Car classification

text: Several other segment descriptions, listed below, are used in Europe. Cars from these segments may also be sold in other countries. However, usage of the terms is mostly specific to within Europe.


title: Car classification

text: A grand tourer (GT) is a car that is designed for high speed and long-distance driving, due to a combination of performance and luxury attributes. The most common format is a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive two-door coupé with either a two-seat or a 2+2 arrangement.


title: Car classification

text: The term derives from the Italian language phrase "gran turismo" which became popular in the English language from the 1950s, evolving from fast touring cars and streamlined closed sports cars during the 1930s.


title: Car classification

text: Hot hatch (shortened from hot hatchback) is a high-performance version of a mass-produced hatchback car.


title: Car classification

text: The term originated in the mid-1980s. However, factory high-performance versions of hatchbacks have been produced since the 1970s.


title: Car classification

text: Front-mounted petrol engines, together with front-wheel drive, is the most common powertrain layout. However, all-wheel drive has become more commonly used since around 2010. Most hot hatches are manufactured in Europe or Asia.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Frank Lawrence Rosenthal (June 12, 1929 – October 13, 2008), also known as "Lefty" Rosenthal, was an American professional sports bettor, former Las Vegas casino executive, and organized crime associate. Rosenthal, who was once called "the greatest living expert on sports gambling" by "Sports Illustrated", is credited with bringing increased exposure to sports betting to Las Vegas in the 1970s.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Rosenthal's life and career in Las Vegas served as the basis of Martin Scorsese's 1995 film "Casino", where he was portrayed by Robert De Niro and re-named Sam "Ace" Rothstein.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Frank Rosenthal was born in Chicago, Illinois, in a Jewish family and grew up in the city's West Side. As a youth, he learned sports betting in the bleachers of Wrigley Field and would often skip classes to attend Chicago sporting events. Rosenthal's father also owned racehorses, whereby he became familiar with betting odds and percentages at a young age.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: By the mid-1950s, Rosenthal was working with the Chicago Outfit. Chosen for his expert odds-making ability, he ran the biggest illegal bookmaking office in the United States on behalf of the Mafia—specifically, the Outfit. Based in Cicero, Illinois, under the guise of a home improvement company, Rosenthal and the Outfit bought "contracts" to fix sporting events. After being indicted as a conspirator on multiple sports bribery charges, Rosenthal moved the operation to North Bay Village in Miami, Florida, to avoid attention.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: By 1961, Rosenthal had acquired a national reputation as a sports bettor, oddsmaker, and handicapper, and in Miami he was frequently seen in the company of prominent Outfit members Jackie Cerone and Fiore Buccieri. At this time Rosenthal was issued with a subpoena to appear before U.S. Senator John McClellan's subcommittee on Gambling and Organized Crime, accused of match-fixing. He invoked the Fifth Amendment 37 times and was never charged. Due to this, Rosenthal was barred from racing establishments in Florida.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Despite his frequent arrests for illegal gambling and bookmaking, Rosenthal was convicted only once, after pleading no contest in 1963 to allegedly bribing a New York University player to shave points for a college basketball game in North Carolina. He was also a suspect in multiple business and car bombings in the greater Miami area during the 1960s. It was at this time the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) opened an ongoing case file on Rosenthal which amassed 300 pages. In order to once again escape police attention, Rosenthal moved to Las Vegas, Nevada, in 1968.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: A big promoter of sports gambling, Rosenthal secretly ran the Stardust, Fremont, Marina, and Hacienda casinos when they were controlled by the Chicago Outfit. He also created the first sports book that operated from within a casino, making the Stardust one of the world's leading centers for sports gambling. Another Rosenthal innovation was hiring more female blackjack dealers, which in one year helped double the Stardust's income.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: In 1976, the FBI and Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department (LVMPD) discovered that Rosenthal was secretly running four large casinos without obtaining a state gaming license, holding a hearing to determine his legal ability to obtain a license. The hearing was headed by Nevada Gaming Control Board Chairman (future U.S. Senator) Harry Reid. Rosenthal was denied a license because of his arrest record and his documented reputation as an organized crime associate, particularly because of his boyhood friendship with Chicago mob enforcer Anthony Spilotro.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Rosenthal married Geri McGee on May 4, 1969. McGee already had a daughter, Robin L. Marmor, from a previous marriage with ex-husband Lenny Marmor. Rosenthal and McGee later had two children together, Steven and Stephanie. There were infidelities on both sides, with McGee secretly having an affair with Spilotro. The marriage ended in divorce in 1981, with Rosenthal attributing the failure primarily to McGee's inability to escape her dependence on alcohol and drugs. After leaving Rosenthal and stealing a portion of his savings, McGee died at a motel in Los Angeles on November 9, 1982, at age 46, of an apparent drug overdose. Her death was ruled accidental, from a combination of Valium, cocaine and alcohol.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: On October 4, 1982, Rosenthal survived an assassination attempt in Las Vegas, in which a bomb attached to the gasoline tank was detonated when he started his car. While Rosenthal had dined at the Tony Roma's restaurant at 620 E. Sahara Avenue, a person or persons unknown placed the bomb in his car. Rosenthal likely survived because of a manufacturing device unique to his particular model car (a 1981 Cadillac Eldorado): a stout metal plate under the driver's seat, installed by General Motors on all El Dorado models to correct a balancing problem. This plate shielded Rosenthal's body from most of the explosion's force. Although no one was ever charged for this murder attempt, Milwaukee mob boss Frank Balistrieri was possibly responsible. Balistrieri, who was known as the "Mad Bomber" to law enforcement, was heard (via wiretap) blaming Rosenthal for the legal problems the mob-controlled casinos were suffering. Similarly, just weeks before the bombing, Balistrieri told his sons he intended to get "full satisfaction" for Rosenthal's perceived wrongdoing. Other likely suspects include Kansas City mob bosses, who were recorded on an FBI wiretap tape calling Rosenthal "crazy"; Spilotro, either acting with others or on behalf of the Outfit; and outlaw bikers who were friends of Rosenthal's ex-wife, Geri McGee.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Rosenthal left Las Vegas about six months later, and moved to Laguna Niguel, California. He focused on raising his children, who were both accomplished youth swimmers. Rosenthal was later formally banned from Las Vegas casinos in 1987, when he was placed in "the Black Book", making him "persona non grata"—unable to work in, or even enter, any Nevada casino because of his alleged ties to organized crime. However, in June 1990, Rosenthal won an unprecedented court ruling to have his name removed. Rosenthal was represented in the hearing by future Las Vegas Mayor Oscar Goodman. Goodman and Rosenthal lost, however, in the Nevada Supreme Court in 1991, and Rosenthal's ban was reinstated.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Rosenthal later moved from Laguna Niguel to Boca Raton, Florida, where he ran a sports bar called "Croc's", and finally to Miami Beach, where he ran a sports betting website and worked as a consultant for several offshore sports betting companies.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: Rosenthal died on October 13, 2008, at the age of 79, of an apparent heart attack. After his death, it was disclosed by "Las Vegas Review-Journal" reporter Jane Ann Morrison that Rosenthal had been a top echelon informant for the FBI, and his wife Geri was also an FBI informant.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: The film "Casino" (1995), directed by Martin Scorsese with a screenplay co-written by Nicholas Pileggi from his biography "", is largely based on Rosenthal's time in Las Vegas. The film takes some creative license with the facts and timeline, but is broadly accurate to Rosenthal's story and his relationship with Anthony Spilotro, on which the character Nicky Santoro (played by Joe Pesci) is based. Rosenthal is represented by the character Sam "Ace" Rothstein (played by Robert De Niro). The character of Ginger McKenna Rothstein, his wife in the film (played by Sharon Stone), is based on Geri McGee, Rosenthal's wife in real life.


title: Frank Rosenthal

text: In an interview about the movie, Rosenthal stated that his character portrayed by Robert De Niro was quite but not fully similar to him, namely "7 on a scale of 1 to 10", and when asked about Stone’s portrayal of his wife, he stated, “I really wouldn't want to get into that area. It's an area that is distasteful and brings back bad memories. I wouldn't be willing to dispute what you just said, but I certainly wouldn't confirm it.”


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent (27 August 1968), born Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (), was a Greek princess by birth and a British princess by marriage. She was a daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia, and a granddaughter of King George I and Queen Olga of Greece. Princess Marina married Prince George, Duke of Kent, fourth son of King George V and Queen Mary, in 1934. They had three children: Prince Edward, Princess Alexandra, and Prince Michael.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: The Princess was widowed in 1942, when her husband was killed in a plane crash on active service. In later life she carried out many royal engagements, including the independence celebrations for Ghana and Botswana.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Princess Marina was born on 13 December 1906 in Athens, Greece, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, George I of Greece. She was the third and youngest daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark, and his wife Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia. Her father was the third son of George I of Greece and Queen Olga, while her mother was the only daughter of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia. Her father was a grandson of Christian IX of Denmark, while her mother was a granddaughter of Emperor Alexander II of Russia.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Princess Marina had two elder sisters, Princess Olga and Princess Elizabeth. Princess Olga married Prince Paul of Yugoslavia in 1923. After the assassination of his cousin, Alexander I of Yugoslavia, Paul served as Prince Regent of Yugoslavia from 1934 to 1941. Princess Elizabeth married Carl Theodor, Count of Toeering-Jettenbach in 1934. One of their paternal uncles was Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark, the father of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (making Marina and her sisters Philip's first cousins).


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Marina spent her early years in Greece, and lived with her parents and paternal grandparents at Tatoi Palace. Along with her sisters, she was raised to be devout and religious, which was encouraged by her grandmother, Queen Olga of Greece. Marina's family travelled outside of Greece often, especially during the summer months. Her first recorded visit to Britain was in 1910, when she was 3, after the death of her godfather, Edward VII. During that visit, she met her other godmother and future mother-in-law, Queen Mary, who treated Marina and her sisters like her own children.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: The Greek royal family was forced into exile when Marina was 11, following the overthrow of the Greek monarchy. They later moved to Paris, while the Princess stayed with her extended family throughout Europe.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: In 1932, Princess Marina and Prince George (later the Duke of Kent), a second cousin through Christian IX of Denmark, met in London. Their betrothal was announced in August 1934. Prince George was created Duke of Kent on 9 October 1934. On 29 November 1934, they married at Westminster Abbey, London. The wedding was a grand affair, as it had been more than eleven years since the last royal wedding with Prince Albert, Duke of York, and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth). The wedding of Prince George and Princess Marina was the first royal wedding ceremony to be broadcast by wireless, and with the use of other technology, such as microphones—the control room was located underneath the Unknown Warrior's tomb of Westminster Abbey. The service was broadcast locally and abroad to other nations, and loudspeakers allowed spectators from outside the Abbey to hear the proceedings. The wedding was followed by a Greek ceremony in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace, which was converted into an Orthodox chapel for the ceremony. The wedding was the most recent occasion on which a princess from another royal family married into the British royal family.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: The wedding dress was designed by Edward Molyneux, who had worked with Marina previously. The dress was made from white silk and silver lamé brocade, with a raised English rose design.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Her eight bridesmaids were her first cousins, Greek princesses Irene, Eugenie and Katherine, her maternal first cousin Grand Duchess Kira Kirillovna of Russia, her first cousin once removed Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, her husband's niece Princess Elizabeth of York, her husband's cousins the Lady Iris Mountbatten and Lady Mary Cambridge.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: The Royal School of Needlework made a quilt as a wedding gift for Princess Marina and the Duke of Kent.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: The Duke and Duchess set up their first home at 3 Belgrave Square, close to Buckingham Palace. She became a patroness of several organizations and charities, including the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital, the Women's Hospital Fund, and the Central School of Speech and Drama. She would continue to support these charities and institutions for the rest of her life. She became very close to her mother-in-law, Queen Mary, with whom she would usually spend time while her husband was off performing his own royal duties.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: The Duke of Kent was killed on 25 August 1942, in an aeroplane crash at Eagles Rock, near Dunbeath, Caithness, Scotland, while on active service with the Royal Air Force. The Duchess, according to royal biographer Hugo Vickers, was "the only war widow in Britain whose estate was forced to pay


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: During World War II, Marina was trained as a nurse for three months under the pseudonym "Sister Kay" and joined the civil nurse reserve.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: After her husband's death, the Duchess of Kent continued to be an active member of the British royal family, carrying out a wide range of royal and official engagements. She was the president of the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club for 26 years. She was also the president of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1943 until her death and was awarded the RNLI's gold medal in 1967 to mark this contribution. One of her first cousins was Prince Philip (later the Duke of Edinburgh), who married her niece, the future Queen Elizabeth II, in 1947.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: In 1947, Princess Marina visited Greece and Italy. In June 1952 the Duchess laid the foundation stone of the new St Mark's Church in Bromley, London, which had been damaged in the war.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: In 1952, the Duchess also visited Sarawak (then a British Crown Colony), where she laid the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St Thomas in Kuching. She also visited the Batu Lintang camp, a Japanese internment camp during World War II which had been converted to a teacher training college, and the city of Sibu, where she opened the outpatient department of the Lau Kheng Howe Hospital.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: In March 1957, when the Gold Coast achieved independence from Britain as Ghana, the Duchess of Kent was appointed to represent the Queen at the celebrations. Fifty years later, at the 50th anniversary of Ghana's independence, her son, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, was appointed by the Queen to represent her.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Marina earned a place in the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1960 together with the Princess of Monaco, Patricia Lopez-Willshaw and Merle Oberon. In 1964, the Princess took an extensive tour of Australia and officially opened Gladesville Bridge in Sydney.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: In September 1966, when the British Protectorate of Bechuanaland became the new Republic of Botswana, the Princess was appointed again to represent the Queen at the celebrations. The main public hospital in Gaborone, the new Botswana's capital, is named "Princess Marina Hospital". She was the Chancellor of the University of Kent at Canterbury from 1963 until her death.


title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

text: Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, died of a brain tumour at Kensington Palace at 11.40 am on 27 August 1968, aged 61. The funeral service for the Princess was held at St. George's Chapel on 30 August. She was buried in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore. Her funeral was the last royal ceremony attended by her brother-in-law, the former king Edward VIII. Her will was sealed in London after her death in 1968. Her estate was valued at £76,166 (or £940,600 in 2022 when adjusted for inflation).


title: Northern Exposure

text: Northern Exposure is an American Northern comedy-drama television series about the eccentric residents of a fictional small town in Alaska that ran on CBS from July 12, 1990, to July 26, 1995, with a total of 110 episodes. It received 57 award nominations during its five-year run and won 27, including the 1992 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series, two additional Primetime Emmy Awards, four Creative Arts Emmy Awards, and two Golden Globes. Critic John Leonard called "Northern Exposure" "the best of the best television in the past 10 years".


title: Northern Exposure

text: In the show, Rob Morrow played New York City native Joel Fleischman, a recently graduated physician who is sent to practice in Anchorage, Alaska, for several years to repay the state of Alaska for underwriting his medical education. However, much to his chagrin, he is assigned to the much smaller and remote town of Cicely, which is in need of a general practitioner. Originally the show focused on Fleischman's experiences in rural Alaska, but as it progressed, it became more of an ensemble show, focusing on various other Cicely residents.


title: Northern Exposure

text: The series was created by Joshua Brand and John Falsey, who also created the award-winning shows "St. Elsewhere" and "I'll Fly Away". It started as an mid-season replacement summer series on CBS in 1990 with 8 episodes. It returned for seven more episodes in spring 1991, then became a regular part of the network's schedule in 1991–92. It ranked among the top 10 viewed by 18- to 49-year-olds, and was part of the network's 1992–93 and 1993–94 schedules. Its last season, 1994–95, included a gap during the May 1995 sweeps when CBS broadcast other programming. "The show had a lot of life in it, and the move (Wednesday at 10pm) killed it," said executive producer Andrew Schneider. "This piddling out is sad."


title: Northern Exposure

text: In 1994, writer Sandy Veith won a suit in a jury trial against Universal, alleging that the series was based on his idea, yet he received no credit or compensation. Veith won $10 million in damages and legal fees on appeal in 1997. His suit was against the studio, not Brand and Falsey. In 1994, the "Los Angeles Times" reported that jurors seemed to believe the studio came to Brand and Falsey with the basic concept for the show rather than that the latter knowingly stole his idea. Some Universal executives had worked with Veith and Brand and Falsey. Veith's script was about an Italian-American doctor who moves to a small town in the South.


title: Northern Exposure

text: Morrow and his representatives spent much of seasons 4 and 5 lobbying for an improved contract, and intermittently threatened to leave the show. The producers responded by reducing Fleischman's role in the storylines, and introducing characters such as Mike Monroe (season 4) and Dr. Phil Capra (season 6) to partially compensate for the absence of Morrow, whose last appearance came midway through the show's final season.


title: Northern Exposure

text: In the show's last season, two new characters were introduced to try to fill the void left by Morrow's departure:


title: Northern Exposure

text: Major recurring characters include Apesanahkwat as Lester Haines (a native millionaire), Anthony Edwards as Mike Monroe (an environmental activist with multiple chemical sensitivity), Richard Cummings Jr. as Bernard Stevens (Chris's African American half-brother and "spiritual doppelgänger"), Graham Greene as Leonard (the local shaman), Diane Delano as Officer Barbara Semanski (Maurice's love interest), Adam Arkin as mysterious, obnoxious master chef Adam, and Valerie Mahaffey as his hypochondriac and very wealthy wife Eve. Mahaffey was the only actor from the series to win an Emmy Award.


title: Northern Exposure

text: Although Cicely is widely thought to be based on Talkeetna, Alaska, its main street and the filming location was that of Roslyn, Washington. "Northern Exposure II" (the main production facility) was in Redmond, Washington, in what is now the headquarters of Genie Industries, behind a business park.


title: Northern Exposure

text: According to "The Northern Exposure Book", the moose in the opening titles was named Mort and was provided by Washington State University, where he was part of a captive herd. To film the opening sequence, the crew fenced off Roslyn, set Mort loose, and lured him around with food.


title: Northern Exposure

text: Notable episodes in the series include the pilot (nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Writing), the third season's last episode, "Cicely" (which won a Peabody Award, three Creative Arts Emmy Awards, and a Directors Guild of America Award), and the fifth-season episode "I Feel the Earth Move", which featured the second same-sex marriage story arc on U.S. prime-time television. (Fox's "Roc" aired the first U.S. prime-time television episode depicting a same-sex marriage, "Can't Help Loving That Man", on October 20, 1991.)


title: Northern Exposure

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of "Northern Exposure" has a score of 100% based on six reviews, with an average rating of 7.0/10. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted score, the first season is rated 80 based on seven reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews," while the second season has an 83 based on nine, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Northern Exposure

text: "Entertainment Weekly"’s Ken Tucker gave the first episode a B+, writing that the show “may well prove to be summer television’s most likably eccentric series”.


title: Northern Exposure

text: Over the course of "Northern Exposure"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s run, the cast and crew won seven Emmy Awards out of 39 nominations:


title: Northern Exposure

text: The series won two Golden Globe awards for Best Drama series, in 1992 and 1993. In addition, Morrow and Turner were each nominated three times consecutively from 1992 to 1994 for Best Actor and Actress, while Corbett was nominated in 1993 for his supporting role.


title: Northern Exposure

text: The series won a pair of consecutive Peabody Awards: in 1991–92 for the show's "depict[ion] in a comedic and often poetic way, [of] the cultural clash between a transplanted New York City doctor and the townspeople of fictional Cicely, Alaska" and its stories of "people of different backgrounds and experiences" clashing but who ultimately "strive to accept their differences and co-exist".


title: Northern Exposure

text: "Northern Exposure: Music from the Television Series" (USA, original soundtrack, 1992)MCA Records, Inc. MCAD-10685


title: Northern Exposure

text: "Ausgerechnet Alaska" (German covers, 1992),Distributed by IDEAL Vertrieb, Wichmannstr. 4, 2000 Hamburg 52 (Out of Print)


title: Northern Exposure

text: Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released all six seasons on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4. The Region 1 DVD releases have caused controversy among the show's fans due to their high prices and the changes to the soundtrack introduced in order to lower their costs. The release of Season 1 contained the original music, but retailed for $60 due to the cost of music licensing. Subsequent seasons replaced most of the music with generic elevator-style music, resulting in a lower-cost release. The first and second seasons were also rereleased together in packaging that matches the third through sixth seasons. On July 21, 2020, "Northern Exposure" was rereleased by Shout Factory, containing all 110 episodes but not with all original music. The R2 editions released in Germany on DVD contain all the original music.


title: Northern Exposure

text: On March 19, 2018, Fabulous Films released the entire series on Blu-ray in the UK containing all original music.


title: Northern Exposure

text: In 2016, Darren Burrows and his production company, Film Farms, held a crowdfunding campaign to fund a development project with the goal of creating more episodes. The working title for this project is "Northern Exposure: Home Again". Despite not meeting the original $100,000 goal, Darren decided to continue with the project.


title: Northern Exposure

text: On June 17, 2016, Film Farms announced that writer David Assael had been hired to write for the project. He previously wrote several episodes, including "Russian Flu," "Spring Break," and "It Happened in Juneau," among others. The revival was originally envisioned as a two-hour "visit to Cicely," but a ten-episode series was reportedly being pitched to various network, cable, and streaming venues.


title: Northern Exposure

text: On November 20, 2018, it was reported that a revival series was in the early stages of development at CBS, with Brand, Falsey, and Morrow executive producing and Morrow again playing Fleischman. Corbett was named as producer but his appearance as a performer was not confirmed.


title: Northern Exposure

text: Falsey died in January 2019, and on May 19, 2019, Josef Adalian, an editor from the New York City-based magazine that CBS had cancelled development work on the series. Adalian subsequently tweeted that the rights holder, Universal Studios, could pitch the revival elsewhere, but it was unclear whether Universal was planning to move the project to another outlet. Morrow, who was busy with other commitments, found out about Falsey's death on Twitter.


title: Northern Exposure

text: On November 15, 2019, Morrow revealed in an interview on radio station WGN 720AM in Chicago that he and Brand were continuing revival efforts despite Falsey's death and CBS's decision.


title: Symbol

text: A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences. All communication (and data processing) is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas, or visual images and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs. For example, a red octagon is a common symbol for "STOP"; on maps, blue lines often represent rivers; and a red rose often symbolizes love and compassion. Numerals are symbols for numbers; letters of an alphabet may be symbols for certain phonemes; and personal names are symbols representing individuals. The variable 'x', in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space.


title: Symbol

text: The academic study of symbols is semiotics. In cartography, an organized collection of symbols forms a legend for a map.


title: Symbol

text: The word "symbol" derives from the late Middle French masculine noun "symbole", which appeared around 1380 in a theological sense signifying a formula used in the Roman Catholic Church as a sort of synonym for 'the credo'; by extension in the early Renaissance it came to mean 'a maxim' or 'the external sign of a sacrament'; these meanings were lost in secular contexts. It was during the Renaissance in the mid-16th century that the word took on the meaning that is dominant today, that of 'a natural fact or object evoking by its form or its nature an association of ideas with something abstract or absent'; this appears, for example, in François Rabelais, "Le Quart Livre", in 1552. This French word derives from Latin, where both the masculine noun "symbolus" and the neuter noun "symbolum" refer to "a mark or sign as a means of recognition." The Latin word derives from the Greek σύμβολον "symbolon", from a verb meaning 'throw together, put together, compare,' alluding to the Classical practice of breaking a piece of ceramic in two and giving one half to the person who would receive a future message, and one half to the person who would send it: when the two fit perfectly together, the receiver could be sure that the messenger bearing it did indeed also carry a genuine message from the intended person. A literary or artistic symbol as an "outward sign" of something else is a metaphorical extension of this notion of a message from a sender to a recipient. In English, the meaning "something which stands for something else" was first recorded in 1590, in Edmund Spenser's "Faerie Queene".


title: Symbol

text: Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. Symbols are the basis of all human understanding and serve as vehicles of conception for all human knowledge. Symbols facilitate understanding of the world in which we live, thus serving as the grounds upon which we make judgments. In this way, people use symbols not only to make sense of the world around them, but also to identify and cooperate in society through constitutive rhetoric.


title: Symbol

text: Human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture. Thus, symbols carry meanings that depend upon one's cultural background. As a result, the meaning of a symbol is not inherent in the symbol itself but is culturally learned.


title: Symbol

text: Semiotics is the study of signs, symbols, and signification as communicative behavior. Semiotics studies focus on the relationship of the signifier and the signified, also taking into account the interpretation of visual cues, body language, sound, and other contextual clues. Semiotics is linked with linguistics and psychology. Semioticians not only study what a symbol implies but also how it got its meaning and how it functions to make meaning in society. Symbols allow the human brain continuously to create meaning using sensory input and decode symbols through both denotation and connotation.


title: Symbol

text: An alternative definition of "symbol", distinguishing it from the term "sign" was proposed by Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung. In his studies on what is now called Jungian archetypes, a sign stands for something known, as a word stands for its referent. He contrasted a sign with a "symbol": something that is unknown and that cannot be made clear or precise. An example of a symbol in this sense is Christ as a symbol of the archetype called "self".


title: Symbol

text: Kenneth Burke described "Homo sapiens" as a "symbol-using, symbol making, and symbol misusing animal" to suggest that a person creates symbols as well as misuses them. One example he uses to indicate what he means by the misuse of symbol is the story of a man who, when told that a particular food item was whale blubber, could barely keep from throwing it up. Later, his friend discovered it was actually just a dumpling. But the man's reaction was a direct consequence of the symbol of "blubber" representing something inedible in his mind. In addition, the symbol of "blubber" was created by the man through various kinds of learning.


title: Symbol

text: Burke goes on to describe symbols as also being derived from Sigmund Freud's work on condensation and displacement, further stating that symbols are not just relevant to the theory of dreams but also to "normal symbol systems". He says they are related through "substitution", where one word, phrase, or symbol is substituted for another in order to change the meaning. In other words, if one person does not understand a certain word or phrase, another person may substitute a synonym or symbol in order to get the meaning across. However, upon learning the new way of interpreting a specific symbol, the person may change his or her already-formed ideas to incorporate the new information.


title: Symbol

text: Jean Dalby Clift says that people not only add their own interpretations to symbols, they also create personal symbols that represent their own understanding of their lives: what she calls "core images" of the person. Clift argues that symbolic work with these personal symbols or core images can be as useful as working with dream symbols in psychoanalysis or counseling.


title: Symbol

text: William Indick suggests that the symbols that are commonly found in myth, legend, and fantasy fulfill psychological functions and hence are why archetypes such as "the hero," "the princess" and "the witch" have remained popular for centuries.


title: Symbol

text: Symbols can carry symbolic value in three primary forms: Ideological, comparative, and isomorphic. Ideological symbols such as religious and state symbols convey complex sets of beliefs and ideas that indicate "the right thing to do". Comparative symbols such as prestigious office addresses, fine art, and prominent awards indicate answers to questions of "better or worse" and "superior or inferior". Isomorphic symbols blend in with the surrounding cultural environment such that they enable individuals and organizations to conform to their surroundings and evade social and political scrutiny. Examples of symbols with isomorphic value include wearing a professional dress during business meetings, shaking hands to greet others in the West, or bowing to greet others in the East. A single symbol can carry multiple distinct meanings such that it provides multiple types of symbolic value.


title: Symbol

text: Paul Tillich argued that, while signs are invented and forgotten, symbols are born and die. There are, therefore, dead and living symbols. A living symbol can reveal to an individual hidden levels of meaning and transcendent or religious realities. For Tillich a symbol always "points beyond itself" to something that is unquantifiable and mysterious; symbols open up the "depth dimension of reality itself". Symbols are complex, and their meanings can evolve as the individual or culture evolves. When a symbol loses its meaning and power for an individual or culture, it becomes a dead symbol.


title: Symbol

text: When a symbol becomes identified with the deeper reality to which it refers, it becomes idolatrous as the "symbol is taken for reality." The symbol itself is substituted for the deeper meaning it intends to convey. The unique nature of a symbol is that it gives access to deeper layers of reality which are otherwise inaccessible.


title: Symbol

text: A symbol's meaning may be modified by various factors including popular usage, history, and contextual intent.


title: Symbol

text: The history of a symbol is one of many factors in determining a particular symbol's apparent meaning. Consequently, symbols with emotive power carry problems analogous to false etymologies.


title: Symbol

text: The context of a symbol may change its meaning. Similar five-pointed stars might signify a law enforcement officer or a member of the armed services, depending upon the uniform.


title: Symbol

text: Symbols are used in cartography to communicate geographical information (generally as point, line, or area features). As with other symbols, visual variables such as size, shape, orientation, texture, and pattern provide meaning to the symbol. According to semiotics, map symbols are "read" by map users when they make a connection between the graphic mark on the map (the "sign"), a general concept (the "interpretant"), and a particular feature of the real world (the "referent"). Map symbols can thus be categorized by how they suggest this connection:


title: Symbol

text: A symbolic action is an action that symbolizes or signals what the actor wants or believes. The action conveys meaning to the viewers. Symbolic action may overlap with symbolic speech, such as the use of flag burning to express hostility or saluting the flag to express patriotism. In response to intense public criticism, businesses, organizations, and governments may take symbolic actions rather than, or in addition to, directly addressing the identified problems.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire ( abbreviated Glos) is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the flat fertile valley of the River Severn and the entire Forest of Dean.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The county town is the city of Gloucester and other principal towns and villages include Cheltenham, Kingswood, Bradley Stoke, Stroud, Thornbury, Cirencester, Yate, Tewkesbury, Bishop's Cleeve, Churchdown, Brockworth, Winchcombe, Dursley, Cam, Berkeley, Wotton-under-Edge, Tetbury, Moreton-in-Marsh, Fairford, Lechlade, Northleach, Stow-on-the-Wold,


title: Gloucestershire

text: Chipping Campden, Bourton-on-the-Water, Stonehouse, Nailsworth, Minchinhampton, Painswick, Winterbourne, Frampton Cotterell, Coleford, Cinderford, Lydney and Rodborough and Cainscross that are within Stroud's urban area.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire borders Herefordshire to the north-west, Worcestershire to the north, Warwickshire to the north-east, Oxfordshire to the east, Wiltshire to the south, Bristol and Somerset to the south-west, and the Welsh county of Monmouthshire to the west.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The current Gloucestershire County Council area does not have the same geographical boundaries as the historic county. Some northern parts of the county, including Long Marston and Welford-on-Avon, were transferred to Warwickshire in 1931. Following the Local Government Act 1972, some southern parts of the county were transferred for administrative purposes to the new county of Avon, which ceased to exist on 1 April 1996. After 1996, the city of Bristol and South Gloucestershire became separate unitary authorities.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" in the 10th century, though the areas of Winchcombe and the Forest of Dean were not added until the late 11th century. Gloucestershire originally included Bristol, then a small town. The local rural community moved to the port city (as Bristol was to become), and Bristol's population growth accelerated during the industrial revolution. Bristol became a county in its own right, separate from Gloucestershire and Somerset in 1373. It later became part of the administrative County of Avon from 1974 to 1996.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Upon the abolition of Avon in 1996, the region north of Bristol became a unitary authority area of South Gloucestershire and is now part of the ceremonial county of Gloucestershire.


title: Gloucestershire

text: In July 2007, Gloucestershire was subject to some of the worst flooding in recorded British history, with tens of thousands of residents affected. The RAF conducted the largest peacetime domestic operation in its history to rescue over 120 residents from flood-affected areas. The damage was estimated at over £2 billion.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire has three main landscape areas, a large part of the Cotswolds, the Royal Forest of Dean and the Severn Vale. The Cotswolds take up a large portion of the east and south of the county, The Forest of Dean taking up the west, with the Severn and its valley running between these features. The Daffodil Way in the Leadon Valley, on the border of Gloucestershire and Herefordshire surrounding the village of Dymock, is known for its many spring flowers, orchards, and woodland, which attracts many walkers. In the west, the Wye valley borders Wales.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire is a ceremonial county in South West England. Gloucestershire County Council's 53 seats are majority-controlled by the Conservatives, though the Liberal Democrats have a sizeable presence on the council. The Council Leader is Mark Hawthorne. The County Council shares responsibility with six district councils: Tewkesbury, Forest of Dean, City of Gloucester, Cheltenham, Stroud and Cotswold.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The southernmost part of the county, South Gloucestershire is governed by South Gloucestershire Council, which is a unitary authority council independent of the county council but the unitary authority is still part of the ceremonial county. Previously, the area of South Gloucestershire was part of the county of Avon. Although Avon was abolished in 1996, some services in South Gloucestershire are still provided in conjunction with other former parts of Avon county, such as the Avon Fire and Rescue Service. Since 2017, South Gloucestershire has been part of the West of England Combined Authority, which is under the directly elected mayor Dan Norris.


title: Gloucestershire

text: There are six parliamentary constituencies in Gloucestershire, all of which are Conservative controlled as of the 2019 general election. Due to the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, Gloucestershire will be combined with Wiltshire for parliamentary boundary purposes, allowing cross-county electoral divisions.


title: Gloucestershire

text: This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Gloucestershire at current basic prices published (pp. 240–253) by "Office for National Statistics" with figures in millions of Pounds Sterling.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The following is a chart of Gloucestershire's gross value added total in millions of Pounds Sterling from 1997 to 2009 based upon the Office for National Statistics figures


title: Gloucestershire

text: The 2009 estimation of £11,452 million GVA can be compared to the South West regional average of £7,927 million.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire has mainly comprehensive schools with seven selective schools; two are in Stroud, Stroud High School for girls and Marling School for boys, one in Cheltenham, Pate's Grammar, and four in Gloucester, Sir Thomas Rich's for boys (aged 11–18) and girls (aged 16–18, in the sixth form), and Denmark Road High School and Ribston Hall for girls and The Crypt which is mixed. There are 42 state secondary schools, not including sixth form colleges, and 12 independent schools, including Cheltenham Ladies' College, Cheltenham College and Dean Close School. All but about two schools in each district have a sixth form, but the Forest of Dean only has two schools with sixth forms. All schools in South Gloucestershire have sixth forms.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire has two universities, the University of Gloucestershire and the Royal Agricultural University, and four higher and further education colleges, Gloucestershire College, Cirencester College, South Gloucestershire and Stroud College and the Royal Forest of Dean College. Each has campuses at multiple locations throughout the county.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The University of the West of England also has three locations in Gloucestershire; an associate faculty (Hartpury College) specialising in animal behaviour and welfare, agricultural and sports-related courses in Hartpury, Gloucestershire; a regional centre at the Gloucester Docks, Alexandra Warehouse, specialising in Adult and Mental Health Nursing; and Frenchay Campus in South Gloucestershire.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The county has two green belt areas, the first covers the southern area in the South Gloucestershire district, to protect outlying villages and towns between Thornbury and Chipping Sodbury from the urban sprawl of the Bristol conurbation. The second belt lies around Gloucester, Cheltenham, and Bishop's Cleeve, to afford those areas and villages in between a protection from urban sprawl and further convergence. Both belts intersect with the boundaries of the Cotswolds AONB.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire once had a much larger railway network than it does now with over 100 stations in the county, the vast majority of which were closed during the Beeching cuts. Nowadays, only 15 remain within the county, mostly concentrated on the CrossCountry NE-SW route and around the North Fringe of Bristol. Some stations have been re-opened in recent years; Cam and Dursley railway station opened in 1994, with Ashchurch for Tewkesbury opening three years later. Local campaign groups are also seeking to reopen several disused stations, including Charfield railway station in South Gloucestershire.


title: Gloucestershire

text: There are a variety of religious buildings across the county, notably the cathedral of Gloucester, the abbey church of Tewkesbury (which is over 500 years old and has the tallest Norman tower in England), and the church of Cirencester. Of the abbey of Hailes near Winchcombe, founded by Richard, Earl of Cornwall, in 1246, little more than the foundations are left, but these have been excavated and fragments have been brought to light.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Most of the old market towns have parish churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury and Bishop's Cleeve near Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the pre-Norman work they retain. There is also a Perpendicular church in Lechlade, and that at Fairford was built (c. 1500), according to tradition, to contain a series of stained-glass windows which are said to have been brought from the Netherlands. These are, however, adjudged to be of English workmanship.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Other notable buildings include Calcot Barn in Calcot, a relic of Kingswood Abbey. Thornbury Castle is a Tudor country house, the pretensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham is the 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve. The mansion contains a tiled floor from Hailes Abbey. At Great Badminton is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts (formerly of the Botelers and others), on the south-eastern boundary of the county. Berkeley Castle at over 800 years old and the ruins of Witcombe Roman Villa at Great Witcombe are also notable heritage features.


title: Gloucestershire

text: There are several royal residences in Gloucestershire, including Highgrove House, Gatcombe Park, and (formerly) Nether Lypiatt Manor.


title: Gloucestershire

text: An annual "cheese-rolling" event takes place at Cooper's Hill, near Brockworth and the Cotswold Games occurred within the county.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Gloucestershire's only daily newspaper is the Western Daily Press, while The Citizen, which covers Gloucester, Stroud and the Forest of Dean, and the "Gloucestershire Echo", which covers Cheltenham, Tewkesbury and the Cotswolds, were published daily but since October 2017 have been weekly publications. All three, along with free weeklies "The Forester", "Stroud Life", "The Gloucester News" and "The Cheltenham and Tewkesbury News", are published by Local World.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The "Stroud News & Journal" is a weekly paid-for newspaper based in Stroud. It is published in a tabloid format by Newsquest. Newsquest also produces the weekly "Wilts and Gloucestershire Standard" newspaper, which covers the southern and eastern parts of the county as well as the weekly "Gloucestershire Gazette", which covers the south of the county and much of South Gloucestershire.


title: Gloucestershire

text: "Gloucester News Centre" is an independent news website with news and information for Gloucestershire.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Radio stations in Gloucestershire include BBC Radio Gloucestershire and Heart Gloucestershire, Sunshine Radio and The Breeze (Cheltenham & North Gloucestershire). There are also several community radio stations including Gloucester FM, Radio Winchcombe, Forest of Dean Radio, North Cotswold Community Radio, and Severn FM.


title: Gloucestershire

text: Local TV for the county is provided by BBC West and ITV West Country from Bristol, although in the northern extremes of Gloucestershire, BBC Midlands and ITV Central (West) from Birmingham covers this area. Some eastern parts of the county (Cirencester and parts of the Cotswolds) receive BBC South and ITV Meridian from Oxford.


title: Gloucestershire

text: There are two well-known accounts of childhood in rural Gloucestershire in the early 20th century, Laurie Lee's "Cider With Rosie" and Winifred Foley's "A Child in the Forest". Part of Mrs. Craik's novel "John Halifax, Gentleman" is set in Enderley, a thinly disguised Amberley, where she lived at the time of writing. Most of the book is set in Nortonbury, easily recognisable as Tewkesbury.


title: Gloucestershire

text: The county has also been the setting for a number of high-profile movies and TV series, including "Die Another Day", the Harry Potter films and the BBC TV series "Butterflies".


title: Gloucestershire

text: "A Girl's Best Friend", the pilot for the proposed "Doctor Who" spin-off "K-9 and Company", was filmed in Gloucestershire. The setting is the fictional town of Moreton Harwood. The fictional town of Leadworth in "Doctor Who" is in Gloucestershire. It is the home of companions Amy Pond, Rory Williams and River Song in their childhoods and young adulthoods. Additionally, the 2020 episode "Fugitive of the Judoon" was set and filmed at Gloucester Cathedral.


title: Gloucestershire

text: A fictional Brimpsfield was the village, home of Peter and Abby Grant, in the 1970s BBC TV series "Survivors", with a railway connection to London.