title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: The Sailor Soldiers eventually pinpoint the location of the Dark Kingdom at the North Pole and travel there. However, Usagi's friends are killed trying to protect her from Queen Beryl's most powerful monsters, the DD Girls. Usagi faces the brainwashed Mamoru alone and frees him from Queen Beryl’s control. However, Mamoru is killed protecting Usagi while also striking down Queen Beryl. Using the Silver Crystal, she then faces Queen Beryl (who has fused with Queen Metaria) as Princess Serenity, defeating her with the help of the fallen Sailor Soldiers' spirits and the Silver Crystal's power. Usagi dies afterwards, but she is able to use the last of the Silver Crystal's power to resurrect herself, the Sailor Soldiers and Mamoru with one wish that they all get to live normal lives again. Everything on Earth is returned to normal, and no one (but Artemis and Luna) retain any memories of these events.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Some time later, a pair of extraterrestrials named Ail and Ann descend onto Earth with the Hell Tree which feeds on human energy. Ail and Ann summon monsters from cards — called Cardians — to prey on humans. In order to defend against these attacks, Luna restores the Sailor Soldiers' memories. Eventually, Ail and Ann are defeated, see the error of their ways, and return to space with the Makai Tree. During these events, Mamoru is able to reclaim his lost memories and begins a romantic relationship with Usagi. Shortly after these events, a pink-haired girl named Chibiusa falls from the sky, revealing that she traveled from the future in order to find the Silver Crystal and use it to save her parents. She is followed by the Black Moon Clan, a new enemy force that is trying to kill her. Eventually, the Sailor Soldiers and Tuxedo Mask travel with Chibiusa to the future where Usagi rules Crystal Tokyo as Neo-Queen Serenity. They learn that Chibiusa is actually Usagi and Mamoru's future daughter, and they also meet Sailor Pluto who guards the Door of Space-Time. Eventually, the Sailor Soldiers battle against Wiseman, a dark force that was manipulating the Black Moon Clan with the goal of destroying Earth. Chibiusa is able to summon the Silver Crystal of the future and aids in the destruction of Wiseman. Afterwards, Chibiusa returns to her own time, now freed from the Black Moon Clan's corruption.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Some time later, the Sailor Soldiers encounter the Death Busters, an evil organization that is summoning monsters called Daimons to steal Heart Crystals from humans. Their intention is to locate three specific Heart Crystals that contain special Talismans. Joining the Sailor Soldiers are Haruka Tenoh and Michiru Kaioh, who operate as Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune respectively. The two are also seeking the Talismans for different purposes and come into conflict with the other Sailor Soldiers. Sailor Pluto returns to the present day as Setsuna Meioh; Chibiusa also returns, now donning her own magical girl identity of Sailor Chibi Moon.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: The Death Busters eventually discover that Haruka and Michiru hold two of the Talismans and acquire them at the cost of their lives, but Setsuna — who holds the third — revives them. The Talismans create the Holy Grail, allowing Usagi to acquire a second form: Super Sailor Moon. The Death Busters' intentions then change to harvesting Heart Crystals en masse to resurrect the malevolent entity known as Mistress 9. Chibiusa also befriends a sickly girl named Hotaru, unaware that she is the daughter of the Death Busters' leader, Professor Tomoe. Unknown to her, Hotaru is also Sailor Saturn, a Sailor Soldier capable of destroying and rebirthing entire planets. Haruka, Michiru and Setsuna fear that Saturn's awakening will result in Earth's destruction and plead for Usagi to kill her.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Mistress 9 is revealed to have been residing within Hotaru's body and awakens upon stealing Chibiusa's Heart Crystal. The Sailor Soldiers go to Mugen Academy to stop the Death Busters and save Chibiusa, Hotaru, & the world. Sailor Moon is the only one who is able to enter the academy thanks to Mistress 9, and Pluto sacrifices her life to save Uranus and Neptune who are able to make it in the academy as well. The other Sailor Soldiers erect a barrier to keep the enemy from destroying the city and the world. Mistress 9 then tricks Usagi into handing over the Holy Grail, allowing her to summon Pharaoh 90 to destroy the Earth. Hotaru awakens as Sailor Saturn, destroys Mistress 9, and intends to sacrifice herself to stop Pharaoh 90, but Usagi is able to activate her Super form to destroy Pharaoh 90 and rescue Hotaru. Afterwards, Hotaru is reborn as a baby and returned to her father, now freed from the influence of the Death Busters. Uranus and Neptune then challenge Usagi to a fight to prove to them and everyone that she is the true Messiah and the future queen of Silver Millennium. After the fight, they both acknowledge her as their queen and leave the city knowing their mission is now over and that it is in safe hands. Following this, Chibiusa receives a letter from her parents from the future wanting her to return home. She returns briefly, but soon travels back to the 20th century to help the Sailor Soldiers and Tuxedo Mask defeat the last Daimon monster, and decides to stay in the present a bit longer.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Chibiusa remains in the present day to train as a Sailor Soldier. She meets an alicorn named Pegasus who forms a secret relationship with her through her dreams. Pegasus also aids the Sailor Soldiers by upgrading them to permanent Super forms and lending his power when summoned by Chibiusa. The new powers are used to combat the Dead Moon Circus, a mysterious circus troupe that targets humans with beautiful dreams. By looking into their Dream Mirrors, they hope to find the dream in which Pegasus is hiding, believing Pegasus possesses the Golden Crystal. With this crystal, the Dead Moon Circus's ruler — Queen Nehelenia — can be freed from the mirror she was sealed in.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Queen Nehelenia was once a queen of her own kingdom that was absorbed by vanity. In fear of losing her beauty, she consumed the dreams of her subjects to stay young. She sought the Golden Crystal in the possession of a priest named Helios (Pegasus's true form) and was sealed within a mirror by Queen Serenity as a result. Queen Nehelenia formed the Dead Moon Circus and used Zirconia as a proxy to track Pegasus down. Although she obtains the Golden Crystal, she is betrayed by the Amazoness Quartet who gives the crystal to Chibiusa. Using the crystal, Queen Nehelenia is defeated and begins to wither with age, forcing her back into the mirror she was once sealed within. Helios returns to his home realm of Elysion.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Much unlike the manga, the four Sailor Guardians of the Outer Planets- Haruka Tenoh, Michiru Kaioh, Setsuna Meioh and Hotaru Tomoe, do not make any appearances nor are they mentioned or referenced.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Queen Nehelenia returns when Sailor Galaxia frees her and encourages her to seek revenge against the Sailor Soldiers especially Sailor Moon. The Outer Sailor Soldiers: Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, & Saturn return in their now Super forms to help out, Queen Nehelenia then places a curse on the mirrors throughout the city and affects almost everyone and she then targets Mamoru who is also affected by the curse and that will ultimately kill him and erase Chibiusa from existence. The Sailor Soldiers enter Queen Nehelenia's nightmare dimension to stop her. Usagi eventually comes to pity Queen Nehelenia's plight and is able to rid her of her negativity by activating her final form, Eternal Sailor Moon.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Shortly after these events, Mamoru leaves for the United States to study abroad while Usagi and her friends enter high school. Chibiusa also returns to her own time. A group of enemies called the Sailor Animamates — led by Sailor Galaxia — begin targeting humans for their Star Seeds (which serve as a human's life force). Usagi is also aided by the Sailor Starlights — Kou Seiya (Sailor Star Fighter), Kou Taiki (Sailor Star Maker), and Kou Yaten (Sailor Star Healer) — who disguise themselves as an idol group named the Three Lights. The Starlights are searching for their ruler, Princess Kakyuu. A young girl — nicknamed Chibi Chibi because of her limited vocabulary that usually involves the word "chibi" — also appears and begins living with Usagi.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Sailor Galaxia's past is eventually revealed. She once ended the Sailor Wars by sealing Chaos — the source of all malice — within her body. Unable to resist Chaos's influence, she separated her Star Seed from her body, and it took the form of Chibi Chibi. Sailor Galaxia steals the Star Seeds of Princess Kakyuu and all Usagi's companions, resulting in their deaths. This also includes Mamoru who was targeted and killed before he arrived in the United States. Chibi Chibi transforms into the Sword of Sealing and urges Usagi to kill Sailor Galaxia. However, Usagi instead uses the kindness in her own heart to free Sailor Galaxia of Chaos' corruption, effectively resurrecting all of the Sailor Soldiers, Princess Kakyuu, & Mamoru whose Star Seeds were taken. Normalcy is restored, and Mamoru and Usagi share a kiss under a full moon.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Naoko Takeuchi initially planned both the "Sailor Moon" manga and anime to only run for one season. Due to the season's popularity, Toei Animation asked Takeuchi to continue drawing her manga, but she initially struggled with developing another storyline to extend the series. At the suggestion of her editor, Fumio Osano, Takeuchi decided that the second season would focus on introducing Sailor Moon's daughter from the future. To give Takeuchi time to write the "Black Moon" story arc, the anime team developed a filler arc known as "Makai "(Lit. Hell)" Tree" arc.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: "Sailor Moon" is adapted from the 52 chapters of the series which was published in "Nakayoshi" from 1991–97. The first season is directed by Junichi Satō with Kazuko Tadano as a character designer. For the second season, Sato directed the "Makai Tree" arc while Kunihiko Ikuhara directed the "Black Moon" arc. The third and fourth seasons are directed by Ikuhara with Ikuko Itoh taking the role of character designer starting from the third season. The fifth and final season was directed by Takuya Igarashi and Katsumi Tamegai is the next person to be the character designer. It premiered in Japan on TV Asahi on March 7, 1992, taking over the timeslot previously held by "Goldfish Warning!", and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8 five years later.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Because the manga was often published during the anime's production, the anime would only lag the manga by a month or two. As a result, "the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations." Takeuchi has stated that due to Toei's largely male production staff, she feels that the anime version has "a slight male perspective."


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: "Sailor Moon" sparked a highly successful merchandising campaign of over 5,000 items which contributed to demand internationally and translation into numerous languages. "Sailor Moon" has since become one of the most famous anime properties in the world. Due to its resurgence of popularity in Japan, the series was rebroadcast on September 1, 2009. The series also began rebroadcasting in Italy in Autumn next year, receiving permission from Naoko Takeuchi, who released new artwork to promote its return.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: "Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon" consists of five separate seasons: "Sailor Moon", "Sailor Moon R", "Sailor Moon S", "Sailor Moon SuperS", and "Sailor Moon Sailor Stars". The seasons each roughly correspond to one of the five major story arcs of the manga, following the same general storyline and including most of the same characters. Toei also developed five special animated shorts. The anime series was sold as 20 volumes in Japan. By the end of 1995, each volume had sold approximately 300,000 copies.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: In 1995, after a bidding war with Toon Makers & Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, who wanted to produce an American live-action/animated hybrid adaptation, DIC Productions, L.P. (now Wildbrain), SeaGull Entertainment and Sachs Finley Media, licensed the first two seasons of "Sailor Moon" for an English-language release in North America. The Mississauga-based Optimum Productions was hired to dub the anime. Bob Summers wrote a new background score. DIC had mandated cuts to content and length, which reduced the first 89 episodes by seven. Their adaptation was created to capitalize on the success of "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers".


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: The series premiered in Canada on August 28, 1995 on YTV and in first-run syndication in the U.S. on September 11, but halted production in November 1995 after two seasons due to low ratings. Despite moderate success in Canada, the U.S. airing struggled in early morning "dead" timeslots; the series originally aired in the U.S. in morning and afternoon timeslots which Anne Allison describes as unsuitable for the target audience. In contrast, due to the dubbing process being done in Canada, the series was considered Canadian enough to be screened in primetime as local content. After the series was cancelled, a fan petition that garnered over 12,500 signatures was created. It caught the attention of General Mills, who, in 1997, agreed to sponsor and syndicate the Sailor Moon dub through The Program Exchange. This was later considered an early example of successful fan activism. On June 9, 1997, re-runs of this cancelled dub began airing on USA Network. That same year, production on the series' English dub was resumed with the last 17 episodes of the second season, "Sailor Moon R", and was broadcast in Canada from September 20 to November 21, 1997 to wrap up lingering plot lines.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: On June 1, 1998, reruns of the series began airing on Cartoon Network's weekday afternoon programming block, Toonami. Due to the ratings success of these reruns, the remaining seventeen episodes (promoted as "The Lost Episodes"), also began airing on November 30. In 1999, Cloverway Inc. once again contracted Optimum Productions to produce English-language adaptations of "Sailor Moon S" and "SuperS" with Pioneer Entertainment handling home video distribution. This dub featured less censorship and was first broadcast on YTV in Canada and later on Toonami in the United States. The dub finished airing on Toonami on September 13, 2002..


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Due to the series' resurgence of popularity in Japan, re-runs of the "Sailor Moon" series began on September 1, 2009 on Animax. In 2010, Toei negotiated to license and broadcast "Sailor Moon" in Italy on Mediaset (Canale 5, Rete 4), resulting in an international revival. Later, Toei licensed "Sailor Moon" episodes to countries which the show has not been aired before. On May 16, 2014, North American manga and anime distributor Viz Media announced that it had acquired the "Sailor Moon" anime series, as well as the three films and specials for an English-language release in North America, allowing Viz to restore the removed content from the first 89 episodes. The Studio City, Los Angeles-based Studiopolis was also hired by Viz to re-dub the entire series. The series began streaming in the United States on Neon Alley and Hulu on May 19, 2014, and in Canada, with Japanese audio on Tubi TV on July 15, 2016 and with English audio on Crave on September 18, 2020. On November 28, 2014, Australian manga and anime publisher Madman Entertainment announced that they had re-acquired the rights to the "Sailor Moon" anime series for Australia & New Zealand and will release the series in uncut format with the Viz Media English adaptation in 2015. Madman had previously held the Australian licence for Sailor Moon on VHS & DVD.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: "Sailor Moon"'s original North American release was the subject of heavy editing which resulted in large amounts of removed content and alterations that greatly changed the original work. These changes altered almost every aspect of the show including character names, clothing, scenes and dialogue. Some scenes with brief nudity and bathing were also censored, and any type of violence including violence against children was also removed. Homosexual characters, including Zoisite, Fisheye, Kunzite, and Sailors Uranus and Neptune were also altered, with the first two's gender changed from male to female, and Uranus and Neptune being explained as cousins rather than lovers. Changing evil characters' genders to female also had the side effect of creating more diverse female characterizations, as the evil female characters now did not have the same body type.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Viz Media's release restores all of the content that was cut from the original Japanese version, including scenes that were censored by Optimum Productions at the request of DiC and Cloverway.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Takanori Arisawa composed the score for "Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon". Arisawa earned the Golden Disk Grand Prize from Columbia Records for his work on the first series soundtrack in 1993. In 1998, 2000, and 2001 Arisawa won three consecutive JASRAC International Awards for most international royalties, owing largely to the popularity of "Sailor Moon" music in other nations.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: The first opening theme, , was used for the first 166 episodes, being performed by DALI for the first two seasons and then by Moon Lips for the next two seasons. The second opening theme, for the remaining episodes, is "Sailor Star Song" performed by Kae Hanazawa. The last ending theme, used for the series finale at episode 200, is Moon Lips's version of "Moonlight Densetsu".


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: The DiC/Cloverway/Optimum English adaptation of the anime series used the melody of "Moonlight Densetsu" with very different English lyrics. At the time, it was unusual for anime theme songs to be translated, and this was one of the first such themes to be redone in English since "Star Blazers". The English theme has been described as "inane but catchy". The Japanese theme is a love song based on the relationship between Usagi and Mamoru ("born on the same Earth"), whereas the English "Sailor Moon" theme rather resembles a superhero anthem.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: "Moonlight Densetsu" was released as a CD single in March 1992, and was an "explosive hit." "Moonlight Densetsu" won first place in the Song category in Animage's 15th and 16th Anime Grand Prix. It came seventh in the 17th Grand Prix, and "Moon Revenge" from "", came eighth. Rashiku Ikimasho, the second closing song for "SuperS", placed eighteenth in 1996. In 1997, "Sailor Star Song", the new opening theme for "Sailor Stars", came eleventh, and "Moonlight Densetsu" came sixteenth.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: In Japan, "Sailor Moon" received VHS releases during its run. The first VHS was released on July 25, 1993. "Sailor Moon" did not receive a DVD release until 2002. Mass-produced individual six-episode DVDs were released beginning on May 21, 2002. On January 25, 2017, the Blu-ray collection of the series was released from June 14 during the franchise's 25th anniversary as "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon", and each seasons consisted 23 episodes per volume.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: In 2014, Viz Media announced plans to release the series in both Blu-ray Disc and DVD format, with the first set released on November 11, 2014. In addition, the first twenty-three episodes of their redub premiered on the streaming sites, Hulu and Neon Alley, beginning September 5, 2014. The first part of season one was released on DVD and Limited Edition Blu-ray on November 11, 2014 and the second part was released on February 10, 2015.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: During the series' broadcast run, three theatrical animated "Sailor Moon" films were produced: "" (1993), "" (1994), and "" (1995). The films were released in December to line up with the winter vacations of Japanese schools. They were typically double features paired up with other anime films, and were thus usually an hour or less in length. Each film features an original story that takes place during the season it is based on.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Originally planned to run for only six months, the "Sailor Moon" anime continued due to its popularity, concluding after a five-year run. In Japan, it aired every Saturday night in prime time at 7 p.m. and its run there was very popular, with an average viewer rating of 11–12% for most of the series run. Commentators detect in the anime adaptation of "Sailor Moon" "a more shonen tone", appealing to a wider audience than the manga, which aimed squarely at teenage girls. The media franchise became one of the most successful Japan has ever had, reaching $1.5 billion in merchandise sales during the first three years. Ten years after the series completion, the series featured among the top thirty of "TV Asahi" Top 100 anime polls in 2005 and 2006. The anime series won the Animage Anime Grand Prix prize in 1993. Sales of "Sailor Moon" fashion dolls overtook those of Licca-chan in the 1990s; Mattel attributed this to the "fashion-action" blend of the "Sailor Moon" storyline. Doll accessories included both fashion items and the Sailor Soldiers' weapons. The first season holds an approval rating of 90% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on ten reviews. The site's consensus reads "Powerfully feminine and hypnotically cheesy, "Sailor Moon's" iconic anime still sparkles after all these years."


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: "Sailor Moon" has also become popular internationally. Spain and France became the first countries outside Japan to air "Sailor Moon", beginning in December 1993. Other countries followed suit, including South Korea, the Philippines ("Sailor Moon" became one of ABC (now 5)'s main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country), Poland, Russia, Italy, the Czech Republic, Mexico, Brazil, Ukraine, Belarus, Sweden, Germany, Bulgaria, Austria, Indonesia, Croatia, Hungary, Taiwan, Thailand, Romania and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In 2001, the "Sailor Moon" manga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Critics have commended the anime series for its portrayal of strong friendships as well as for its large cast of "strikingly different" characters who have different dimensions and aspects to them as the story continues and for an ability to appeal to a wide audience. Writer Nicolas Penedo attributes the success of "Sailor Moon" to its fusion of the shōjo manga genre of magical girls with the "Saint Seiya" fighting teams. According to Martha Cornog and Timothy Perper, "Sailor Moon" became popular because of its "strongly-plotted action with fight scenes, rescues" and its "emphasis on feelings and relationships", including some "sexy romance" between Usagi and Mamoru. Usagi and Mamoru's romance has been seen as an archetype where the lovers "become more than the sum of their parts", promising to be together forever. In contrast, others see "Sailor Moon" as campy and melodramatic. Criticism has singled out its use of formulaic plots, monsters of the day and stock footage.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Screen Rant called the anime "partly revolutionary for how it depicted its heroines" as it featured women who were "distinct because of their personalities," while AfterEllen said that the anime "features the best-known yuri relationship in history" between Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune. Yuricon said that the relationship could be described as butch-femme


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Patrick Drazen states that "Sailor Moon" has two kinds of villains, the "monster of the day" and the "thinking, feeling humans." Although this is common in anime and manga, it is "almost unheard of in the West." Despite the series' apparent popularity among Western anime fandom, the dubbed version of the series received poor ratings in the United States when it was initially broadcast in syndication and did not do well in DVD sales in the United Kingdom. Anne Allison attributes the lack of popularity in the United States primarily to poor marketing (in the United States, the series was initially broadcast at times which did not suit the target audience – weekdays at 9:00 a. m. and 2:00 pm). Executives connected with "Sailor Moon" suggest that poor localization played a role. British authors Helen McCarthy and Jonathan Clements go further, calling the dub "indifferent" and suggesting that "Sailor Moon" was put in "dead" timeslots due to local interests. British distributor MVM Films attributed the low sales to the United Kingdom release being of the dub only, and that major retailers refused to support the show leading to the DVD release appealing to neither children nor older anime fans.


title: Sailor Moon (TV series)

text: Due to anti-Japanese sentiment, most Japanese media other than anime was banned for several decades in South Korea. A producer in KBS "did not even try to buy" "Sailor Moon" because the producer thought it would not pass the censorship laws, but by April 1997, "Sailor Moon" was airing on KBS 2 without issues and was "enormously" popular.


title: History of pizza

text: The history of pizza begins in antiquity, as various ancient cultures produced basic flatbreads with several toppings.


title: History of pizza

text: A precursor of pizza was probably the focaccia, a flatbread known to the Romans as , to which toppings were then added. Modern pizza evolved from similar flatbread dishes in Naples, Italy, in the 18th or early 19th century.


title: History of pizza

text: The word "pizza" was first documented in 997 AD in Gaeta and successively in different parts of Central and Southern Italy. Pizza was mainly eaten in Italy and by emigrants from there. This changed after World War II when Allied troops stationed in Italy came to enjoy pizza along with other Italian foods.


title: History of pizza

text: In Sardinia, French and Italian archaeologists have found bread baked over 7,000 years ago. According to Philippe Marinval, the local islanders leavened this bread. Foods similar to pizza have been made since antiquity. Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history.


title: History of pizza

text: Some commentators have suggested that the origins of modern pizza can be traced to "pizzarelle", which were kosher for Passover cookies eaten by Roman Jews after returning from the synagogue on that holiday, though some also trace its origins to other Italian paschal bread.


title: History of pizza

text: Other examples of flatbreads that survive to this day from the ancient Mediterranean world are focaccia (which may date back as far as the ancient Etruscans); Manakish in the Levant, coca (which has sweet and savory varieties) from Catalonia, Valencia and the Balearic Islands; the Greek Pita; Lepinja in the Balkans; or Piadina in the Romagna part of Emilia-Romagna in Italy.


title: History of pizza

text: Foods similar to flatbreads in other parts of the world include Chinese bing (a wheat flour-based Chinese food with a flattened or disk-like shape); the Indian paratha (in which fat is incorporated); the Central and South Asian naan (leavened) and roti (unleavened); the Sardinian carasau, spianata, guttiau, pistoccu; and Finnish rieska. Also worth noting is that throughout Europe, there are many similar pies based on the idea of covering flat pastry with cheese, meat, vegetables and seasoning, such as the Alsatian flammkuchen, German zwiebelkuchen, and French quiche.


title: History of pizza

text: In 16th-century Naples, a galette flatbread was referred to as a pizza; it was known as a dish for poor people, particularly as street food, and was not considered a kitchen recipe until much later. It was not until the Spanish brought the tomato from the Americas and developed the modern variation that Pizzas in their modern conception were invented. It is said that the tomato reached the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, at the time part of the Spanish Empire, through either Pedro Álvarez de Toledo in the 16th century or viceroy Manuel de Amat, who may have gifted some seeds to the Neapolitans in 1770 on behalf of the Viceroyalty of Peru.


title: History of pizza

text: In 1843, Alexandre Dumas described the diversity of pizza toppings. An often recounted story holds that on June 11, 1889, to honour the queen consort of Italy, Margherita of Savoy, the Neapolitan pizza maker Raffaele Esposito created the "Pizza Margherita", a pizza garnished with tomatoes, mozzarella, and basil, to represent the national colours of Italy as on the Flag of Italy. But the Pizza Margherita already existed: "The most popular and famous pizzas from Naples were the ‘Marinara’, created in 1734, and the ‘Margherita’, which dates from 1796-1810. The latter was presented to the Queen of Italy upon her visit to Naples in 1889, specifically on account of the colour of its seasoning (tomato, mozzarella and basil), which are reminiscent of the colours of the Italian flag."


title: History of pizza

text: Pizza evolved into a variety of bread and tomato dish often served with cheese. However, until the late 19th or early 20th century, the dish was sweet, not savory, and earlier versions that were savory resembled the flatbreads now known as schiacciata. Pellegrino Artusi's classic early-twentieth-century cookbook, "La Scienza in cucina e l'Arte di mangiar bene" gives three recipes for pizza, all of which are sweet. After the feedback of some readers, Artusi added a typed sheet in the 1911 edition (discovered by food historian Alberto Capatti), bound with the volume, with the recipe of "pizza alla napoletana": mozzarella, tomatoes, anchovies and mushrooms.


title: History of pizza

text: However, by 1927, Ada Boni's first edition of "il talismano della felicità" (a well-known Italian cookbook) includes a recipe using tomatoes and mozzarella.


title: History of pizza

text: The innovation that led to flatbread pizza was the use of tomato as a topping. For some time after the tomato was brought to Europe from the Americas in the 16th century, it was believed by many Europeans to be poisonous, as are some other fruits of the "Solanaceae" (nightshade) family. By the late 18th century, it was common for the poor of the area around Naples to add tomato to their yeast-based flatbread, thus the pizza began.


title: History of pizza

text: According to documents discovered by historian Antonio Mattozzi in the State Archive of Naples, in 1807, 54 pizzerias existed; listed were owners and addresses. In the second half of the nineteenth century the number of pizzerias increased to 120.


title: History of pizza

text: In Naples, two other figures connected to the trade existed – the pizza hawker ("pizzaiuolo ambulante"), who sold pizza but did not make it, and the seller of pizza "a oggi a otto", who made pizzas and sold them in return for a payment for seven days.


title: History of pizza

text: The pizza marinara method has a topping of tomato, oregano, garlic, and extra virgin olive oil. It is named "marinara" because it was traditionally prepared by the seaman's wife 'la marinara" for her seafaring husband upon returning from fishing trips in the Bay of Naples.


title: History of pizza

text: The margherita is topped with modest amounts of tomato sauce, mozzarella, and fresh basil. It is widely attributed to baker Raffaele Esposito, who worked at the restaurant "Pietro... e basta così" ("Pietro... and that's enough"), established in 1880 and remaining in business as "Pizzeria Brandi". Though recent research casts doubt on this legend, the tale holds that, in 1889, he baked three different pizzas for the visit of King Umberto I and Queen Margherita of Savoy. The Queen's favorite was a pizza evoking the colors of the Italian flag – green (basil leaves), white (mozzarella), and red (tomatoes). According to the tale, this combination was named Pizza Margherita in her honor. Although those were the most preferred, there are many variations of pizzas today.


title: History of pizza

text: "Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana" ("True Neapolitan Pizza Association"), which was founded in 1984, has set the very specific rules that must be followed for an authentic Neapolitan pizza. These include that the pizza must be baked in a wood-fired, domed oven; the base must be hand-kneaded and must not be rolled with a pin or prepared by any mechanical means ("i pizzaioli" – the pizza makers – make the pizza by rolling it with their fingers) and that the pizza must not exceed 35 centimetres in diameter or be more than one-third of a centimetre thick at the centre. The association also selects pizzerias globally to produce and spread the verace pizza napoletana philosophy and method.


title: History of pizza

text: There are many famous pizzerias in Naples where these traditional pizzas can be found, such as Da Michele, Port'Alba, Brandi, Di Matteo, Sorbillo, Trianon, and Umberto. Most of them are in the ancient historical center of Naples. These pizzerias follow even stricter standards than the specified rules. For example, using only San Marzano tomatoes grown on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius and drizzling the olive oil and adding tomato topping in only a clockwise direction.


title: History of pizza

text: The pizza bases in Naples are soft and pliable. In Rome, they prefer a thin and crispy base. Another popular form of pizza in Italy is "pizza al taglio", which is pizza baked in rectangular trays with a wide variety of toppings and sold by weight.


title: History of pizza

text: In 1962, the "Hawaiian" pizza, a pizza topped with pineapple and ham, was invented in Canada by restaurateur Sam Panopoulos at the Satellite Restaurant in Chatham, Ontario.


title: History of pizza

text: In December 2009, the pizza napoletana was granted Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status by the European Union.


title: History of pizza

text: In 2016, robotics company BeeHex, widely covered in the media, was building robots that 3D-printed pizza.


title: History of pizza

text: In December 2017, the pizza napoletana was inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.


title: History of pizza

text: Canada's first pizzeria opened in 1948, Pizzeria Napoletana in Montreal. The first pizza ovens started entering the country in the late 1950s; it gained popularity throughout the 1960s, with many pizzerias and restaurants opening across the country. Pizza was mostly served in restaurants and small pizzerias. Most pizza restaurants across Canada also serve popular Italian cuisine in addition to pizza, such as pasta, salad, soups and sandwiches. Fast-food pizza chains also provide other side options for customers to choose from, in addition to ordering pizza, including chicken wings, fries and poutine, salad, and calzones. Pizza Pops are a Canadian calzone-type snack introduced in the 1960s. Pizza chains across Canada can be found in shopping centres, schools, and neighbourhood plazas, with the majority of these chains offering a sit-and-dine facility for customers.


title: History of pizza

text: The most distinct pizza in Canada is the "Canadian" pizza. A "Canadian" pizza is usually prepared with tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese, pepperoni, mushrooms, and bacon. Many variations of this pizza exist, but the two standout ingredients that make this pizza distinctly Canadian are bacon and mushrooms. Pizzas in Canada are almost never served with "Canadian bacon", or "back bacon", as it is referred to in Canada. Rather, side bacon is the standard pork topping on pizza.


title: History of pizza

text: In the province of Quebec Pizza-ghetti is a combination meal commonly found in fast food or family restaurants. It consists of a pizza, sliced in half, accompanied by a small portion of spaghetti with a tomato-based sauce. Although both pizza and spaghetti are considered staples of Italian cuisine, combining them in one dish is completely unknown in Italy. A popular variant involves using spaghetti as a pizza topping under the pizza's mozzarella cheese.


title: History of pizza

text: Some of Canada's successful pizza brands include: Boston Pizza and Pizza Pizza. Boston Pizza, also known as BP's in Canada, and "Boston'sthe Gourmet Pizza" in the United States and Mexico, is one of Canada's largest franchising restaurants. The brand has opened over 325 locations across Canada and 50 locations in Mexico and the US. The first Boston Pizza location was opened in Edmonton, Alberta, in 1964, and operated under the name "Boston Pizza & Spaghetti House", with locations still opening across the nation.


title: History of pizza

text: Pizza Pizza, and its subsidiary chain Pizza 73 in Western Canada, are among Canada's largest domestic brands based in Ontario. To date, they have over 500 locations nationwide and fill more than 29 million orders annually.


title: History of pizza

text: With pizza gaining popularity across the nation, major American pizza chains such as Pizza Hut, Domino's Pizza and Little Caesars have expanded their locations in Canada, competing against the domestic Canadian brands. The major American pizza chains have brought their signature classic pizza recipes and toppings into their Canadian chains, offering their traditional classic pizzas to Canadian customers. However, the American chains have also created Canadian specialty pizzas that are available only in Canada.


title: History of pizza

text: Pizza first made its appearance in the United States with the arrival of Italian immigrants in the late 19th century.


title: History of pizza

text: According to a 2009 response published in a column on Serious Eats, the first printed reference to "pizza" served in the US is a 1904 article in "The Boston Journal". Giovanni and Gennaro Bruno came to America from Naples, Italy, in 1903 and introduced the Neapolitan pizza to Boston. Later, Vincent Bruno (Giovanni's son) went on to open the first pizzeria in Chicago.


title: History of pizza

text: Conflicting stories have the first pizzeria opening in 1905 when Gennaro Lombardi applied for a license in New York to make and sell pizza. One of the generally accepted first US businesses to sell pizza, Lombardi's, opened in 1897 as a grocery store at 53½ Spring Street, with tomato pies wrapped in paper and tied with a string sold at lunchtime to workers from the area's factories. In 1905, putative founder Gennaro Lombardi received a business license to operate a pizzeria restaurant and soon had a clientele that included Italian tenor Enrico Caruso. He later passed the business on to his son, George.


title: History of pizza

text: Pizza was brought to the Trenton area of New Jersey with Joe's Tomato Pies opening in 1910, followed soon by Papa's Tomato Pies in 1912. In 1936, De Lorenzo's Tomato Pies was opened. While Joe's Tomato Pies has closed, both Papa's and Delorenzo's have been run by the same families since their openings and remain among the most popular pizzas in the area. Frank Pepe Pizzeria Napoletana in New Haven, Connecticut, was another early pizzeria that opened in 1925 (after the owner served pies from local carts and bakeries for 20–25 years) and is famous for its New Haven–style Clam Pie. Frank Pepe's nephew Sal Consiglio opened a competing store, Sally's Apizza, on the other end of the block, in 1938. Both establishments are still run by descendants of the original family. When Sal died, over 2,000 people attended his wake, and "The New York Times" ran a half-page memoriam. The D'Amore family introduced pizza to Los Angeles in 1939.


title: History of pizza

text: Before the 1940s, pizza consumption was limited mostly to Italian immigrants and their descendants. Following World War II, veterans returning from the Italian Campaign, who were introduced to Italy's native cuisine, proved a ready market for pizza in particular, touted by "veterans ranging from the lowliest private to Dwight D. Eisenhower". By the 1960s, it was popular enough to be featured in an episode of "Popeye the Sailor". Pizza consumption has exploded in the U.S with the introduction of pizza chains such as Domino's, Pizza Hut, and Papa John's.


title: History of pizza

text: Two entrepreneurs, Ike Sewell and Ric Riccardo, invented Chicago-style deep-dish pizza, in 1943. They opened their own restaurant on the corner of Wabash and Ohio, Pizzeria Uno.


title: History of pizza

text: Pizza chains sprang up with pizza's popularity rising. Leading early pizza chains were Shakey's Pizza, founded in 1954 in Sacramento, California; Pizza Hut, founded in 1958 in Wichita, Kansas; and Little Caesars, founded in 1959 in Garden City, Michigan. Later restaurant chains in the dine-in pizza market were Bertucci's, Happy Joe's, Monical's Pizza, California Pizza Kitchen, Godfather's Pizza, and Round Table Pizza, as well as Domino's, Pizza Hut, Little Caesars and Papa John's. Pizzas from take and bake pizzerias, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets make pizza readily available nationwide. 13% of the US population consumes pizza on any given day.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Pirated movie release types are the different types of pirated movies and television series that end up on the Internet. They vary wildly in rarity and quality due to the different sources and methods used for acquiring the video content, in addition to encoding formats. Pirated movie releases may be derived from cams, which have distinctly low quality; screener and workprint discs or digital distribution copies (DDC), telecine copies from analog reels, video on demand (VOD) or TV recordings, and DVD and Blu-ray rips. They are seen in P2P networks, pirated websites and video sharing websites such as YouTube and Dailymotion.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Pirated movies are usually released in many formats and different versions as better sources become available. The versions are usually encoded in the popular formats at the time of encoding. The sources for pirated copies have often changed with time in response to technology or anti-piracy measures.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Cam releases were the early attempts at movie piracy which were implemented by recording the on-screen projection of a movie in a cinema. This enabled groups to pirate movies which were in their theatrical period (not released for personal entertainment). Alternative methods were sought, as these releases often suffered distinctly low quality and required undetected videotaping in movie theaters.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Beginning in 1998, feature films began to be released on the internet by warez groups prior to their theatrical release. These pirated versions usually came in the form of VCD or SVCD. A prime example was the release of "American Pie". This is notable for three reasons:


title: Pirated movie release types

text: In October 1999, DeCSS was released. This program allowed anyone to remove the CSS encryption on a DVD. Although its authors only intended the software to be used for playback purposes, it also meant that one could decode the content perfectly for ripping; combined with the "DivX 3.11 Alpha" codec released shortly after, the new codec increased video quality from near VHS to almost DVD quality when encoding from a DVD source.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: The early DivX releases were mostly internal for group use, but once the codec spread, it became accepted as a standard and quickly became the most widely used format for the scene. With help from associates who either worked for a movie theater, movie production company, or video rental company, groups were supplied with massive amounts of material, and new releases began appearing at a very fast pace. When version 4.0 of DivX was released, the codec went commercial and the need for a free codec, Xvid (then called "XviD", "DivX" backwards), was created. Later, Xvid replaced DivX entirely. Although the DivX codec has evolved from version 4 to 10.6 during this time, it is banned in the warez scene due to its commercial nature.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: In February 2012, a consortium of popular piracy groups officially announced x264, the free H.264 codec, as the new standard for releases, replacing the previous format, which was Xvid wrapped in an AVI container. The move to H.264 also obsoletes AVI in favor of MP4 and Matroska that most commonly uses the .mkv file name extension.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: With the increasing popularity of online movie-streaming sites like Netflix, some movies are being ripped from such websites now and are being encoded in HEVC wrapped in Matroska containers. This codec allows a high-quality movie to be stored in a relatively smaller file size.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: AV1 is a free modern video format developed by the Alliance for Open Media (AOM). It delivers high quality video at lower bitrates than H.264 or even H.265/HEVC. Unlike HEVC, it can be streamed in common web browsers. It is being adopted by YouTube and Netflix, amongst others. As of now, a few encoders use AV1.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Below is a table of pirated movie release types along with respective sources, ranging from the lowest quality to the highest. Scene rules define in which format and way each release type is to be packaged and distributed.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A "Cam" is a copy made in a cinema using a camcorder or mobile phone. The sound source is the camera microphone. Cam rips can quickly appear online after the first preview or premiere of the film. The quality ranges from subpar to adequate, depending on the group of persons performing the recording and the resolution of the camera used. The main disadvantage of this is the sound quality. The microphone does not only record the sound from the movie, but also the background sound in the cinema. The camera can also record movements and audio of the audience in the theater, for instance, when someone stands up in front of the screen, or when the audience laughs at a funny moment in the film.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A telesync (TS) is a bootleg recording of a film recorded in a movie theater, sometimes filmed using a professional camera on a tripod in the projection booth. The main difference between a CAM and TS copy is that the audio of a TS is captured with a direct connection to the sound source (often an FM microbroadcast provided for the hearing-impaired, or from a drive-in theater). Often, a "cam" is mislabeled as a telesync. HDTS is used to label a High-definition video recording.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A Workprint is a copy made from an unfinished version of a film produced by the studio. Typically a workprint has missing effects and overlays, and differs from its theatrical release. Some workprints have a time index marker running in a corner or on the top edge; some may also include a watermark. A workprint might be an uncut version, and missing some material that would appear in the final movie (or including scenes later cut).


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A Telecine is a copy captured from a film print using a machine that transfers the movie from its analog reel to digital format. These were rare because telecine machines for making these prints were very costly and very large. However, they have recently become much more common. Telecine has basically the same quality as DVD, since the technique is the same as digitizing the actual film to DVD. However, the result is inferior since the source material is usually a lower quality copy reel. Telecine machines usually cause a slight left-right jitter in the picture and have inferior color levels compared to DVD. HDTC is used to label a High-definition video recording.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: PPVRips come from Pay-Per-View sources. All the PPVRip releases are brand new movies which have not yet been released to Screener or DVD, but are available for viewing by customers with high-end TV package deals.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Screeners are early DVD or BD releases of the theatrical version of a film, typically sent to movie reviewers, Academy members, and executives for review purposes. A screener normally has a message overlaid on its picture, with wording similar to: "The film you are watching is a promotional copy. If you purchased this film at a retail store, please contact 1-800-NO-COPYS to report it." or more commonly if released for awards consideration simply, "FOR YOUR CONSIDERATION." Apart from this, some movie studios release their screeners with a number of scenes of varying duration shown in black-and-white. Aside from this message, and the occasional B&W scenes, screeners are normally of only slightly lower quality than a retail DVD-Rip, due to the smaller investment in DVD mastering for the limited run. Some screener rips with the overlay message get cropped to remove the message and get released mislabeled as DVD-Rips.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: "Note: Screeners make a small exception here—since the content may differ from a retail version, it can be considered as lower quality than a DVD-Rip (even if the screener in question was sourced from a DVD)."


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A digital distribution copy (DDC) is basically the same as a Screener, but sent digitally (FTP, HTTP, etc.) to companies instead of via the postal system. This makes distribution cheaper. Its quality is lower than one of a R5, but higher than a Cam or Telesync.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: What is known as an R5 is a studio produced unmastered telecine put out quickly and cheaply to compete against telecine piracy in Russia. The R5 tag refers to the DVD region 5 which consists of Russia, the Indian subcontinent, most of Africa, North Korea, and Mongolia. R5 releases differ from normal releases in that they are a direct Telecine transfer of the film without any of the image processing. If the DVD does not contain an English-language audio track, the R5 video is synced to a previously released English audio track. Then a "LiNE" tag is added. This means that the sound often is not as good as DVD-Rips. To account for the lesser audio quality typically present in R5 releases, some release groups take the high quality Russian or Ukrainian 5.1 channel audio track included with the R5 DVD and modify it with audio editing software. They remove the non-English spoken portion of the audio and sync the remaining portion, which contains high quality sound effects and music with a previously recorded source of English vocals usually taken from a "LiNE" tagged release. The result of this process is an almost retail DVD quality surround sound audio track which is included in the movie release. Releases of this type are normally tagged "AC3.5.1.HQ" and details about what was done to the audio track as well as the video are present in the release notes accompanying the pirated movie.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A DVD-Rip is a final retail version of a film, typically released before it is available outside its originating region. Often after one group of pirates releases a high-quality DVD-Rip, the "race" to release that film will stop. The release is an AVI file and uses the XviD codec (some in DivX) for video, and commonly mp3 or AC3 for audio. Because of their high quality, DVD-Rips generally replace any earlier copies that may already have been circulating. Widescreen DVDs used to be indicated as WS.DVDRip. DVDMux differs from DVDRips as they tend to use the x264 codec for video, AAC or AC3 codec for audio and multiplex it on a .mp4/.mkv file.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: DVD-R refers to a final retail version of a film in DVD format, generally a complete copy from the original DVD. If the original DVD is released in the DVD-9 format, however, extras might be removed and/or the video reencoded to make the image fit the less expensive for burning and quicker to download DVD-5 format. DVD-R releases often accompany DVD-Rips. DVD-R rips are larger in size, generally filling up the 4.37 or 7.95 GiB provided by DVD-5 and DVD-9 respectively. "Untouched" or lossless rips in the strictest sense are 1:1 rips of the source, with nothing removed or changed, though often the definition is lightened to include DVDs which have not been transcoded, and no features were removed from the user's perspective, removing only restrictions and possible nuisances such as copyright warnings and movie previews.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: TVRip is a capture source from an analog capture card (coaxial/composite/s-video connection). Digital satellite rip (DSR, also called SATRip or DTH) is a rip that is captured from a non-standard definition digital source like satellite. HDTV stands for captured source from HD television, while PDTV (Pure Digital TV) stands for any SDTV rip captured using solely digital methods from the original transport stream, not from HDMI or other outputs from a decoder, it can also refer to any standard definition content broadcast on a HD channel. DVB rips often come from free-the-air transmissions (such as digital terrestrial television). With an HDTV source, the quality can sometimes even surpass DVD. Movies in this format are starting to grow in popularity. Network logos can be seen, and some advertisement and commercial banner can be observed on some releases during playback.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Analog, DSR, and PDTV sources used to be often reencoded to 512×384 if fullscreen, currently to 640x480 if fullscreen and 720x404 if widescreen. HDTV sources are reencoded to multiple resolutions such as 720x404 (360p), 960×540 (540p), 1280×720 (720p), and 1920x1080 (1080p) at various file sizes for pirated releases. They can be progressive scan captured or not (480i digital transmission or 1080i broadcast for HD caps).


title: Pirated movie release types

text: VODRip stands for Video-On-Demand Rip. This can be done by recording or capturing a video/movie from an On-Demand service such as through a cable or satellite TV service. Most services will state that ripping or capturing films is a breach of their use policy, but it is becoming more and more popular as it requires little technology or setup. There are many online On-Demand services that would not require one to connect their TV and computer. It can be done by using software to identify the video source address and downloading it as a video file which is often the method that bears the best quality end result. However, some people have used screen cams which effectively record, like a video camera, what is on a certain part of the computer screen, but does so internally, making the quality not of HD quality, but nevertheless significantly better than a Cam or Telesync version filmed from a cinema, TV or computer screen.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: In a HC HDRip, HC stands for hard-coded subtitles. This format is released shortly after the movie leaves theaters. It is usually sourced from Korean VOD services like Naver.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: The quality of this release is lower than a WEB as it is screen recorded, and it is a less preferred option due to the subtitles being baked into the video and cannot be removed, hence the HC tag. P2P groups have released blurred copies, which have the subtitles blurred or blocked.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: A WEBCap is a rip created by capturing video from a DRM-enabled streaming service, such as Amazon Prime Video or Netflix. Quality can range from mediocre (comparable with low quality XVID encodes) to excellent (comparable with high quality BR encodes). Essentially, the quality of the image obtained depends on internet connection speed and the specifications of the recording machine. WEBCaps nowadays are labeled as WEBRips, thus making this tag rare.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: HDRip stands for High Definition Resolution (is poor) are typically transcoded versions of HDTV or WEB-DL source files, but may be any type of HD transcode.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: In a WEBRip (P2P), the file is often extracted using the HLS or RTMP/E protocols and remuxed from a TS, MP4 or FLV container to MKV.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: This tag was used to indicate releases from streaming services with weak or no DRM in order to differentiate from iTunes's WEB-DL; however, it is generally used to tag the captured (and re-encoded) releases, much like WEBCap.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: WEB-DL (P2P) refers to a file losslessly ripped from a streaming service, such as Netflix, Amazon Video, Hulu, Crunchyroll, Discovery GO, BBC iPlayer, etc., or downloaded via an online distribution website such as iTunes. The quality is relatively good since they are not re-encoded ("untouched" releases). The video (H.264 or H.265) and audio (AC3/AAC) streams are usually extracted from iTunes or Amazon Video and remuxed into a MKV container without sacrificing quality. An advantage with these releases is that, like BD/DVDRips, they usually have no onscreen network logos unlike TV rips. A disadvantage is that if there are normally subtitles for scenes in other languages, they often aren't found in these releases. Some releases are still mislabeled as WEBRip.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Blu-ray or Bluray rips (once known as BDRip) are encoded directly from a Blu-ray disc source to a 2160p, 1080p or 720p (depending on the source), and use the x264 or x265 codec. They can be ripped from BD25, BD50 disc (or UHD Blu-ray at higher resolutions or bitrates), and even Remuxes. BDRip now refers to a Blu-ray source that has been encoded to a "lower" resolution (i.e. 1080p down to 720p/576p/480p). BDRips can go from 2160p to 1080p, etc as long as they go downward in resolution of the source disc. BRRips, which are often mistaken for BDRips, are an already encoded video at HD resolution that is then transcoded to another resolution (usually SD). BDRips are not a transcode, but BRRips are, which change their quality. BD/BRRips in DVDRip resolutions can vary between XviD/x264/x265 codecs (commonly 700 MB and 1.5 GB in size as well as larger DVD5 or DVD9: 4.5 GB or 8.4GB). Size fluctuates depending on the length and quality of releases, but the higher the size the more likely they use the x264/x265 codecs. A BD/BRRip to a lower resolution looks better, regardless, because the encode is from a higher quality source. BDRips have followed the above guideline after Blu-ray replaced the BDRip title structure in scene releases.


title: Pirated movie release types

text: Full BD25/BD50 data rips also exist, and are similar to their counterpart DVD5/DVD9 full data releases. They are AVCHD compatible using the BD folder structure (sometimes called Bluray RAW/m2ts/iso), and are usually intended to be burnt back to disk for play in AVCHD-compatible Blu-ray players. BD25/BD50 data rips may or may not be remuxed and are never transcoded. UHD data rips also exist. In scene releases, full copy of the Blu-ray Disc is called "COMPLETE.BLURAY" or "BDISO" when in a .iso file format, meanwhile full copy of Ultra HD Blu-Ray discs is called "COMPLETE.UHD.BLURAY".


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Nnamdi Asomugha ( ; born July 6, 1981) is an American actor, producer and former football cornerback. He played college football for the University of California, Berkeley, and was drafted in the first round of the 2003 NFL Draft by the Oakland Raiders. He also played for the Philadelphia Eagles and San Francisco 49ers. For some years, he was considered one of the best shutdown corners in the NFL. In his 11-year career, he was voted All-Pro four times, including two times to the first-team. Asomugha was selected as a member of Fox Sports's NFL All-Decade Team 2000-2009 and USA Today's NFL All-Decade Team 2000s, and is considered one of the greatest Oakland Raiders of all time.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Carl King in the film "Crown Heights" (2017). He was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male and he was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture. "Variety" named him one of the seven breakout performers of 2017.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Nnamdi Asomugha was born in Lafayette, Louisiana, to Nigerian Igbo parents. He was raised in Los Angeles, California. He attended Leuzinger High School in Lawndale, California, and Bishop Montgomery High School in Torrance, California, before transferring to and from Narbonne High School in Harbor City, California, playing high school basketball and football.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha attended the University of California, Berkeley, where he played for the California Golden Bears football team. He finished his career with 187 tackles, three sacks, 19 stops for losses, eight interceptions, three touchdowns, 15 pass deflections, two fumble recoveries and a forced fumble in 41 games as a free safety. Asomugha graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha was the second Cal player to be drafted in the first round (31st overall) of the 2003 NFL draft by the Oakland Raiders. He was moved to cornerback but played sparingly the first two seasons of his career. He became a starter in 2005 and set new highs in tackles with 60 tackles (55 solo) and passes broken up with 14.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2006, he recorded his first two career interceptions against the Cleveland Browns. He got his third interception four weeks later against the Pittsburgh Steelers and returned it 24 yards for the first touchdown of his career. Though the team suffered through a 2–14 season, Asomugha's 2006 campaign was his finest yet as he finished the season with 50 tackles (48 solo), eight interceptions, a sack, a forced fumble and one touchdown. His interception total tied him for second highest total in the National Football League along with four other players (including former Oakland Raiders cornerback Charles Woodson). After the season, Asomugha was invited to the Pro Bowl as an alternate but because of late notice he was not able to attend the annual all-star game. He also received the Oakland Raiders "Commitment to Excellence" Award and was named the team's Most Valuable Player. In addition, Asomugha was selected to Dr. Z Sports Illustrated 2006 All-Pro team as well as The Associated Press 2006 All-Pro Team.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha was selected as the Raiders Team Captain for the 2007 season. Opposing quarterbacks tested him only 31 times with a mere 10 completions the entire season. One NFL scout told "Pro Football Weekly" that Asomugha was thrown at "less than any defender in the last ten years" in 2007. He finished the 2007 season with 34 tackles(32 solo), 1 interception and 7 breakups and was named a 2008 Pro Bowl alternate.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: A free agent in the 2008 offseason, the Raiders placed the exclusive franchise tag on Asomugha on February 20, 2008.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha was again selected a team captain before the 2008 season. Opposing quarterbacks tested him only 27 times the entire season resulting in just 8 completions. Only perennial all-pros Randy Moss (3 receptions, 40 yards) and Tony Gonzalez (2 receptions, 34 yards) would catch more than one ball on him during the year. New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick said Asomugha is "as complete a cornerback as he has seen all year". He finished the 2008 season with 40 tackles, 1 interception, 1 forced fumble, and 9 pass deflections. He received the Oakland Raiders "Commitment to Excellence" Award for the second time and was named the team's 2008 Co-Most Valuable Player along with running back Justin Fargas. Asomugha was selected as a starter for the 2009 Pro Bowl. He was selected onto The "Sporting News" 2008 All-Pro Team as well as the Pro Football Writers Association All-NFL Team for 2008. Asomugha was also selected onto Peter King's "Sports Illustrated" 2008 All-Pro team as well as The Associated Press 2008 All-Pro Team.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: On February 19, 2009, the Raiders re-signed Asomugha to a complex three-year deal that made him the highest-paid defensive back in NFL history. The first two years, worth $28.5 million, were fully guaranteed. In the third year of the contract, if Oakland wanted to keep Asomugha, it had to pay him the average of the top five highest-paid "cornerbacks" or $16.875 million, whichever was higher. If the Raiders failed to pick up the option, Asomugha became a free agent with Oakland not having the ability to tag him again.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: A team captain again in 2009 and the NFL's least targeted cornerback by an extremely wide margin, Asomugha was challenged by opposing quarterbacks only 27 times and allowed 13 completions the entire season. After his performance against the Houston Texans, head coach Gary Kubiak said "Asomugha is the best (corner) I've seen in a while throughout this league. He's big, he's fast, they put him out there on an island the whole game. He's an exceptional player." Similar to the past three seasons, Asomugha finished the 2009 season with 34 tackles, 1 interception, and was second in the league with 8 tackles for loss from the cornerback position. Cleveland Browns defensive coordinator Rob Ryan said "The guy is truly unbelievable. He made himself the best corner in football by his work ethic, the way he studies tape, and he's so smart."


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Following the 2009 season, Asomugha was selected as a starter for the 2010 Pro Bowl. Asomugha was selected onto The "Sporting News" 2009 All-Pro Team (2nd team) as well as The Associated Press 2009 All-Pro Team (2nd team). This would mark his third selection to both the Pro Bowl and All-Pro team in his seven-year career with the Oakland Raiders.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: The shutdown corner lived up to his title once again in the 2010 season. While shadowing the opposing teams' top receiver most of the season, Asomugha was still targeted much less than any other cornerback in the NFL. Asomugha allowed just 10 receptions on the 27 passes thrown his way. Most important, Asomugha did not give up a touchdown all year. "He has extraordinary speed – great speed," Seahawks coach Pete Carroll said. "He's exactly what you're looking for in a press corner and about as good as you could hope a guy to be." When facing the Arizona Cardinals, All-Pro wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald said "The thing you see on tape for a man of his size, he has incredible hips and amazingly quick feet, and that's just God given ability to be that tall and be able to move and cut and drive on balls the way he's able to." Following the 2010 season, Asomugha was selected as a starter for the 2011 Pro Bowl. Asomugha was selected onto ESPN John Clayton's 2010 All-Pro Team as well as Peter King's "Sports Illustrated" 2010 All-Pro team. Asomugha was also selected to the prestigious Associated Press 2010 All-Pro Team, his fourth selection as an All-Pro.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Entering the 2011 season, Asomugha was regarded as the top free agent available on the market. On July 29, 2011, Asomugha agreed to a five-year, $60 million deal, and at least $25 million guaranteed, contract with the Philadelphia Eagles.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2011, he finished the season with 40 total tackles, 5 passes defended, and 3 interceptions. Asomugha was named a 2012 Pro Bowl alternate.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: During his time in Philadelphia, the team struggled to a 12–20 record, missing the playoffs both years. Asomugha was eventually released by the team at the end of the 2012 season after he was unable to agree to a restructured deal with the team.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: On April 2, 2013, Asomugha signed a one-year deal with the San Francisco 49ers, under which he would earn a base salary of $1.35 million and with a chance to earn up to an additional $1.65 million in incentives. On November 4, 2013, Asomugha was waived by the team.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: On December 26, 2013, Asomugha signed a one-day contract with Oakland so he could retire as a Raider. He officially announced his retirement on December 27, 2013.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha made his professional acting debut in 2008 on The CW Network sitcom "The Game". In 2009, he played the role of Ken Shaw in the season premiere of "Friday Night Lights" Season 4. In 2010, he appeared on the TNT drama "Leverage" as Walle in the Season 3 episode "The Scheherazade Job".


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2012, he made his on-screen feature film debut in "Fire with Fire" starring Bruce Willis, Rosario Dawson and Josh Duhamel. He also co-wrote, produced and starred in a dramatic short film titled "Double Negative" alongside Australian actor Adam J. Yeend, which chronicled 48 hours in the life of a struggling Muslim American writer.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha has appeared in Will Ferrell's comedy web series "Funny or Die", the Roadside Attractions film "Hello, My Name Is Doris" and as a fictionalized version of himself in the Comedy Central television series "Kroll Show", starring Nick Kroll. He also worked as executive producer on the Netflix film "Beasts of No Nation".


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2017, he produced and starred in the Amazon Studios film "Crown Heights". "Crown Heights" premiered in competition in the "US Dramatic Category" at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2017. The film received favorable reviews out of the Sundance Film Festival, winning the Audience Award for U.S. Dramatic Film.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha was widely considered one of the breakout actors of the 2017 Sundance Film Festival. More recently he and his iam21 Entertainment company struck a first look deal at Amazon Studios.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha serves as Chairman for the Asomugha Foundation. The Asomugha Foundation operates two primary programs: Orphans and Widows In Need (OWIN) and Asomugha College Tour for Scholars (ACTS).


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Through OWIN, Asomugha and his family provide food, shelter, medicine, vocational training, literacy efforts, and scholarships to widows and orphans victimized by poverty or abuse in Nigeria. Currently, OWIN has two centers in Nigeria and plans to expand to other countries in Africa.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2006, Asomugha launched the annual ACTS program. Each year, he teams up with selected students from Bay Area and Los Angeles Area high schools on college tours across the country. One of the organizations he partnered with is the East Oakland Youth Development Center, a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization in Oakland, California. In the first two years, Asomugha took students to visit Morehouse College, Spelman College, Georgia Institute of Technology, Clark Atlanta University, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston University, Brown University and the Berklee College of Music. For the 2009 tour, Asomugha took students to visit schools in New York City including NYU, Columbia University, The Juilliard School, The Fashion Institute of Technology, Fordham University and The New School. In 2010, ACTS expanded to not only service high school students in the Bay Area but also select high schools in the Los Angeles area. For the 2010 tour, ACTS visited schools in Washington D.C. including Georgetown University, George Washington University, American University, Howard University and University of Maryland. In 2011, ACTS traveled to New Orleans, LA. The campuses visited were Loyola University, Xavier University of Louisiana, Southern University, Tulane University and Louisiana State University. All of the tour participants who have graduated from high school have gone on to attend higher education institutions.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Additionally, Asomugha distributes backpacks to the incoming freshmen each year at Narbonne High School in Los Angeles. He also outfits the football and basketball team with shoes, a mandate he wrote into an endorsement contract he signed with Nike.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2008, Asomugha was presented with The President's Volunteer Service Award. An award that was established to recognize the important contributions Americans of all ages are making within their communities through service and civic engagement.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha has been recognized by fellow members of the NFL Players Association who nominated him in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009 for the Byron "Whizzer" White Award for Outstanding Community Service. In 2010, Asomugha was presented with the 44th annual Byron "Whizzer" White NFL Man of the Year, the NFL Players Association's (NFLPA) highest honor


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2009, Asomugha was named to the "Dream Team for Public Service" by the Jefferson Awards for Public Service.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2010, Asomugha became the ambassador for United Way of the Bay Area UWBA, dedicated to creating long-lasting change and ensuring all Bay Area residents have access to the building blocks to a better life: education, income and health.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: In 2012, Asomugha received the inaugural "Role Model of the Year" Award from the Congressionally chartered National Conference on Citizenship


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: On June 24, 2013, Asomugha married actress Kerry Washington. The couple have a daughter, Isabelle, born in 2014, and a son, Caleb, born in 2016.


title: Nnamdi Asomugha

text: Asomugha has a form of color-blindness called deuteranomaly and stated in the June 2009 issue of "ESPN The Magazine" that "It was determined when I was about 7 years old. It's never really affected my play on the field — I can easily distinguish between light and dark colors. I only have trouble between similar colors — the light ones. They look the same to me. No problems on the field."


title: Bone marrow

text: Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue found within the spongy (also known as cancellous) portions of bones. In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production (or haematopoiesis). It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis. Bone marrow comprises approximately 5% of total body mass in healthy adult humans, such that a man weighing 73 kg (161 lbs) will have around 3.7 kg (8 lbs) of bone marrow.


title: Bone marrow

text: Human marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day, which join the systemic circulation via permeable vasculature sinusoids within the medullary cavity.<ref name="Birbrair n/a–n/a"></ref> All types of hematopoietic cells, including both myeloid and lymphoid lineages, are created in bone marrow; however, lymphoid cells must migrate to other lymphoid organs (e.g. thymus) in order to complete maturation.


title: Bone marrow

text: Bone marrow transplants can be conducted to treat severe diseases of the bone marrow, including certain forms of cancer such as leukemia. Several types of stem cells are related to bone marrow. Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow can give rise to hematopoietic lineage cells, and mesenchymal stem cells, which can be isolated from the primary culture of bone marrow stroma, can give rise to bone, adipose, and cartilage tissue.


title: Bone marrow

text: The composition of marrow is dynamic, as the mixture of cellular and non-cellular components (connective tissue) shifts with age and in response to systemic factors. In humans, marrow is colloquially characterized as "red" or "yellow" marrow (, , respectively) depending on the prevalence of hematopoietic cells vs fat cells. While the precise mechanisms underlying marrow regulation are not understood, compositional changes occur according to stereotypical patterns. For example, a newborn baby's bones exclusively contain hematopoietically active "red" marrow, and there is a progressive conversion towards "yellow" marrow with age. In adults, red marrow is found mainly in the central skeleton, such as the pelvis, sternum, cranium, ribs, vertebrae and scapulae, and variably found in the proximal epiphyseal ends of long bones such as the femur and humerus. In circumstances of chronic hypoxia, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow to increase blood cell production.


title: Bone marrow

text: At the cellular level, the main functional component of bone marrow includes the progenitor cells which are destined to mature into blood and lymphoid cells. Human marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day. Marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to the three classes of blood cells that are found in circulation: white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).


title: Bone marrow

text: The stroma of the bone marrow includes all tissue not directly involved in the marrow's primary function of hematopoiesis. Stromal cells may be indirectly involved in hematopoiesis, providing a microenvironment that influences the function and differentiation of hematopoietic cells. For instance, they generate colony stimulating factors, which have a significant effect on hematopoiesis. Cell types that constitute the bone marrow stroma include:


title: Bone marrow

text: The bone marrow stroma contains mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which are also known as marrow stromal cells. These are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types. MSCs have been shown to differentiate, in vitro or in vivo, into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, myocytes, marrow adipocytes and beta-pancreatic islets cells.


title: Bone marrow

text: The blood vessels of the bone marrow constitute a barrier, inhibiting immature blood cells from leaving the marrow. Only mature blood cells contain the membrane proteins, such as aquaporin and glycophorin, that are required to attach to and pass the blood vessel endothelium. Hematopoietic stem cells may also cross the bone marrow barrier, and may thus be harvested from blood.


title: Bone marrow

text: The red bone marrow is a key element of the lymphatic system, being one of the primary lymphoid organs that generate lymphocytes from immature hematopoietic progenitor cells. The bone marrow and thymus constitute the primary lymphoid tissues involved in the production and early selection of lymphocytes. Furthermore, bone marrow performs a valve-like function to prevent the backflow of lymphatic fluid in the lymphatic system.


title: Bone marrow

text: Biological compartmentalization is evident within the bone marrow, in that certain cell types tend to aggregate in specific areas. For instance, erythrocytes, macrophages, and their precursors tend to gather around blood vessels, while granulocytes gather at the borders of the bone marrow.


title: Bone marrow

text: People have used animal bone-marrow in cuisine worldwide for millennia, as in the famed Milanese Ossobuco.


title: Bone marrow

text: Melt them together, and scent the mixture at will. Held in high repute as a hair oil by many. That of the shops has seldom any marrow in it, but lard instead. The appropriate scents are the same as for bears' grease. It is generally tinged slightly yellow by means of a little palm oil or annatto.


title: Bone marrow

text: The normal bone marrow architecture can be damaged or displaced by aplastic anemia, malignancies such as multiple myeloma, or infections such as tuberculosis, leading to a decrease in the production of blood cells and blood platelets. The bone marrow can also be affected by various forms of leukemia, which attacks its hematologic progenitor cells. Furthermore, exposure to radiation or chemotherapy will kill many of the rapidly dividing cells of the bone marrow, and will therefore result in a depressed immune system. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning are due to damage sustained by the bone marrow cells.


title: Bone marrow

text: To diagnose diseases involving the bone marrow, a bone marrow aspiration is sometimes performed. This typically involves using a hollow needle to acquire a sample of red bone marrow from the crest of the ilium under general or local anesthesia.


title: Bone marrow

text: Medical imaging may provide a limited amount of information regarding bone marrow. Plain film x-rays pass through soft tissues such as marrow and do not provide visualization, although any changes in the structure of the associated bone may be detected. CT imaging has somewhat better capacity for assessing the marrow cavity of bones, although with low sensitivity and specificity. For example, normal fatty "yellow" marrow in adult long bones is of low density (-30 to -100 Hounsfield units), between subcutaneous fat and soft tissue. Tissue with increased cellular composition, such as normal "red" marrow or cancer cells within the medullary cavity will measure variably higher in density.


title: Bone marrow

text: MRI is more sensitive and specific for assessing bone composition. MRI enables assessment of the average molecular composition of soft tissues and thus provides information regarding the relative fat content of marrow. In adult humans, "yellow" fatty marrow is the dominant tissue in bones, particularly in the (peripheral) appendicular skeleton. Because fat molecules have a high T1-relaxivity, T1-weighted imaging sequences show "yellow" fatty marrow as bright (hyperintense). Furthermore, normal fatty marrow loses signal on fat-saturation sequences, in a similar pattern to subcutaneous fat.


title: Bone marrow

text: When "yellow" fatty marrow becomes replaced by tissue with more cellular composition, this change is apparent as decreased brightness on T1-weighted sequences. Both normal "red" marrow and pathologic marrow lesions (such as cancer) are darker than "yellow" marrow on T1-weight sequences, although can often be distinguished by comparison with the MR signal intensity of adjacent soft tissues. Normal "red" marrow is typically equivalent or brighter than skeletal muscle or intervertebral disc on T1-weighted sequences.


title: Bone marrow

text: Fatty marrow change, the inverse of red marrow hyperplasia, can occur with normal aging, though it can also be seen with certain treatments such as radiation therapy. Diffuse marrow T1 hypointensity without contrast enhancement or cortical discontinuity suggests red marrow conversion or myelofibrosis. Falsely normal marrow on T1 can be seen with diffuse multiple myeloma or leukemic infiltration when the water to fat ratio is not sufficiently altered, as may be seen with lower grade tumors or earlier in the disease process.


title: Bone marrow

text: Bone marrow examination is the pathologic analysis of samples of bone marrow obtained via biopsy and bone marrow aspiration. Bone marrow examination is used in the diagnosis of a number of conditions, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, anemia, and pancytopenia. The bone marrow produces the cellular elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. While much information can be gleaned by testing the blood itself (drawn from a vein by phlebotomy), it is sometimes necessary to examine the source of the blood cells in the bone marrow to obtain more information on hematopoiesis; this is the role of bone marrow aspiration and biopsy.


title: Bone marrow

text: The ratio between myeloid series and erythroid cells is relevant to bone marrow function, and also to diseases of the bone marrow and peripheral blood, such as leukemia and anemia. The normal myeloid-to-erythroid ratio is around 3:1; this ratio may increase in myelogenous leukemias, decrease in polycythemias, and reverse in cases of thalassemia.


title: Bone marrow

text: In a bone marrow transplant, hematopoietic stem cells are removed from a person and infused into another person (allogenic) or into the same person at a later time (autologous). If the donor and recipient are compatible, these infused cells will then travel to the bone marrow and initiate blood cell production. Transplantation from one person to another is conducted for the treatment of severe bone marrow diseases, such as congenital defects, autoimmune diseases or malignancies. The patient's own marrow is first killed off with drugs or radiation, and then the new stem cells are introduced. Before radiation therapy or chemotherapy in cases of cancer, some of the patient's hematopoietic stem cells are sometimes harvested and later infused back when the therapy is finished to restore the immune system.


title: Bone marrow

text: Bone marrow stem cells can be induced to become neural cells to treat neurological illnesses, and can also potentially be used for the treatment of other illnesses, such as inflammatory bowel disease. In 2013, following a clinical trial, scientists proposed that bone marrow transplantation could be used to treat HIV in conjunction with antiretroviral drugs; however, it was later found that HIV remained in the bodies of the test subjects.


title: Bone marrow

text: The stem cells are typically harvested directly from the red marrow in the iliac crest, often under general anesthesia. The procedure is minimally invasive and does not require stitches afterwards. Depending on the donor's health and reaction to the procedure, the actual harvesting can be an outpatient procedure, or can require 1–2 days of recovery in the hospital.


title: Bone marrow

text: Another option is to administer certain drugs that stimulate the release of stem cells from the bone marrow into circulating blood. An intravenous catheter is inserted into the donor's arm, and the stem cells are then filtered out of the blood. This procedure is similar to that used in blood or platelet donation. In adults, bone marrow may also be taken from the sternum, while the tibia is often used when taking samples from infants. In newborns, stem cells may be retrieved from the umbilical cord.


title: Bone marrow

text: Using quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) and Next-generation Sequencing (NGS) a maximum of five DNA viruses per individual have been identified. Included were several herpesviruses, hepatitis B virus, Merkel cell polyomavirus, and human papillomavirus 31. Given the reactivation and/or oncogenic potential of these viruses, their repercussion on hematopoietic and malignant disorders calls for further studies.


title: Bone marrow

text: The earliest fossilised evidence of bone marrow was discovered in 2014 in "Eusthenopteron", a lobe-finned fish which lived during the Devonian period approximately 370 million years ago. Scientists from Uppsala University and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility used X-ray synchrotron microtomography to study the fossilised interior of the skeleton's humerus, finding organised tubular structures akin to modern vertebrate bone marrow. "Eusthenopteron" is closely related to the early tetrapods, which ultimately evolved into the land-dwelling mammals and lizards of the present day.


title: Videodrome

text: Videodrome is a 1983 Canadian science fiction body horror film written and directed by David Cronenberg and starring James Woods, Sonja Smits, and Debbie Harry. Set in Toronto during the early 1980s, it follows the CEO of a small UHF television station who stumbles upon a broadcast signal of snuff films. The layers of deception and mind-control conspiracy unfold as he uncovers the signal's source, and loses touch with reality in a series of increasingly bizarre hallucinations.


title: Videodrome

text: Distributed by Universal Pictures, "Videodrome" was the first film by Cronenberg to gain backing from any major Hollywood studio. With the highest budget of any of his films to date, the film was a box-office bomb, recouping only $2.1 million from a $5.9 million budget. The film received praise for the special makeup effects, Cronenberg's direction, Woods and Harry's performances, its "techno-surrealist" aesthetic, and its cryptic, psychosexual themes. Cronenberg won the Best Direction award and was nominated for seven other awards at the 5th Genie Awards.


title: Videodrome

text: Now considered a cult classic, the film has been cited as one of Cronenberg's best, and a key example of the body horror and science fiction horror genres.


title: Videodrome

text: Max Renn is the president of CIVIC-TV, a Toronto UHF television station specializing in sensationalist programming. Harlan, the operator of CIVIC-TV's unauthorized satellite dish, shows Max "Videodrome", a plotless show apparently being broadcast from Malaysia which depicts anonymous victims being violently tortured and eventually murdered. Believing this to be the future of television, Max orders Harlan to begin unlicensed use of the show. Nicki Brand, a sadomasochistic radio host who becomes sexually involved with Max, is aroused by an episode of "Videodrome", and goes to audition for the show when she learns that it is being broadcast out of Pittsburgh, but never returns. Max contacts Masha, a softcore pornographer, and asks her to help him find out the truth about "Videodrome". Through Masha, Max learns that not only is the footage not faked, but it is the public "face" of a political movement. Masha further informs him that the enigmatic media theorist Brian O'Blivion knows about "Videodrome".


title: Videodrome

text: Max tracks down O'Blivion to a homeless shelter where vagrants are encouraged to engage in marathon sessions of television viewing. He discovers that O'Blivion's daughter Bianca runs the mission, intending to help realize her father's vision of a world in which television replaces every aspect of everyday life. Later, Max views a videotape in which O'Blivion informs him that "Videodrome" is a socio-political battleground in which a war is being fought to control the minds of the people of North America before being garrotted by Nicki; Max then hallucinates that Nicki speaks directly to him and causes his television to undulate as he kisses the screen. Disturbed, Max returns to O'Blivion's homeless shelter. Bianca tells him "Videodrome" carries a broadcast signal that causes the viewer to develop a malignant brain tumor. O'Blivion helped to create it as part of his vision for the future, and viewed the hallucinations as a higher form of reality. When he found out it was to be used for malevolent purposes, he attempted to stop his partners; they used his own invention to kill him. In the year before his death, O'Blivion recorded tens of thousands of videos, which now form the basis of his television appearances.


title: Videodrome

text: Later that night, Max hallucinates placing his handgun in a slit in his abdomen. He is contacted by "Videodrome"s producer, Barry Convex of the Spectacular Optical Corporation, an eyeglasses company that acts as a front for an arms company, who uses a device to record Max's fantasies of whipping Nicki. Max then wakes up to find Masha's corpse in his bed. He frantically calls Harlan to photograph the body as evidence, but, shortly after he arrives, her body is no longer anywhere to be found.


title: Videodrome

text: Wanting to see the latest Videodrome broadcast, Max meets Harlan at his studio. There, Harlan reveals that he has been working with Convex with the goal of recruiting Max to their cause: to end North America's cultural decay by giving fatal brain tumors to anyone so obsessed with sex and violence that they would watch "Videodrome". Convex then inserts a brainwashing Betamax tape into Max's torso. Under Convex's influence, Max murders his colleagues at CIVIC-TV. He later attempts to murder Bianca, who manages to stop him by showing him a videotape of Nicki's murder on the Videodrome set. Bianca then 'reprograms' Max to her father's cause: "Death to "Videodrome". Long live the new flesh." On her orders, he kills Harlan and Convex.


title: Videodrome

text: Wanted for their murders as well of those of his colleagues, Max takes refuge on a derelict boat in the Port Lands. Appearing to him on a television, Nicki tells him he has weakened "Videodrome", but in order to completely defeat it, he must ascend to the next level and "leave the old flesh". The television then shows an image of Max shooting himself in the head, which causes the set to explode. Reenacting what he has just seen on the television, Max utters the words "Long live the new flesh" and shoots himself.


title: Videodrome

text: The basis for "Videodrome" came from David Cronenberg's childhood. Cronenberg used to pick up American television signals from Buffalo, New York, late at night after Canadian stations had gone off the air, and worry he might see something disturbing not meant for public consumption. As Cronenberg explained, "I've always been interested in dark things and other people's fascinations with dark things. Plus, the idea of people locking themselves in a room and turning a key on a television set so that they can watch something extremely dark, and by doing that, allowing themselves to explore their fascinations." Cronenberg's first exploration of themes of the branding of sex and violence and media impacting people's reality was writing a treatment titled "Network of Blood" in the early 1970s; its premise was a worker for an independent television company (who would become Max Renn in "Videodrome") unintentionally finding, in the filmmaker's words, "a private television network subscribed to by strange, wealthy people who were willing to pay to see bizarre things." He later planned the story to be told from the main character's first-person perspective, showcasing a duality between how insane he looks to other people and how he himself perceives a different reality in his head. Concepts similar to "Network of Blood"s were further explored in a 1977 episode of the CBC Television series "Peep Show" Cronenberg directed, named "The Victim." The film's fictional station CIVIC-TV was modeled on the real-life Canadian television network Citytv, which was known for broadcasting pornographic content and violent films in its late-night programming blocs.


title: Videodrome

text: Cronenberg's increased reputation with films like "Scanners" (1981) made it easier for his projects to get produced, leading to the film's $5.5 million budget, more interest from studios and producers, and a larger number of interested actors to choose from. After the box office success of "Scanners", Cronenberg turned down the chance of directing "Return of the Jedi", having had no desire to direct material produced by other filmmakers. Cronenberg met with Pierre David in Montreal to discuss ideas for a new film, with the former pitching two ideas, one of them being "Videodrome".


title: Videodrome

text: Cronenberg started writing the first draft of "Videodrome" in January 1981, and, as with first drafts of Cronenberg's prior projects, included many parts not featured in the final cut to make it more acceptable for audiences; this included Renn having an explosive grenade as a hand after he chops off his flesh gun during a hallucination, Renn and Nicki melting, via a kiss, into an object that then melts an on-looker, and five other characters besides Barry also dying of cancer. Cronenberg admits that he was worried that the project would be rejected by Filmplan due to the excessive violent content of an early draft, but it was approved, with Claude Héroux joking that the movie would get a triple X rating. Although talent for the film was attracted using the first draft, alterations were made constantly from pre-production to post-production.


title: Videodrome

text: Accumulation of the cast and crew started in the summer of 1981 in Toronto, with most of the supporting actors being local performers of the city. "Videodrome"s three producers, David, Claude Héroux and Victor Solnicki, suggested James Woods for the role of Max Renn; they unsuccessfully tried to attach him to another film they produced, "Models" (1982). Woods was a fan of "Rabid" (1977) and "Scanners", and met Cronenberg in Beverly Hills for the part; Cronenberg liked the fact that Woods was very articulate in terms of delivery, and Woods appreciated the filmmaker's oddball style as well as being a "good controversialist" with "a lot of power." Cronenberg doubled for Woods in the scene where Max puts on the Videodrome helmet since the actor was afraid of getting electrocuted. Co-star Debbie Harry was recommended by David, and Cronenberg cast her after viewing her two times in "Union City" (1980) and a Toronto audition. She had never had such a large part before, and said that the more experienced Woods gave her a number of helpful suggestions.


title: Videodrome

text: Principal photography for the film began on October 19, 1981, and ended in December of that same year, with the initial week of filming being devoted to videotaping various monitor inserts. These included the television monologues of Professor Brian O'Blivion, as well as the "Videodrome" torture scenes and the soft-core pornographic programs "Samurai Dreams" and "Apollo & Dionysus". The video camera used for the monitor scenes was a Hitachi SK-91. The film's cinematography was handled by Mark Irwin, who was very uncomfortable with doing the monitor scenes; he was far more experienced with composing shots for regular film cameras than videotapes, disliked the flat television standards of lighting and color, and couldn't compose his shots privately as all of the film crew watched the monitors as the shots were being set up.


title: Videodrome

text: The "Samurai Dreams" short was filmed in half a day without any audio recorded at a rented spot at a Global TV studio in Toronto, and lasted five minutes longer than what ended up in the final film.