title: Tianjin

text: In 1912 Tianjin had 17 Chinese-language newspapers and 5 daily newspapers in other languages; none of the newspapers in the Tianjin district were trade papers. Of the foreign language newspapers, three were in English and one each was in French and German. Newspapers from Tianjin published in Tianjin included "China Critic", "Peking and Tientsin Times", "The China Times",


title: Tianjin

text: "Tageblatt für Nordchina", "L'Écho de Tientsin", "China Tribune", "Ta Kung Pao" (L'Impartial), "Min Hsing Pao", and "Jih Jih Shin Wen Pao" (Tsientsin Daily News). Newspapers from Beijing published in Tianjin included "Pei Ching Jih Pao", "Peking Daily News", and "Le Journal de Peking".


title: Tianjin

text: In 1930, the newspaper "Deutsch-Mandschurische Nachrichten" moved from Harbin to Tianjin and changed its name to the "Deutsch-Chinesische Nachrichten".


title: Tianjin

text: More and more, China's leading Internet information providers (usually located in Beijing), including social network Sina Weibo, Douban and the online video website Sohu, tend to relocate their censorship departments to Tianjin, where labor costs are cheaper than Beijing, as censorship is a kind of labor-intensive work. In fact, Tianjin has become the censorship capital of Chinese Internet.


title: Tianjin

text: The city has many sights; its streetscapes incorporate historic nineteenth and early twentieth-century European architecture, juxtaposed with the concrete and glass monoliths of contemporary China. Though wide swaths of the city are being redeveloped, much of the colonial architecture has been placed under protection.


title: Tianjin

text: In the nineteenth century, the port city caught the attention of the seafaring Western powers, who used the boarding of a British ship by Chinese troops as an excuse to declare war. With well-armed gunboats, they were assured of victory, and the Treaty of Tianjin, signed in 1856, gave the Europeans the right to establish nine concessionary bases on the mainland, from which they could conduct trade and sell opium. These concessions, along the banks of the Hai River, were self-contained European communities: the French built châteaux and towers, while the Germans constructed red-tiled Bavarian villas. Tensions between the indigenous population and the foreigners exploded in the Tianjin Incident of 1870, when a Chinese mob attacked a French-run orphanage, and again during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, after which the foreigners leveled the walls surrounding the old Chinese city to enable them to keep an eye on its residents.


title: Tianjin

text: The old city was razed entirely from 2000 to 2001 to make way for new developments. Only several old buildings remains such as the Tianjin Temple of Confucius.


title: Tianjin

text: The dense network of ex-concession streets south and west of the central train station, and south of the Hai River, now constitute the areas of most interest to visitors. The châteaux of the French concession now make up the downtown district just south of the river, the imposing mansions the British built are east of here. Farther east, also south of the river, the architecture of an otherwise unremarkable district has a sprinkling of austere German construction.


title: Tianjin

text: People from Tianjin speak the Tianjin dialect of Mandarin, from which it is derived. Despite its proximity to Beijing, the Tianjin dialect sounds quite different from the Beijing dialect, which provides the basis for Putonghua or Standard Chinese.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin is a respected home base of Beijing opera, one of the most prestigious forms of Chinese opera.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin is famous for its stand-up comedy and comedians including Guo Degang and Ma Sanli. Ma Sanli (1914–2003), an ethnic Hui and longtime resident of Tianjin, is renowned for his "xiangsheng", a hugely popular form of Chinese entertainment akin to comedy. Ma Sanli delivered some of his "xiangsheng" in the Tianjin dialect. Tianjin, along with Beijing, is a center for the art of "xiangsheng". Tianjin's style of stand-up also includes the use of rhythmic bamboo clappers, "kuaiban".


title: Tianjin

text: Yangliuqing (Green Willows), a town about west of Tianjin's urban area and the seat of Xiqing District, is famous for its popular Chinese New Year-themed, traditional-style, colorful wash paintings (). Tianjin is also famous for the Zhang clay figurine, a type of intricate, colorful figurine depicting a variety of vivid characters, and Tianjin's Wei's kites, which can be folded to a fraction of their full sizes and are noted for portability.


title: Tianjin

text: On September 28, 2015, the Juilliard School in Manhattan, New York City announced a major expansion into Tianjin during a visit by China's first lady, Peng Liyuan, the institution's first such full-scale foray outside the United States, with plans to offer a master's degree program.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin cuisine places a heavy focus on seafood, due to Tianjin's proximity to the sea. It can be further classified into several varieties, including the rough (), smooth (), and high (). Prominent menus include the Eight Great Bowls (), a combination of eight mainly meat dishes, and the Four Great Stews (), actually referring to a very large number of stews, including chicken, duck, seafood, beef, and mutton.


title: Tianjin

text: The four delicacies of Tianjin include Goubuli baozi, Guifaxiang Shibajie Mahua (), Erduoyan Zhagao () and Maobuwen Jiaozi (). Well-known foods include Caoji donkey meat, Bazhen sheep-leg mutton of Guanshengyuan, Luji Tangmian Zhagao, Baiji Shuijiao, Gaogan of Zhilanzhai, Guobacai of Dafulai, Subao of Shitoumenkan and Xiaobao chestnut. These famous snacks are available in Nanshi Food Street, which was a famous calling-card of Tianjin in the aspect of cuisine.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin Binhai International Airport is located in Dongli District roughly away from downtown area. The city is also served by the new Beijing Daxing International Airport in Beijing.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin Binhai International Airport now has a terminal building which covers an area of , a merchandise warehouse which covers an area of and runways measuring in total. It has a grade 4E airstrip, which all kinds of large aircraft can take off from and land safely on. Tianjin Binhai International Airport has 59 flight routes, connecting 48 cities, including 30 domestic cities and 17 foreign cities. Airline companies like Japan Airlines, All Nippon Airways, Korean Air, Asiana Airlines, Singapore Airlines Cargo and Martinair Holland all have flights to Tianjin Binhai International Airport.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin port is the world's top-level and China's largest artificial deep water harbor, and the throughput capacity ranks fifth in the world. Located in Binhai Economic Zone, a national new economic zone of China, Tianjin harbor is the port of call of international cruises visiting the wider area, including Beijing.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin's harbor area of Binhai/TEDA has a modern, high speed rubber tired tram system, which is the first of its kind in China and Asia. Constructed in 2006, this marked a return of the tram to Tianjin, which once had an extensive standard steel-wheeled tramway network. The original Tianjin tram network was constructed by a Belgian company in 1904 and opened in 1906. It was the first citywide tramway system in China. It closed in 1972.


title: Tianjin

text: The Tianjin Metro is formerly operated by two companies, Tianjin Metro General Corporation and Tianjin Binhai Mass Transit Development Company. However, in 2017, the two companies merged as Tianjin Rail Transit Group Corporation. They are currently under heavy expansion from five to nine lines. Six lines are currently operating both in the City and the Binhai area. As of April 2019, the entire network of Tianjin Metro has 155 stations and 6 lines.


title: Tianjin

text: Construction work on the Tianjin Metro started on July 4, 1970. It was the second metro to be built in China and commenced service in 1984. The total length of track was . The metro service was suspended on October 9, 2001 for reconstruction. The original line is now part of Line 1 of the new metro system. It was reopened to the public in June 2006. The track was extended to and there are a total of 22 stations. Construction work on Line 2 and Line 3 was completed in 2012 and the two lines are now in operation. Several new metro lines are planned.


title: Tianjin

text: There are several railway stations in the city, Tianjin railway station being the principal one. It was built in 1888. The station was initially located at Wangdaozhuang (). The station was later moved to Laolongtou () on the banks of the Hai He River in 1892, so the station was renamed Laolongtou Railway Station. The station was rebuilt from scratch in 1988. The rebuilding work began on April 15, 1987 and was finished on October 1, 1988. The Tianjin Railway Station is also locally called the 'East Station', due to its geographical position. In January 2007, the station began another long-term restructuring project to modernize the facility and as part of the larger Tianjin transport hub project involving Tianjin Metro lines 2, 3, and 9 as well as the Tianjin-Beijing High-speed rail.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin West railway station and Tianjin North railway station are also major railway stations in Tianjin. There is also Tanggu railway station is located in the important port area of Tanggu District, and Binhai railway station and Binhai North railway station located in TEDA, to the north of Tanggu. There are several other railway stations in the city that do not handle passenger traffic. Construction on a Beijing-Tianjin high-speed rail began on July 4, 2005 and was completed by August 2008.


title: Tianjin

text: The inter-city trains between Beijing and Tianjin will adopt a new numbering system: Cxxxx (C stands for interCity). The train numbers range between C2001～C2298:


title: Tianjin

text: The new C trains take only 30 min to travel between Beijing and Tianjin, cutting the previous D train time by more than a half. The ticket price as of Aug 15, 08 is 69 RMB for the first-class seat and 58 RMB for the second-class seat.


title: Tianjin

text: Some roads and bridges have retained names that hark back to the Republic of China era (1912–1949) such as Minquan Gate and Beiyang Road. Like with most cities in China, many roads in Tianjin are named after Chinese provinces and cities. Also, Tianjin is unlike Beijing, in that very few roads run parallel to the major four cardinal directions.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin has three ring roads. The Inner and Middle Ring Roads are not closed, traffic-controlled roadways and some often have traffic light intersections. The Outer Ring Road is the closest thing to a highway-level ring road, although traffic is often chaotic.


title: Tianjin

text: Tianjin's roads often finish in "dao" (), "xian" (). These are most often used for highways and through routes. The terms "lu" (). "Jie" () are rare. As Tianjin's roads are rarely in a cardinal compass direction, "jing" () roads and "wei" () roads often appear, which attempt to run more directly north–south and east–west, respectively.


title: Tianjin

text: Residents of Tianjin participate in indigenous religious practices, such as the veneration of the Goddess of Sea, Mazu. In addition, Tianjin has a Buddhist Temple of Great Compassion, a Catholic St. Joseph's Cathedral (Laoxikai Church), a Catholic Our Lady of Victory Church (Wanghailou Church). A Roman Catholic Diocese of Tianjin exists. According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009, Christians constitute 1.51% of the city's population. Tianjin has been described as a historically "strong center" of Islam in China. Northwestern Tianjin is traditionally the location of the Muslim quarter of the city, where they have lived for centuries near the city's huge Great Mosque, "Qingzhen si", founded in 1703. Other mosques include the Dahuoxiang Mosque.


title: Tianjin

text: The 1995 World Table Tennis Championships, the 2013 East Asian Games, and the 2017 National Games of China were hosted by the city. Additionally, Tianjin will be one of the host cities for the expanded FIFA Club World Cup (postponed from 2021). It was also scheduled to be one of the host cities for the 2023 AFC Asian Cup before China's withdrawal as the host.


title: Tianjin

text: Since 2014, a WTA international tennis tournament has taken place in Tianjin every year at the Tuanbo International Tennis Center.


title: Tianjin

text: Together with Beijing, Tianjin had been for many centuries considered a center for traditional Chinese martial arts. Many past and present masters of arts such as Bajiquan, Pigua Zhang, Xing Yi Quan, Bagua Zhang and others lived or are living in the city. The districts most famous for martial arts in the city are Hong Qiao and Nankai, and martial artists abound in public green spaces such as Xigu Park and the Tianjin Water Park.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The Mexican Mafia (Spanish: "Mafia Mexicana"), also known as La eMe (Spanish for "the M"), is a Mexican American criminal organization in the United States. Despite its name, the Mexican Mafia did not originate in Mexico, and is entirely a U.S. criminal prison organization. Law enforcement officials report that the Mexican Mafia is the deadliest and most powerful gang within the California prison system.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: Government officials state that there are currently 400–500 official members of the Mexican Mafia with thousands of hitmen and associates within prison and an estimate of more than 50,000 foot soldiers who also carry out its illegal activities on the streets in the hopes of becoming full members. The Mexican Mafia appears to have immense reach and influence into every Hispanic street gang in Southern California, including the notoriously brutal MS-13 and 18th Street Gang who are under the Mexican Maria's control. The U.S. Government considers the Mexican Mafia to be "among the most powerful, dangerous and feared criminal organizations in the world", and even considers La Eme to be more dangerous and at least as powerful as any Mexican drug cartel.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: Law enforcement believes that "La eMe" presently is not presided over by a single leader. Many Mexican Mafia members have the authority to order murders and oversee various other criminal activities. They have almost a thousand associates that help carry out those orders and have the theoretical control of all Sureño gang members. Members are expected to engage in tests of their loyalty to "La Eme", which may include theft or murder. The penalty for refusing orders or failing to complete an assigned task is often death. According to the gang's constitution, members may also be punished or murdered if they commit any of four major infractions. These include becoming an informant, acts of homosexuality, acts of cowardice, and showing disrespect against fellow gang members. According to gang policy, a member of the Mexican Mafia may not be murdered without prior approval by a vote of three members, yet the murder of non-members requires no formal approval.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: During the early 1960s at San Quentin Prison, Luis "Huero Buff" Flores and Rudy "Cheyenne" Cadena established a blood oath for members of the Mexican Mafia. Prior to the establishment of the oath, members of the Mexican Mafia were allowed to return to their street gangs after incarceration. The new oath stipulated that the only way for a member to leave the Mexican Mafia was to be killed. Flores and Cadena also established a set of gang commandments. These included policies such as: a new member must be sponsored by an existing member, unanimous approval from all existing members to join (no longer policy), prioritizing the gang over one's family, denial of the existence of the Mexican Mafia to law enforcement or non-members, respect of other members, and forgiving street conflicts which existed before incarceration. Execution of a member of the gang for policy violation must be committed by the gang member who sponsored him. "La Eme" has a blood-in, blood-out Murder or drawing of blood is a prerequisite for membership and anyone trying to get out will be killed.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The Mexican Mafia is the controlling organization for almost every Hispanic gang in Southern California, and some gangs located in Central and Northern California, with their vassal gangs being called Sureños. Members of almost all Hispanic gangs in Southern California are obliged under the threat of death to carry out any and all orders from made Mexican Mafia members. The Mexican Mafia also holds a loose alliance with the Aryan Brotherhood, mainly due to their common rivals within the prison system.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The primary rivals of the Mexican Mafia are Nuestra Familia. The Mexican Mafia is also a rival of the Black Guerrilla Family prison gang, which holds a loose alliance with La Nuestra Familia. Bloods and Crips are the new enemies. From 2010 to 2011, The Mexican Mafia and Los Zetas engaged in a bloody and brutal war against each other over turf and drug territories, and conflict between both organizations staggered on with tit-for-tat retaliations and murders, and there were many drive-by shootings, bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, and shoot outs against each other. In mid-2011, both sides agreed to end the war and make peace.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: Mexican Mafia symbols include images of a black hand. The gang's primary symbol, which is often used in tattoos by members, is the national symbol of Mexico (eagle and a snake) atop a flaming circle over crossed knives. Street gangs that are aligned with the Mexican Mafia often use the number 13 as a gang identifier, as the letter "M" is the 13th letter of the modern Latin-derived alphabet.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Mexican Mafia had arranged for contract killings to be carried out by the Aryan Brotherhood, a white prison gang. The Mexican Mafia and the Aryan Brotherhood are mutual enemies of the Norteños and the African-American gangs Black Guerrilla Family and D.C. Blacks. Even though homosexuals are barred from entry into "La eMe", they are engaged heavily in homosexual prostitution in the prison system. Many of the street level homicides in the Highland Park area of Los Angeles committed by the Avenues gang were done on orders issued by the Mexican Mafia.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The Mexican Mafia is involved in a variety of criminal activities both inside and outside the prison system, but its main source of income is extorting drug distributors outside prison and distributing various narcotics within and outside the prison system. In 1992, an example of "La Eme"'s influence and power over Sureños was made clear to law enforcement. Joe "Pegleg" Morgan, a prominent Mexican Mafia leader, ordered that no more drive-by shootings and violence were to take place by Sureños. Between April, when the edict was announced, and September 1992 there were no drive-by shootings in East Los Angeles, an area that was notorious for violence and drive-bys.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The first murder outside of prison that was ordered by "La eMe" occurred in 1971 when Mexican Mafia member Alfonso "Pachie" Alvarez was found shot twice in the head in a secluded area of Monterey Park. His offense: collecting taxes on narcotics dealers without kicking up the profits to "eMe" leaders behind bars, known in the gang as "Big Homies" or "Emero"s. The person responsible for the murder was Joe "Pegleg" Morgan—the notorious white godfather of "La Eme" who had ascended by then to become one of the highest-ranking bosses of the entire organization, even with no "official" Mexican blood himself. His connections with cocaine and heroin suppliers in Mexico helped pave the foundation for the Mexican Mafia's narcotics distribution throughout California. During the 1970s, while under the control of Morgan's protégé Rodolfo Cadena, the Mexican Mafia often took control over various community groups. The gang was able to filter money from alcohol and drug prevention programs to finance their criminal activities.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The Mexican Mafia and the Italian-American Los Angeles crime family collaborated in skimming money from Get Going, a taxpayer-funded drug treatment program. By 1977, Get Going founder Ellen Delia was determined to expose the infiltration of her beloved program. Shortly before an appointment with the California State Secretary of Health and Welfare Services, Delia was murdered. Her collection of evidence on Italian and Mexican Mafia infiltration of the Get Going program was never recovered.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: Alfred Arthur Sandoval a.k.a. Chato (Arizona Maravilla – East Los Angeles, California), a high ranking "eMe" member, shot and killed Gilbert Martinez and Anthony Aceves; a third victim Manuel Torres survived the attack. Ray and Marlene Wells were also shot execution style in their home in Belvedere Park. Alfred Sandoval was also charged in these murders. Finally in 2000, Alfred Arthur Sandoval, the highest ranking "Eme" member (now) in California, had his death sentence for the murder of Marlene Wells overturned by the federal 9th Circuit Court of Appeals but remained imprisoned for life without parole.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: In 1998, United States federal authorities indicted 22 members and associates of the Mexican Mafia, charged under the federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act with crimes which included extortion, murder, and kidnapping. One of the arrested members, Benjamin "Topo" Peters (Arizona Maravilla), was allegedly the Mexican Mafia's highest-ranking member at the time, and was engaged in a power struggle with fellow member Ruben "Tupi" Hernandez (Onterio Varrio Sur – Ontario, California). Another indicted member was accused of having plotted the death of an anti-gang activist who served as a consultant for the film "American Me". The indictments marked a two-year investigation by federal, local, and state law enforcement officials.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: In 2006, a 36-count federal indictment was brought against members of the Mexican Mafia. The arrests were made for alleged acts of violence, drug dealing, and extortion against smaller Latino street gangs. According to the federal indictment, Mexican Mafia members exert their influence in both federal and state prison systems through either violence or the threat of violence. Members and associates of the gang remain fiercely loyal to the criminal organization both in and outside of prison, particularly in Southern California cities such as Los Angeles and San Diego. The gang asserts its influence over Chicano gangs throughout Southern California by threatening violence against their members should they ever become incarcerated. Gangs and drug dealers who refuse to pay a protection "tax" to the Mexican Mafia are often murdered or threatened with murder. High-ranking members of the Mexican Mafia who are locked in private cells for 23 hours of each day are still able to communicate with their associates, through methods which range from tapping in code on prison plumbing pipes to smuggled letters. The primary goal of the Mexican Mafia is to control all drug trafficking in all areas that they have been established.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: In early 2012 there was a federal indictment of 119 San Diego County gang members, including a Mexican Mafia boss that was arrested in a raid of his San Marcos home, which portrays a sprawling, well-organized criminal network that ran drug dealing on the streets of North County and even extended inside the Vista jail. Rudy "Crazy" Espudo (Esco Varrio Diablos – Escondido, California) was in control of the Hispanic gangs in the area and forced drug dealers to pay taxes in tribute to La eMe or face the consequences. The local gangs were smuggling narcotics into the Vista Detention Center in order to sell them for the Mexican Mafia. On North County streets, "la Eme" ordered Surenos to obtain taxes from the local drug dealers. Members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were indicted in 2011 for harassing and intimidating black people in Southern California.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: In January 2022, a fight broke out between members of the Mexican Mafia and MS-13 at Beaumont federal prison, causing two fatalities and leading to all US federal prisons being placed on lockdown due to fears of retaliatory attacks.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The Mexican Mafia received mainstream notoriety after being featured in the 1992 movie "American Me". The film was co-produced, directed and starred in by actor Edward James Olmos, who allegedly received death threats by members of the Mexican Mafia for what they considered an unflattering depiction of the gang. Two consultants for the film were murdered shortly after the film's release, though it is unclear whether the murders were tied to the Mexican Mafia or to recent layoffs that had provoked death threats. The Mexican Mafia was allegedly displeased with the portrayal of the murder of Rodolfo Cadena (who was the basis for Olmos' character Santana) as being committed by his fellow gang members. Mexican Mafia members were also allegedly offended by the portrayal of a homosexual rape committed by Puppet, a Mexican Mafia character in the film who in the latter part of the movie murders his own brother, Li'l Puppet, for disrespecting "La Eme". Olmos subsequently applied for a concealed handgun permit, which was denied.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: While serving a life sentence for murder at Pelican Bay State Prison, Joe "Pegleg" Morgan, filed a $500,000 lawsuit against Olmos, Universal Studios, and other producers of the film. Morgan claimed that one of the principal characters in the film was based on him without obtaining his permission.


title: Mexican Mafia

text: The 1993 film "Blood In Blood Out" is loosely based on the Mexican Mafia, although the story is fictional. The character Miklo Velka is largely based on Joe "Pegleg" Morgan, having lost his leg from getting shot during a robbery (one of the rumored ways that Morgan lost his). The prison gangs named in the film are in turn inspired by real-life counterparts: La Onda (Mexican Mafia), Black Guerilla Army (Black Guerilla Family), and Aryan Vanguard (Aryan Brotherhood).


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV (17 March 1473 – 9 September 1513) was King of Scotland from 11 June 1488 until his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. He inherited the throne at the age of fifteen on the death of his father, James III, at the Battle of Sauchieburn, following a rebellion in which the younger James was the figurehead of the rebels. James IV is generally regarded as the most successful of the Stewart monarchs. He was responsible for a major expansion of the Scottish royal navy, which included the founding of two royal dockyards and the acquisition or construction of 38 ships, including the "Michael", the largest warship of its time.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James was a patron of the arts and took an active interest in the law, literature and science, even personally experimenting in dentistry and bloodletting. With his patronage the printing press came to Scotland, and the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and the University of Aberdeen were founded. He commissioned the building of the Palace of Holyroodhouse and Falkland Palace, and extensive building work at Linlithgow Palace, Edinburgh Castle and Stirling Castle. The education act passed by the Parliament of Scotland in 1496 introduced compulsory schooling.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: During James's 25 year reign, royal income doubled, the crown exercised firm control over the Scottish church, royal administration was extended to the Highlands and the Hebrides, and by 1493 James had overcome the last independent Lord of the Isles. Relations with England were improved with the Treaty of Perpetual Peace in 1502 and James's marriage to Margaret Tudor in 1503 (the marriage led to the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when Elizabeth I of England died without heirs and James IV's great-grandson James VI succeeded to the English throne). The long period of domestic peace after 1497 allowed James to focus more on foreign policy, which included the sending of several of his warships to aid his uncle, King John of Denmark, in his conflict with Sweden; amicable relations with the Pope, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Louis XII of France; and James's aspiration to lead a European naval crusade against the Turks of the Ottoman Empire. James was granted the title of "Protector and Defender of the Christian Faith" in 1507 by Pope Julius II.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: When Henry VIII of England invaded France in 1513 as part of the Holy League, James chose the Auld Alliance with the French over the 'Perpetual Peace' with the English, and answered France's call for assistance by leading a large army across the border into England. James and many of his nobles were killed at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. He was the last monarch in Great Britain to be killed in battle, and was succeeded by his son James V.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Born on 17 March 1473 at Stirling Castle, James was the eldest son of King James III and Margaret of Denmark. As heir apparent to the Scottish crown, he became Duke of Rothesay at birth. James probably spent most of his infancy and youth at Stirling Castle in the care of his mother, along with his two younger brothers, James and John. In 1478, Queen Margaret was officially entrusted with the custody and education of the Duke of Rothesay. Not much is known about James's early life, but it is known that he received a good education from Archibald Whitelaw, the Secretary of State, and John Ireland, under the direction of his mother. James became fluent in Latin and Spanish, also learned French, German, Flemish and Italian, and was the last Scottish monarch known to have spoken Gaelic. The surviving exchequer records show that Prince James was taken from Stirling to visit Edinburgh in the summers of 1474 and 1479, and that his nurse in the 1470s was Agnes Turing, the wife of an Edinburgh burgess.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In October 1474, James III agreed a peace treaty with Edward IV of England, the foundation of which was to be a marriage between Prince James and Edward's daughter, Cecily of York, when they both reached marriageable age. The treaty marked the beginning of James III's pursuit of friendship with England, a policy which was unpopular in Scotland. This policy would see further prospective English brides proposed for his son: Anne de la Pole (niece of Richard III of England) in 1484 and an unspecified daughter of Edward IV in 1487. James III was an unpopular king: he faced two major rebellions during his reign, and alienated members of his close family, especially his younger brother, Alexander, Duke of Albany. James III's unpopular pro-English policy rebounded badly upon him when the peace with England broke down in 1480. This led to the invasion of Scotland and capture of Berwick in 1482 by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, in the company of the Duke of Albany. When James III attempted to lead his army against the invasion, his army rebelled against him and he was briefly imprisoned by his own councillors. During James III's imprisonment, Albany visited Queen Margaret and the young Duke of Rothesay at Stirling Castle to discuss the crisis with them.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: For the nine-year old heir to the throne, the crisis of 1482 had shattered the calm of his youthful existence at Stirling. Following the death of Margaret of Denmark in July 1486, Prince James may have viewed the king's deliberate promotion of his second son - the 1486 and 1487 proposals to marry him to one of the younger daughter's of Edward IV of England, and the conferring on him of the dukedom of Ross in January 1488 - with apprehension. There is no explanation of why James III seemed to be favouring his second son over his heir, although it has been suggested that James III's suspicion and distrust of his heir arose from the young Duke of Rothesay's meeting with the Duke of Albany during the 1482 crisis.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: On 2 February 1488, the Duke of Rothesay departed from Stirling Castle, without the king's knowledge. This defection saw the start of another major rebellion against James III, led by the earls of Angus and Argyll, and the Home and Hepburn families. Pitscottie claimed that the prince defected as he had heard that his father was approaching Stirling with a large army to imprison him. The prince became the figurehead of the rebels, who claimed that they had removed him from Stirling to protect him from his vindictive father, who had surrounded himself with wicked Anglophile counsellors. Like Prince James, many of the rebels also feared for their safety if James III continued to rule. Matters came to a head on 11 June 1488, when the royal and rebel armies fought outside Stirling at the Battle of Sauchieburn. The royal army was defeated and James III was killed during the battle, though several later sources claimed that the Duke of Rothesay had forbidden any man to harm his father. James IV bore intense guilt for the indirect role which he had played in the death of his father. He decided to do penance for his sin, constantly wearing an iron belt around his waist, next to the skin, to which he added weight every year throughout his life.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: The victorious rebels moved swiftly to consolidate their power, and on 12 June, only a day after Sauchieburn, the new king issued his first charter. Edinburgh and Stirling castles were secured, as were the late king’s money and jewels, and the rebel leaders were rewarded with offices of state and posts in the royal household. James IV's coronation took place on 24 June 1488 at Scone Abbey. The Archbishop of St Andrews, William Scheves, a favourite of James III, did not officiate during the coronation ceremony, with the new king being instead crowned by Robert Blackadder, Bishop of Glasgow. A few days later, James IV attended the burial of his father at Cambuskenneth Abbey, a scene later portrayed in James IV's book of hours. The new king also hosted his maternal great-uncle, Gerhard VI, Count of Oldenburg, who arrived at Leith with a Danish fleet in August, and remained in Scotland until the following year.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV quickly proved to be a wise and effective ruler, and entrusted the running of his government to Patrick Hepburn, 1st Earl of Bothwell, Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus, and William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen. He defeated a major rebellion led by the Master of Huntly, the Earl of Lennox, and Lord Lyle in 1489, laying siege to Crookston, Duchal and Dumbarton castles, and defeating a rebel army at Gartloaning in Stirlingshire. James also took a direct interest in the administration of justice, brought the feud between the Murrays and the Drummonds in Strathearn to an end, and went out on justice ayres across the kingdom throughout his reign. A tax of £5,000 was granted by the Parliament of Scotland to fund an embassy to France and Spain to search for a foreign bride for the king; Pope Innocent VIII conferred the Golden Rose on James in 1491; the alliance with France was renewed, and treaties were made with Denmark and Spain, and truces were negotiated with Henry VII of England in 1493 and 1494. In 1494 James received the Sceptre of Scotland as a papal gift from Pope Alexander VI. James IV met with Hugh Roe O'Donnell, King of Tyrconnell in June 1495 in Glasgow. O'Donnell was the most powerful northern Irish magnate and a committed enemy of Henry VII’s government in Ireland, and the Scottish and Irish kings made a defensive alliance. They also discussed Perkin Warbeck, the pretender to the English throne, who O'Donnell had been a supporter of for years.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV received Warbeck in Scotland in November 1495. The attraction of Warbeck to James lay in the recognition of Warbeck's claim to the English throne by Maximilian, King of the Romans, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Spain (the Catholic monarchs), Philip, Duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of York. Embracing Warbeck’s cause would give James IV international leverage to seek European alliances, and threatening Henry VII with Warbeck would surely produce a much more attractive offer of alliance from the English king. As Ferdinand and Isabella were negotiating an alliance with Henry VII, James knew that Spain would help him in his struggles with England in order to prevent the situation escalating into war with France. Spanish ambassadors arrived in Edinburgh, and later Pedro de Ayala was established as a resident ambassador during the crisis.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In September 1496, James IV invaded England alongside Warbeck, destroying Tillmouth, Duddo, Branxton and Howtel towers, and Twizel Castle and Heaton Castle. However, the army quickly retreated when resources were expended, and hoped-for support for Perkin Warbeck in Northumberland failed to materialise. The Scottish army left on 25 September 1496 when an English army commanded by Lord Neville approached from Newcastle. When news of this invasion reached Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, on 21 October 1496, he wrote to his ambassador in Spain, to request the Spanish monarchs make peace between England and Scotland. The peace mission was entrusted to the Spanish ambassador in Scotland, Pedro de Ayala. Later, wishing to be rid of Warbeck, James IV provided a ship called the "Cuckoo" and a hired crew under a Breton captain, Guy Foulcart. Horses were hired for 30 of Perkin's companions to ride to the ship at Ayr on 5 July 1497, where Perkin sailed to Ireland. In August 1497, James invaded England once more, and laid siege to Norham Castle with a huge artillery train, including Mons Meg.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV's use of war as a forceful extension of his diplomacy with England, and Henry VII's realisation of how vulnerable the Anglo-Scottish border was, saw Henry treat for peace with James. The Treaty of Ayton was signed on 30 September 1497, agreeing to a seven-year truce between Scotland and England. Shipping and trade were to be conducted according to the 1464 Treaty of York, and Border wardens on either side were given new powers to execute cross-border murderers after 20 days detention, and punish thieves caught red-handed, and neither King should harbour the other's rebels. The Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella were appointed to arbitrate future disputes and unresolved issues such as redress for damages caused by the recent invasions. The possibility was also raised of strengthening the peace between both kingdoms with the marriage of James IV to Henry VII's eldest daughter, Margaret.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Following several years in which the Ayton agreement held, Scottish and English commissioners met at Richmond Palace on 24 January 1502. They agreed the marriage between James IV and Margaret, with a dowry of £35,000 Scots, and a peace treaty between the two kingdoms. Under the terms of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, there was to be "good, real and sincere, true, sound, and firm peace, friendship, league and confederation, to last all time coming" between England and Scotland, neither king or their successors were to make war against the other, and if either king broke the treaty, the Pope would excommunicate them. In a ceremony at the altar of Glasgow Cathedral on 10 December 1502, James confirmed the Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Henry VII, the first peace treaty between Scotland and England since 1328. The marriage was completed by proxy on 25 January 1503 at Richmond Palace in the presence of the King and Queen of England, the Earl of Bothwell standing as proxy for the Scottish king. Margaret left Richmond for Scotland on 27 June and, after crossing the border at Berwick upon Tweed on 1 August 1503, was received at Lamberton by the Archbishop of Glasgow and the Bishop of Moray. On 8 August 1503, the marriage of the 30-year old Scottish king and his 13-year old English bride was celebrated in person in Holyrood Abbey. The rites were performed by Robert Blackadder, Archbishop of Glasgow and Thomas Savage, Archbishop of York. Their wedding was commemorated by the gift of the Hours of James IV of Scotland, and was portrayed as the marriage of The Thrissil and the Rois (the thistle and rose – the flowers of Scotland and England, respectively) by the poet William Dunbar, who was then resident at James' court.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: It is possible that the consummation of the marriage was delayed. This was not uncommon when young medieval brides were married, with the couple maintaining separate households or simply avoiding consummation until the bride was a more acceptable age. Margaret did not bear her first child until she was 17, so it is likely that James IV respected this convention. James IV's marriage to Margaret meant that only the future Henry VIII stood between the Scottish king and the English succession, as Henry's lack of an heir made it possible that either James or one of his successors might succeed if the Tudors failed to produce heirs. Margaret’s first pregnancy resulted in the birth of James, Duke of Rothesay at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in February 1507. However, this heir to the throne died a year later in February 1508. At this point Margaret was already pregnant with a second child, a daughter whose name is unknown, and who was born and died in July 1508. In October 1509, a second son was born and named Arthur, a name recalling Margaret's late brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales, and reminding the still heirless Henry VIII that, if he were unable to produce a legitimate son to succeed him, it might be a son of Margaret Tudor who would succeed.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In 1476, John of Islay, Lord of the Isles and chief of Clan Donald, had forfeited the earldom of Ross to James III due to the treasonous Treaty of Westminster he had agreed with Edward IV of England. After this, Ross-shire was continually invaded by the MacDonald islanders. In 1491, Alexander MacDonald of Lochalsh, heir to the lordship of the Isles, attempted to recover the earldom of Ross by raiding Ross-shire in alliance with Clan Cameron and Clan Chattan. They marched to Inverness, where they stormed Inverness Castle, and clashed with Clan Mackenzie before being routed. In consequence of this insurrection, at a meeting of parliament in Edinburgh in May 1493, the title and possessions of John MacDonald, Lord of the Isles were declared to be forfeited to the Crown. In August 1493, King James made his first expedition to the western Highlands. Accompanied by Chancellor Angus, Bishop Elhinstone, the Earl of Bothwell, Lord Home, and Secretary of State Archibald Whitelaw, James IV sailed to Dunstaffnage Castle, where the local chiefs, including John MacLean of Lochbuie and John MacIain of Ardnamurchan, made their submissions of loyalty to him. John of Islay surrendered and was brought back to the royal court and given an annual pension.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: The following year, Sir John MacDonald of Dunnyveg rebelled, and in July the king sailed with an army from Dumbarton to Tarbert Castle, before sailing south to Dunaverty Castle in Kintyre. The royal forces repaired both castles, and soon afterwards Sir John was summoned for treason committed in Kintyre. Sir John ignored the summons and continued to reside at Islay, but was later captured by John MacIain of Ardnamurchan and brought to Edinburgh to be hung for treason. In 1495 King James sailed on his third and final expedition to the Isles to find and reward supporters of the Crown within the forfeited lordship, sailing to Mingary Castle, where Lachlan Maclean of Duart, Alan Cameron, and MacNeil of Barra came in to Mingary to submit and offer their allegiance to the king in person, who confirmed them in their lands and offices.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In October 1496, the Privy Council ordered that the clan chiefs in the region would be held responsible by the king for crimes of the islanders. This act for the governance of the region was unworkable, and after the Act of Revocation of 1498 undermined the chiefs' titles to their lands, resistance to Edinburgh rule was strengthened. James waited at Kilkerran Castle at Campbeltown Loch to regrant the chiefs' charters in the summer of 1498. Few of the chiefs turned up. At first, Archibald Campbell, 2nd Earl of Argyll, was set to fill the power vacuum and enforce royal authority, but he met with limited success in a struggle with his brother-in-law, Torquil MacLeod of Lewis. Torquil was ordered to hand over Domhnall Dubh, heir to the lordship of the Isles, to James IV at Inverness in 1501. James waited, but Torquil never came.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: After this defiance, Alexander Gordon, 3rd Earl of Huntly, was granted Torquil's lands. He raised an army in Lochaber and also cleared the tenants of that area, replacing them with his supporters. After the parliament of 1504, a royal fleet sailed north from Ayr to attack the Castle of Cairn-na-Burgh, west of Mull, where it is thought that Maclean of Duart had Domhnall Dubh in his keeping. As progress at the siege was slow, James sent Hans the royal gunner in Robert Barton's ship and then the Earl of Arran with provisions and more artillery. Cairn-na-Burgh was captured by June 1504 but Domhnall Dubh remained at liberty. In September 1507, Torquil MacLeod was besieged at Stornoway Castle on Lewis. Domhnall Dubh was captured and imprisoned for 37 years until he was released in 1543 and died 1545 in Ireland; Torquil MacLeod died in exile in 1511. The Earl of Huntly was richly rewarded for his troubles, a price that James was prepared to pay.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV's reign saw a decline in the holding of parliaments, which was a departure from the practice of previous reigns. While ten meetings of the three estates were held between 1488 and 1496, there were only three during the remaining seventeen years of the reign, with no parliaments held in the eight years between 1496 and 1504. There was also a substantial reduction in the numbers of those attending parliaments as the reign progressed. This development matched that of the English and European monarchies in the playing down of the role of their representative assemblies, and placing more reliance on conciliar government: Edward IV of England only held six parliaments during his twenty-three year reign, and Henry VII held seven in his twenty-four years on the throne. In France, the Estates General were not summoned again for seventy-six years after 1484


title: James IV of Scotland

text: With the ending of the conflicts with England in 1497, the Crown no longer needed Parliament to grant extraordinary revenue in the form of taxation, with Parliament no longer being summoned with the same regularity as a result. In the decade before 1496, successive parliaments had presided over, or sanctioned, regicide or rebellion, and failed foreign embassies to find the king a bride. With this experience of parliaments, perhaps James IV considered the frequent calling of parliaments inimical to good royal government. The absence of parliaments between 1496 and 1504 may also have been due to James's discovery of other methods of raising revenue, and his reluctance to summon meetings of the three estates due to their propensity for dissent. The last three parliaments of James IV's reign in 1504, 1506 and 1509 were all called to address the administration of justice and the forfeiture of rebels following further risings in the western Highlands. James IV managed to govern effectively without regular parliaments from 1496 onwards due to his use of general councils (a sister institution to Parliament) in 1497, 1498, 1502, 1511 and 1512, and the use of greatly enlarged sessions of the Privy Council in 1508, 1511 and 1513.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: From the beginning of his reign, one of James's objectives was to increase the relatively limited Crown income by extracting larger returns from all available sources of revenue. The king had to fund all government expenses out of his own income, which came from the revenue from Crown lands, and from burgh customs, mails, tolls, and duties. The annual revenues of the Crown from these sources remained constant throughout James’s reign (around £5-6,000 Scots). However, the king only received a small amount of the income from burgh revenues, as the majority of that income was alienated to provide annuities to reward numerous nobles and Crown servants.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Taxation imposed by Parliament offered the king greater opportunities to raise income. Between 1488 and 1497, Parliament voted taxation almost annually to support diplomacy and war, including embassies to the continent, the king’s naval expeditions to the western Highlands, and the 1496-97 conflicts with England. However, James soon learned that using taxation extensively as a means of generating revenue was likely to provoke resistance without bringing in the sums required. Following the failure to raise the huge sum of £12,000 Scots from the three estates (clergy, nobility, and burghs) in 1502-04 to fund the sending of a naval expedition and a small army to Denmark, no further taxation was imposed until 1512, and even then the tax which brought in almost £7,000 was only imposed on the clergy.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James's annual income increased remarkably between 1497 and 1513, due to several sources of revenue. In 1497 he received a substantial windfall from the death of Archbishop William Scheves of St Andrews. James appointed his younger brother, the Duke of Ross, to fill the vacant see of St Andrews, bringing the highest office of the Scottish church within the royal family, with the appointment generating an annual income of around £2,500 for the Crown from the revenues of the archbishopric. Although Bishop Elphinstone protested against this scandalous appointment, it was a shrewd move by the king as it removed any potential dynastic threat which his legitimate younger brother might pose in the future. James also appointed Ross as abbot of Holyrood (1498), Dunfermline (1500), and Arbroath (1503). These offices, in combination with his appointment to the chancellorship in 1501, gave the Duke of Ross the highest status after the king. Following the death of the Duke of Ross in 1504, James IV appointed his 11-year-old illegitimate son, Alexander, as archbishop, thereby ensuring that the Crown would continue to receive the revenues of St Andrews.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In 1498, James IV reached the age of twenty-five, and was entitled to make a formal act of revocation of all grants made by him during his minority. Although James could – in theory – cancel all grants of lands and offices which had been made since his accession, the purpose of the revocation was only to assert royal authority by re-granting lands and offices surrendered to the Crown, and raise thousands of pounds in revenue, as their holders paid compensation to the Treasurer to receive confirmation of their holdings. The payment of Margaret Tudor’s dowry between 1503 and 1505 also brought in a relatively meagre £10,000 sterling. By the end of the reign the Treasurer’s annual receipts had increased - due to feudal payments made to the Crown by the holders of land, and judicial fines for criminal offences - from around £4,500 in 1496-97 to a huge £28,000 by 1512. When these receipts are added to income from ecclesiastical properties and the rental income from Crown lands, James IV may have received a total income of around £44,500 by 1513, although by that time there was an annual deficit of around £7,000.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV took a close interest in the development of the Royal Scots Navy, viewing a strong fleet as a means of protecting Scottish shipping, gaining international prestige, and providing him with an outlet to pursue foreign policies in alliance with either England or France. In the course of his reign James commissioned or acquired a total of at least 38 ships. His naval building programme was large, especially so for the ruler of a small kingdom. Naval spending was by far the greatest single item of royal expenditure in the later years of his reign. In the early years, the annual average spent on ships was about £140 Scots. By the early 1510s it was £8,710 10/-.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In 1491, James determined to address the many attacks on Scottish shipping in the vicinity of the Firth of Forth from the English and other pirates. He erected fortresses at Largo and Inchgarvie, and made extensive repairs to Dunbar Castle, to defend the firth from hostile attacks. James also remonstrated with King Manuel I of Portugal against the piracy practised by the Portuguese against Scottish shipping, and granted letters of marque to Andrew Barton, authorizing him to attack Portuguese ships. The forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1493 was followed by James's naval expeditions to Argyll and the Hebrides in 1492-5 and 1498, and in May 1502 James sent a fleet of five ships and 2,000 troops to Denmark to aid his uncle, John, King of Denmark, who had appealed to James for aid against a rising in Sweden and Norway. The Danish expedition seems to have concentrated James IV's mind on naval expansion: shipwrights and craftsmen were recruited from across Scotland, and from France, Flanders, Denmark and Spain; timber for shipbuilding was felled in Lanarkshire and the Highlands and imported from Norway and France. James was also responsible for the founding of new dockyards on the Forth at Newhaven in 1504, and Pool of Airth in 1506. The king also wore the insignia of an Admiral - a whistle and a chain of gold.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: The "Margaret", built at Leith and launched in 1506, weighed around 600-700 tons, was armed with four falconets, a cannon, and twenty-one other guns, and cost the king an estimated £8,000 - more than a quarter of his annual income. The carrack "Great Michael" was the largest warship of its time. Built at Newhaven and launched in 1511, it measured between and in length, weighed around 1,000 tons, and was supposed to have cost around £30,000. Armed with twenty-four bronze cannon and three basilisks, it marked a shift in design as it was designed specifically to carry a main armament of heavy artillery. The navy's core of four large ships (the "Treasurer", the "Margaret", the "James", and the "Michael") were supported by a number of smaller craft and privately-owned merchant ships.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV also took an enthusiastic interest in artillery from the early years of his reign. In 1507 he shot some ‘great guns’ at Holyrood Abbey with three of his gunners, and the following year it is recorded that he held shooting matches with hand culverins in the great halls of Holyrood Palace and Stirling Castle. James also took a culverin to stalk deer in the park of Falkland Palace, and shot at sea birds with one from a row boat off the Isle of May. James IV imported guns, shot and powder from France, and in 1511 the royal gun foundry was moved from Stirling Castle to Edinburgh Castle, where Scots, Dutch, and French gunmakers worked under the master gunner, Robert Borthwick, in what was the earliest significant foundry for producing large bronze guns in the British Isles. Their output included guns for the "Michael", and the "Seven Sisters", a set of cannons captured by the English at Flodden. James's artillery also included arquebus à croc (mounted heavy arquebuses), hand culverins, and falconets.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV was a true Renaissance prince and a patron of the arts, including many literary figures, most notably the Scots makars. Poets associated with his court include William Dunbar, Walter Kennedy and Gavin Douglas. James patronised music at Restalrig using rental money from the King's Wark, and gave his backing to the foundation of King's College, Aberdeen, by his chancellor, William Elphinstone, and St Leonard's College, St Andrews, by his illegitimate son, Alexander, Archbishop of St Andrews, and John Hepburn, Prior of St Andrews. In 1496, partly at Elphinstone's instance, he also passed what has been described as Scotland's first education act, which introduced compulsory education at grammar school for the eldest sons and heirs of all barons and freeholders of substance.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James was both highly intelligent and well educated. In July 1498, Spanish ambassador, Pedro de Ayala, reported to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile:


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James also ensured that the very best education was given to his illegitimate son, Alexander, who was tutored by Erasmus in Padua, Siena, and Rome. James IV allegedly conducted a language deprivation experiment in which two children were sent to be raised by a mute woman alone on the island of Inchkeith, to determine if language was learned or innate.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV had a wide range of intellectual interests, and took an interest in practical and scientific matters. He patronised the establishment of Scotland's first printing press, Chepman and Myllar Press, in 1507, and granted the Incorporation of Surgeons and Barbers of Edinburgh a royal charter in 1506. James was also interested in dentistry, an interest which began in 1503 when the king summoned a ‘barbour’ to extract one of his teeth for the sum of 14 shillings. In 1504, he sought more practical experience of dentistry and purchased two gold toothpicks suspended from a chain, and "ane turcase [pincer] to tak out teith". It is recorded that James pulled two teeth from one of his own barber-surgeons, for which the king paid him 14 shillings, and also tried bloodletting on patients, and treating and dressing ulcer wounds. He also took an interest in other sciences which are now less creditable, establishing an alchemy workshop at Stirling Castle, where alchemist John Damian looked for ways to turn base metals into gold. The project consumed quantities of mercury, golden litharge, and tin. A goldsmith, Matthew Auchinleck, provided the alchemists with a still made of silver. Damian also researched aviation and undertook a failed experiment to fly from the battlements of Stirling Castle, an event which William Dunbar satirised in two separate poems.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James poured large amounts of money into the construction or remodelling of several royal residences. He commissioned the construction between 1501 and 1505 of the Palace of Holyroodhouse, adjacent to Holyrood Abbey. The impetus for the work probably came from his marriage to Margaret Tudor, which took place in the abbey in August 1503 while work was still ongoing. James also commissioned the construction of Falkland Palace in Fife between 1501 and 1513, on a site to the south of Falkland Castle. At Stirling Castle, James remodelled the chapel royal and erected it into a collegiate church, constructed a new royal lodging (the present day King’s Old Building), reconstructed the principal defences on the southern and eastern sides of the castle, and built the great hall. He also remodelled Linlithgow Palace, built the great hall at Edinburgh Castle, and furnished his palaces with tapestries.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: The first evidence of whisky production in Scotland comes from an entry in the "Exchequer Rolls" for 1494 where malt is sent "To Friar John Cor, by order of the king, to make aquavitae", enough to make about 500 bottles. James IV reportedly had a great liking for whisky, and in 1506 the town of Dundee purchased a large amount of whisky from the Guild of Barber-Surgeons, which held the monopoly on production at the time.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV's court and royal household were cosmopolitan, containing assorted foreign peoples including French and Italian minstrels. The court also hosted a number of Africans, some working as servants or (possibly) slaves, but others appearing to have been courtiers, invited guests or musicians. In 1504, two African women, who were later christened as Margaret and Helen or Elen More, are mentioned in the "Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland". The women were visible in court life and Helen More became the presumed subject of the poem 'Ane Blak Moir' by William Dunbar describing an African woman offered as a prize in jousting tournaments. The poem is critical of her appearance and status as a black woman in a predominantly white court and country.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: An African drummer referred to as the "More taubronar" travelled with James around Scotland. "Peter the Moor" was an African man whose travel and expenses were paid for by royal funds. He first appears in records in 1500 and some historians believe he and other Africans arrived in Scotland initially as "human booty" captured by Scottish privateers from Portuguese cargo ships. Records show that Peter the Moor was a companion to King James in his various trips across the country, appearing in the records until August 1504, when he received a large and final payment. Historian Imtiaz Habib argues that Peter was "clearly a favourite companion to the monarch" and was "well accepted" into the court culture. The status of the Africans in James IV's court is contested, with some historians taking the view that the two women Elen and Margaret More were "enjoying in the royal service a benevolent form of ... black slavery". Other historians emphasise that these individuals were treated as "court curiosities" rather than being in control of their own lives, and were most likely enslaved to some extent.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James was granted the title "Protector and Defender of the Christian Faith" in 1507 by Pope Julius II, and in April 1507 at Holyrood Abbey he received the Blessed sword and hat. In 1508 James IV made plans to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, after a journey to Venice, before sailing from there to Jaffa in a Venetian ship. James's uncle, King John of Denmark, protested against his projected pilgrimage to Jerusalem in a letter written to the Archbishop of Glasgow in July 1507, remarking that the Scottish king should think first of his young wife and his country. Archbishop Blackadder left Scotland in February 1508 to set out on pilgrimage to the Holy Land, probably as a reconnaissance for the king's pilgrimage. Blackadder's death on 28 July, presumably from an infectious illness, on board a ship from Venice to Jaffa appears to have convinced James IV of the inadvisability of sailing to Jerusalem. In 1507-8, Louis XII of France was endeavouring to have James renew the Franco-Scottish alliance, and James wrote to Louis raising the idea of a joint Franco-Scottish crusade to the Holy Land. James's maintenance of Scotland's traditional good relations with France occasionally created diplomatic problems with England. In April 1508, Thomas Wolsey was sent to Scotland discuss Henry VII's concerns over rumours that James would renew the Auld Alliance with France. Wolsey found "there was never a man worse welcome into Scotland than I. ...They keep their matters so secret here that the wives in the market know every cause of my coming." Wolsey was unable to persuade James to abandon the Auld Alliance, but Anglo-Scottish relations nonetheless remained stable until the death of Henry VII in 1509.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Relations between Scotland and England deteriorated with the accession of Henry VIII of England in April 1509. Unlike his father, Henry had no interest in appeasing James, because his focus was on France. Henry VIII also believed that, whatever the implications of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, the King of Scots owed him obedience. At the core of the increasing hostility between James and Henry was James IV’s position in relation to the English throne. From his accession in 1509 until the birth of his daughter Mary in 1516 - apart from the short life of his son Henry, Duke of Cornwall in 1511 - Henry was childless and had no recognised heir. Through his wife Margaret, James IV was an heir to the English throne. When Margaret gave birth to a son in October 1509, the baby was christened Arthur, not after Margaret and Henry’s elder brother, but to advertise the Scottish claim to the Arthurian legend, and as a British name for a potential British king. Then on 10 April 1512, Margaret gave birth to another boy, to be called James. This boy, the future James V, was still alive and well a year later, while his uncle continued to remain childless.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: As a result of the Italian Wars, in October 1511 Pope Julius II created a Holy League against France. The new alliance included the Papacy, Venice, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. In November 1511, England also joined the League, with Henry VIII deciding to use the occasion as an excuse to conclude the Treaty of Westminster — a pledge of mutual aid against the French — with Ferdinand II. Relations between the Scottish and English kings continued to deteriorate with the passing of the Subsidy Act by the English parliament in 1512, with the act's preamble declaring that the King of Scots was "the very homage and obedience of right to your Higness [Henry VIII]’. This assault on Scotland’s independence was a reassertion of claims to English overlordship which had been implicitly revoked on a permanent basis by the 1502 Treaty of Perpetual Peace. The English justification of the claim was that James IV had broken the peace, and was preparing for war. This was completely specious as James had by then not even acceded to Louis XII’s urgent requests to renew the Franco-Scottish alliance. In theory there was a ‘court of appeal’ which had the power to adjudicate such differences between the parties to the treaty: the Papacy. But Pope Julius II was now an ally of England, and far from being an honest broker. James IV had so far refused the French king's requests to renew the Franco-Scottish alliance as Louis XII was not offering a sufficient benefit in return. However, Henry VIII’s increasingly belligerent stance effectively ensured that the Auld Alliance would be renewed. James gave formal agreement to the renewal of the alliance in July 1512, but this was a gesture rather than a commitment of active support against England, and it was still possible that Scotland would remain neutral in any Anglo-French war.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Before his death in February 1513, Pope Julius II had been persuaded by the Archbishop of York, Christopher Bainbridge, to impose an interdict as a general censure against the Scottish people. He also threatened to excommunicate the Scottish king if he was judged to have broken the treaty with England, and granted Bainbridge the power to excommunicate James is such circumstances. James IV sent Andrew Forman, the Bishop of Moray, to Rome to try and persuade the new Pope, Leo X, to countermand the interdict, but without success. Leo sent a letter to James, threatening him with ecclesiastical censure for breaking peace treaties, and in the summer of 1513 the King of Scots was excommunicated by Bainbridge. On 30 June, Henry VIII invaded France, his troops defeating a French army at the Battle of the Spurs, before capturing Thérouanne and Tournai. James IV summoned the Scottish army, and sent a naval fleet of twenty two vessels, including the "Great Michael", to join the ships of Louis XII of France. The fleet, commanded by James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Arran, departed from the Firth of Forth on 25 July, and sailed around the north of Scotland. It first created a diversion in Ireland, where it attacked the English royal garrison at Carrickfergus and burnt the town, with support from Hugh Duff O'Donnell. The Scottish fleet then joined the French at Brest, from where it might cut the English army in France's line of communication across the English Channel. However, the fleet was so badly delayed that it played no part in the war; unfortunately, James had sent most of his experienced artillerymen with the expedition, a decision which was to have unforeseen consequences for his land campaign.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Led by James IV, the Scottish army, numbering some 42,000 men, and including a large artillery train, crossed the River Tweed into England near Coldstream around 22 August. The Scottish troops were unpaid and were only required by feudal obligation to serve for forty days. Once across the border, a detachment turned south to attack Wark on Tweed Castle, while the bulk of the army followed the course of the Tweed downstream to the northeast to invest the remaining border castles. Norham Castle was taken and partly demolished, and the army then moved south, capturing the castles of Etal and Ford. On 8 September the Scottish army took up position against an English army commanded by Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey on Branxton Hill in Northumberland. James' army, somewhat reduced from the original 42,000 by sickness and desertion, still amounted to about 34,000, outnumbering the English force by 8,000. The Scottish infantry had been equipped with long pikes by their French allies; a new weapon which had proved devastating in continental Europe, but required training, discipline and suitable terrain to use effectively. The Scottish artillery, consisting mainly of heavy siege guns, included five great curtals and two great culverins, together with four sakers, and six great serpentines. The English infantry were equipped with traditional pole weapons, mostly bills which were the favoured pole arm of the English infantry. There was also a large contingent of well-trained archers armed with the English longbow. The English artillery consisted of light field guns of rather old-fashioned design, typically firing a ball of only about , but easy to handle and capable of rapid fire.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV began the battle with an artillery duel, but his heavy guns did not perform well, contemporary accounts putting this down to the difficulty for the Scots of shooting downhill, another factor being that their guns had been hastily sited instead of the careful emplacement which was usually required for such heavy weapons, slowing their rate of fire. This allowed the light English guns to turn a rapid fire on the massed ranks of Scottish infantry. The Scottish left, under Lord Home and the Earl of Huntly, then advanced downhill towards the English army. The Scots had placed their most heavily armoured men in the front rank, so that the English archers had little impact. The outnumbered English formation was forced back and elements of it began to run off, before Surrey ordered the intervention of Dacre's light horsemen. The eventual result was a stalemate in which both sides stood off from each other and played no further part in the battle.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: In the meantime, James had observed Home and Huntly's initial success, and ordered the advance of the next formation in line, commanded by the Earls of Errol, Crawford, and Montrose. At the foot of Branxton Hill, they encountered an unforeseen obstacle, an area of marshy ground, made worse by days of heavy rain. As they struggled to cross the waterlogged ground, the Scots lost the cohesion and momentum on which pike formations depended for success. Once the line was disrupted, the long pikes became an unwieldy encumbrance, and the Scots began to drop them. Reaching for their side-arms of swords and axes, they found themselves outreached by the English bills in the close-quarter fighting that developed. It is unclear whether James had seen the difficulty encountered by the earls formation, but he followed down the slope regardless, making for Surrey's formation. James has been criticised for placing himself in the front line, thereby putting himself in personal danger and losing his overview of the field. He was, however, well known for taking risks in battle, and it would have been out of character for him to stay back. Encountering the same difficulties as the previous attack, James's men nevertheless fought their way to Surrey's bodyguard. The fierce fighting continued, centred on the contest between Surrey and James. As other English formations overcame the Scottish forces they had initially engaged, they moved to reinforce the Earl of Surrey. An instruction to English troops that no prisoners were to be taken explains the exceptional mortality amongst the Scottish nobility. James IV himself was killed in the final stage of the battle, having fought to within a spear length of the Earl of Surrey.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: The Battle of Flodden was one of Scotland's worst military defeats: the loss of not only a popular and capable king, but also a large portion of the political community, was a major blow to the realm. James IV's son, James V, was crowned three weeks after the disaster at Flodden, but was only one year old, and his minority was to be fraught with political upheaval.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: The body of James IV was found the following day, surrounded by the corpses of his bodyguard of archers. The king was identified by Thomas Dacre, 2nd Baron Dacre. James's lower jaw had been pierced by an arrow, an injury which would have disabled him sufficiently for the attacking English soldiers to move in and slash him with their bills, almost severing his left hand and slicing him across the throat. James's body was taken to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where it was embalmed, sealed in a lead-lined coffin, and transported to Sheen Priory in Surrey, where it remained unburied. James's torn and bloodstained surcoat was sent to Henry VIII (then on campaign in France) by his queen, Catherine of Aragon.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: As James had been excommunicated prior to his death, he could not be buried in consecrated ground until the Pope remitted the sentence. Although Henry VIII obtained a dispensation from Pope Leo X on 29 November 1513 to have the Scottish king buried in St Paul's Cathedral in London, James IV remained unburied. His coffin remained above ground at Sheen Priory, as the decades passed and the priory was dissolved in 1539 during the English Reformation, becoming the secularized estate of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk. During the reign of Edward VI of England the antiquarian John Stow was shown the coffin, lying in a store room: "since the dissolution of the House I have been shewed the same body (as was affirmed) so lapped in lead throwne into an old wast roome, amongst old timber, stone, lead, and other rubble". James IV's coffin was rediscovered during the reign of Elizabeth I of England, when it was opened and his body became a plaything, John Stow writing that "Workmen there for their foolish pleasure hewed off his head." The body disappeared, its last-known resting place at Sheen now lying under the fairway of the 14th hole of the Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Course. Elizabeth I's master glazier, Lancelot Young, is said to have kept James's head as a curio at his home in Wood Street in the City of London, before asking the sexton of the local church, St Michael's, to bury it. The church was later demolished, and the site redeveloped many times; it is now occupied by a public house.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: Rumours persisted that James IV had survived and was seen riding back across the Tweed; that he had gone on pilgrimage to Jerusalem; or that his body was buried in Scotland. Two castles in the Borders are claimed as his resting place. The legend ran that, before the Scottish charge at Flodden, James had ripped off his surcoat to show his nobles that he was prepared to fight as an ordinary man-at-arms. Border legend claimed that during the battle, four Home horsemen or supernatural riders swept across the field snatching up the King's body, or that the King left the field alive and was killed soon afterwards. In the 19th century, when the medieval well of Hume Castle was being cleared, the skeleton of a man with a chain round his waist was discovered in a side cave; but this skeleton has since disappeared. Another version of this tale has the skeleton discovered at Hume a few years after the battle and re-interred at Holyrood Abbey. The same story was told for Roxburgh Castle, with the skeleton there discovered in the 17th century. Yet another tradition is the discovery of the royal body at Berry Moss, near Kelso. Fuelling these legends, Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, writing in the 1570s, claimed that a convicted criminal offered to show John Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany the King's grave ten years after the battle, but Albany refused.


title: James IV of Scotland

text: James IV has been depicted in historical novels, short stories, and media portrayals. They include the following:


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Dumbo is a 2019 American fantasy period adventure film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay written by Ehren Kruger. The film is a live-action adaptation and reimagining of Walt Disney's 1941 animated film of the same name, which is based on the novel by Helen Aberson and Harold Pearl. The film stars Colin Farrell, Michael Keaton, Danny DeVito, Eva Green and Alan Arkin. The story follows a family that works at a failing traveling circus as they encounter a baby elephant with extremely large ears who is capable of flying.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Plans for a live-action film adaptation of "Dumbo" were announced in 2014, and Burton was confirmed as director in March 2015. Most of the cast signed on for the feature in March 2017 and principal photography lasted from July to November 2017 in England. It was the first of five live-action adaptations of prior animated Disney films released in 2019, along with "Aladdin", "The Lion King", "", and "Lady and the Tramp".


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: "Dumbo" premiered in Los Angeles on March 11, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on March 29, 2019. The film was a box office failure, grossing $353 million worldwide against a $170 million budget. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its ambition but criticized its lack of emotional depth.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: In 1919 Sarasota, Florida, equestrian performer and World War I amputee Holt Farrier returns after the war to his previous employer, the Medici Brothers' Circus, run by Max Medici. The circus has run into financial troubles; Medici reveals he was forced to sell his stable of horses after Holt's wife and co-performer, Annie, died from the Spanish flu outbreak. After being informed by Holt that he lost his arm in the Battle of the Argonne, Medici instead hires him as the caretaker for Mother Ella Jumbo, the circus' pregnant Asian elephant. She gives birth to a calf with unusually large ears, and Medici orders Holt to hide them, fearing how the public might react to such a deformity.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: However, the calf accidentally reveals his ears in his debut performance in Joplin, Missouri, and the crowd laughs and mockingly calls the calf "Dumbo" while pelting him with peanuts and other objects. Mrs. Jumbo, angered by her son's mistreatment, rampages into the ring, causing extensive damage, collapsing the big top, and accidentally killing Rufus, a handler who antagonizes her. Anticipating public outrage over the incident, Medici sells Mrs. Jumbo. Holt's son and daughter, Joe and Milly Farrier, comfort Dumbo and discover that he can fly by flapping his ears and that feathers benefit his willingness to fly.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Dumbo is then forced to play the role of a firefighter clown, but the performance goes awry, and Dumbo is trapped on a high platform surrounded by flames. Milly delivers a feather to Dumbo, giving him the confidence to fly to safety. The audience is astounded, and word of his talent begins to spread. V. A. Vandevere, the wealthy owner of the Bohemian amusement park Dreamland, approaches Medici and proposes a collaboration: If Medici becomes Vandevere's business partner, the Medici Brothers' Circus' troupe will permanently be employed to perform at Dreamland, solving their financial problems.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Dumbo's debut performance at Dreamland with Vandevere's star performer French trapeze artist Colette Marchant quickly goes wrong when Dumbo nearly falls off a high platform and starts trumpeting in panic after realizing that there is no safety net. Dumbo hears his mother's response to his call and realizes that after his mother was sold, she was placed in an exhibit at Dreamland called Nightmare Island. Much to the disappointment of the audience, Dumbo flies out of the circus ring and reunites with his mother. Annoyed by Dumbo's disobedience and fearing the loss of his sterling reputation, Vandevere fires the Medici troupe and orders Mrs. Jumbo's exhibit to be shuttered.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: When Holt and the Medici troupe learn that Vandevere intends to have Dumbo's mother euthanized and that it is no longer safe for the two elephants to live with them, they make plans to set her and Dumbo free. The circus performers utilize their various talents to break Mrs. Jumbo out of her enclosure, while Holt and Colette guide Dumbo to fly out of the circus. Vandevere attempts to stop them but starts a fire by mishandling Dreamland's electrical system, which spreads and destroys the park. After Dumbo saves Holt and his family from the fire, they are joined by Colette and the rest of the troupe to bring Dumbo and his mother to the harbor, where they board a ship back to their native home in India.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Some time later, the renamed Medici Family Circus is reestablished and flourishes with Colette as the newest troupe member, Milly as host of a science lecture exhibition, and performers dressed as animals, in line with the circus' new policy of not using wild animals in captivity for entertainment. It is implied that Vandevere was convicted of arson. Meanwhile, Dumbo and his mother reunite with a herd of wild elephants, who applaud Dumbo as he flies with joy.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Early development for a live-action adaptation of "Dumbo" began in 2014, when Ehren Kruger gave producer Derek Frey a script for the film, which Frey gave the green light to. On July 8, 2014, it was announced that the film was in development for Walt Disney Pictures. Kruger was confirmed as the screenwriter, and Justin Springer as a producer along with Kruger. On March 10, 2015, Tim Burton was announced as the director. On July 15, 2017, Disney announced "Dumbo" would be released on March 29, 2019. The film features a different storyline from the original film's, though as star Colin Farrell described, "[t]he one central thing that holds true in both the original animation, the original cartoon" and the 2019 film, is the message of "believing in yourself and finding something inside you that allows you to become the best version of what you thought you could even be, and that we're all, regardless of the things that sometimes society says, should arrive us at being outcasts; they're the things that make us all individual, special, and beautiful regardless of how crippling a certain thing may be or how polarizing a certain physical attribute even may be."


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: The film does not feature talking animals, focusing instead on the human characters. Kruger wrote the script so that it "offered a way to tell that story in a framework that expanded it, but without redoing the original [film]", and a story that "was simple, with an emotional simplicity, and didn't interfere with what the basic through line of the original is about." As in the original film, "Dumbo" depicts the protagonist as a symbolic figure who does not fit in and uses their disabilities as an advantage. Kruger wrote the script in order to "explore how the people of the circus world would relate to Dumbo's journey", while Springer said that "[the production team] really wanted to explore the human side of [Dumbo's] story and give it historical context. In the animated feature, Dumbo flies for the world at the end of the film. [They] wanted to find out how the world reacts when people learn that this elephant can fly". The group of crows from the 1941 film that had been criticized as being racist were excluded from the film, and their dialogue was instead said by a ringleader character.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: In January 2017, it was announced that Will Smith was in talks to play the father of the children who develop a friendship with the elephant after seeing him at the circus. However, Smith later passed on the role due to scheduling conflicts with "Bad Boys for Life," among other reasons. He went on to be cast as the Genie in Disney's live-action film adaptation of "Aladdin". Bill Hader, Chris Pine and Casey Affleck were also offered the role, but passed on it before Colin Farrell was cast. Farrell, a fan of Burton, chose to work on the film because "[t]he idea of [acting in] something as sweet and fantastical and otherworldly, while being grounded in some recognizable world that we can relate to, under the direction of [Burton], was a dream ... I've always been looking for something of that ilk."


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: In March 2017, Burton's frequent collaborators, Eva Green and Danny DeVito, joined the cast as Colette, a trapeze artist, and Max Medici, the circus' ringmaster, respectively. Due to her fear of heights, Green trained with aerialist Katherine Arnold and choreographer Fran Jaynes in order to prepare for the role. In April 2017, another veteran of Burton's films, Michael Keaton, joined "Dumbo", to complete the casting of prominent "adult" roles. Tom Hanks was reportedly in discussions for the role before Keaton's casting. Hanks would instead sign on for the role of Geppetto in Disney's 2022 live-action film adaptation of "Pinocchio". In the summer of 2017, DeObia Oparei, Joseph Gatt, and Alan Arkin joined the cast. DeVito said that "[he loves] Tim and [he] would do anything to be in a movie with him." He also said that Burton is "[a]lways spirited, always an artist, always thinking about the craft, always painting with his mind," and that he felt like "part of some kind of palette, a color scheme" while filming the movie.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Principal photography had begun by July 2017 in England, with most of the filming taking place at Pinewood Studios and Cardington Airfield. Two elephant props were used during filming "to give [the production team] an idea of his size and his shape in the scene; an idea of the lighting, and that kind of thing; where he's going to be for camera." Creature performer Edd Osmond used a green suit to represent the character while filming certain scenes, as well as an "interactive reference" for scenes that required the actors to be in contact with the character, and as a guide for Burton to use; with Burton later providing information of his performance to the animation team. Unlike most remakes of Disney animations, "Dumbo" mostly used practical sets during filming.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Production designer Rick Heinrichs designed the film's scenes in a way that represents both the film's story and the period setting. He stated that the film's story "provided a very specific period, but at the same time, having worked with Tim many times in the past, [he knows] that [Burton is] a little less interested in giving a history lesson as he is in the emotional story being told." The "Dreamland" and circus scenes were designed differently in order to contrast them. The production design crew were heavily influenced by the works of Edward Hopper, with Heinrichs stating that the team tried to create something similar to "[Hopper]'s reductive process of looking at environments and reducing it to its essence."


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Heinrichs also said that the production design team had "to push the reality—the live action—a bit into the storybook world. [They] certainly make the baby elephant look believable, but [they] also stylized our world, pushing it into an expressive direction with all of the lighting, costumes, props and environments." Burton filmed the remake in sound stages, stating that "[f]or this kind of movie, shooting all indoors obviously helps with weather concerns and all those things. It's one movie where [they are] not sitting around, talking about the weather all day long." The production team also created a full-scale version of the train "Casey Jr." from the original film, though it was visually redesigned in order to reflect the circus' state. According to visual effects supervisor Richard Stammers, a motion base, which he described as "essentially a hydraulic round gimbal rig," was used for scenes in which Green's character flies with Dumbo, with hydraulic pistons used to simulate Dumbo's flying.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: The visual effects were provided by Moving Picture Company, Framestore and Rise FX, with the help of Rising Sun Pictures and Rodeo FX. At Rodeo, to achieve the effects for the opening sequence of the train travelling through the country, augmented aerial footage was merged with matte paintings and computer-generated imagery. They would also do the effects of Holt's amputated arm by digitally recreating the character's costumes and the backgrounds obstructed by the sleeve. The Third Floor, Inc., tasked primarily with creating the animals of the film, achieved the effects of humans flying on Dumbo using a 3D mold of the character and an animatronic mounted on a 6-axis gimbal.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: On October 4, 2017, Danny Elfman was announced as the composer for the film's score. He said that "[he and the production team] knew [they] would have to find a musical identity for Dumbo that was purely Dumbo." Elfman developed "a very simple [main] theme" as Burton "feels it's a simple story." Elfman also wrote background music for the film's scenes in the circus, and themes based on the characters' experiences. He also wrote a theme for Medici and Vandevere which he described as "a bit of a wicked thing." The score pays homage to Frank Churchill and Oliver Wallace's score from the original film.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Norwegian singer Aurora performed a cover of the original film's song "Baby Mine" for the remake's trailer, though it was not featured in the actual film. Sharon Rooney, playing "Miss Atlantis," performed the song in the film. Additionally, Arcade Fire performs an end-credits version of "Baby Mine" for the film, which was released as a single on March 11, 2019. Instrumental versions of the songs "Casey Junior", "When I See an Elephant Fly", and "Pink Elephants on Parade" from the original "Dumbo" are also included in the 2019 film. The soundtrack, featuring Elfman's score and Arcade Fire's version of "Baby Mine", was digitally released on March 29, 2019 and physically released on April 26, 2019.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: "Dumbo" was released in the United States and the United Kingdom in 2D and RealD 3D by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures on March 29, 2019. It held its world premiere at the Ray Dolby Ballroom in Los Angeles on March 11, 2019. The European premiere was held at the Curzon Mayfair Cinema in London on March 21, 2019. The film plays in RealD 3D, IMAX, IMAX 3D and Dolby Cinema. In a collaboration with Accenture Interactive, Disney set up a photo booth, using photography facial recognition, would give attendees at the 2019 South by Southwest festival an experience that would be based on the emotion expressed by the attendee. Disney spent around $120–140 million to market the film worldwide. A tie-in novelization of the film written by Kari Sutherland was published by Disney Publishing Worldwide on February 12, 2019.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: "Dumbo" was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Ultra HD Blu-ray on June 25, 2019. The film was amongst several of Disney's then recent releases available to watch exclusively on their streaming service, Disney+, which was launched in November 2019.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: "Dumbo" grossed $114.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $238.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide $353.3 million. It was estimated the film would have had to gross more than $500 million worldwide in order to break even, and with a combined production and advertisement budget of $300 million, "Deadline Hollywood" reported it ultimately lost money.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside "The Beach Bum" and "Unplanned", and was projected to gross $50–65 million from 4,259 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $15.3 million on its first day, including $2.6 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $46 million, topping the box office. The start was considered disappointing, given the $170 million budget and the Disney brand, with the blame put on the original film being 78 years old and the middling critical response versus poor marketing. In its second weekend, the film dropped 60%, to $18.2 million, finishing third, behind newcomers "Shazam!" and "Pet Sematary", and then made $9.2 million in its third weekend, finishing fifth.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: In other territories, "Dumbo" was projected to earn $80–90 million from 53 countries in its opening weekend, for a global debut of $137–155 million. Similarly to its domestic market, the film underperformed, grossing $73.5 million for a worldwide $119.5 million. Its largest markets were China ($10.7 million), Mexico ($7.2 million) and Japan ($2.4 million). It earned $39.6 million in its second weekend overseas, for a running total of $137.5 million. As of June 2019, its largest markets are the United Kingdom ($32.5 million), China ($21.9 million), Mexico ($21.6 million), France ($16.9 million), and Italy ($12.5 million).


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of based on reviews and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""Dumbo" is held partly aloft by Tim Burton's visual flair, but a crowded canvas and overstretched story leave this live-action remake more workmanlike than wondrous." On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 51 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, and those at PostTrak gave it 3.5 out of 5 stars.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Writing for "The A.V. Club", Katie Rife gave the film a "B−" and wrote "characters are just there to keep the story moving, to provide awestruck reaction shots as we move from oddly muted spectacle to agreeable callback to the heartwarming happy ending. And yes, these are all symptoms of the same relentless conformist drumbeat the film is critiquing in its script. But what's more Disney than Disney controlling the ways in which a filmmaker can critique Disney?" David Rooney of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "The hopes of diehard Burton fans might have been stoked by the recruitment of Michael Keaton and Danny DeVito, totems of the director's more consistent days. But this is another frustratingly uneven picture, with thin characters—human and animal—that fail to exert much of a hold, reclaiming the story only toward the end. Up to then, the filmmaker's overstuffed visual imagination and appetite for sinister gloom all but trample the enchantment of a tale that, at heart, is simple and whimsical. The central failure to recognize those virtues lies also in Ehren Kruger's cluttered screenplay." James Berardinelli from Reelviews called "Dumbo" "a perfectly adequate family film", rating it 3 out of 4 stars.


title: Dumbo (2019 film)

text: Conversely, Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" lamented disappointment in the film, stating that the film "transforms a gentle and miraculous tale into a routine story by weighing it down with a lot of nuts and bolts it didn’t need". For "IndieWire", David Ehrlich gave split opinions on the acting, praising DeVito and Keaton's performances but criticizing Arkin's as "hilariously lazy" and stated it would invite the audience to "stop caring about the plot". "The Guardian"s Peter Bradshaw gave the film one star out of five, lamenting that "Tim Burton's new "Dumbo" lands in the multiplex big top with a dull thud. It is a flightless pachyderm of a film that saddles itself with 21st-century shame at the idea of circus animals, overcomplicating the first movie, losing the directness, abandoning the lethal pathos, mislaying the songs and finally getting marooned in some sort of steampunk "Jurassic Park", jam-packed with retro-futurist boredom."


title: The Dirt (film)

text: The Dirt is a 2019 American biographical comedy-drama film directed by Jeff Tremaine from a screenplay by Rich Wilkes and Amanda Adelson, about heavy metal/glam metal band Mötley Crüe. The film stars Douglas Booth, Colson Baker, Daniel Webber and Iwan Rheon.


title: The Dirt (film)

text: Talks of a Mötley Crüe biopic began as early as 2006, when Paramount Pictures and MTV Films purchased the rights to the book "The Dirt: Confessions of the World's Most Notorious Rock Band" by the band and Neil Strauss; however, the project then languished in development hell for over a decade, going through numerous directors and cast members before Netflix purchased the rights in March 2017. Filming began around New Orleans in February 2018.


title: The Dirt (film)

text: "The Dirt" was released digitally on Netflix on March 22, 2019. It received generally negative reviews from critics, who said the film would please fans but that it hesitated "in handling the more troubling aspects of the band's history."