title: Apple II

text: Jesse Adams Stein wrote, "As the first company to release a 'consumer appliance' micro-computer, Apple Computer offers us a clear view of this shift from a "machine" to an "appliance"." But the company also had "to negotiate the attitudes of its potential buyers, bearing in mind social anxieties about the uptake of new technologies in multiple contexts. The office, the home and the 'office-in-the-home' were implicated in these changing spheres of gender stereotypes and technological development." After seeing a crude, wire-wrapped prototype demonstrated by Wozniak and Steve Jobs in November 1976, "Byte" predicted in April 1977, that the Apple II "may be the first product to fully qualify as the 'appliance computer' ... a completed system which is purchased off the retail shelf, taken home, plugged in and used". The computer's color graphics capability especially impressed the magazine. The magazine published a favorable review of the computer in March 1978, concluding: "For the user that wants color graphics, the Apple II is the only practical choice available in the 'appliance' computer class."


title: Apple II

text: "Personal Computer World" in August 1978 also cited the color capability as a strength, stating that "the prime reason that anyone buys an Apple II must surely be for the colour graphics". While mentioning the "oddity" of the artifact colors that produced output "that is not always what one wishes to do", it noted that "no-one has colour graphics like this at this sort of price". The magazine praised the sophisticated monitor software, user expandability, and comprehensive documentation. The author concluded that "the Apple II is a very promising machine" which "would be even more of a temptation were its price slightly lower ... for the moment, colour is an Apple II".


title: Apple II

text: Although it sold well from the launch, the initial market was to hobbyists and computer enthusiasts. Sales expanded exponentially into the business and professional market, when the spreadsheet program VisiCalc was launched in mid-1979. VisiCalc is credited as the defining killer app in the microcomputer industry.


title: Apple II

text: During the first five years of operations, revenues doubled about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, annual sales grew from to . During this period the sole products of the company were the Apple II and its peripherals, accessories, and software.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Nicolle Wallace (née Devenish; born February 4, 1972) is an American television host and author. She is known for her work as the anchor of the MSNBC news and politics program "" and a former co-host of the ABC daytime talk show "The View". As a political analyst for MSNBC and NBC News, she is a frequent on-air contributor to the programs "Today", "The 11th Hour with Stephanie Ruhle" and "Morning Joe."


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: In her former political career, Wallace served as the White House Communications Director during the presidency of George W. Bush and in his 2004 re-election campaign. Wallace also served as a senior advisor for John McCain's 2008 presidential campaign. In addition, she is the author of the contemporary political novels "Eighteen Acres", "It's Classified", and "Madam President".


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Nicolle Devenish was born on February 4, 1972, in Orange County in Southern California. The eldest of four siblings, she grew up in the Bay Area suburb of Orinda in Northern California. Her mother was a third-grade teacher's assistant in public schools, and her father was an antiques dealer. Her grandfather, Thomas Devenish, was a Manhattan antiques dealer, part of "Devenish and Company". He was born in England to vaudevillian parents and immigrated to the United States with his family in 1947. Wallace is also of Greek descent.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: A 1990 graduate of Miramonte High School, Wallace received a Bachelor of Arts in mass communications from the University of California, Berkeley in 1994, and a master's degree from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism in 1996.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Briefly an on-air reporter in California, Wallace started her political career working in California state politics. In 1999, she moved to Florida to serve as Governor Jeb Bush's press secretary and then became the Communications Director for the Florida State Technology Office in 2000. Wallace worked on the 2000 Florida election recount.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Wallace joined the White House staff during George W. Bush's first term, serving as special assistant to the President and director of media affairs at the White House, where she oversaw regional press strategy and outreach. In 2003, Wallace joined Bush's 2004 presidential campaign as its communications director, wherein according to "The New York Times" she "delivered her political attacks without snarling."


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: On January 5, 2005, Bush named Wallace White House Communications Director. "The New York Times" story announcing her presidential appointment carried the headline: "New Aide Aims to Defrost the Press Room" and described Wallace's intentions "to improve the contentious relationship between a secretive White House and the press." According to "The Washington Post", Wallace served as "a voice for more openness with reporters", and former colleagues describe Wallace as having been "very persuasive in the halls of the West Wing." She left the White House in July 2006 to relocate to New York City, where her husband Mark was representing the Bush Administration at the United Nations. Her White House colleague, presidential political advisor Mark McKinnon, called her a "rare talent in politics."


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Wallace also served as a senior advisor for the John McCain 2008 presidential campaign. She appeared frequently on network and cable news programs as the campaign's top spokesperson and defender.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: In late October 2008, campaign aides criticized vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin. One unnamed McCain aide said Palin had "gone rogue," placing her own future political interests ahead of the McCain/Palin ticket, directly contradicting her running mate's positions, and disobeying directions from campaign managers. In response to reports of dissension within the McCain-Palin campaign, Wallace issued a statement to both "Politico" and CNN saying: "If people want to throw me under the bus, my personal belief is that the most honorable thing to do is to lie there."


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Wallace was portrayed by Sarah Paulson in the 2012 film "Game Change". Wallace described the film as highly credible, saying the film "captured the spirit and emotion of the campaign." Wallace also told ABC News Chief Political Correspondent George Stephanopoulos that the film was "true enough to make me squirm." Eight years after the election, Wallace stated that she did not vote for a presidential candidate in 2008 because Sarah Palin gave her pause.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: She is the author of the 2010 novel "Eighteen Acres" (a reference to the 18 acres on which the White House complex sits), a fictional narrative about three powerful women at the top of their careers: the first female U.S. President, her chief of staff, and a White House correspondent. Wallace said, "It's my best attempt at a story that I hope people will pick up and read and enjoy and maybe feel like they're getting to see what it's really like in the White House in this entirely fictional story."


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Patrick Anderson of "The Washington Post" wrote, "To say that Nicolle Wallace's 'Eighteen Acres' is one of the best novels I've read about life in the White House may be faint praise—there haven't been many good ones—but her book is both an enjoyable read and a serious look at what high-level political pressures do to people." Craig Wilson of "USA Today" wrote, "Nicolle Wallace actually knows what she's talking about" and Ashley Parker of "The New York Times" called the book "an engaging, easy read." TV personalities such as George Stephanopoulos, Rachel Maddow, John King, and Andrea Mitchell also praised "Eighteen Acres".


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: In September 2011, Wallace published the sequel to "Eighteen Acres", "It's Classified", about a fictional presidential campaign troubled by a mentally ill vice presidential candidate. Wallace said the premise was inspired by her experience as a senior adviser to the McCain/Palin campaign. Her third novel, "Madam President", was released in April 2015.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: On September 3, 2014, ABC announced Wallace would join "The View" as a new co-host alongside newcomer Rosie Perez. Wallace made her debut as a co-host on the premiere of the series' 18th season on September 15, 2014. Wallace exited the series at the end of the season.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Following her departure from "The View", Wallace joined NBC News and its cable network MSNBC as a political analyst. She was also a frequent contributor and guest host on MSNBC programs "The 11th Hour with Brian Williams" and "Morning Joe" as well as on NBC's "Today Show". In November 2016, Wallace served as an analyst for MSNBC's live coverage of election results, which was anchored by Brian Williams, Rachel Maddow, and Chris Matthews. Since May 9, 2017, Wallace has been the anchor of the afternoon news and opinion program "" on MSNBC. "Deadline: White House" garnered a total of 2 million viewers in July 2020, and in the following month, it was expanded to two hours.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Wallace was an executive producer on the July 3, 2022 MSNBC primetime special "Ukraine: Answering the Call", a fundraiser to support Ukraine during the 2022 invasion by Russia.


title: Nicolle Wallace

text: Wallace married American businessman, former diplomat, and lawyer Mark Wallace in 2005. In 2012, the couple had a son. In February 2013, both Wallace and her husband publicly supported the legalization of same-sex marriage in an "amicus curiae" brief submitted to the U.S. Supreme Court. She and Mark quietly divorced in 2019.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The moons of Saturn are numerous and diverse, ranging from tiny moonlets only tens of meters across to enormous Titan, which is larger than the planet Mercury. Saturn has 83 moons with confirmed orbits that are not embedded in its rings—of which only 13 have diameters greater than 50 kilometers—as well as dense rings that contain millions of embedded moonlets and innumerable smaller ring particles. Seven Saturnian moons are large enough to have collapsed into a relaxed, ellipsoidal shape, though only one or two of those, Titan and possibly Rhea, are currently in hydrostatic equilibrium. Particularly notable among Saturn's moons are Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System (after Jupiter's Ganymede), with a nitrogen-rich Earth-like atmosphere and a landscape featuring dry river networks and hydrocarbon lakes, Enceladus, which emits jets of gas and dust from its south-polar region, and Iapetus, with its contrasting black and white hemispheres.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Twenty-four of Saturn's moons are "regular satellites"; they have prograde orbits not greatly inclined to Saturn's equatorial plane. They include the seven major satellites, four small moons that exist in a trojan orbit with larger moons, two mutually co-orbital moons and two moons that act as shepherds of Saturn's F Ring. Two other known regular satellites orbit within gaps in Saturn's rings. The relatively large Hyperion is locked in a resonance with Titan. The remaining regular moons orbit near the outer edge of the A Ring, within the G Ring and between the major moons Mimas and Enceladus. The regular satellites are traditionally named after Titans and Titanesses or other figures associated with the mythological Saturn.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The remaining fifty-nine, with mean diameters ranging from 4 to 213 km, are "irregular satellites", whose orbits are much farther from Saturn, have high inclinations, and are mixed between prograde and retrograde. These moons are probably captured minor planets, or debris from the breakup of such bodies after they were captured, creating collisional families. The irregular satellites have been classified by their orbital characteristics into the Inuit, Norse, and Gallic groups, and their names are chosen from the corresponding mythologies (with the Gallic group corresponding to Celtic mythology). The sole exception is Phoebe, the ninth moon of Saturn and largest irregular, discovered at the end of the 19th century; it is part of the Norse group but named for a Greek Titaness.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The rings of Saturn are made up of objects ranging in size from microscopic to moonlets hundreds of meters across, each in its own orbit around Saturn. Thus a precise number of Saturnian moons cannot be given, because there is no objective boundary between the countless small anonymous objects that form Saturn's ring system and the larger objects that have been named as moons. Over 150 moonlets embedded in the rings have been detected by the disturbance they create in the surrounding ring material, though this is thought to be only a small sample of the total population of such objects.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: There are still twenty unnamed moons (), of which all but one is irregular. If named, they will receive names from Gallic, Norse and Inuit mythology based on the orbital groups of the moons.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Before the advent of telescopic photography, eight moons of Saturn were discovered by direct observation using optical telescopes. Saturn's largest moon, Titan, was discovered in 1655 by Christiaan Huygens using a objective lens on a refracting telescope of his own design. Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus (the "Sidera Lodoicea") were discovered between 1671 and 1684 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini. Mimas and Enceladus were discovered in 1789 by William Herschel. Hyperion was discovered in 1848 by W. C. Bond, G. P. Bond and William Lassell.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The use of long-exposure photographic plates made possible the discovery of additional moons. The first to be discovered in this manner, Phoebe, was found in 1899 by W. H. Pickering. In 1966 the tenth satellite of Saturn was discovered by Audouin Dollfus, when the rings were observed edge-on near an equinox. It was later named Janus. A few years later it was realized that all observations of 1966 could only be explained if another satellite had been present and that it had an orbit similar to that of Janus. This object is now known as Epimetheus, the eleventh moon of Saturn. It shares the same orbit with Janus—the only known example of co-orbitals in the Solar System. In 1980, three additional Saturnian moons were discovered from the ground and later confirmed by the "Voyager" probes. They are trojan moons of Dione (Helene) and Tethys (Telesto and Calypso).


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The study of the outer planets has since been revolutionized by the use of unmanned space probes. The arrival of the "Voyager" spacecraft at Saturn in 1980–1981 resulted in the discovery of three additional moons – Atlas, Prometheus and Pandora, bringing the total to 17. In addition, Epimetheus was confirmed as distinct from Janus. In 1990, Pan was discovered in archival "Voyager" images.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The "Cassini" mission, which arrived at Saturn in the summer of 2004, initially discovered three small inner moons including Methone and Pallene between Mimas and Enceladus as well as the second trojan moon of Dione – Polydeuces. It also observed three suspected but unconfirmed moons in the F Ring. In Cassini scientists announced that the structure of Saturn's rings indicates the presence of several more moons orbiting within the rings, although only one, Daphnis, had been visually confirmed at the time. In 2007 Anthe was announced. In 2008 it was reported that "Cassini" observations of a depletion of energetic electrons in Saturn's magnetosphere near Rhea might be the signature of a tenuous ring system around Saturn's second largest moon. In , Aegaeon, a moonlet within the G Ring, was announced. In July of the same year, S/2009 S 1, the first moonlet within the B Ring, was observed. In April 2014, the possible beginning of a new moon, within the A Ring, was reported. ()


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Study of Saturn's moons has also been aided by advances in telescope instrumentation, primarily the introduction of digital charge-coupled devices which replaced photographic plates. For the 20th century, Phoebe stood alone among Saturn's known moons with its highly irregular orbit. Then in 2000, three dozen additional irregular moons have been discovered using ground-based telescopes. A survey starting in late 2000 and conducted using three medium-size telescopes found thirteen new moons orbiting Saturn at a great distance, in eccentric orbits, which are highly inclined to both the equator of Saturn and the ecliptic. They are probably fragments of larger bodies captured by Saturn's gravitational pull. In 2005, astronomers using the Mauna Kea Observatory announced the discovery of twelve more small outer moons, in 2006, astronomers using the Subaru 8.2 m telescope reported the discovery of nine more irregular moons, in , Tarqeq (S/2007 S 1) was announced and in May of the same year S/2007 S 2 and S/2007 S 3 were reported. In 2019, twenty new irregular satellites of Saturn were reported, resulting in Saturn overtaking Jupiter as the planet with the most known moons for the first time since 2000. Yet another was reported in 2021, after a survey for Saturnian moons took place in 2019.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The modern names for Saturnian moons were suggested by John Herschel in 1847. He proposed to name them after mythological figures associated with the Roman titan of time, Saturn (equated to the Greek Cronus). In particular, the then known seven satellites were named after Titans, Titanesses and Giants—brothers and sisters of Cronus. In 1848, Lassell proposed that the eighth satellite of Saturn be named Hyperion after another Titan. When in the 20th century the names of Titans were exhausted, the moons were named after different characters of the Greco-Roman mythology or giants from other mythologies. All the irregular moons (except Phoebe, discovered about a century before the others) are named after Inuit and Gallic gods and after Norse ice giants.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Some asteroids share the same names as moons of Saturn: 55 Pandora, 106 Dione, 577 Rhea, 1809 Prometheus, 1810 Epimetheus, and 4450 Pan. In addition, three more asteroids would share the names of Saturnian moons but for spelling differences made permanent by the International Astronomical Union (IAU): Calypso and asteroid 53 Kalypso; Helene and asteroid 101 Helena; and Gunnlod and asteroid 657 Gunlöd.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Saturn's satellite system is very lopsided: one moon, Titan, comprises more than 96% of the mass in orbit around the planet. The six other planemo (ellipsoidal) moons constitute roughly 4% of the mass, and the remaining 76 small moons, together with the rings, comprise only 0.04%.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Although the boundaries may be somewhat vague, Saturn's moons can be divided into ten groups according to their orbital characteristics. Many of them, such as Pan and Daphnis, orbit within Saturn's ring system and have orbital periods only slightly longer than the planet's rotation period. The innermost moons and most regular satellites all have mean orbital inclinations ranging from less than a degree to about 1.5 degrees (except Iapetus, which has an inclination of 7.57 degrees) and small orbital eccentricities. On the other hand, irregular satellites in the outermost regions of Saturn's moon system, in particular the Norse group, have orbital radii of millions of kilometers and orbital periods lasting several years. The moons of the Norse group also orbit in the opposite direction to Saturn's rotation.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: During late July 2009, a moonlet, S/2009 S 1, was discovered in the B Ring, 480 km from the outer edge of the ring, by the shadow it cast. It is estimated to be 300 m in diameter. Unlike the A Ring moonlets (see below), it does not induce a 'propeller' feature, probably due to the density of the B Ring.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: In 2006, four tiny moonlets were found in "Cassini" images of the A Ring. Before this discovery only two larger moons had been known within gaps in the A Ring: Pan and Daphnis. These are large enough to clear continuous gaps in the ring. In contrast, a moonlet is only massive enough to clear two small—about 10 km across—partial gaps in the immediate vicinity of the moonlet itself creating a structure shaped like an airplane propeller. The moonlets themselves are tiny, ranging from about 40 to 500 meters in diameter, and are too small to be seen directly.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: In 2007, the discovery of 150 more moonlets revealed that they (with the exception of two that have been seen outside the Encke gap) are confined to three narrow bands in the A Ring between 126,750 and 132,000 km from Saturn's center. Each band is about a thousand kilometers wide, which is less than 1% the width of Saturn's rings. This region is relatively free from the disturbances caused by resonances with larger satellites, although other areas of the A Ring without disturbances are apparently free of moonlets. The moonlets were probably formed from the breakup of a larger satellite. It is estimated that the A Ring contains 7,000–8,000 propellers larger than 0.8 km in size and millions larger than 0.25 km. In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible consolidation of a new moon within the A Ring, implying that Saturn's present moons may have formed in a similar process in the past when Saturn's ring system was much more massive.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Similar moonlets may reside in the F Ring. There, "jets" of material may be due to collisions, initiated by perturbations from the nearby small moon Prometheus, of these moonlets with the core of the F Ring. One of the largest F Ring moonlets may be the as-yet unconfirmed object S/2004 S 6. The F Ring also contains transient "fans" which are thought to result from even smaller moonlets, about 1 km in diameter, orbiting near the F Ring core.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: One of the recently discovered moons, Aegaeon, resides within the bright arc of G Ring and is trapped in the 7:6 mean-motion resonance with Mimas. This means that it makes exactly seven revolutions around Saturn while Mimas makes exactly six. The moon is the largest among the population of bodies that are sources of dust in this ring.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Shepherd satellites are small moons that orbit within, or just beyond, a planet's ring system. They have the effect of sculpting the rings: giving them sharp edges, and creating gaps between them. Saturn's shepherd moons are Pan (Encke gap), Daphnis (Keeler gap), Atlas (A Ring), Prometheus (F Ring) and Pandora (F Ring). These moons together with co-orbitals (see below) probably formed as a result of accretion of the friable ring material on preexisting denser cores. The cores with sizes from one-third to one-half the present-day moons may be themselves collisional shards formed when a parental satellite of the rings disintegrated.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Janus and Epimetheus are called co-orbital moons. They are of roughly equal size, with Janus being slightly larger than Epimetheus. Janus and Epimetheus have orbits with only a few kilometers difference in semi-major axis, close enough that they would collide if they attempted to pass each other. Instead of colliding, their gravitational interaction causes them to swap orbits every four years.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The innermost large moons of Saturn orbit within its tenuous E Ring, along with three smaller moons of the Alkyonides group.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Three small moons orbit between Mimas and Enceladus: Methone, Anthe, and Pallene. Named after the Alkyonides of Greek mythology, they are some of the smallest moons in the Saturn system. Anthe and Methone have very faint ring arcs along their orbits, whereas Pallene has a faint complete ring. Of these three moons, only Methone has been photographed at close range, showing it to be egg-shaped with very few or no craters.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Trojan moons are a unique feature only known from the Saturnian system. A trojan body orbits at either the leading L or trailing L Lagrange point of a much larger object, such as a large moon or planet. Tethys has two trojan moons, Telesto (leading) and Calypso (trailing), and Dione also has two, Helene (leading) and Polydeuces (trailing). Helene is by far the largest trojan moon, while Polydeuces is the smallest and has the most chaotic orbit. These moons are coated with dusty material that has smoothed out their surfaces.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Irregular moons are small satellites with large-radii, inclined, and frequently retrograde orbits, believed to have been acquired by the parent planet through a capture process. They often occur as collisional families or groups. The precise size as well as albedo of the irregular moons are not known for sure because the moons are very small to be resolved by a telescope, although the latter is usually assumed to be quite low—around 6% (albedo of Phoebe) or less. The irregulars generally have featureless visible and near infrared spectra dominated by water absorption bands. They are neutral or moderately red in color—similar to C-type, P-type, or D-type asteroids, though they are much less red than Kuiper belt objects.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The Inuit group includes eight prograde outer moons that are similar enough in their distances from the planet (186–297 radii of Saturn), their orbital inclinations (45–50°) and their colors that they can be considered a group. The moons are Ijiraq, Kiviuq, Paaliaq, Siarnaq, and Tarqeq, along with three unnamed moons Saturn LX, S/2004 S 31, and S/2019 S 1. The largest among them is Siarnaq with an estimated size of about 40 km.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The Gallic group are four prograde outer moons that are similar enough in their distance from the planet (207–302 radii of Saturn), their orbital inclination (35–40°) and their color that they can be considered a group. They are Albiorix, Bebhionn, Erriapus, and Tarvos. The largest among these moons is Albiorix with an estimated size of about 32 km. There is an additional satellite S/2004 S 24 that could belong to this group, but more observations are needed to confirm or disprove its categorization. S/2004 S 24 has the most distant prograde orbit of Saturn's known satellites.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The Norse (or Phoebe) group consists of 46 retrograde outer moons. They are Aegir, Angrboda, Alvaldi, Beli, Bergelmir, Bestla, Eggther, Farbauti, Fenrir, Fornjot, Geirrod, Gerd, Greip, Gridr, Gunnlod, Hati, Hyrrokkin, Jarnsaxa, Kari, Loge, Mundilfari, Narvi, Phoebe, Skathi, Skoll, Skrymir, Surtur, Suttungr, Thiazzi, Thrymr, Ymir, and fifteen unnamed satellites. After Phoebe, Ymir is the largest of the known retrograde irregular moons, with an estimated diameter of only 18 km. The Norse group may itself consist of several smaller subgroups.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The Saturnian moons are listed here by orbital period (or semi-major axis), from shortest to longest. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold and marked with a blue background, while the irregular moons are listed in red, orange and gray background. The orbits and mean distances of the irregular moons are strongly variable over short timescales due to frequent planetary and solar perturbations, therefore the listed orbital elements of all irregular moons are averaged over a 300-year numerical integration. Their orbital elements are all based on the epoch of 1 January 2000.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: The following objects (observed by "Cassini") have not been confirmed as solid bodies. It is not yet clear if these are real satellites or merely persistent clumps within the F Ring.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Two moons were claimed to be discovered by different astronomers but never seen again. Both moons were said to orbit between Titan and Hyperion.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: In 2022, scientists of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology proposed the hypothetical former moon Chrysalis, using data from the Cassini–Huygens mission. Chrysalis would have orbited between Titan and Iapetus, but its orbit would have gradually become more eccentric until it was torn apart by Saturn. 99% of its mass would have been absorbed by Saturn, while the remaining 1% would have formed Saturn's rings.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Much like Jupiter, asteroids and comets will infrequently make close approaches to Saturn, even more infrequently becoming captured into orbit of the planet. The comet P/2020 F1 (Leonard) is calculated to have made a close approach of km ( mi to Saturn on 8 May 1936, closer than the orbit of Titan to the planet, with an orbital eccentricity of only . The comet may have been orbiting Saturn prior to this as a temporary satellite, but difficulty modelling the non-gravitational forces makes whether or not it was indeed a temporary satellite uncertain.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: Other comets and asteroids may have temporarily orbited Saturn at some point, but none are presently known to have.


title: Moons of Saturn

text: It is thought that the Saturnian system of Titan, mid-sized moons, and rings developed from a set-up closer to the Galilean moons of Jupiter, though the details are unclear. It has been proposed either that a second Titan-sized moon broke up, producing the rings and inner mid-sized moons, or that two large moons fused to form Titan, with the collision scattering icy debris that formed the mid-sized moons. On June 23, 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times. Studies based on Enceladus's tidal-based geologic activity and the lack of evidence of extensive past resonances in Tethys, Dione, and Rhea's orbits suggest that the moons up to and including Rhea may be only 100 million years old.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: In cryptography, a zero-knowledge proof or zero-knowledge protocol is a method by which one party (the prover) can prove to another party (the verifier) that a given statement is true while the prover avoids conveying any additional information apart from the fact that the statement is indeed true. The essence of zero-knowledge proofs is that it is trivial to prove that one possesses knowledge of certain information by simply revealing it; the challenge is to prove such possession without revealing the information itself or any additional information.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: If proving a statement requires that the prover possess some secret information, then the verifier will not be able to prove the statement to anyone else without possessing the secret information. The statement being proved must include the assertion that the prover has such knowledge, but without including or transmitting the knowledge itself in the assertion. Otherwise, the statement would not be proved in zero-knowledge because it provides the verifier with additional information about the statement by the end of the protocol. A "zero-knowledge proof of knowledge" is a special case when the statement consists "only" of the fact that the prover possesses the secret information.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Interactive zero-knowledge proofs require interaction between the individual (or computer system) proving their knowledge and the individual validating the proof.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: A protocol implementing zero-knowledge proofs of knowledge must necessarily require interactive input from the verifier. This interactive input is usually in the form of one or more challenges such that the responses from the prover will convince the verifier if and only if the statement is true, i.e., if the prover "does" possess the claimed knowledge. If this were not the case, the verifier could record the execution of the protocol and replay it to convince someone else that they possess the secret information. The new party's acceptance is either justified since the replayer "does" possess the information (which implies that the protocol leaked information, and thus, is not proved in zero-knowledge), or the acceptance is spurious, i.e., was accepted from someone who does not actually possess the information.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Some forms of non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs exist, but the validity of the proof relies on computational assumptions (typically the assumptions of an ideal cryptographic hash function).


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: There is a well-known story presenting the fundamental ideas of zero-knowledge proofs, first published in 1990 by Jean-Jacques Quisquater and others in their paper "How to Explain Zero-Knowledge Protocols to Your Children". It is common practice to label the two parties in a zero-knowledge proof as Peggy (the prover of the statement) and Victor (the verifier of the statement).


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: In this story, Peggy has uncovered the secret word used to open a magic door in a cave. The cave is shaped like a ring, with the entrance on one side and the magic door blocking the opposite side. Victor wants to know whether Peggy knows the secret word; but Peggy, being a very private person, does not want to reveal her knowledge (the secret word) to Victor or to reveal the fact of her knowledge to the world in general.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: They label the left and right paths from the entrance A and B. First, Victor waits outside the cave as Peggy goes in. Peggy takes either path A or B; Victor is not allowed to see which path she takes. Then, Victor enters the cave and shouts the name of the path he wants her to use to return, either A or B, chosen at random. Providing she really does know the magic word, this is easy: she opens the door, if necessary, and returns along the desired path.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: However, suppose she did not know the word. Then, she would only be able to return by the named path if Victor were to give the name of the same path by which she had entered. Since Victor would choose A or B at random, she would have a 50% chance of guessing correctly. If they were to repeat this trick many times, say 20 times in a row, her chance of successfully anticipating all of Victor's requests would become very small (1 in 2, or very roughly 1 in a million).


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Thus, if Peggy repeatedly appears at the exit Victor names, he can conclude that it is extremely probable that Peggy does, in fact, know the secret word.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: One side note with respect to third-party observers: even if Victor is wearing a hidden camera that records the whole transaction, the only thing the camera will record is in one case Victor shouting "A!" and Peggy appearing at A or in the other case Victor shouting "B!" and Peggy appearing at B. A recording of this type would be trivial for any two people to fake (requiring only that Peggy and Victor agree beforehand on the sequence of A's and B's that Victor will shout). Such a recording will certainly never be convincing to anyone but the original participants. In fact, even a person who was present as an observer "at the original experiment" would be unconvinced, since Victor and Peggy might have orchestrated the whole "experiment" from start to finish.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Further notice that if Victor chooses his A's and B's by flipping a coin on-camera, this protocol loses its zero-knowledge property; the on-camera coin flip would probably be convincing to any person watching the recording later. Thus, although this does not reveal the secret word to Victor, it does make it possible for Victor to convince the world in general that Peggy has that knowledge—counter to Peggy's stated wishes. However, digital cryptography generally "flips coins" by relying on a pseudo-random number generator, which is akin to a coin with a fixed pattern of heads and tails known only to the coin's owner. If Victor's coin behaved this way, then again it would be possible for Victor and Peggy to have faked the "experiment", so using a pseudo-random number generator would not reveal Peggy's knowledge to the world in the same way that using a flipped coin would.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Notice that Peggy could prove to Victor that she knows the magic word, without revealing it to him, in a single trial. If both Victor and Peggy go together to the mouth of the cave, Victor can watch Peggy go in through A and come out through B. This would prove with certainty that Peggy knows the magic word, without revealing the magic word to Victor. However, such a proof could be observed by a third party, or recorded by Victor and such a proof would be convincing to anybody. In other words, Peggy could not refute such proof by claiming she colluded with Victor, and she is therefore no longer in control of who is aware of her knowledge.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Imagine your friend is red-green colour-blind (while you are not) and you have two balls: one red and one green, but otherwise identical. To your friend they seem completely identical and they are skeptical that they are actually distinguishable. You want to "prove to them they are in fact differently-coloured", but nothing else; in particular, you do not want to reveal which one is the red and which is the green ball.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Here is the proof system. You give the two balls to your friend and they put them behind their back. Next, they take one of the balls and bring it out from behind their back and displays it. They then place it behind their back again and then choose to reveal just one of the two balls, picking one of the two at random with equal probability. They will ask you, "Did I switch the ball?" This whole procedure is then repeated as often as necessary.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: By looking at their colours, you can, of course, say with certainty whether or not they switched them. On the other hand, if they were the same colour and hence indistinguishable, there is no way you could guess correctly with probability higher than 50%.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Since the probability that you would have randomly succeeded at identifying each switch/non-switch is 50%, the probability of having randomly succeeded at all switch/non-switches approaches zero ("soundness"). If you and your friend repeat this "proof" multiple times (e.g. 20 times), your friend should become convinced ("completeness") that the balls are indeed differently coloured.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The above proof is "zero-knowledge" because your friend never learns which ball is green and which is red; indeed, they gain no knowledge about how to distinguish the balls.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The first two of these are properties of more general interactive proof systems. The third is what makes the proof zero-knowledge.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Zero-knowledge proofs are not proofs in the mathematical sense of the term because there is some small probability, the "soundness error", that a cheating prover will be able to convince the verifier of a false statement. In other words, zero-knowledge proofs are probabilistic "proofs" rather than deterministic proofs. However, there are techniques to decrease the soundness error to negligibly small values.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: A formal definition of zero-knowledge has to use some computational model, the most common one being that of a Turing machine. Let formula_1, formula_2, and formula_3 be Turing machines. An interactive proof system with formula_4 for a language formula_5 is zero-knowledge if for any probabilistic polynomial time (PPT) verifier formula_6 there exists a PPT simulator formula_3 such that


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: where formula_9 is a record of the interactions between formula_10 and formula_11. The prover formula_1 is modeled as having unlimited computation power (in practice, formula_1 usually is a probabilistic Turing machine). Intuitively, the definition states that an interactive proof system formula_4 is zero-knowledge if for any verifier formula_6 there exists an efficient simulator formula_3 (depending on formula_17) that can reproduce the conversation between formula_1 and formula_6 on any given input. The auxiliary string formula_20 in the definition plays the role of "prior knowledge" (including the random coins of formula_17). The definition implies that formula_6 cannot use any prior knowledge string formula_20 to mine information out of its conversation with formula_1, because if formula_3 is also given this prior knowledge then it can reproduce the conversation between formula_6 and formula_1 just as before.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The definition given is that of perfect zero-knowledge. Computational zero-knowledge is obtained by requiring that the views of the verifier formula_6 and the simulator are only computationally indistinguishable, given the auxiliary string.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: We can apply these ideas to a more realistic cryptography application. Peggy wants to prove to Victor that she knows the discrete log of a given value in a given group.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: For example, given a value formula_29, a large prime formula_30 and a generator formula_31, she wants to prove that she knows a value formula_32 such that formula_33, without revealing formula_32. Indeed, knowledge of formula_32 could be used as a proof of identity, in that Peggy could have such knowledge because she chose a random value formula_32 that she didn't reveal to anyone, computed formula_37 and distributed the value of formula_29 to all potential verifiers, such that at a later time, proving knowledge of formula_32 is equivalent to proving identity as Peggy.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The protocol proceeds as follows: in each round, Peggy generates a random number formula_40, computes formula_41 and discloses this to Victor. After receiving formula_42, Victor randomly issues one of the following two requests: he either requests that Peggy discloses the value of formula_40, or the value of formula_44. With either answer, Peggy is only disclosing a random value, so no information is disclosed by a correct execution of one round of the protocol.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Victor can verify either answer; if he requested formula_40, he can then compute formula_46 and verify that it matches formula_42. If he requested formula_44, he can verify that formula_42 is consistent with this, by computing formula_50 and verifying that it matches formula_51. If Peggy indeed knows the value of formula_32, she can respond to either one of Victor's possible challenges.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: If Peggy knew or could guess which challenge Victor is going to issue, then she could easily cheat and convince Victor that she knows formula_32 when she does not: if she knows that Victor is going to request formula_40, then she proceeds normally: she picks formula_40, computes formula_41 and discloses formula_42 to Victor; she will be able to respond to Victor's challenge. On the other hand, if she knows that Victor will request formula_44, then she picks a random value formula_59, computes formula_60, and discloses formula_61 to Victor as the value of formula_42 that he is expecting. When Victor challenges her to reveal formula_44, she reveals formula_59, for which Victor will verify consistency, since he will in turn compute formula_65, which matches formula_66, since Peggy multiplied by the modular multiplicative inverse of formula_29.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: However, if in either one of the above scenarios Victor issues a challenge other than the one she was expecting and for which she manufactured the result, then she will be unable to respond to the challenge under the assumption of infeasibility of solving the discrete log for this group. If she picked formula_40 and disclosed formula_41, then she will be unable to produce a valid formula_44 that would pass Victor's verification, given that she does not know formula_32. And if she picked a value formula_59 that poses as formula_44, then she would have to respond with the discrete log of the value that she disclosed but Peggy does not know this discrete log, since the value C she disclosed was obtained through arithmetic with known values, and not by computing a power with a known exponent.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Thus, a cheating prover has a 0.5 probability of successfully cheating in one round. By executing a large enough number of rounds, the probability of a cheating prover succeeding can be made arbitrarily low.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The value formula_85 can be seen as the encrypted value of formula_86. If formula_40 is truly random, equally distributed between zero and formula_88, this does not leak any information about formula_32 (see one-time pad).


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: In this scenario, Peggy knows a Hamiltonian cycle for a large graph . Victor knows but not the cycle (e.g., Peggy has generated and revealed it to him.) Finding a Hamiltonian cycle given a large graph is believed to be computationally infeasible, since its corresponding decision version is known to be NP-complete. Peggy will prove that she knows the cycle without simply revealing it (perhaps Victor is interested in buying it but wants verification first, or maybe Peggy is the only one who knows this information and is proving her identity to Victor).


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: It is important that the commitment to the graph be such that Victor can verify, in the second case, that the cycle is really made of edges from . This can be done by, for example, committing to every edge (or lack thereof) separately.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: If Peggy does know a Hamiltonian cycle in , she can easily satisfy Victor's demand for either the graph isomorphism producing from (which she had committed to in the first step) or a Hamiltonian cycle in (which she can construct by applying the isomorphism to the cycle in ).


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Peggy's answers do not reveal the original Hamiltonian cycle in . Each round, Victor will learn only 's isomorphism to or a Hamiltonian cycle in . He would need both answers for a single to discover the cycle in , so the information remains unknown as long as Peggy can generate a distinct every round. If Peggy does not know of a Hamiltonian cycle in , but somehow knew in advance what Victor would ask to see each round then she could cheat. For example, if Peggy knew ahead of time that Victor would ask to see the Hamiltonian cycle in then she could generate a Hamiltonian cycle for an unrelated graph. Similarly, if Peggy knew in advance that Victor would ask to see the isomorphism then she could simply generate an isomorphic graph (in which she also does not know a Hamiltonian cycle). Victor could simulate the protocol by himself (without Peggy) because he knows what he will ask to see. Therefore, Victor gains no information about the Hamiltonian cycle in from the information revealed in each round.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: If Peggy does not know the information, she can guess which question Victor will ask and generate either a graph isomorphic to or a Hamiltonian cycle for an unrelated graph, but since she does not know a Hamiltonian cycle for she cannot do both. With this guesswork, her chance of fooling Victor is , where is the number of rounds. For all realistic purposes, it is infeasibly difficult to defeat a zero-knowledge proof with a reasonable number of rounds in this way.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Different variants of zero-knowledge can be defined by formalizing the intuitive concept of what is meant by the output of the simulator "looking like" the execution of the real proof protocol in the following ways:


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Research in zero-knowledge proofs has been motivated by authentication systems where one party wants to prove its identity to a second party via some secret information (such as a password) but doesn't want the second party to learn anything about this secret. This is called a "zero-knowledge proof of knowledge". However, a password is typically too small or insufficiently random to be used in many schemes for zero-knowledge proofs of knowledge. A zero-knowledge password proof is a special kind of zero-knowledge proof of knowledge that addresses the limited size of passwords.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: In April 2015, the Sigma protocol (one-out-of-many proofs) was introduced. In August 2021, Cloudflare, an American web infrastructure and security company decided to use the one-out-of-many proofs mechanism for private web verification using vendor hardware.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: One of the uses of zero-knowledge proofs within cryptographic protocols is to enforce honest behavior while maintaining privacy. Roughly, the idea is to force a user to prove, using a zero-knowledge proof, that its behavior is correct according to the protocol. Because of soundness, we know that the user must really act honestly in order to be able to provide a valid proof. Because of zero knowledge, we know that the user does not compromise the privacy of its secrets in the process of providing the proof.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: In 2016, the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and Princeton University demonstrated a technique that may have applicability to future nuclear disarmament talks. It would allow inspectors to confirm whether or not an object is indeed a nuclear weapon without recording, sharing or revealing the internal workings which might be secret.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Zero-knowledge proofs were applied in the Zerocoin and Zerocash protocols, which culminated in the birth of Zcoin (later rebranded as Firo in 2020) and Zcash cryptocurrencies in 2016. Zerocoin has a built-in mixing model that does not trust any peers or centralised mixing providers to ensure anonymity. Users can transact in a base currency and can cycle the currency into and out of Zerocoins. The Zerocash protocol uses a similar model (a variant known as a non-interactive zero-knowledge proof) except that it can obscure the transaction amount, while Zerocoin cannot. Given significant restrictions of transaction data on the Zerocash network, Zerocash is less prone to privacy timing attacks when compared to Zerocoin. However, this additional layer of privacy can cause potentially undetected hyperinflation of Zerocash supply because fraudulent coins cannot be tracked.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: In 2018, Bulletproofs were introduced. Bulletproofs are an improvement from non-interactive zero-knowledge proof where trusted setup is not needed. It was later implemented into the Mimblewimble protocol (which the Grin and Beam cryptocurrencies are based upon) and Monero cryptocurrency. In 2019, Firo implemented the Sigma protocol, which is an improvement on the Zerocoin protocol without trusted setup. In the same year, Firo introduced the Lelantus protocol, an improvement on the Sigma protocol, where the former hides the origin and amount of a transaction.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Zero-knowledge proofs were first conceived in 1985 by Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Charles Rackoff in their paper "The Knowledge Complexity of Interactive Proof-Systems". This paper introduced the IP hierarchy of interactive proof systems ("see interactive proof system") and conceived the concept of "knowledge complexity", a measurement of the amount of knowledge about the proof transferred from the prover to the verifier. They also gave the first zero-knowledge proof for a concrete problem, that of deciding quadratic nonresidues mod . Together with a paper by László Babai and Shlomo Moran, this landmark paper invented interactive proof systems, for which all five authors won the first Gödel Prize in 1993.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Of particular interest is the case where this additional knowledge is essentially 0 and we show that [it] is possible to interactively prove that a number is quadratic non residue mod "m" releasing 0 additional knowledge. This is surprising as no efficient algorithm for deciding quadratic residuosity mod "m" is known when "m"’s factorization is not given. Moreover, all known "NP" proofs for this problem exhibit the prime factorization of "m". This indicates that adding interaction to the proving process, may decrease the amount of knowledge that must be communicated in order to prove a theorem.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The quadratic nonresidue problem has both an NP and a co-NP algorithm, and so lies in the intersection of NP and co-NP. This was also true of several other problems for which zero-knowledge proofs were subsequently discovered, such as an unpublished proof system by Oded Goldreich verifying that a two-prime modulus is not a Blum integer.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali, and Avi Wigderson took this one step further, showing that, assuming the existence of unbreakable encryption, one can create a zero-knowledge proof system for the NP-complete graph coloring problem with three colors. Since every problem in NP can be efficiently reduced to this problem, this means that, under this assumption, all problems in NP have zero-knowledge proofs. The reason for the assumption is that, as in the above example, their protocols require encryption. A commonly cited sufficient condition for the existence of unbreakable encryption is the existence of one-way functions, but it is conceivable that some physical means might also achieve it.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: On top of this, they also showed that the graph nonisomorphism problem, the complement of the graph isomorphism problem, has a zero-knowledge proof. This problem is in co-NP, but is not currently known to be in either NP or any practical class. More generally, Russell Impagliazzo and Moti Yung as well as Ben-Or et al. would go on to show that, also assuming one-way functions or unbreakable encryption, that there are zero-knowledge proofs for "all" problems in IP = PSPACE, or in other words, anything that can be proved by an interactive proof system can be proved with zero knowledge.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Not liking to make unnecessary assumptions, many theorists sought a way to eliminate the necessity of one way functions. One way this was done was with "multi-prover interactive proof systems" (see interactive proof system), which have multiple independent provers instead of only one, allowing the verifier to "cross-examine" the provers in isolation to avoid being misled. It can be shown that, without any intractability assumptions, all languages in NP have zero-knowledge proofs in such a system.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: It turns out that in an Internet-like setting, where multiple protocols may be executed concurrently, building zero-knowledge proofs is more challenging. The line of research investigating concurrent zero-knowledge proofs was initiated by the work of Dwork, Naor, and Sahai. One particular development along these lines has been the development of witness-indistinguishable proof protocols. The property of witness-indistinguishability is related to that of zero-knowledge, yet witness-indistinguishable protocols do not suffer from the same problems of concurrent execution.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: Another variant of zero-knowledge proofs are non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs. Blum, Feldman, and Micali showed that a common random string shared between the prover and the verifier is enough to achieve computational zero-knowledge without requiring interaction.


title: Zero-knowledge proof

text: The most popular interactive or non-interactive zero-knowledge proof (e.g., zk-SNARK) protocols can be broadly categorized in the following four categories: Succinct Non-Interactive ARguments of Knowledge (SNARK), Scalable Transparent ARgument of Knowledge (STARK), Verifiable Polynomial Delegation (VPD), and Succinct Non-interactive ARGuments (SNARG). A list of zero-knowledge proof protocols and libraries is provided below along with comparisons based on transparency, universality, plausible post-quantum security, and programming paradigm. A transparent protocol is one that does not require any trusted setup and uses public randomness. A universal protocol is one that does not require a separate trusted setup for each circuit. Finally, a plausibly post-quantum protocol is one that is not susceptible to known attacks involving quantum algorithms.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: The War on Drugs is an American rock band from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, formed in 2005. The band consists of Adam Granduciel (vocals, guitar), David Hartley (bass guitar), Robbie Bennett (keyboards), Charlie Hall (drums), Jon Natchez (saxophone, keyboards), Anthony LaMarca (guitar) and Eliza Hardy Jones (keyboards).


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Founded by close collaborators Adam Granduciel and Kurt Vile, The War on Drugs released their debut studio album, "Wagonwheel Blues", in 2008. Vile departed shortly after its release to focus on his solo career. The band's second studio album "Slave Ambient" was released in 2011 to favorable reviews and a lengthy tour.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: The band's third album, "Lost in the Dream", was released in 2014 following extensive touring and a period of loneliness and clinical depression for primary songwriter Granduciel. The album was released to widespread critical acclaim and increased exposure. Previous collaborator Hall joined the band as its full-time drummer during the recording process, with saxophonist Natchez and additional guitarist LaMarca accompanying the band for its world tour. Signing to Atlantic Records, the six-piece band released their fourth album, "A Deeper Understanding", in 2017, which won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards. The band released their fifth album, "I Don't Live Here Anymore", in 2021.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: In 2003, frontman Adam Granduciel moved from Oakland, California, to Philadelphia, where he met Kurt Vile, who had also recently moved back to Philadelphia after living in Boston for two years. The duo subsequently began writing, recording and performing music together. Vile stated, "Adam was the first dude I met when I moved back to Philadelphia in 2003. We saw eye-to-eye on a lot of things. I was obsessed with Bob Dylan at the time, and we totally geeked-out on that. We started playing together in the early days and he would be in my band, The Violators. Then, eventually I played in The War On Drugs."


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Granduciel and Vile began playing together as The War on Drugs in 2005. Regarding the band's name, Granduciel noted, "My friend Julian and I came up with it a few years ago over a couple bottles of red wine and a few typewriters when we were living in Oakland. We were writing a lot back then, working on a dictionary, and it just came out and we were like "hey, good band name" so eventually when I moved to Philadelphia and got a band together I used it. It was either that or The Rigatoni Danzas. I think we made the right choice. I always felt though that it was the kind of name I could record all sorts of different music under without any sort of predictability inherent in the name."


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: While Vile and Granduciel formed the backbone of the band, they had a number of accompanists early in the group's career, before finally settling on a lineup that added Charlie Hall as drummer/organist, Kyle Lloyd as drummer and Dave Hartley on bass. Granduciel had previously toured and recorded with The Capitol Years, and Vile has several solo albums. The group gave away its "Barrel of Batteries" EP for free early in 2008. Their debut LP for Secretly Canadian, "Wagonwheel Blues", was released in 2008.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Following the album's release, and subsequent European tour, Vile departed from the band to focus on his solo career, stating, "I only went on the first European tour when their album came out, and then I basically left the band. I knew if I stuck with that, it would be all my time and my goal was to have my own musical career." Fellow Kurt Vile & the Violators bandmate Mike Zanghi joined the band at this time, with Vile noting, "Mike was my drummer first and then when The War On Drugs' first record came out I thought I was lending Mike to Adam for the European tour but then he just played with them all the time so I kind of had to like, while they were touring a lot, figure out my own thing."


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: The lineup underwent several changes, and by the end of 2008, Kurt Vile, Charlie Hall, and Kyle Lloyd had all exited the group. At that time Granduciel and Hartley were joined by drummer Mike Zanghi, whom Granduciel also played with in Kurt Vile's backing band, the Violators.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: After recording much of the band's forthcoming studio album, "Slave Ambient", Zanghi departed from the band in 2010. Drummer Steven Urgo subsequently joined the band, with keyboardist Robbie Bennett also joining at around this time. Regarding Zanghi's exit, Granduciel noted: "I loved Mike, and I loved the sound of The Violators, but then he wasn't really the sound of my band. But you have things like friendship, and he's down to tour and he's a great guy, but it wasn't the sound of what this band was."


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: On December 4, 2013 the band announced the upcoming release of its third studio album, "Lost in the Dream" (March 18, 2014). The band streamed the album in its entirety on NPR's "First Listen" site for a week before its release. Award winning alt-country rocker Ryan Adams tweeted that "Lost in the Dream" was a perfect album.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: "Lost in the Dream" was featured as the Vinyl Me, Please record of the month in August 2014. The pressing was a limited edition pressing on mint green colored vinyl.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: On Record Store Day, April 22, 2017, The War on Drugs released their new single "Thinking of a Place". The single was produced by frontman Granduciel and Shawn Everett. April 28, 2017, The War on Drugs announced a fall 2017 tour in North America and Europe and that a new album was imminent. On June 1, 2017, a new song, "Holding On", was released, and it was announced that the album would be titled "A Deeper Understanding" and was released on August 25, 2017. "Holding On" was also used on the official soundtrack of EA Sports' FIFA 18.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: The 2017 tour began in September, opening in the band's hometown, Philadelphia, and it concluded in November in Sweden.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: "A Deeper Understanding" was nominated for the International Album of the Year award at the 2018 UK Americana Awards.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: At the 60th Annual Grammy Awards, on January 28, 2018, "A Deeper Understanding" won the Grammy for Best Rock Album.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: On October 6, 2020, The War on Drugs announced a live album titled "Live Drugs", which was released on November 20, 2020.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: The War on Drugs released their fifth studio album, "I Don't Live Here Anymore", on October 29, 2021. Along with the album announcement, the band also released a single and accompanying music video for the album's lead track, "Living Proof", along with a 2022 tour announcement. The album was released to widespread critical acclaim, placing highly on several end-of-year lists. For the album's accompanying tour, keyboardist Eliza Hardy Jones - who has previously played with bass guitarist Dave Hartley in his solo project, Nightlands - joined the band.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: The band has been described as indie rock, heartland rock and neo-psychedelia, as well as Americana. Their Dylan and Springsteen-influenced lyrical approach meets Tom Petty and Sonic Youth musically for a roots-soaked-synth-and-guitar approach to American rock and roll. Not only do they draw inspiration from artists like Bruce Springsteen, Talk Talk, and Granduciel's "favorite modern day band", Wilco, but they have inspired their own wave of guitar-forward, synth-layered indie rockers.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Granduciel and Zanghi are both former members of founding guitarist Vile's backing band The Violators, with Granduciel noting, "There was never, despite what lazy journalists have assumed, any sort of falling out, or resentment" following Vile's departure from The War on Drugs. In 2011, Vile stated, "When my record came out, I assumed Adam would want to focus on The War On Drugs but he came with us in The Violators when we toured the States. The Violators became a unit, and although the cast does rotate, we've developed an even tighter unity and sound. Adam is an incredible guitar player these days and there is a certain feeling [between us] that nobody else can tap into. We don't really have to tell each other what to play, it just happens."


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Both Hartley and Granduciel contributed to singer-songwriter Sharon Van Etten's fourth studio album, "Are We There" (2014). Hartley performs bass guitar on the entire album, with Granduciel contributing guitar on two tracks.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Granduciel is currently producing the new Sore Eros album. They have been recording it in Philadelphia and Los Angeles on and off for the past several years.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: In 2016, The War on Drugs contributed a cover of "Touch of Grey" for a Grateful Dead tribute album called "Day of the Dead". The album was curated by The National's Aaron and Bryce Dessner. Granduciel had been curious about the Grateful Dead and other jam bands since he attended Phish concerts when he was younger.


title: The War on Drugs (band)

text: Delivered since 2010, the GAFFA Awards (Swedish: GAFFA Priset) are a Swedish award that rewards popular music awarded by the magazine of the same name.


title: Black Sabbath discography

text: The discography of Black Sabbath, an English heavy metal band, includes 19 studio albums, eight live albums, 16 compilation albums, seven video albums, one extended play and 30 singles. The band was formed in 1968 by John "Ozzy" Osbourne (vocals), Tony Iommi (lead guitar), Terence "Geezer" Butler (bass guitar), and Bill Ward (drums). The band has undergone multiple lineup changes. Though the second most recent line-up of the band to work together were Ronnie James Dio, Vinny Appice, Iommi, and Butler, for three new songs for a compilation in 2007, the original line-up was still considered the "current" lineup at the time and had been since their reunion in 1997. The 2007 sessions were deemed a one-off which led to the Heaven and Hell side project, resulting in a new studio album in 2009 titled "The Devil You Know". In June 2013, a partial reformation of the original line-up released "13", which was the first album to feature Osbourne on vocals since 1978's "Never Say Die!". After 49 years together, Black Sabbath announced their breakup in March 2017.


title: Chestnut

text: The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus Castanea, in the beech family Fagaceae. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Chestnut

text: The unrelated horse chestnuts (genus "Aesculus") are not true chestnuts, but are named for producing nuts of similar appearance that are mildly poisonous to humans. True chestnuts should also not be confused with water chestnuts, which are tubers of an aquatic herbaceous plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae.


title: Chestnut

text: Other species commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are the chestnut oak ("Quercus prinus") and the American beech ("Fagus grandifolia"), both of which are also in the Fagaceae family.


title: Chestnut

text: Brazil nuts, called "Brasil chestnuts" ("castañas de Brasil" in Spanish) or "chestnuts from Pará" ("castanha-do-Pará" in Portuguese) are also unrelated.


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. The four main species groups are commonly known as American, European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts.


title: Chestnut

text: The name "chestnut" is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word "chastain" (Modern French, "châtaigne"). The French word in turn derives from Latin "Castanea" (also the scientific name of the tree), which traces to the Ancient Greek word κάστανον (sweet chestnut). A possible source of the Greek word is the ancient town of Kastanea in Thessaly. The town probably took its name, though, from the trees growing around it. In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there that their presence would have determined the place's name. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of "Sardis glans" (Sardis acorn) – Sardis being the capital of Lydia, Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread.


title: Chestnut

text: The name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century.


title: Chestnut

text: These synonyms are or have been in use: "Fagus Castanea" (used by Linnaeus in first edition of "Species Plantarum", 1753), Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.).


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast-growing for American and European species. Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby, to the giant of past American forests, "C. dentata" that could reach . Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut ("C. crenata") at average; followed by the Chinese chestnut ("C. mollissima") at about , then the European chestnut ("C. sativa") around .


title: Chestnut

text: The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading, whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering of their columnar trunks, which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The foliage of the European and American species has striking yellow autumn coloring.


title: Chestnut

text: Its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown color for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick, and deeply furrowed; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around the trunk as the tree ages; it sometimes reminds one of a large cable with twisted strands.


title: Chestnut

text: The leaves are simple, ovate or lanceolate, long and wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded sinuates between.


title: Chestnut

text: The flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long catkins of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree. Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight stamens, or 10 to 12 for "C. mollissima". The ripe pollen carries a heavy, sweet odor that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the twig from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium, which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk, covering the fruits.


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination. All "Castanea" species readily hybridize with each other.


title: Chestnut

text: The fruit is contained in a spiny (very sharp) cupule in diameter, also called "bur" or "burr". The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch and contain one to seven nuts according to the different species, varieties, and cultivars. Around the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold the fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil humidity.


title: Chestnut

text: The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in Italian), and at the other end, a hilum – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two skins. The first one is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or husk, called the pericarpus; the industry calls this the "peel". Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm. The pellicle closely adheres to the seed itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety.


title: Chestnut

text: The fruit inside these shows two cotyledons with a creamy-white flesh throughout, except in some varieties which show only one cotyledon, and whose episperm is only slightly or not intruded at all. Usually, these varieties have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face) and which is called "marron" ("marron de Lyon" in France, "marron di Mugello" in Italy, or "paragon").


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnut fruit has no epigeal dormancy, so germinate right upon falling to the ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. Because the seeds lack a coating or internal food supply, they lose viability soon after ripening and must be planted immediately.


title: Chestnut

text: The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins. American chestnuts are usually very small (around ), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around ), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut.


title: Chestnut

text: It has been a staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas. Evidence of its cultivation by man is found since around 2000 BC. Alexander the Great and the Romans planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A Greek army is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts. Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of the flatulence induced by eating too much of it. To the early Christians, chestnuts symbolized chastity. Until the introduction of the potato, whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce access to wheat flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of carbohydrates. In some parts of Italy, a cake made of chestnuts is used as a substitute for potatoes. In 1583, Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault wrote, "an infinity of people live on nothing else but (the chestnut)". In 1802, an Italian agronomist said of Tuscany that "the fruit of the chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders", while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals".


title: Chestnut

text: In Britain, boundary records compiled in the reign of King John already showed the famous Tortworth Chestnut in South Gloucestershire, as a landmark; it was also known by the same name of "Great Chestnut of Tortworth" in the days of Stephen. This tree measured over in circumference at from the ground in 1720. The Hundred Horse Chestnut in the chestnut forests on Mount Etna is the oldest living chestnut tree and is said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the Mediterranean basin. In 1584, the governor of Genoa, which dominated Corsica, ordered all the farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly, among which was a chestnut tree – plus olive, fig and mulberry trees. Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. In France, the "marron glacé", a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time. In Modena, Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving, and are also traditionally eaten on Saint Simon's Day in Tuscany. In the Romagna region, roasted chestnuts are often served with a traditional wine, the Cagnina di Romagna. It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on St. Martin's Day.


title: Chestnut

text: Their popularity declined during the last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people". Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as "bread" because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770, or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup". The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of "C. sativa" which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies.


title: Chestnut

text: The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the Mugello region; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French "Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée") status to the Mugello sweet chestnut. It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or astringent, and has notes of vanilla, hazelnut, and, more subtly, fresh bread. It has no unpleasant aroma, such as yeast, fungus, mold, or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts. The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of Ardèche, with the famous "Châtaigne d'Ardèche" (A.O.C), of the Var (Eastern Provence), of the Cévennes (Gard and Lozère départements) and of the Lyon region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy.


title: Chestnut

text: In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal.


title: Chestnut

text: Always served as part of the New Year's menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength. The Japanese chestnut ("kuri") was in cultivation before rice and the Chinese chestnut ("C. mollissima") possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years.


title: Chestnut

text: During British colonial rule in the mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut, "C. sativa", was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent, mainly in the lower to middle Himalayas. They are widely found in British-founded hill stations in northern India, and to a lesser extent in Bhutan and Nepal. They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent.


title: Chestnut

text: China has about 300 chestnut cultivars. Moreover, the 'Dandong' chestnut (belonging to the Japanese chestnut "C. crenata") is a major cultivar in Liaoning Province.


title: Chestnut

text: In South Korea, roasted chestnuts ("gunbam") are a popular winter snack, and serve as a symbol of abundance in ancestral rituals. Roasted chestnuts are also included in folk songs of Korea, which include , a song that celebrates chestnuts, as well as ""Jeongseokga"", a song from the Goryeo period. Gongju, one of Baekje's former capitals, is renowned for its chestnuts, with an annual chestnut festival that takes place in the winter. In the "Samgukji", a book that was compiled during the Qin dynasty about the Three Kingdoms, chestnuts are used in the description of Mahan, the former land of Baekje.


title: Chestnut

text: In the Philippines, the endemic "talakatak" or Philippine chestnut ("Castanopsis philippinensis") is not cultivated commercially, though its nuts are harvested from the wild and consumed locally. Imported chestnuts (known as "kastanyas" in Tagalog, from Spanish "castañas") are traditionally sold as street food in the Philippines during the Christmas season.


title: Chestnut

text: Native Americans were eating the American chestnut species, mainly "C. dentata" and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of chestnut blight. In some places, such as the Appalachian Mountains, one-quarter of hardwoods were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for , up to 100 ft, averaging up to 5 ft in diameter. For three centuries, most barns and homes east of the Mississippi River were made from it. In 1911, the food book "The Grocer's Encyclopedia" noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole beside the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves.


title: Chestnut

text: Soon after that, however, the American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on Long Island, New York, was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated; only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, California, and the Pacific Northwest. Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as reclaimed lumber. Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as living stumps, or "stools", with only a few growing enough shoots to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in Massachusetts and many places elsewhere in the United States. In the 1970s, geneticist Charles Burnham began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes. In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually.


title: Chestnut

text: Today, the demand for the nut outstrips supply. The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $10 million in 2007. The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of the US imports are from Southern Italy, with the large, meaty, and richly flavored Sicilian chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and South Korea. The French varieties of "marrons" are highly favored and sold at high prices in gourmet shops.


title: Chestnut

text: A study of the sector in 2005 found that U.S. producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists. Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market. Starting a small-scale operation requires a relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being between . Another determining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production. Assuming a yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded . So, most producers earn less than $5,000 per year, with a third of them not having sold anything so far.


title: Chestnut

text: Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available. The American Chestnut Foundation currently recommends waiting a while more before large-scale planting, because the organization and its associates (the American Chestnut Cooperators' Foundation and many others from education, research, and industry sectors contributing to the program) are in the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically, and assuming the development of brands in the market and everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports, the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects. As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in the shell ranges from $1.50/lb ($3.30/kg) wholesale to about $5/lb ($11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size.


title: Chestnut

text: The Australian gold rush of the 1850s and 1860s led to the first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought from Europe by settlers. Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were "C. sativa" stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these remain today. Some trees in northern Victoria are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. Chestnuts grow well in southwest Western Australia, which has cold winters and warm to hot summers. As of 2008, the country has nearly 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast Victoria. The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15 to 25 years. By far, the most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some hybrids, have been planted. The Japanese chestnut ("C. crenata") does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30°C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper North Island region.


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnuts depart from the norm for culinary nuts, as they have little protein or fat; their calories come chiefly from carbohydrates. Fresh chestnut fruits provide about of food energy per 100 g of edible parts, which is much lower than walnuts, almonds, other nuts, and dried fruit (about per 100 g).


title: Chestnut

text: In some areas, sweet chestnut trees are called "bread trees". When chestnuts are just starting to ripen, the fruits are mostly starch and are firm under finger pressure from the high water content. As the chestnuts ripen, the starch is slowly converted into sugars, and moisture content decreases. Upon pressing the ripe chestnut, a slight "give" can be felt; the hull is not so tense, and space occurs between the flesh of the fruit and it.


title: Chestnut

text: Raw chestnuts are 60% water and contain 44 grams of carbohydrates, 2 grams of protein, one gram of fat, supplying 200 calories in a 100-gram reference amount (table). Chestnuts provide some B vitamins and dietary minerals in significant content (table).


title: Chestnut

text: Their carbohydrate content compares with that of wheat and rice. Chestnuts have twice as much starch as the potato on an as-is basis. They contain about 8% of various sugars, mainly sucrose, glucose, fructose, and in lesser amounts, stachyose and raffinose, which are fermented in the lower gut, producing gas.


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnuts are among the few "nuts" that contain vitamin C, with 48% of the Daily Value in a 100-gram serving (table). The amount of vitamin C decreases by roughly 40% upon heating (typically, the vitamin is decreased or destroyed in heated foods). Fresh chestnuts contain about 52% water by weight, which evaporates relatively quickly during storage. They can lose as much as 1% of weight in one day at 20°C (68°F) and 70% relative humidity.


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during the dormant period. Frosts and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees. The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain, to the Royal Horticultural Society's H6 hardiness rating, to -20°C. Chestnut is hardy to USDA zone 5, which is lower in average minimal temperature than London in zone 9. The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, however, is frost-tender; bud-burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds.


title: Chestnut

text: Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and 1000 m above sea level; some mention between 300 and 750 m altitude, while the famous Hundred Horse Chestnut on Mount Etna stands at 1200 metres. They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced.


title: Chestnut

text: Seeds germinate in late winter or early spring, but the life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination. Low temperature prolongs dormancy. Sowing them as soon as ripe is better, either in cold frames or seedbeds outdoors, where they can be left "in situ" for one to two years before being planted in their permanent positions, or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from the cold in their first winter, and also from mice and squirrels.


title: Chestnut

text: "Castanea" grows best in a soil with good drainage and adequate moisture. The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, clay subsoils. The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils.


title: Chestnut

text: Although "Castanea" can grow in very acid soil, and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated, the preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0. It does not grow well on alkaline soils, such as chalk, but thrives on soils such as those derived from granite, sandstone, or schist. On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by grafting them onto oak rootstocks. <br> Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the root rot, "Armillaria mellia".


title: Chestnut

text: "Castanea" likes a full sun position. An experiment with "C. dentata" seedlings in Ohio confirmed the need for sun for optimal growth. The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy.


title: Chestnut

text: Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad crowns with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current industrial planting spacings can range from 7 x 7 to 20 x 20 m. The closer plantings, which are more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal is required later.


title: Chestnut

text: The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. Mulching during summer is recommended. Rainfall below per year needs be complemented with, for example, a drip irrigation system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line to encourage root growth.


title: Chestnut

text: Independently from annual rainfall, watering young trees is recommended at least during summer and early autumn. Once established, they resist droughts well.


title: Chestnut

text: In addition to being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup ("marrons glacés"). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within 3-4 days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, transpiration rates, and consequent loss weight, the nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale. To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after harvest, after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand. <br>Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little ethylene, and their respiration rate is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature.


title: Chestnut

text: Most chestnut wood production is done by coppice systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs. In southern England (particularly in Kent), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, and fencing (fence posts and chestnut paling).


title: Chestnut

text: sustainable forest management incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively the potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. "C. sativa" responds well to competitive pressure from "Pseudotsuga menziesii", the latter also showing a higher productivity. "C. dentata" seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of the need for light.


title: Chestnut

text: In 2020, world production of cultivated chestnuts was 2,322 tonnes, led by China with 75% of the total (table). Spain and Bolivia were also significant producers.


title: Chestnut

text: The fruit can be peeled and eaten raw, but it can be somewhat astringent, especially if the pellicle is not removed.


title: Chestnut

text: Another method of eating the fruit involves roasting, which does not require peeling. Roasting requires scoring the fruit beforehand to prevent explosion of the fruit due to expansion. Once cooked, its texture is slightly similar to that of a baked potato, with a delicate, sweet, and nutty flavour. This method of preparation is popular in many countries, where the scored chestnuts may be cooked mixed with a little sugar.


title: Chestnut

text: Chestnuts can be dried and milled into flour, which can then be used to prepare breads, cakes, pies, pancakes, pastas, polenta (known in Corsica as "pulenda"), or used as thickener for stews, soups, and sauces. Chestnut cake may be prepared using chestnut flour. In Corsica, the flour is fried into doughnut-like fritters called "fritelli" and made into "necci, pattoni, ," and "cialdi". The flour can be light beige like that from Castagniccia, or darker in other regions. It is a good solution for long storage of a nutritious food. Chestnut bread can stay fresh as long as two weeks.


title: Chestnut

text: The nuts can also be eaten candied, boiled, steamed, deep-fried, grilled, or roasted in sweet or savory recipes. They can be used to stuff vegetables, poultry, fowl, and other edibles. They are available fresh, dried, ground, or canned (whole or in puree).


title: Chestnut

text: Candied chestnuts (whole chestnuts candied in sugar syrup, then iced,) are sold under the French name "marrons glacés" or Turkish name "kestane şekeri" ("sugared chestnuts"). They appeared in France in the sixteenth century. Toward the end of nineteenth century, Lyon went into a recession with the collapse of the textile market, notably silk. Clément Faugier, a civil engineer, was looking for a way to revitalize the regional economy. In 1882 at Privas, he invented the technology to make "marrons glacés" on an industrial scale (although a great number of the more than 20 necessary steps from harvest to the finished product are still accomplished manually). Chestnuts are picked in autumn, and candied from the start of the following summer for the ensuing Christmas. Thus, the "marrons glacés" eaten at Christmas are those picked the year before.


title: Chestnut

text: In Spain, on 31 October on the eve of the All Saints' Day, Catalonia celebrates "la castanyada" a festivity that consists of eating chestnuts, panellets, sweet potatoes and muscatell. On November, in the regions of Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and other Northern provinces and Portugal, the "Magosto" is celebrated.